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A total of 21 countries have compulsory voting, although in some there is an upper age limit on enforcement of the law. Many countries also have the none of the above option on their ballot papers. In systems that use constituencies, apportionment or districting defines the area covered by each constituency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Where constituency boundaries are drawn has a strong influence on the likely outcome of elections in the constituency due to the geographic distribution of voters. Political parties may seek to gain an advantage during redistricting by ensuring their voter base has a majority in as many constituencies as possible, a pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Some countries have minimum turnout requirements for elections to be valid. In Serbia this rule caused multiple re-runs of presidential elections, with the 1997 election re-run once and the 2002 elections re-run three times due insufficient turnout in the first, second and third attempts to run the election. The turnou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Similar problems in Belarus led to the 1995 parliamentary elections going to a fourth round of voting before enough parliamentarians were elected to make a quorum.Reserved seats are used in many countries to ensure representation for ethnic minorities, women, young people or the disabled. These seats are separate from ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
In ancient Greece and Italy, the institution of suffrage already existed in a rudimentary form at the outset of the historical period. In the early monarchies it was customary for the king to invite pronouncements of his people on matters in which it was prudent to secure its assent beforehand. In these assemblies the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Voting has been used as a feature of democracy since the 6th century BCE, when democracy was introduced by the Athenian democracy. However, in Athenian democracy, voting was seen as the least democratic among methods used for selecting public officials, and was little used, because elections were believed to inherently... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
The practice of the Athenians, which is shown by inscriptions to have been widely followed in the other states of Greece, was to hold a show of hands, except on questions affecting the status of individuals: these latter, which included all lawsuits and proposals of ostracism, in which voters chose the citizen they mos... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
But the system became subject to intimidation and corruption. Hence a series of laws enacted between 139 and 107 BCE prescribed the use of the ballot (tabella), a slip of wood coated with wax, for all business done in the assemblies of the people. For the purpose of carrying resolutions a simple majority of votes was d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
As a general rule equal value was made to attach to each vote; but in the popular assemblies at Rome a system of voting by groups was in force until the middle of the 3rd century BCE by which the richer classes secured a decisive preponderance.Most elections in the early history of democracy were held using plurality v... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
An electoral college of nine members elected 40 people by approval voting; those 40 were reduced to form a second electoral college of 12 members by drawing lots again. The second electoral college elected 25 people by approval voting, which were reduced to form a third electoral college of nine members by drawing lots... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
They in turn elected a final electoral body of 41 members, who ultimately elected the Doge. Despite its complexity, the method had certain desirable properties such as being hard to game and ensuring that the winner reflected the opinions of both majority and minority factions. This process, with slight modifications, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Jean-Charles de Borda proposed the Borda count in 1770 as a method for electing members to the French Academy of Sciences. His method was opposed by the Marquis de Condorcet, who proposed instead the method of pairwise comparison that he had devised. Implementations of this method are known as Condorcet methods. He als... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
However, recent research has shown that the philosopher Ramon Llull devised both the Borda count and a pairwise method that satisfied the Condorcet criterion in the 13th century. The manuscripts in which he described these methods had been lost to history until they were rediscovered in 2001.Later in the 18th century, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Some of the apportionment methods devised in the United States were in a sense rediscovered in Europe in the 19th century, as seat allocation methods for the newly proposed method of party-list proportional representation. The result is that many apportionment methods have two names; Jefferson's method is equivalent to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Perhaps influenced by the rapid development of multiple-winner electoral systems, theorists began to publish new findings about single-winner methods in the late 19th century. This began around 1870, when William Robert Ware proposed applying STV to single-winner elections, yielding instant-runoff voting (IRV). Soon, m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Charles Dodgson, better known as Lewis Carroll, proposed the straightforward Condorcet method known as Dodgson's method. He also proposed a proportional representation system based on multi-member districts, quotas as minimum requirements to take seats, and votes transferable by candidates through proxy voting.Ranked v... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
The use of game theory to analyze electoral systems led to discoveries about the effects of certain methods. Earlier developments such as Arrow's impossibility theorem had already shown the issues with Ranked voting systems. Research led Steven Brams and Peter Fishburn to formally define and promote the use of approval... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Political scientists of the 20th century published many studies on the effects that the electoral systems have on voters' choices and political parties, and on political stability. A few scholars also studied which effects caused a nation to switch to a particular electoral system.The study of electoral systems influen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
After plurality voting was a key factor in the contested results of the 2000 presidential elections in the United States, various municipalities in the United States began to adopt instant-runoff voting, although some of them subsequently returned to their prior method. However, attempts at introducing more proportiona... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
In other countries there were calls for the restoration of plurality or majoritarian systems or their establishment where they have never been used; a referendum was held in Ecuador in 1994 on the adoption the two round system, but the idea was rejected. In Romania a proposal to switch to a two-round system for parliam... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Electoral systems can be compared by different means. Attitudes towards systems are highly influenced by the systems' impact on groups that one supports or opposes, which can make the objective comparison of voting systems difficult. There are several ways to address this problem: One approach is to define criteria mat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Another approach is to define ideal criteria that no electoral system passes perfectly, and then see how often or how close to passing various methods are over a large sample of simulated elections. This gives results which are practically relevant, but the method of generating the sample of simulated elections can sti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
The practical criteria include political fragmentation, voter turnout, wasted votes, complexity of vote counting, and barriers to entry for new political movements. The quality of electoral systems can be measured on outcomes, such as voter turnout, and reduced political apathy. This approach can look at aspects of ele... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Fasciola gigantica is a parasitic flatworm of the class Trematoda, which causes tropical fascioliasis. It is regarded as one of the most important single platyhelminth infections of ruminants in Asia and Africa. Estimates of infection rates are as high as 80–100% in some countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
The infection is commonly called fasciolosis. The prevalence of F. gigantica often overlaps with that of Fasciola hepatica, and the two species are so closely related in terms of genetics, behaviour, and morphological and anatomical structures that distinguishing them is notoriously difficult. Therefore, sophisticated ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
Fasciola gigantica causes outbreaks in tropical areas of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa. The geographical distribution of F. gigantica overlaps with F. hepatica in many African and Asian countries and sometimes in the same country, although in such cases, the ecological requirement of the flukes and their snail... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
The lifecycle of F. gigantica is: Eggs (transported with feces) → egg hatch → miracidium → miracidium infect snail intermediate host → (parthenogenesis in 24 hours) sporocyst → redia → daughter redia → cercaria → (gets outside the snail) → metacercaria → infection of the host → adult stage produces eggs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
As with other trematodes, Fasciola spp. develop in a molluscan intermediate host. Species of the freshwater snails from the family Lymnaeidae are well known for their role as intermediate hosts in the lifecycle of F. gigantica; however, throughout the years, an increasing number of other molluscan intermediate hosts of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
The species of Fasciola can become adapted to new intermediate hosts under certain conditions at least based on laboratory trials. The most important intermediate host for F. gigantica is Radix auricularia. However, other species are also known to harbour the fluke, including Lymnaea rufescens and Lymnaea acuminata in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
F. gigantica is a causative agent (together with F. hepatica) of fascioliasis in ruminants and in humans worldwide.The parasite commonly infects cattle and buffalo, and can also be seen regionally in goats and sheep, and in nonruminants (donkeys). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
Infection with Fasciola spp. occurs when metacercariae are accidentally ingested on raw vegetation. The metacercariae exist in the small intestine, and move through the intestinal wall and peritoneal cavity to the liver, where adults mature in the biliary ducts of the liver. Eggs are passed through the bile ducts into ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
Despite the importance to differentiate between the infection by either fasciolid species, due to their distinct epidemiological, pathological, and control characteristics, unfortunately, coprological (excretion-related) or immunological diagnoses are difficult. Especially in humans, specific detection by clinical, pat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
Triclabendazole is the drug of choice in fasciolosis, as it is highly effective against both mature and immature flukes. Artemether has been demonstrated in vitro to be equally effective. Though slightly less potent, artesunate is also useful in human fasciolosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica |
In sociology, an ethnic enclave is a geographic area with high ethnic concentration, characteristic cultural identity, and economic activity. The term is usually used to refer to either a residential area or a workspace with a high concentration of ethnic firms. Their success and growth depends on self-sufficiency, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The theory of social capital and the formation of migrant networks creates the social foundation for ethnic enclaves. Douglas Massey describes how migrant networks provide new immigrants with social capital that can be transferred to other tangible forms. As immigrants tend to cluster in close geographic spaces, they d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Immigrants can capitalize on social interactions by transforming information into tangible resources, and thereby lower costs of migration. Information exchanged may include knowledge of employment opportunities, affordable housing, government assistance programs and helpful NGOs. Thus by stimulating social connections... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Enclaves create an alternative labor market that is ethnic-specific and does not demand social and cultural skills of the host country. By eliminating language and cultural barriers, enclave economies employ a greater proportion of co-ethnics and speed the incorporation of new immigrants into a bustling economy. By inc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Additionally, while the ethnic enclave theory was developed to explain immigrant incorporation into the receiving society, it has also been linked to migration processes at large as successful incorporation of immigrants has the potential to lower migration costs for future immigrants, an example of chain migration. De... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
While participation in the enclave economy may assist in achieving upward mobility through increased availability of employment opportunities in the enclave labor market, it may also impede acquisition of host country skills that benefit the immigrant over the long-run. Such delays constrain immigrants to activity with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Ethnic enclaves have been prominent urban features for centuries. Examples include a new Armenian one near Beirut, an old one in Bucharest, and an even older Armenian Quarter in Jerusalem. Urban quarters have often belonged mainly to residents having a particular sectarian or ethnic origin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Historically, the formation of ethnic enclaves has been the result of a variety of socioeconomic factors that draw immigrants to similar spaces in the receiving city, state, or country. Cultural diversity brings together people who don't understand each other's language but a group can communicate more easily with neig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Roman colonies were established to control newly conquered provinces, and grew to absorb the surrounding territory. Some enclaves were established when a governing authority permitted a group to establish their own new town, as in the English town of Gravesend, Brooklyn in 1645. The lack of access to economic capital a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Social dynamics such as prejudice and racism may concentrate co-ethnics into regions displaying ethnic similarity. Housing discrimination may also prevent ethnic minorities from settling into a particular residential area outside the enclave. When discussing the ethnic enclave as defined by a spatial cluster of busines... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
These factors include 1) the size and population of the enclave 2) the level of entrepreneurial skills of those in the enclave and 3) the availability of capital resources to the enclave. Successful enclaves can reach a point where they become self-sufficient, or "institutionally complete" through the supply of new imm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Portes and Wilson identified a third labor market in which Cuban immigrants in Miami took part. Instead of entering the secondary labor market of the host society, Portes and Wilson discovered that new immigrants tended to become employed by co-ethnics running immigrant-owned firms. The collection of small immigrant en... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Observations of the Cuban ethnic enclave economy in Miami led Alejandro Portes and Kenneth Wilson to conclude that participation in an enclave economy provided immigrants with an alternative, speedy option to achieve economic mobility in a host society. The discourse pioneered by Portes and Wilson produced the construc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
With the rise in globalization and ease of international transportation, patterns of immigration show the role of ethnic enclaves for contributing to increased migration over time. New immigrants unintentionally lower costs for future immigration of co-ethnics by pooling together resources for themselves. Thus, by achi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Ethnic enclaves thus contribute to continued immigration by providing co-ethnics with a space to make connections that ultimately lower migration costs and promote economic mobility. Many worn path taken by former immigrants are made accessible to enclave members, making immigration easier to future generations. By gen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
An approach that analyzes ethnic enclaves and their members by their modes of incorporation is preferred to a neoclassical model, which states that the economic success of immigrants depends on the education, work experience, and other elements of human capital that they possess. Sociologists have concluded that these ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Upon arrival to a foreign country, immigrants face challenges in assimilation and integration processes and thus experience different modes and levels of incorporation within the host society. Many factors influence the level of ease or challenge experienced by immigrants as they make the transition and undergo physica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Upon arrival, many immigrants have limited or no access to human capital and thus rely heavily on any available source of social capital. The cost to immigration is large, however this burden can be shared and thus eased through an immigrant's access to social capital in the receiving country. Kinship networks in the r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Access to social capital does not guarantee ease or success for the migrant. Because social capital is rooted in relationships it easily lends itself to conflict and disagreement between parties. The level of economic stability on the side of the receiving party can dictate the level of aid they are willing or able to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
If the receiving country provides favorable conditions such as access to social programs, the local economy, and employment opportunities, the network is likely to be of much higher quality. Adversely, kinship networks may break down if much stress is placed on the relationships involved due to economic hardships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The duration and intensity of aid needed can dictate the quality of the kinship network available to the immigrant. Immigrant ideas regarding level of support to be received are often high and left unmet if true economic conditions do not allow for favorable network conditions. Shared norms and relational ties can also... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Methods of assimilation and access to social capital vary between and even within ethnic groups. A variety of factors can influence individuals' ethnic identities including their social class background and the social networks available to them. As theorized by sociologist Mary C. Waters, the involvement level of paren... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Enclave networks offer access to a unique type of social capital and act as large kinship networks. Within enclave networks, social capital commonly exists both as a private and public good. Though there is some debate in relation to the long-term benefits offered by these networks, the short-term benefits are universa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The socio-psychological challenges faced by the immigrant can be largely reduced through the individual's entrance into an ethnic enclave. Ethnic enclaves can resemble the immigrant's place of origin through physical look, layout, and language employed both written and orally. In addition to increasing the cultural com... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The geographic proximity of the enclave network allows for easy flow of knowledge and varying types of assistance between firms as well. Where there is an atmosphere of trust in ethnic enclaves, this transfer of knowledge and sharing of social capital exists as an asset to the firms. Connections with members in an encl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Ethnic enclave economies are predicated upon aspects of economic sociology and the sociology of immigration. Ethnic Enclaves generate a pool of social capital through which members can access resources that lower the costs of migration. Enclave membership provides economic assistance such as job opportunities and small... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The ethno-centric nature of businesses and firms provides easy integration into enclave economies. Goods and services tend to be offered in the ethnic group's language, while social and cultural norms specific to the host country are not required of employees in the enclave economy. Thus, the ethno-specific nature of e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Ethnic enclave economies also provide a method for immigrants who enter at lower wage jobs to rise to the status community entrepreneurs own firms within the community. While benefiting from the higher wages that owning a business provides them, these established immigrants continue the cycle of providing attractive (a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Ethnic enclave economies also have the effect of raising the hourly wages of workers within the enclave.An individual's entrance into the enclave economy is dependent upon the conditions of incorporation they experience. Unfavorable modes of incorporation into the host society provide incentives for immigrants to enter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Ethnic enclaves are rich in informal activities, as the entrepreneurial services making the core of the enclave's founding were historically informal ventures. Informality proves favorable for many immigrant entrepreneurs by bypass regulatory expenses. Additionally, the scope of employment for immigrants is greatly wid... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The informality of the enclave economy simultaneously induces risk and fraud. Informal activities are constantly under risk of detection by the formal sector, which has a negative effect on job security. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Furthermore, due to the absence of legal framework, immigrant laborers often remain silent about various forms of exploitation. The most common form of labor exploitation in immigrant economies is unpaid labor. Undocumented immigrants are especially afraid to report violations of labor laws and exploitation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Government policy toward immigrants is the first mode of reception to the receiving country. Governments generally enforce measures to reduce the amount of "unwanted" immigrants which may potentially pose a burden on the receiving society and economy.The granting of different statuses and visas (i.e. refugee, temporary... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The first of these is the gap hypothesis which describes the dissonance between official immigration policies and real policy outcomes. Policy gaps are the result of unintended consequences and inadequate enforcement by the receiving society. Many reasons can explain unintended consequences of immigration policy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Governments with undefined or ambiguous stances toward immigration may propagate unintended consequences, and the reliance on flawed policies can further reduce the efficacy of institutional measures. Furthermore, political incoherency policy poses a greater challenge for the incorporation and enforcement of effective ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
This is especially true in liberal democracies, where "lobbying by powerful employer groups, religious groups, ethnic and immigrant advocacy groups, and even labor unions leads governments to adopt more expansionary immigration policies, even when the economy goes bad and general public opinion turns hostile to immigra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The second thesis studied by Wayne Cornelius is the convergence hypothesis, which describes the growing similarity of political responses to immigration among immigrant-receiving countries. These similarities fall into: "(1) the policies that their governments have adopted to control immigration; (2) policies designed ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
In general, European immigrants tend to encounter little resistance by host countries, while tenets of racism are evinced by widespread resistance to immigrants of color.Political incorporation into the host country is coupled with adoption of citizenship of the host country. By studying the diverging trajectories of i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
This alternative model emphasizes the role of migrant networks in critically shaping how immigrants consider citizenship. Bloemraad shows that friends, family, co-ethnic organizations and local community affect political incorporation by providing a structured mobilization framework. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
This social structure is most essential for immigrants who face language barriers and may lack familiarity with host institutions. The extent to which migrant networks promote citizenship depends on the efficacy of government policies on immigrant integration. Governments adopting policies that facilitate the emergence... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Thus, the movement toward political incorporation and citizenship is nested in a larger institutional structure involving economic and social integration policy as these relate to immigrants. Ethnic enclaves have the ability to simultaneously assist in political and civic incorporation of immigrants. By providing a spa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The discourse surrounding ethnic enclaves has prompted debate among scholars in two related areas of thought. Both areas discuss the role ethnic enclaves play by either offering aid or hindering the economic and social well-being of the enclave's members. One area of thought discusses the role of enclaves in assimilati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The role these networks play remains uncertain due to the fact that ethnic enclaves allow immigrants to function successfully within the host society without a significant amount of adjustment either culturally or linguistically. As such, they can either help or hinder naturalization within the host country. The relati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Adversely, this same factor can afford enclave members the opportunity to remain considerably segregated and secluded from the host society. As such, members may circumvent the need to acquire skills necessary for life in the larger host society such as knowledge of cultural norms and language.The debate regarding the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
They instead argue that "those inserted into an immigrant enclave can be empirically distinguished from workers in both the primary and secondary labor markets. Enclave workers will share with those in the primary sector a significant economic return past human capital investments" something those who enter the seconda... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
In their argument formulated to disprove the enclave economy hypothesis, Sanders and Nee state the need for a distinction between "immigrant-bosses" and "immigrant-workers" as the economic benefits differ along this distinction. They also call for the investigation of economic opportunities available to those in the en... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Due to these objections, they call for the revision of Portes and Wilson's hypothesis to include an acknowledgement and outline of the entrepreneur/worker economic benefit distinction. In reaction to Sanders and Nee, Portes and Jensen make the clarification that those in ethnic enclaves need not be wealthier than those... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Additionally, Portes and Jensen outline three different conditions to be fulfilled in order to disprove their hypothesis. The first of these conditions requires the demonstration that ethnic entrepreneurship is a mobility trap leading to lower earnings than the immigrant's worth in human capital. The second condition r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
They acknowledge that the fulfillment of these three requirements is difficult as there is little data available to accurately test them. Jennifer Lee adds to the discussion noting the particular niches and types of business immigrant groups enter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
She notes that it is most common for immigrants to participate in long hours of physically demanding work in the retail industry. The retail market is a viable option due to the relatively low startup costs and knowledge of the host country's language required. Different niches have different levels of communication, f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Lee notes the embeddedness of ethnic enclaves and brings the thought that such practices are good for those within the enclave but harmful to certain groups outside them. She also notes the adverse effects patterns of ethnic embeddedness can have on surrounding ethnic groups by noting the difficulty other groups face i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Immigration to the United States has occurred in waves that demonstrate the predominance of certain sets of ethnic minorities. As immigrants tended to cluster in certain cities and states, separate waves were responsible for the establishment of ethnic enclaves in separate physical spaces. The best-known ethnic enclave... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Sociologists Robert Park and Edward Burgess integrated a model that studied these patterns in the 1920s. This model showcased how immigrants who arrived in the U.S. in the early 20th century were drawn to urban enclave neighborhoods as they opened up opportunities for social networking and employment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
In 1998, nearly three quarters of all immigrants in the United States lived in California, New York, Texas, Florida, New Jersey or Illinois. Housing discrimination remains a factor in the persistence of racial enclaves in American cities. However, more recent patterns of migration, such as chain migration, challenge tr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
A 2023 study found that 43% of the foreign-born population in the United States lived in ethnic neighborhoods in 1970. By 2010, this had risen to 67%. Ethnic neighborhoods tend to have lower average incomes and housing values, as well as more rental housing and more inhabitants that commute without a car.Most ethnic ne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Ethnic enclaves have become commonplace in modern times, with the increase in the geographic mobility of humankind. However, they have also arisen in historical times, for various reasons. The village of Schandorf, now in Austria, was for centuries a Croatian ethnic enclave, surrounded by areas of Austrian and Hungaria... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
The enclave originated around 1543 when the Hungarian magnate Batthyany sought to repopulate lands that had been emptied by devastating Turkish attacks; he invited Croatian settlers. The town of Alghero in Sardinia still marginally preserves a Catalan ethnic enclave; this dates from a military conquest of the town by C... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_enclave |
Forensic podiatry is a subdiscipline of forensic science in which specialized podiatric knowledge including foot and lower-limb anatomy, musculoskeletal function, deformities and diseases of the foot, ankle, lower extremities, and at times, the entire human body is used in the examination of foot-related evidence in th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
There are currently four areas of forensic podiatry practice. These usually involve the analysis and interpretation in a forensic context of:Bare footprints (both static and dynamic prints) Footwear (specifically the consideration of features of wear and fit) Podiatrists' clinical records Gait analysis (usually coverin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
Forensic podiatry techniques usually follow the ACE-V approach used widely in forensic science and practice. Here, ACE is the acronym for the analysis, comparison and evaluation of an item of evidence with exemplar or reference material (such as a shoe, bare footprint or recording of a suspect's gait). Verification is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
Class level characteristics demonstrate consistency and compatibility, not uniqueness, which identification level characteristics are those which are understood to be unique (REF). Forensic podiatrists currently work with class level features alone although some of those features can demonstrate high levels of individu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
In 1937, Sir Sydney Smith, examining a pair of shoes left behind at the scene of a burglary in Falkirk, made deductions about the suspect. In spite of the suspect's agility as a cat burglar, he suggested that the suspect was short, had a left leg shorter than the right, a left foot an inch shorter and half an inch narr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
Smith discovered that he was five foot three, had had infantile paralysis in his left leg, that the leg was withered as a result, that his deductions about the size of the foot and leg were correct, but that the spinal curvature was less than he suspected.In 1972, Norman Gunn, a podiatric physician from Canada, was the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
In 2007, the Council for the Registration of Forensic Practitioners (CRFP) developed a competency test for forensic podiatrists in the UK. The CRFP is no longer in existence, but this testing process was developed further by the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences in the UK and is available for those practising in t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
In 2009, the IAI published a document defining the role and scope of practise for forensic podiatrists.In 2011 an M-level course in forensic podiatry was developed at the University of Huddersfield in the UK. This was later developed further into a full MSc course in forensic podiatry at that university. In 2011, the f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
In 2017, a much more comprehensive, updated 2nd edition of this book was published.In 2013 a forensic podiatry group was started at the New York College of Podiatric Medicine. In 2013, a student forensic podiatry group was started at Temple University School of Podiatric Medicine. In 2014, the forensic podiatry approac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
In 2016, a forensic podiatry club was started at the Barry University School of Podiatric Medicine. A formal class covering aspects of forensic podiatry is being held at New York College of Podiatric Medicine (open to podiatrist candidate)s. Students exit the class with an in depth knowledge of forensic podiatry and ot... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_podiatry |
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