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As of 1 July 2017, BARC India has stopped reporting of analogue TV homes, in line with Government of India's DAS-4 deadline. At launch, the following changes were introduced: A deeper and broader consumer classification system called "new consumer classification system" (NCCS), replaced the existing socio-economic classification (SEC). While SEC was based on occupation of chief earner and education of chief earner, NCCS is based on education of chief earner and number of ‘consumer durables’ owned by the family which includes a list of 11 items ranging from ‘electricity connection’ and ‘agricultural land’ to cars and air conditioners The age groups as a reporting parameter will be different adapting to the NCCS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
Under BARC India, data would be available for age parameters like – children & tweens (2–14 years), youth (15–21 years), young adults (22–30 years), adults (31–40 years), peak (41–50 years), mature (51–60 years), and seniors (61+ years). An addition in the reporting age group is 2–12 years and 13–21 years. The new ratings system under BARC also measured catch-up TV viewing along with linear viewer It made use of the channel watermarking technology that video content consumption on all platforms using an encoding process that involves inserting an inaudible audio watermark into the content at the broadcaster's end from where the signal will play out Since the people-meters under BARC, called BAR-o-meters, were manufactured domestically, the ratings measurement system would be able to scale up faster. These meters, were available at a lower cost than those imported from various countries globally | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
BIO News: It is a visualisation tool for News broadcasters that gives the performance of News channel, News Stories, News Anchors and Other Personalities at a click of a button.BIO Advision: It is a visualisation tool for Advertisers and Media Agencies which helps brands understand their performance vis-à-vis other brands. PreView: It is a service wherein BARC India subscribers can access the data of a specific event or show, three days after it is telecast. PreView data is also released through YUMI software, which is available on subscription.TV + OOH: BARC India now measures and reports TV viewership that happens in social hot-spots like restaurants, pubs, and bars across 120+ Urban towns and cities.Spot Trek: Provides reports on advertising monitored spots to the agency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
The entire BARC India process can be broadly bucketed as follows: Establishment Survey - A research study used to gather specific details of households and individuals to be used together with Census data in the preparation of universe estimates for TV audience characteristics – geographic, demographic, socio-economic status, etc. The Establishment Survey also serves as a randomly selected pool of TV owning households for use in the ongoing selection and recruitment of panel households. Panel Locations & Identification - Identification of a specific sample locations Panel Selection and Training- Selection, recruitment, meter installation & training of household members. Panel Management- Supervision of panel operations with strict adherence to established standards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
Measurement and Viewing Data Capture- Watermarking and BAR-O-Meter Technology used to identify & capture TV viewing events. Processing, Audience Estimation and Reporting- Process of error checking, editing, validating, weighting, projecting to universe and delivering audience estimates to BARC India clients in a form suitable for reporting, analysis and commercial use. YUMI- BARC India's desktop software application is used to report and analyse audience data in the format required by individual customer segments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
BARC India's Broadcast India Survey is an annual research study that gathers specific details of households and individuals to be used together with Census data in the preparation of universe estimates for TV audience characteristics – geographic, demographic, socio-economic status, etc. The Survey also serves as a randomly selected pool of TV owning households for use in the ongoing selection and recruitment of panel households. Broadcast India 2016 Survey was released in February 2017. The findings of Broadcast India (BI) 2018 Survey was released in July 2018. The study is based on a sample size of 3 lakh homes in the country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
As per the latest BI 2018 Survey, TV homes in the country have seen a 7.5% jump, outpacing the growth of homes in India which grew at 4.5%. India currently boasts of 298 million homes, of which 197 million have a TV set, having an opportunity of almost 100mn more TV homes in the country. As per the New Universe Estimates 2020 released this year, TV Homes in India increased by 6.9% to 210 million from previous 197 million in 2018. TV viewing Individuals grew by 6.7%, effectively an increase of 56 million. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) received complaints from the News Broadcasters Association against Republic TV alleging that it was violating TRAI's broadcast sector regulations with its unfair practices and sought an investigation into it.According to the complaint, Republic Bharat had declared its genre as English news, but it was appearing in additional genres after registering itself in those genres. For example, in Delhi, the channel was appearing in both English and Hindi news category. Each "impression" that is reported in the TV viewership data, is an individual instance of viewing of the channel, even if it is a fleeting view. When a viewer cycled through the channels, Republic TV would appear twice, giving it double impressions as compared to other channels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
Some cable network had set Republic TV as the default channel (i.e. landing channel) displayed whenever the TV was turned on, thereby increasing the impressions. These practices were seen as a deliberate attempt to illegally garner higher BARC India ratings and increase viewership.The complainants, NBA also sought from BARC India that it withhold publishing viewership data for Republic until its unfair practices stopped. BARC India did not act on the request. Subsequently, multiple leading English-language news channels exited from the BARC India system. A news network also approached the Delhi high court against the unfair practices by Republic TV to inflate their ratings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
Anticipatory socialization is the process, facilitated by social interactions, in which non-group members learn to take on the values and standards of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry into the group and help them interact competently once they have been accepted by it. It involves changing one's attitudes and behaviours in preparation for a shift in one's role. Words commonly associated with anticipatory socialization include grooming, play-acting, training, and rehearsing. Examples of anticipatory socialization include law school students learning how to behave like lawyers, older people preparing for retirement, and Mormon boys getting ready to become missionaries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_socialization |
The concept of anticipatory socialization, first defined by sociologist Robert K. Merton, has its origins in a 1949 study of the United States military which found that privates who modelled their attitudes and behaviours on those of officers were more likely to be promoted than those who didn't. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_socialization |
According to Jablin (2001), there are two types of anticipatory socialization: vocational anticipatory socialization (VAS) and organizational anticipatory socialization (OAS). VAS involves socializing individuals to pursue particular occupations. Sources of VAS include family members, educational institutions, part-time jobs, peers and friends, and the media. With OAS, trained individuals develop expectations about their prospective careers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_socialization |
Gan (2021) found that positive and negative socialization experiences inspired a group of registered nurses and nursing students to become nurses. Nursing school clinicals provide students with "real job" and anticipatory socialization experiences. Clinical placements socialize students to the profession of nursing and shape students' expectations about their future roles as nurses.When people are blocked from access to a group they might have wanted to join, they reject that group's values and norms, and instead begin the anticipatory socialization process with groups that are more receptive to them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_socialization |
People doing this, for example economically disadvantaged teenagers who aspire to become drug dealers rather than professionals, are sometimes criticized as lacking motivation; however, sociologists say they are simply making a pragmatic adjustment to the opportunities available to them.Recent studies show that anticipatory socialization is prevalent among pregnant mothers who choose to reveal the fetal sex pre-birth. Knowing the gender of the baby will affect the way in with the mother interacts with the baby, as a result of preconceived expectations of gender group norms. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_socialization |
The Justin Winsor Prize is awarded by the Library History Round Table of the American Library Association for the best library history essay. The award was established in 1978 and named for the American Library Association's first president, Justin Winsor. Winsor (1831–1896) was a prominent writer, historian, and the long-time Librarian at Harvard University. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Winsor_Prize_(library) |
The Rowman & Littlefield Award in Innovative Teaching is the only national teaching award in political science given in the United States. It has been awarded annually by the American Political Science Association and was first awarded in 1996.The award is sponsored by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. It carries a US$500 cash stipend and is presented at the APSA's Annual Meeting to a winner selected from political science professors nominated by members of the award committee, chaired by L. Sandy Maisel, Professor of Government and Director of the Goldfarb Center for Public Affairs and Civic Engagement at Colby College in Waterville, Maine.According to the Association, the Award recognizes developers of "effective new approaches to teaching" among political scientists. Its intent is to honor a wide range of new directions, rather than one in particular. The annual winner is chosen from among a pool of nominees whose innovations had moved political science pedagogy forward. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_&_Littlefield_Award_in_Innovative_Teaching |
The 2008 award was presented to Professor Renée Van Vechten of the University of Redlands Department of Government. Van Vechten received the award for work done on collaborative simulations; she created and facilitated three simultaneous interactive simulations, one where her students simulated Members of Congress in her Congress course and two in her Introduction to American Governments courses, with one class playing lobbyists and the other playing the constituents of the Congressmembers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_&_Littlefield_Award_in_Innovative_Teaching |
Professors James Meernik and Kimi King of the University of North Texas for their jointly taught study abroad class entitled International Law: Peace and Justice, an intensive three-week program at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague, Netherlands. Students receive access to top officials, including two of the ICTY presidents and 10 of the ICTY judges, as well as to attorneys and to tribunal testimony. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_&_Littlefield_Award_in_Innovative_Teaching |
The 2005 winner was Professor Barbara Allen of Carleton College.Jeremy Mayer, a professor of public policy and political science at the School of Public Policy of George Mason University, is a past winner of the Award. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_&_Littlefield_Award_in_Innovative_Teaching |
Sweating sickness, also known as the sweats, English sweating sickness, English sweat or sudor anglicus in Latin, was a mysterious and contagious disease that struck England and later continental Europe in a series of epidemics beginning in 1485. The last outbreak occurred in 1551, after which the disease apparently vanished. The onset of symptoms was sudden, with death often occurring within hours. Sweating sickness epidemics were unique compared with other disease outbreaks of the time: whereas other epidemics were typically urban and long-lasting, cases of sweating sickness spiked and receded very quickly, and heavily affected rural populations. Its cause remains unknown, although it has been suggested that an unknown species of hantavirus was responsible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
John Caius was a physician in Shrewsbury in 1551, when an outbreak occurred, and he described the symptoms and signs of the disease in A Boke or Counseill Against the Disease Commonly Called the Sweate, or Sweatyng Sicknesse (1552), which is the main historical source of knowledge of the disease. It began very suddenly with a sense of apprehension, followed by cold shivers (sometimes very violent), dizziness, headache and severe pains in the neck, shoulders and limbs, with great exhaustion. The cold stage might last from half an hour to three hours, after which the hot and sweating stage began. The characteristic sweat broke out suddenly without any obvious cause. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
A sense of heat, headache, delirium, rapid pulse and intense thirst accompanied the sweat. Palpitation and pain in the heart were frequent symptoms. No skin eruptions were noted by observers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
In the final stages there was either general exhaustion and collapse or an irresistible urge to sleep, which Caius thought was fatal if the patient were permitted to give way to it. One attack did not produce immunity, and some people suffered several bouts before dying. The disease typically lasted through one full day before recovery or death took place. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
The disease tended to occur in summer and early autumn. Thomas Forestier, a physician during the first outbreak, provided a written account of his own experiences with the sweating sickness in 1485. Forestier put great emphasis on the sudden breathlessness commonly associated with the final hours of sufferers. Forestier claimed in an account written for other physicians that "loathsome vapors" had congregated around the heart and lungs. His observations point towards a pulmonary component of the disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Transmission mostly remains a mystery, with only a few pieces of evidence in writings. The illness seemed to target young men and favour the wealthy or powerful, earning itself nicknames such as "Stoop Gallant" or "Stoop Knave" (indicating the proud were forced to 'stoop' and relinquish their proud status).The large number of people in London to witness the coronation of Henry VII may have increased the spread of the disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
The cause is unknown. Commentators then and now have blamed the sewage, poor sanitation, and contaminated water supplies. The first confirmed outbreak was in August 1485 at the end of the Wars of the Roses, leading to speculation that it may have been brought from France by French mercenaries. However, an earlier outbreak may have affected the city of York in June 1485, before Tudor's army landed, although records of that disease's symptoms are not adequate to be certain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Regardless, the Croyland Chronicle mentions that Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby cited the sweating sickness as reason not to join Richard III's army prior to the Battle of Bosworth.Relapsing fever, a disease spread by ticks and lice, has been proposed as a possible cause. It occurs most often during the summer months, as did the original sweating sickness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
However, relapsing fever is marked by a prominent black scab at the site of the tick bite and a subsequent skin rash. The suggestion of ergot poisoning was ruled out due to England having much less rye (the main cause of ergotism) than the rest of Europe.Researchers have noted symptoms overlap with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and have proposed an unknown hantavirus as the cause. Hantavirus species are zoonotic diseases carried by bats, rodents, and several insectivores. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Sharing of similar trends (including seasonal occurrences, fluctuations multiple times a year, and occasional occurrences between major outbreaks) suggest the English sweating sickness may have been rodent borne. The epidemiology of hantavirus correlates with the trends of the English sweating sickness. Hantavirus infections generally do not strike infants, children, or the elderly, and mostly affect middle-aged adults. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
In contrast to most epidemics of the medieval ages, the English sweating sickness also predominantly affected the middle aged. A criticism of this hypothesis is that modern day hantaviruses, unlike the sweating sickness, do not randomly disappear and can be seen affecting isolated people. Another is that sweating sickness was thought to have been transmitted from human to human, whereas hantaviruses are rarely spread that way. However, infection via human contact has been suggested in hantavirus outbreaks in Argentina.In 2004, microbiologist Edward McSweegan suggested the disease may have been an outbreak of anthrax poisoning. He hypothesized that the victims could have been infected with anthrax spores present in raw wool or infected animal carcasses, and suggested exhuming victims for testing.Numerous attempts have been made to define the disease origin by molecular biology methods, but have so far failed due to a lack of DNA or RNA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Sweating sickness first came to the attention of physicians at the beginning of the reign of Henry VII, in 1485. It was frequently fatal; half the population perished in some areas. The Ricardian scholar John Ashdown-Hill conjectures that Richard III fell victim the night before the Battle of Bosworth Field and that this accounted for his sleepless night and excessive thirst in the early part of the battle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
There is no definitive statement that the sickness was present in Henry Tudor's troops landing at Milford Haven. The battle's victor Henry VII arrived in London on 28 August, and the disease broke out there on 19 September 1485; it had killed several thousand people by its conclusion in late October that year. Among those killed were two lord mayors, six aldermen, and three sheriffs.Mass superstition and paranoia followed the new plague. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
The Battle of Bosworth Field ended the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York. Richard III, the final York king, was killed here and Henry VII was crowned. As chaos, grief, and anger spread, people searched for a culprit for the plague. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
English people started to believe it was sent by God to punish supporters of Henry VII.The sickness was regarded as being quite distinct from the Black Death, the pestilential fever, or other epidemics previously known because of its extremely rapid and fatal course, and the sweating which gave it its name. It reached Ireland in 1492, when the Annals of Ulster record the death of James Fleming, 7th Baron Slane from the pláigh allais , newly come to Ireland. The Annals of Connacht also record this obituary, and the Annals of the Four Masters record "an unusual plague in Meath" of 24 hours' duration; people recovered if they survived it beyond that 24-hour period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
It did not attack infants or little children. English chronicler Richard Grafton mentioned the sweating sickness of 1485 in his work Grafton's Chronicle: or History of England. He noted the common treatment of the disease was to go immediately to bed at the first sign of symptoms; there, the affected person was to remain absolutely still for the entire 24-hour period of the illness, abstaining from any solid food and limiting water intake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
The ailment was not recorded from 1492 to 1502. It may have been the condition which afflicted Henry VII's son Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Arthur's wife, Catherine of Aragon, in March 1502; their illness was described as "a malign vapour which proceeded from the air". Researchers who opened Arthur's tomb in 2002 could not determine the exact cause of death. Catherine recovered, but Arthur died on 2 April 1502 in his home at Ludlow Castle, six months short of his sixteenth birthday.A second, less widespread outbreak occurred in 1507, followed by a third and much more severe epidemic in 1517, a few cases of which may have also spread to Calais. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
In the 1517 epidemic, the disease showed a particular affinity for the English; the ambassador from Venice at the time commented on the peculiarly low number of cases in foreign visitors. A similar effect was noted in 1528 when Calais (then an English territory) experienced an outbreak which did not spread into France. The 1528 outbreak, the fourth, reached epidemic proportions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
It broke out in London at the end of May and spread over the whole of England, save the far north. It did not spread to Scotland, though it did reach Ireland where Lord Chancellor Hugh Inge was the most prominent victim. The mortality rate was very high in London; Henry VIII broke up the court and left London, frequently changing his residence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
In 1529 Thomas Cromwell lost his wife and two daughters to the disease. It is believed several of the closest people to Henry VIII contracted the sickness. His love letters to his mistress, Anne Boleyn, reveal that physicians believed Anne had contracted the illness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Henry sent his second-most trusted physician to her aid, his first being unavailable, and she survived. Cardinal Wolsey contracted the illness and survived.The disease suddenly appeared in Hamburg, spreading so rapidly that more than a thousand people died in a few weeks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
It swept through eastern Europe causing high mortality rates. It arrived in Switzerland in December, then was carried northwards to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and eastwards to Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Cases were unknown in Italy or France, except in the English-controlled Pale of Calais. It emerged in Flanders and the Netherlands, possibly transmitted directly from England by travellers; it appeared simultaneously in the cities of Antwerp and Amsterdam on the morning of 27 September. In each place, it prevailed for a short time, generally not more than two weeks. By the end of the year, it had entirely disappeared except in eastern Switzerland, where it lingered into the next year. The disease did not recur on mainland Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
The last major outbreak of the disease occurred in England in 1551. Although burial patterns in smaller towns in Europe suggest that the disease may have been present elsewhere first, the outbreak is recorded to have begun in Shrewsbury in April. It killed around 1,000 there, spreading quickly throughout the rest of England and all but disappearing by October. It was more prevalent among younger men than other groups, possibly due to their greater social exposure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
John Caius wrote his eyewitness account A Boke or Counseill Against the Disease Commonly Called the Sweate, or Sweatyng Sicknesse. Henry Machin also recorded it in his diary: the vii day of July begane a nuw swet in London…the x day of July the Kynges grace removyd from Westmynster unto Hamtun courte, for ther serten besyd the court, and caused the Kynges grase to be gone so sune, for ther ded in London mony marchants and grett ryche men and women, and yonge men and old, of the new swett…the xvi day of July ded of the swet the ii yonge dukes of Suffoke of the swet, both in one bed in Chambrydge-shyre…and ther ded from the vii day of July unto the xix ded of the swett in London of all dyssesus… and no more in alle The Annals of Halifax Parish of 1551 records 44 deaths in an outbreak there. An outbreak called 'sweating sickness' occurred in Tiverton, Devon in 1644, recorded in Martin Dunsford's History, killing 443 people, 105 of them buried in October. However, no medical particulars were recorded, and the date falls well after the generally accepted disappearance of the 'sweating sickness' in 1551. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Between 1718 and 1918 an illness with some similarities occurred in France, known as the Picardy sweat. It was significantly less lethal than the English Sweat but with a strikingly high frequency of outbreaks; some 200 were recorded during the period. Llywelyn Roberts noted "a great similarity between the two diseases." There was intense sweating and fever, and Henry Tidy found "no substantial reason to doubt the identity of sudor anglicus and Picardy sweat." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
There were also notable differences between the Picardy sweat and the English sweating sickness. It was accompanied by a rash, which was not described as a feature of the English disease. Henry Tidy argued that John Caius's report applies to fulminant cases fatal within a few hours, in which case no eruption may develop. The Picardy sweat appears to have had a different epidemiology than the English sweat in that individuals who slept close to the ground and/or lived on farms appeared more susceptible, supporting the theory that the disease could be rodent borne, common in hantaviruses. In a 1906 outbreak of Picardy sweat which struck 6,000 people, a commission led by bacteriologist André Chantemesse attributed infection to the fleas of field mice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating_sickness_epidemics |
Overseas Student Health Cover (OSHC) is a compulsory health insurance product required by the Australian Government for international students studying in Australia. It is an insurance product that gives international students a level of insurance coverage based on the Australian Medicare system. Students can arrange to pay for their OSHC through their educational institution. However, students can still choose their own OSHC provider even when their educational institution makes a specific recommendation because they have negotiated a preferred provider arrangement with a particular insurer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Student_Health_Cover |
OSHC is only able to be offered by Australian private health insurers who have signed the Deed for the provision of Overseas Student Health Cover with the Australian government. The Deed outlines the conditions required to be met by the registered insurers in order to offer the OSHC product. A legal document between the Commonwealth of Australia and the relevant insurer, the Deed dictates the minimum benefits payable by the insurer, in addition to conditions for which it is not required to pay any benefits. In addition, clause 6.8 of the Deed stipulates the conditions under which the insurers can terminate policies and make refunds, specifically: Where the student decides not to come to Australia; Where the student has ceased studies and left Australia prior to the end of their visa; Where the student has had their application for an extended stay refused by the Department of Immigration and Citizenship; Where the student has been granted permanent residence; Where the student has been outside Australia for a period exceeding 3 months; or Where the student holds an OSHC from another insurer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Student_Health_Cover |
OSHC may not be needed through the Reciprocal Health Care Agreements if the student is from one of the following countries: Belgium Finland Italy Malta Netherlands New Zealand Norway Republic of Ireland Slovenia Sweden United Kingdom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Student_Health_Cover |
As at 20 December 2019, there were six health insurers who are signatories to the OSHC Deed . Those are: CBHS International Health Medibank Private NIB OSHC BUPA Australia == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Student_Health_Cover |
Prebendalism refers to political systems in which elected officials and government workers feel they have a right to a share of government revenues, and they use them to benefit supporters, co-religionists and members of their ethnic group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendalism |
The Catholic Encyclopedia defines a prebend as the "right of member of chapter to his share in the revenues of a cathedral".Max Weber used the term to describe India and China in the early Middle Ages in his 1915 book, The Religion of China and his 1916 book, The Religion of India. The occidental seigneurie, like the oriental Indian, developed through the disintegration of the central authority of the patrimonial state power—the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire in the Occident, the disintegration of the Caliphs and the Maharadja or Great Moguls in India. In the Carolingian Empire, however, the new stratum developed on the basis of a rural subsistence economy. Through oath-bound vassalage, patterned after the war following, the stratum of lords was joined to the king and interposed itself between the freemen and the king. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendalism |
Feudal relations were also to be found in India, but they were not decisive for the formation either of a nobility or landlordism. In India, as in the Orient generally, a characteristic seigniory developed rather out of tax farming and the military and tax prebends of a far more bureaucratic state. The oriental seigniory therefore remained in essence, a "prebend" and did not become a "fief"; not feudalization, but prebendalization of the patrimonial state occurred. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendalism |
The comparable, though undeveloped, occidental parallel is not the medieval fief but the purchase of offices and prebends during the papal seicento or during the days of the French Noblesse de Robe. Alavi describes how state-derived rights over capital held by state officials in parts of India in the early 18th Century were held to be of a patron-client nature and thus volatile. They were thus converted where possible into hereditary entitlements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendalism |
Richard A. Joseph, director of The Program of African Studies at Northwestern University, is usually credited with first using the term to describe patron-clientelism or neopatrimonialism in Nigeria. Since then the term has commonly been used in scholarly literature and textbooks. Joseph wrote in 1996, "According to the theory of prebendalism, state offices are regarded as prebends that can be appropriated by officeholders, who use them to generate material benefits for themselves and their constituents and kin groups..."As a result of that kind of patron–client or identity politics, Nigeria has regularly been one of the lowest ranked nations for political transparency by Transparency International in its Corruption Perceptions Index.Other uses include the corruption investigations into the activities of 31 out of 36 Nigerian governors, the frequent comments in the Nigerian press about the problems of corruption (for example, Victor E. Dike's article in the Daily Champion of Lagos, "Nigeria: Governance and Nigeria's Ailing Economy") and the common defenses of prebendalism as necessary for justice and equality in government funding (for example Oliver O. Mbamara's editorial, "In Defense of Nigeria: Amidst the Feasting of Critics" at Africa Events). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendalism |
ExtenZe is an herbal nutritional supplement claiming to promote "natural male enhancement", a euphemism for penis enlargement. Additionally, television commercials and advertisements claim an "improved" or "arousing" sexual experience. Extenze paid $6 million to settle a class-action false advertising lawsuit in 2010.Websites selling the product make several more detailed claims, including acquiring a "larger penis". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExtenZe |
Their enlarging effects are described as "temporary" while under the use of Extenze. Early infomercials featured a studio audience and porn star Ron Jeremy. Former Dallas Cowboys and Miami Hurricanes head coach Jimmy Johnson has also appeared in an ExtenZe commercial. ExtenZe makes pills and 2-ounce shots that are sold in over 75,000 retail stores. The product is manufactured by BIOTAB Nutraceuticals, Inc., and marketed by Maximizer Health Products. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExtenZe |
A class action was settled in 2010 for $6 million without the company admitting any wrongdoing to resolve plaintiff claims that Extenze maker Biotab Nutraceuticals, Inc engaged in deceptive marketing (advertising, labeling, promotion, etc.) by claiming it enlarged a man's penis despite the lack of any credible scientific evidence supporting that claim.In 2006, ExtenZe agreed to pay the Orange County, California, district attorney's office $300,000 in civil penalties for unfair business practices and false advertising. Susan Kang Schroeder of the DA's office said the company could not back up its claim that the pills caused users' penises to grow by 27%. After several customers in Laguna Beach, California complained to the Better Business Bureau that ExtenZe was making them sick, the district attorney investigated.Extenze's side effects are possibly associated with yohimbe extract. Potential side effects include increased body temperature, increased blood pressure, sweating, increased heart rate, nausea, and upset stomach. Other side effects can include aggression, pounding heart, restlessness, fever, feeling like fainting, hallucinations, muscle twitches or spasms, abnormal behavior, severe headache, bruising easily, shortness of breath, blurred vision, seizures, ringing in the ears, chest pain, confusion, loss of appetite, weight loss, vomiting, insomnia, mild skin rash, nervousness, cold feeling in the feet or hands, tingling or numbness in the feet or hands and difficulty staying asleep.In 2018, ExtenZe came under scrutiny of the FDA as a certain production lot of ExtenZe Plus was found to contain sildenafil, which is the active ingredient in Viagra. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExtenZe |
Both professional football and Olympic athletes are banned from taking ExtenZe because the DHEA in ExtenZe is considered a performance-enhancing drug. In 2010, 400-meter Olympic gold medalist LaShawn Merritt was banned from competition for taking ExtenZe, which contains dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), a steroid that is banned in athletic competition. Merritt apologized, saying that he did not realize that the formulation contained DHEA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExtenZe |
Merritt provisionally accepted a two-year ban from competition, although he announced plans to appeal. Sports authorities, however, were not sympathetic: "Any professional athlete in this sport knows that they are solely responsible for anything that goes into their bodies. For Mr. Merritt to claim inadvertent use of a banned substance due to the ingestion of over-the-counter supplements brings shame to himself and his teammates. Thanks to his selfish actions, he has done damage to our efforts to fight the plague of performance-enhancing drugs in our sport," USA Track and Field CEO Doug Logan said in a press release.Late in 2011, however, his ban ended and he was cleared to compete in the 2012 Olympics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExtenZe |
ExtenZe sponsored 2010 NASCAR Rookie of the Year Kevin Conway in both NASCAR Cup Series and NASCAR Nationwide Series from 2009 to 2011. ExtenZe faced legal actions by both of Conway's Cup Series teams in 2010, Front Row Motorsports and Robby Gordon Motorsports, after ExtenZe allegedly paid neither team's sponsorship money. Conway and ExtenZe would join NEMCO Motorsports in 2011. The deal, however was very limited and unlike Front Row and Robby Gordon, NEMCO was not financially compromised. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExtenZe |
It has been reported that the product website lists DHEA as an ingredient. The following ingredients comprise ExtenZe, as reported on the images of labels on vendor websites: Folate (folic acid) Zinc (as oxide) Micronized DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) Pregnanolone (3β-hydroxypregn-5-en-20-one) Black pepper (seed) Piper longum (seed) Ginger (root) Yohimbe extract (bark) Tribulus terrestris extract (aerial part and fruit) Korean ginseng extract (root) Cnidium monnieri (seed) Eleutherococcus extract (root) standardized to .8% eleuthrosides Xanthroparmelia scarbosa (aerial part) γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) Velvet deer antler Horny goat weed (leaf) Damiana (leaf) Muira puama extract (stem) Pumpkin (seed) Stinging nettle (root) Astragalus (root) Licorice extract (root) L-arginine hydrochloride Ho Shou Wu extract (root) Boron (as chelate) Other ingredients include dicalcium phosphate, microcrystalline cellulose, croscarmellose sodium, stearic acid, film coating (dextrin), titanium dioxide, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, brilliant blue FCF, aluminum lake, Macrogol/PEG 8000, dextrose monohydrate, lecithin, maltodextrin, Macrogol/PEG 400, magnesium stearate, and silica.Although the company claims that the product is completely natural, FDA testing confirmed that one of ExtenZe's variants, ExtenZe Plus, contains traces of sildenafil, a prescription medicine used to treat erectile dysfunction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExtenZe |
Focus variation is a method used to sharpen images and to measure surface irregularities by means of optics with limited depth of field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_variation |
The algorithm works as follows: At first images with difference focus are captured. This is done by moving the sample or the optics in relation to each other. Then for each position the focus over each plane is calculated The plane with the best focus is used to get a sharp image. the corresponding depth gives the depth at this position- | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_variation |
Focus variation requires an optics with very little depth of field. This can be realized if a microscopy like optics and a microscope objective is used. These objectives have a high numerical aperture which gives a small depth of field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_variation |
The use of this method is for optical surface metrology and coordinate-measuring machine. This means measuring form, waviness and roughness on samples. With optimized hardware and software components a lateral resolution of 500 nm (limitation of wavelength of light) and a vertical resolution of several nm can be reached. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_variation |
Advantages: Can be used on samples with steep flanks. This is because a ring light can be used to extend the illumination aperture Can deliver color information Can measure on rough surfacesDisadvantages: Can not be used if the surface of the sample does not give structure in the image. This means it can not be used for wafers and glass | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_variation |
The ISO committee is working on a new series of ISO standards, called the ISO 25178 series. The 6-part document describes the available methods for roughness measurement. Focus variation is one of the described methods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_variation |
The Dunaverney Flesh-Hook is a sophisticated bronze artefact from Prehistoric Ireland, thought to be an item of ceremonial feasting gear, and a symbol of authority. It is believed it was used to remove chunks of meat from a stew in a large cauldron for serving. It dates to the Late Bronze Age, between 1050 and 900 BC. Since 1856, it has been in the British Museum in London. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunaverney_flesh-hook |
Along the top of the flesh-hook are five birds, two large ones next to three smaller ones. At the bottom of the shaft, facing the family of five, are two birds. The group of two birds, presumably an adult pair, can be identified as corvids, perhaps ravens, the family of five as swans and cygnets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunaverney_flesh-hook |
The two sets of birds seem to invoke opposites: birds of water versus birds of the air; white ranged against black, fecundity as opposed to death (implied by the predatory character of ravens). Perhaps, in the mind of the Bronze Age inhabitants, the two sets of birds denoted a fable of opposites between good and bad. The flesh-hook was originally linked by pieces of oak shaft, only one fragment of which remains extant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunaverney_flesh-hook |
The Dunaverney Flesh-Hook was discovered in 1829 by workmen who were cutting turf at Dunaverney Bog to the north of Ballymoney in County Antrim. At the time of its discovery, the Dunaverney Flesh-Hook was unparalleled and for a long time many experts could not agree on its age and function. However, as more examples were found, not only in Ireland and Britain, but along the Atlantic seaboard of the European continent, it became clear from their style, technology and context that they belonged to the Bronze Age and were clearly important instruments used during ceremonial feasts. To this day, the representation of birds seen on the Dunaverney Flesh-Hook remains unique in north-west Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunaverney_flesh-hook |
An electoral system or voting system is a set of rules that determine how elections and referendums are conducted and how their results are determined. Electoral systems are used in politics to elect governments, while non-political elections may take place in business, non-profit organisations and informal organisations. These rules govern all aspects of the voting process: when elections occur, who is allowed to vote, who can stand as a candidate, how ballots are marked and cast, how the ballots are counted, how votes translate into the election outcome, limits on campaign spending, and other factors that can affect the result. Political electoral systems are defined by constitutions and electoral laws, are typically conducted by election commissions, and can use multiple types of elections for different offices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Some electoral systems elect a single winner to a unique position, such as prime minister, president or governor, while others elect multiple winners, such as members of parliament or boards of directors. When electing a legislature, areas may be divided into constituencies with one or more representatives. Voters may vote directly for individual candidates or for a list of candidates put forward by a political party or alliance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
There are many variations in electoral systems, with the most common systems being first-past-the-post voting, block voting, the two-round (runoff) system, proportional representation and ranked voting. Some electoral systems, such as mixed systems, attempt to combine the benefits of non-proportional and proportional systems. The study of formally defined electoral methods is called social choice theory or voting theory, and this study can take place within the field of political science, economics, or mathematics, and specifically within the subfields of game theory and mechanism design. Impossibility proofs such as Arrow's impossibility theorem demonstrate that when voters have three or more alternatives, no preferential voting system can guarantee the race between two candidates remains unaffected when an irrelevant candidate participates or drops out of the election. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Plurality voting is a system in which the candidate(s) with the highest number of votes wins, with no requirement to get a majority of votes. In cases where there is a single position to be filled, it is known as first-past-the-post; this is the second most common electoral system for national legislatures, with 58 countries using it for this purpose, the vast majority of which are current or former British or American colonies or territories. It is also the second most common system used for presidential elections, being used in 19 countries.In cases where there are multiple positions to be filled, most commonly in cases of multi-member constituencies, plurality voting is referred to as block voting, multiple non-transferable vote or plurality-at-large. This takes two main forms: in one form voters have as many votes as there are seats and can vote for any candidate, regardless of party – this is used in eight countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
There are variations on this system such as limited voting, where voters are given fewer votes than there are seats to be filled (Gibraltar is the only territory where this system is in use) and single non-transferable vote (SNTV), in which voters can vote for only one candidate in a multi-member constituency, with the candidates receiving the most votes declared the winners; this system is used in Kuwait, the Pitcairn Islands and Vanuatu. In the other main form of block voting, also known as party block voting, voters can only vote for the multiple candidates of a single party, with the party receiving the most votes winning all contested positions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
This is used in five countries as part of mixed systems.The Dowdall system, a multi-member constituency variation on the Borda count, is used in Nauru for parliamentary elections and sees voters rank the candidates depending on how many seats there are in their constituency. First preference votes are counted as whole numbers; the second preference votes divided by two, third preferences by three; this continues to the lowest possible ranking. The totals achieved by each candidate determine the winners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Majority voting is a system in which candidates must receive a majority of votes to be elected, either in a runoff election or final round of voting (although in some cases only a plurality is required in the last round of voting if no candidate can achieve a majority). There are two main forms of majoritarian systems, one conducted in a single election using ranked voting and the other using multiple elections, to successively narrow the field of candidates. Both are primarily used for single-member constituencies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Majoritarian voting can be achieved in a single election using instant-runoff voting (IRV), whereby voters rank candidates in order of preference; this system is used for parliamentary elections in Australia and Papua New Guinea. If no candidate receives a majority of the vote in the first round, the second preferences of the lowest-ranked candidate are then added to the totals. This is repeated until a candidate achieves over 50% of the number of valid votes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
If not all voters use all their preference votes, then the count may continue until two candidates remain, at which point the winner is the one with the most votes. A modified form of IRV is the contingent vote where voters do not rank all candidates, but have a limited number of preference votes. If no candidate has a majority in the first round, all candidates are excluded except the top two, with the highest remaining preference votes from the votes for the excluded candidates then added to the totals to determine the winner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
This system is used in Sri Lankan presidential elections, with voters allowed to give three preferences.The other main form of majoritarian system is the two-round system, which is the most common system used for presidential elections around the world, being used in 88 countries. It is also used in 20 countries for electing the legislature. If no candidate achieves a majority of votes in the first round of voting, a second round is held to determine the winner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
In most cases the second round is limited to the top two candidates from the first round, although in some elections more than two candidates may choose to contest the second round; in these cases the second round is decided by plurality voting. Some countries use a modified form of the two-round system, such as Ecuador where a candidate in the presidential election is declared the winner if they receive 40% of the vote and are 10% ahead of their nearest rival, or Argentina (45% plus 10% ahead), where the system is known as ballotage. An exhaustive ballot is not limited to two rounds, but sees the last-placed candidate eliminated in each round of voting. Due to the potentially large number of rounds, this system is not used in any major popular elections, but is used to elect the Speakers of parliament in several countries and members of the Swiss Federal Council. In some formats there may be multiple rounds held without any candidates being eliminated until a candidate achieves a majority, a system used in the United States Electoral College. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Proportional representation is the most widely used electoral system for national legislatures, with the parliaments of over eighty countries elected by various forms of the system. Party-list proportional representation is the single most common electoral system and is used by 80 countries, and involves voters voting for a list of candidates proposed by a party. In closed list systems voters do not have any influence over the candidates put forward by the party, but in open list systems voters are able to both vote for the party list and influence the order in which candidates will be assigned seats. In some countries, notably Israel and the Netherlands, elections are carried out using 'pure' proportional representation, with the votes tallied on a national level before assigning seats to parties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
However, in most cases several multi-member constituencies are used rather than a single nationwide constituency, giving an element of geographical representation; but this can result in the distribution of seats not reflecting the national vote totals. As a result, some countries have leveling seats to award to parties whose seat totals are lower than their proportion of the national vote. In addition to the electoral threshold (the minimum percentage of the vote that a party must obtain to win seats), there are several different ways to allocate seats in proportional systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
There are two main types of systems: highest average and largest remainder. Highest average systems involve dividing the votes received by each party by a series of divisors, producing figures that determine seat allocation; for example the D'Hondt method (of which there are variants including Hagenbach-Bischoff) and the Webster/Sainte-Laguë method. Under largest remainder systems, parties' vote shares are divided by the quota (obtained by dividing the total number of votes by the number of seats available). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
This usually leaves some seats unallocated, which are awarded to parties based on the largest fractions of seats that they have remaining. Examples of largest remainder systems include the Hare quota, Droop quota, the Imperiali quota and the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota. Single transferable vote (STV) is another form of proportional representation; in STV, voters rank candidates in a multi-member constituency rather than voting for a party list; it is used in Malta and the Republic of Ireland. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
To be elected, candidates must pass a quota (the Droop quota being the most common). Candidates that pass the quota on the first count are elected. Votes are then reallocated from the least successful candidates, as well as surplus votes from successful candidates, until all seats have been filled by candidates who have passed the quota. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
In several countries, mixed systems are used to elect the legislature. These include parallel voting (also known as mixed-member majoritarian) and mixed-member proportional representation. In non-compensatory, parallel voting systems, which are used in 20 countries, there are two methods by which members of a legislature are elected; part of the membership is elected by a plurality or majority vote in single-member constituencies and the other part by proportional representation. The results of the constituency vote have no effect on the outcome of the proportional vote.In compensatory mixed-member representation the results of the proportional vote are adjusted to balance the seats won in the constituency vote. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
In mixed-member proportional systems, in use in eight countries, there is enough compensation in order to ensure that parties have a number of seats proportional to their vote share.Other systems may be insufficiently compensatory, and this may result in overhang seats, where parties win more seats in the constituency system than they would be entitled to based on their vote share. Variations of this include the Additional Member System, and Alternative Vote Plus, in which voters cast votes for both single-member constituencies and multi-member constituencies; the allocation of seats in the multi-member constituencies is adjusted to achieve an overall seat total proportional to parties' vote share by taking into account the number of seats won by parties in the single-member constituencies. Mixed single vote systems are also compensatory, however they usually use a vote transfer mechanism unlike the seat linkage (top-up) method of MMP and may or may not be able to achieve proportional representation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
An unusual form of mixed-member compensatory representation using negative vote transfer, Scorporo, was used in Italy from 1993 until 2006. Some electoral systems feature a majority bonus system to either ensure one party or coalition gains a majority in the legislature, or to give the party receiving the most votes a clear advantage in terms of the number of seats. San Marino has a modified two-round system, which sees a second round of voting featuring the top two parties or coalitions if there is no majority in the first round. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
The winner of the second round is guaranteed 35 seats in the 60-seat Grand and General Council. In Greece the party receiving the most votes was given an additional 50 seats, a system which was abolished following the 2019 elections. In Uruguay, the President and members of the General Assembly are elected by on a single ballot, known as the double simultaneous vote. Voters cast a single vote, voting for the presidential, Senatorial and Chamber of Deputies candidates of that party. This system was also previously used in Bolivia and the Dominican Republic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Primary elections are a feature of some electoral systems, either as a formal part of the electoral system or informally by choice of individual political parties as a method of selecting candidates, as is the case in Italy. Primary elections limit the risk of vote splitting by ensuring a single party candidate. In Argentina they are a formal part of the electoral system and take place two months before the main elections; any party receiving less than 1.5% of the vote is not permitted to contest the main elections. In the United States, there are both partisan and non-partisan primary elections. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Some elections feature an indirect electoral system, whereby there is either no popular vote, or the popular vote is only one stage of the election; in these systems the final vote is usually taken by an electoral college. In several countries, such as Mauritius or Trinidad and Tobago, the post of President is elected by the legislature. In others like India, the vote is taken by an electoral college consisting of the national legislature and state legislatures. In the United States, the president is indirectly elected using a two-stage process; a popular vote in each state elects members to the electoral college that in turn elects the President. This can result in a situation where a candidate who receives the most votes nationwide does not win the electoral college vote, as most recently happened in 2000 and 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
In addition to the various electoral systems in use in the political sphere, there are numerous others, some of which are proposals and some of which have been adopted for usage in business (such as electing corporate board members) or for organisations but not for public elections. Ranked systems include Bucklin voting, the various Condorcet methods (Copeland's, Dodgson's, Kemeny-Young, Maximal lotteries, Minimax, Nanson's, Ranked pairs, Schulze), the Coombs' method and positional voting. There are also several variants of single transferable vote, including CPO-STV, Schulze STV and the Wright system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Dual-member proportional representation is a proposed system with two candidates elected in each constituency, one with the most votes and one to ensure proportionality of the combined results. Biproportional apportionment is a system whereby the total number of votes is used to calculate the number of seats each party is due, followed by a calculation of the constituencies in which the seats should be awarded in order to achieve the total due to them. Cardinal electoral systems allow voters to evaluate candidates independently. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
The complexity ranges from approval voting where voters simply state whether they approve of a candidate or not to range voting, where a candidate is scored from a set range of numbers. Other cardinal systems include proportional approval voting, sequential proportional approval voting, satisfaction approval voting, highest median rules (including the majority judgment), and the D21 – Janeček method where voters can cast positive and negative votes. Historically, weighted voting systems were used in some countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
These allocated a greater weight to the votes of some voters than others, either indirectly by allocating more seats to certain groups (such as the Prussian three-class franchise), or by weighting the results of the vote. The latter system was used in colonial Rhodesia for the 1962 and 1965 elections. The elections featured two voter rolls (the 'A' roll being largely European and the 'B' roll largely African); the seats of the House Assembly were divided into 50 constituency seats and 15 district seats. Although all voters could vote for both types of seats, 'A' roll votes were given greater weight for the constituency seats and 'B' roll votes greater weight for the district seats. Weighted systems are still used in corporate elections, with votes weighted to reflect stock ownership. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
In addition to the specific method of electing candidates, electoral systems are also characterised by their wider rules and regulations, which are usually set out in a country's constitution or electoral law. Participatory rules determine candidate nomination and voter registration, in addition to the location of polling places and the availability of online voting, postal voting, and absentee voting. Other regulations include the selection of voting devices such as paper ballots, machine voting or open ballot systems, and consequently the type of vote counting systems, verification and auditing used. Electoral rules place limits on suffrage and candidacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
Most countries's electorates are characterised by universal suffrage, but there are differences on the age at which people are allowed to vote, with the youngest being 16 and the oldest 21. People may be disenfranchised for a range of reasons, such as being a serving prisoner, being declared bankrupt, having committed certain crimes or being a serving member of the armed forces. Similar limits are placed on candidacy (also known as passive suffrage), and in many cases the age limit for candidates is higher than the voting age. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system |
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