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Consequently, "Western scientific practice" establishes the researcher "as a judge of credibility and a gatekeeper for its authority", which she identifies as "a discursive enactment of colonial relations". Such an approach is based on the assumption Western academics are disciplined to perceive "interpretation and packaging of information" as the domain of "the knowing subject", the researcher, rather than the "subject of knowing, the one being researched". Because only the researcher is thought to have the rightful agency to do so. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
According to Hoagland, the knowing subject must be examined with the same degree of care as the subjects of knowledge that the knowing subjects scrutinize. A conversation of "us" with "us" about "them" is a conversation in which "them" is silenced. "Them" always stands on the other side of the hill, naked and speechless, barely presence in its absence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
The coloniality of knowledge "presumes commensurability with Western discourse", and is the practice of "translating and rewriting other cultures, other knowledges, and other ways of being" into Western system of thought. Hoagland said reframing indigenous claims to make them understandable inside Western institutions amounts to rewriting to the point of eliminating indigenous culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Because such a subject of knowing of research is not "approached as a knowing subject on her own terms" as "she falls short as a knowing subject on Western terms", she is not "rational" and does not function with and embrace individuality.According to Nick Shepherd, the coloniality of knowledge has three dimensions; structural and logistical, epistemological, and ethical and moral. For Shepherd, data or information flowed in one direction and were essentially extractive in nature. Information, observations, and artifacts were transported from the global south and east to Europe and North America, where they were processed and published. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Scholars in metropolitan institutions were eventually given precedence in the discipline's rank and hierarchy, while those in the global south were considered as "local enablers or collaborators on the ground". They were frequently referred to as "informants", "diggers", or simply "boys". Although this has been defined as a historical situation, Shepherd said this practice continues, and forms the structural and logistical aspects of the coloniality of knowledge.In its epistemological dimension, Shepherd said coloniality of knowledge calls into question the commonly held categories and notions that characterize the intellectual process, as well as an understanding of what knowledge is and how it works. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
It entails comprehending how the conjoined settings of colonialism and modernity manifest themselves in the ways knowledge is conceptualized and formed in various disciplines. In its ethical and moral dimensions, coloniality of knowledge refers to the rights and entitlements that disciplinary practitioners acquire as part of their training, allowing them to interfere in locations and circumstances as a scientific right and as a moral act. Shepherd cites examples from archaeology, in which extractions were carried out in sacred places revered by the locals.Similarly, Aram Ziai et al identified the "problem of coloniality" in three distinct but interconnected levels of knowledge production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
On the level of knowledge orders, we see it in epistemology (Whose experience and knowledge counts as valid, scientific knowledge? How is a theory of universally valid knowledge linked to the depreciation and destruction of other knowledge?) as well as in ontology (Which elements constitute our world and form the basis of our research and which are seen as irrelevant? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Has this been influenced by the legitimation of domination? Do we perceive our units of analysis as individual and discrete or as always historically interwoven and entangled?). On the level of research methodology, we see it in the relations of power existing between subjects and objects of research (Who is seen as capable of producing knowledge? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Who determines the purpose of research? Who provides the data for the research and who engages in theory building and career making on this basis?). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
On the level of the academia, we see it in the curricula (Which type of knowledge and which authors are being taught in the universities?) as well as in the recruitment of scholars (Which mechanisms of exclusion persist in the education system determining who will become a producer of knowledge in institutions of higher education? ). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
According to William Mpofu, the coloniality of knowledge transforms colonial subjects into "victims of the coloniality of being", "a condition of inferiorisation, peripheralization, and dehumanization", which makes "primary reference to the lived experience of colonization and its impact on language". The coloniality of knowledge thesis asserts educational institutions reflect "the entanglement of coloniality, power, and the epistemic ego-politics of knowledge", which explains the "bias" that promotes Westernized knowledge production as impartial, objective, and universal while rejecting knowledge production influenced by "sociopolitical location, lived experience, and social relations" as "inferior and pseudo-scientific". Poloma et al said the worldwide domination of the Euro-American university model epitomizes coloniality of knowledge, which is reinforced through the canonization of Western curricula, the primacy of English language in instruction and research, and the fetishism of global rankings and Euro-American certification in third world countries.Silova et al said the coloniality of knowledge production has unwittingly formed academic identities, both socializing "non-Western or not-so-Western" researchers into Western ways of thought and marginalizing them in knowledge creation processes, resulting in "academic mimetism" or "intellectual mimicry". The coloniality of knowledge has led to the formation of a knowledge barrier that prevents students and academics from generating new knowledge by adopting non-Western concepts. It also has a significant impact on the mainstream curriculum, which is founded on the same Western notions and paradigms, making it difficult for students to advance beyond the Western epistemological framework. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
In a 2020 article, Paul Anthony Chambers said the theory of the coloniality of knowledge, which proposes a link between the legacy of colonialism and the production, validation, and transfer of knowledge, is "problematic" in some respects, particularly in its critique of Cartesian epistemology. An example of the latter is a 2012 chapter by Sarah Lucia Hoagland that cites Quijano and says that Cartesian methodology practices "the cognitive dismissal of all that lies outside of its bounds of sense ... resulting in a highly sophisticated Eurocentrism". For Hoagland, this tradition maintains "power relations by denying epistemic credibility to objects/subjects of knowledge who are marginalized, written subaltern, erased, criminalized ... and thereby denying relationality". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
(Chambers and Hoagland both cite Quijano but do not cite each other.) While Chambers agreed with much of what the theory of the coloniality of knowledge asserts, he critiqued it for "fail to adequately demonstrate" how Cartesian/Western epistemology is tied to inequitable patterns of global knowledge production as well as larger forms of dominance and exploitation. Chambers recognized "the problematic political and sociological dimensions of knowledge production", which he said the decolonial thinkers also emphasized, but he objected to some of the underlying arguments of the thesis, which blamed Cartesian epistemology for "unjust structures of global knowledge production"; he argued that this thesis fails to explain how Cartesian epistemology has had the impact claimed by the decolonial thinkers. Chambers said: Quijano's claims are based on a questionable connection between the Cartesian epistemological categories of subject and object and the ideological and racist belief that Europeans were naturally superior to Indians and other colonized peoples who were deemed – although not by all Europeans, e.g. Las Casas – to be inferior because incapable of rational thought and hence more akin to children and therefore effectively non-autonomous "objects". He also said: "While such a view is infamously to be found in Kant, there is no evidence of it in Descartes". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Karius and Bactus (Norwegian: Karius og Baktus) is a Norwegian children's novel written and illustrated by playwright Thorbjørn Egner. The book was first published in 1949 and produced as a 15-minute puppet animation film by film director Ivo Caprino in 1955. An English translation by Mike Sevig and Turi Olderheim was published in the United States in 1986.The main characters are Karius (black haired) and Bactus (red haired). Their names are puns on Caries and Bacteria, and they are two small "tooth trolls" that live inside cavities in the teeth of a boy named Jens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karius_and_Bactus |
They have a very good life, especially when Jens eats white bread with syrup and fails to brush his teeth afterwards. Eventually their homes are destroyed by the work of a dentist and they are rinsed out of Jens' mouth through proper dental care.The story of Karius and Bactus, with its humorous illustrations and important message, has become a classic of Norwegian children's literature. Since its publication, the idea of "tooth trolls" has been used as a pedagogical device for generations of Scandinavian children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karius_and_Bactus |
Thorbjørn Egner (1971) Karius og Baktus (Oslo: Cappelen) ISBN 978-8202031671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karius_and_Bactus |
In moral philosophy, instrumental and intrinsic value are the distinction between what is a means to an end and what is as an end in itself. Things are deemed to have instrumental value if they help one achieve a particular end; intrinsic values, by contrast, are understood to be desirable in and of themselves. A tool or appliance, such as a hammer or washing machine, has instrumental value because it helps you pound in a nail or clean your clothes. Happiness and pleasure are typically considered to have intrinsic value insofar as asking why someone would want them makes little sense: they are desirable for their own sake irrespective of their possible instrumental value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
The classic names instrumental and intrinsic were coined by sociologist Max Weber, who spent years studying good meanings people assigned to their actions and beliefs. The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory provides three modern definitions of intrinsic and instrumental value: They are "the distinction between what is good 'in itself' and what is good 'as a means'. ": 14 "The concept of intrinsic value has been glossed variously as what is valuable for its own sake, in itself, on its own, in its own right, as an end, or as such. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
By contrast, extrinsic value has been characterized mainly as what is valuable as a means, or for something else's sake. ": 29 "Among nonfinal values, instrumental value—intuitively, the value attaching a means to what is finally valuable—stands out as a bona fide example of what is not valuable for its own sake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
": 34 When people judge efficient means and legitimate ends at the same time, both can be considered as good. However, when ends are judged separately from means, it may result in a conflict: what works may not be right; what is right may not work. Separating the criteria contaminates reasoning about the good. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Philosopher John Dewey argued that separating criteria for good ends from those for good means necessarily contaminates recognition of efficient and legitimate patterns of behavior. Economist J. Fagg Foster explained why only instrumental value is capable of correlating good ends with good means. Philosopher Jacques Ellul argued that instrumental value has become completely contaminated by inhuman technological consequences, and must be subordinated to intrinsic supernatural value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Philosopher Anjan Chakravartty argued that instrumental value is only legitimate when it produces good scientific theories compatible with the intrinsic truth of mind-independent reality. The word value is ambiguous in that it is both a verb and a noun, as well as denoting both a criterion of judgment itself and the result of applying a criterion. : 37–44 To reduce ambiguity, throughout this article the noun value names a criterion of judgment, as opposed to valuation which is an object that is judged valuable. The plural values identifies collections of valuations, without identifying the criterion applied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
The classic names instrumental and intrinsic were coined by sociologist Max Weber, who spent years studying good meanings people assigned to their actions and beliefs. According to Weber, "ocial action, like all action, may be" judged as:: 24–5 Instrumental rational (zweckrational): action "determined by expectations as to the behavior of objects in the environment of other human beings; these expectations are used as 'conditions' or 'means' for the attainment of the actor's own rationally pursued and calculated ends." Value-rational (wertrational): action "determined by a conscious belief in the value for its own sake of some ethical, aesthetic, religious, or other form of behavior, independently of its prospects of success." Weber's original definitions also include a comment showing his doubt that conditionally efficient means can achieve unconditionally legitimate ends:: 399–400 he more the value to which action is oriented is elevated to the status of an absolute value, the more "irrational" in this sense the corresponding action is. For the more unconditionally the actor devotes himself to this value for its own sake…the less he is influenced by considerations of the consequences of his action. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
John Dewey thought that belief in intrinsic value was a mistake. Although the application of instrumental value is easily contaminated, it is the only means humans have to coordinate group behaviour efficiently and legitimately. Every social transaction has good or bad consequences depending on prevailing conditions, which may or may not be satisfied. Continuous reasoning adjusts institutions to keep them working on the right track as conditions change. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Changing conditions demand changing judgments to maintain efficient and legitimate correlation of behavior.For Dewey, "restoring integration and cooperation between man's beliefs about the world in which he lives and his beliefs about the values and purposes that should direct his conduct is the deepest problem of modern life. ": 255 Moreover, a "culture which permits science to destroy traditional values but which distrusts its power to create new ones is a culture which is destroying itself." Dewey agreed with Max Weber that people talk as if they apply instrumental and intrinsic criteria. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
He also agreed with Weber's observation that intrinsic value is problematic in that it ignores the relationship between context and consequences of beliefs and behaviors. Both men questioned how anything valued intrinsically "for its own sake" can have operationally efficient consequences. However, Dewey rejects the common belief—shared by Weber—that supernatural intrinsic value is necessary to show humans what is permanently "right." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
He argues that both efficient and legitimate qualities must be discovered in daily life:Man who lives in a world of hazards…has sought to attain in two ways. One of them began with an attempt to propitiate the powers which environ him and determine his destiny. It expressed itself in supplication, sacrifice, ceremonial rite and magical cult.… The other course is to invent arts and by their means turn the powers of nature to account.…: 3 or over two thousand years, the…most influential and authoritatively orthodox tradition…has been devoted to the problem of a purely cognitive certification (perhaps by revelation, perhaps by intuition, perhaps by reason) of the antecedent immutable reality of truth, beauty, and goodness.… The crisis in contemporary culture, the confusions and conflicts in it, arise from a division of authority. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Scientific inquiry seems to tell one thing, and traditional beliefs about ends and ideals that have authority over conduct tell us something quite different.… As long as the notion persists that knowledge is a disclosure of reality…prior to and independent of knowing, and that knowing is independent of a purpose to control the quality of experienced objects, the failure of natural science to disclose significant values in its objects will come as a shock. : 43–4 Finding no evidence of "antecedent immutable reality of truth, beauty, and goodness," Dewey argues that both efficient and legitimate goods are discovered in the continuity of human experience:: 114, 172–3, 197 Dewey's ethics replaces the goal of identifying an ultimate end or supreme principle that can serve as a criterion of ethical evaluation with the goal of identifying a method for improving our value judgments. Dewey argued that ethical inquiry is of a piece with empirical inquiry more generally.… This pragmatic approach requires that we locate the conditions of warrant for our value judgments in human conduct itself, not in any a priori fixed reference point outside of conduct, such as in God's commands, Platonic Forms, pure reason, or "nature," considered as giving humans a fixed telos .Philosophers label a "fixed reference point outside of conduct' a "natural kind," and presume it to have eternal existence knowable in itself without being experienced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Natural kinds are intrinsic valuations presumed to be "mind-independent" and "theory-independent. "Dewey grants the existence of "reality" apart from human experience, but denied that it is structured as intrinsically real natural kinds. : 122, 196 Instead, he sees reality as functional continuity of ways-of-acting, rather than as interaction among pre-structured intrinsic kinds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Humans may intuit static kinds and qualities, but such private experience cannot warrant inferences or valuations about mind-independent reality. Reports or maps of perceptions or intuitions are never equivalent to territories mapped. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
People reason daily about what they ought to do and how they ought to do it. Inductively, they discover sequences of efficient means that achieve consequences. Once an end is reached—a problem solved—reasoning turns to new conditions of means-end relations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Valuations that ignore consequence-determining conditions cannot coordinate behavior to solve real problems; they contaminate rationality.Value judgments have the form: if one acted in a particular way (or valued this object), then certain consequences would ensue, which would be valued. The difference between an apparent and a real good , between an unreflectively and a reflectively valued good, is captured by its value not just as immediately experienced in isolation, but in view of its wider consequences and how they are valued.… So viewed, value judgments are tools for discovering how to live a better life, just as scientific hypotheses are tools for uncovering new information about the world.In brief, Dewey rejects the traditional belief that judging things as good in themselves, apart from existing means-end relations, can be rational. The sole rational criterion is instrumental value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Each valuation is conditional but, cumulatively, all are developmental—and therefore socially-legitimate solutions of problems. Competent instrumental valuations treat the "function of consequences as necessary tests of the validity of propositions, provided these consequences are operationally instituted and are such as to resolve the specific problems evoking the operations. ": 29–31 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
John Fagg Foster made John Dewey's rejection of intrinsic value more operational by showing that its competent use rejects the legitimacy of utilitarian ends—satisfaction of whatever ends individuals adopt. It requires recognizing developmental sequences of means and ends. : 40–8 Utilitarians hold that individual wants cannot be rationally justified; they are intrinsically worthy subjective valuations and cannot be judged instrumentally. This belief supports philosophers who hold that facts ("what is") can serve as instrumental means for achieving ends, but cannot authorize ends ("what ought to be"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
This fact-value distinction creates what philosophers label the is-ought problem: wants are intrinsically fact-free, good in themselves; whereas efficient tools are valuation-free, usable for good or bad ends. : 60 In modern North-American culture, this utilitarian belief supports the libertarian assertion that every individual's intrinsic right to satisfy wants makes it illegitimate for anyone—but especially governments—to tell people what they ought to do.Foster finds that the is-ought problem is a useful place to attack the irrational separation of good means from good ends. He argues that want-satisfaction ("what ought to be") cannot serve as an intrinsic moral compass because 'wants' are themselves consequences of transient conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
he things people want are a function of their social experience, and that is carried on through structural institutions that specify their activities and attitudes. Thus the pattern of people's wants takes visible form partly as a result of the pattern of the institutional structure through which they participate in the economic process. As we have seen, to say that an economic problem exists is to say that part of the particular patterns of human relationships has ceased or failed to provide the effective participation of its members. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
In so saying, we are necessarily in the position of asserting that the instrumental efficiency of the economic process is the criterion of judgment in terms of which, and only in terms of which, we may resolve economic problems. Since 'wants' are shaped by social conditions, they must be judged instrumentally; they arise in problematic situations when habitual patterns of behavior fail to maintain instrumental correlations. : 27 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Foster uses with homely examples to support his thesis that problematic situations ("what is") contain the means for judging legitimate ends ("what ought to be"). Rational efficient means achieve rational developmental ends. Consider the problem all infants face learning to walk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
They spontaneously recognize that walking is more efficient differently to crawling—an instrumental valuation of a desirable end. They learn to walk by repeatedly moving and balancing, judging the efficiency with which these means achieve their instrumental goal. When they master this new way-of-acting, they experience great satisfaction, but satisfaction is never their end-in-view. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
To guard against contamination of instrumental value by judging means and ends independently, Foster revised his definition to embrace both. Instrumental value is the criterion of judgment which seeks instrumentally-efficient means that "work" to achieve developmentally-continuous ends. This definition stresses the condition that instrumental success is never short term; it must not lead down a dead-end street. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
The same point is made by the currently popular concern for sustainability—a synonym for instrumental value.Dewey's and Foster's argument that there is no intrinsic alternative to instrumental value continues to be ignored rather than refuted. Scholars continue to accept the possibility and necessity of knowing "what ought to be" independently of transient conditions that determine actual consequences of every action. Jacques Ellul and Anjan Chakravartty were prominent exponents of the truth and reality of intrinsic value as constraint on relativistic instrumental value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Jacques Ellul made scholarly contributions to many fields, but his American reputation grew out of his criticism of the autonomous authority of instrumental value, the criterion that John Dewey and J. Fagg Foster found to be the core of human rationality. He specifically criticized the valuations central to Dewey's and Foster's thesis: evolving instrumental technology. His principal work, published in 1954, bore the French title La technique and tackles the problem that Dewey addressed in 1929: a culture in which the authority of evolving technology destroys traditional valuations without creating legitimate new ones. Both men agree that conditionally-efficient valuations ("what is") become irrational when viewed as unconditionally efficient in themselves ("what ought to be"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
However, while Dewey argues that contaminated instrumental valuations can be self-correcting, Ellul concludes that technology has become intrinsically destructive. The only escape from this evil is to restore authority to unconditional sacred valuations:: 143 Nothing belongs any longer to the realm of the gods or the supernatural. The individual who lives in the technical milieu knows very well that there is nothing spiritual anywhere. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
But man cannot live without the sacred. He therefore transfers his sense of the sacred to the very thing which has destroyed its former object: to technique itself. The English edition of La technique was published in 1964, titled The Technological Society, and quickly entered ongoing disputes in the United States over the responsibility of instrumental value for destructive social consequences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
The translator of Technological Society summarizes Ellul's thesis: Technological Society is a description of the way in which an autonomous technology is in process of taking over the traditional values of every society without exception, subverting and suppressing those values to produce at last a monolithic world culture in which all non-technological difference and variety is mere appearance. Ellul opens The Technological Society by asserting that instrumental efficiency is no longer a conditional criterion. It has become autonomous and absolute:: xxxvi The term technique, as I use it, does not mean machines, technology, or this or that procedure for attaining an end. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
In our technological society, technique is the totality of methods rationally arrived at and having absolute efficiency (for a given stage of development) in every field of human activity. He blames instrumental valuations for destroying intrinsic meanings of human life: "Think of our dehumanized factories, our unsatisfied senses, our working women, our estrangement from nature. Life in such an environment has no meaning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
": 4–5 While Weber had labeled the discrediting of intrinsic valuations as disenchantment, Ellul came to label it as "terrorism. ": 384, 19 He dates its domination to the 1800s, when centuries-old handicraft techniques were massively eliminated by inhuman industry.When, in the 19th century, society began to elaborate an exclusively rational technique which acknowledged only considerations of efficiency, it was felt that not only the traditions but the deepest instincts of humankind had been violated. : 73 Culture is necessarily humanistic or it does not exist at all.… t answers questions about the meaning of life, the possibility of reunion with ultimate being, the attempt to overcome human finitude, and all other questions that they have to ask and handle. But technique cannot deal with such things.… Culture exists only if it raises the question of meaning and values .… Technique is not at all concerned about the meaning of life, and it rejects any relation to values . : 147–8 Ellul's core accusation is that instrumental efficiency has become absolute, i.e., a good-in-itself;: 83 it wraps societies in a new technological milieu with six intrinsically inhuman characteristics:: 22 artificiality; autonomy, "with respect to values , ideas, and the state;" self-determinative, independent "of all human intervention;" "It grows according to a process which is causal but not directed to ends;" "It is formed by an accumulation of means which have established primacy over ends;" "All its parts are mutually implicated to such a degree that it is impossible to separate them or to settle any technical problems in isolation." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Philosophers Tiles and Oberdiek (1995) find Ellul's characterization of instrumental value inaccurate. : 22–31 They criticize him for anthropomorphizing and demonizing instrumental value. They counter this by examining the moral reasoning of scientists whose work led to nuclear weapons: those scientists demonstrated the capacity of instrumental judgments to provide them with a moral compass to judge nuclear technology; they were morally responsible without intrinsic rules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Tiles and Oberdiek's conclusion coincides with that of Dewey and Foster: instrumental value, when competently applied, is self-correcting and provides humans with a developmental moral compass.For although we have defended general principles of the moral responsibilities of professional people, it would be foolish and wrongheaded to suggest codified rules. It would be foolish because concrete cases are more complex and nuanced than any code could capture; it would be wrongheaded because it would suggest that our sense of moral responsibility can be fully captured by a code. : 193 In fact, as we have seen in many instances, technology simply allows us to go on doing stupid things in clever ways. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
The questions that technology cannot solve, although it will always frame and condition the answers, are "What should we be trying to do? What kind of lives should we, as human beings, be seeking to live? And can this kind of life be pursued without exploiting others? But until we can at least propose answers to those questions we cannot really begin to do sensible things in the clever ways that technology might permit. : 197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Anjan Chakravartty came indirectly to question the autonomous authority of instrumental value. He viewed it as a foil for the currently dominant philosophical school labeled "scientific realism," with which he identifies. In 2007, he published a work defending the ultimate authority of intrinsic valuations to which realists are committed. He links the pragmatic instrumental criterion to discredited anti-realist empiricist schools including logical positivism and instrumentalism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Chakravartty began his study with rough characterizations of realist and anti-realist valuations of theories. Anti-realists believe "that theories are merely instruments for predicting observable phenomena or systematizing observation reports;" they assert that theories can never report or prescribe truth or reality "in itself." By contrast, scientific realists believe that theories can "correctly describe both observable and unobservable parts of the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
": xi, 10 Well-confirmed theories—"what ought to be" as the end of reasoning—are more than tools; they are maps of intrinsic properties of an unobservable and unconditional territory—"what is" as natural-but-metaphysical real kinds. : xiii, 33, 149 Chakravartty treats criteria of judgment as ungrounded opinion, but admits that realists apply the instrumental criterion to judge theories that "work. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
": 25 He restricts such criterion's scope, claiming that every instrumental judgment is inductive, heuristic, accidental. Later experience might confirm a singular judgment only if it proves to have universal validity, meaning it possesses "detection properties" of natural kinds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
: 231 This inference is his fundamental ground for believing in intrinsic value. He commits modern realists to three metaphysical valuations or intrinsic kinds of knowledge of truth. Competent realists affirm that natural kinds exist in a mind-independent territory possessing 1) meaningful and 2) mappable intrinsic properties.Ontologically, scientific realism is committed to the existence of a mind-independent world or reality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
A realist semantics implies that the theoretical claims about this reality have truth values, and should be construed literally.… Finally, the epistemological commitment is to the idea that these theoretical claims give us knowledge of the world. That is, predictively successful (mature, non-ad hoc) theories, taken literally as describing the nature of a mind-independent reality are (approximately) true. : 9 He labels these intrinsic valuations as semi-realist, meaning they are currently the most accurate theoretical descriptions of mind-independent natural kinds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
He finds these carefully qualified statements necessary to replace earlier realist claims of intrinsic reality discredited by advancing instrumental valuations. Science has destroyed for many people the supernatural intrinsic value embraced by Weber and Ellul. But Chakravartty defended intrinsic valuations as necessary elements of all science—belief in unobservable continuities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
He advances the thesis of semi-realism, according to which well-tested theories are good maps of natural kinds, as confirmed by their instrumental success; their predictive success means they conform to mind-independent, unconditional reality.Causal properties are the fulcrum of semirealism. Their relations compose the concrete structures that are the primary subject matters of a tenable scientific realism. They regularly cohere to form interesting units, and these groupings make up the particulars investigated by the sciences and described by scientific theories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
: 119 Scientific theories describe causal properties, concrete structures, and particulars such as objects, events, and processes. Semirealism maintains that under certain conditions it is reasonable for realists to believe that the best of these descriptions tell us not merely about things that can be experienced with the unaided senses, but also about some of the unobservable things underlying them. : 151 Chakravartty argues that these semirealist valuations legitimize scientific theorizing about pragmatic kinds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
The fact that theoretical kinds are frequently replaced does not mean that mind-independent reality is changing, but simply that theoretical maps are approximating intrinsic reality.The primary motivation for thinking that there are such things as natural kinds is the idea that carving nature according to its own divisions yields groups of objects that are capable of supporting successful inductive generalizations and prediction. So the story goes, one's recognition of natural categories facilitates these practices, and thus furnishes an excellent explanation for their success. : 151 The moral here is that however realists choose to construct particulars out of instances of properties, they do so on the basis of a belief in the existence of those properties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
That is the bedrock of realism. Property instances lend themselves to different forms of packaging , but as a feature of scientific description, this does not compromise realism with respect to the relevant packages. : 81 In sum, Chakravartty argues that contingent instrumental valuations are warranted only as they approximate unchanging intrinsic valuations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Scholars continue to perfect their explanations of intrinsic value, as they deny the developmental continuity of applications of instrumental value.Abstraction is a process in which only some of the potentially many relevant factors present in reality are represented in a model or description with some aspect of the world, such as the nature or behavior of a specific object or process. ... Pragmatic constraints such as these play a role in shaping how scientific investigations are conducted, and together which and how many potentially relevant factors are incorporated into models and descriptions during the process of abstraction. The role of pragmatic constraints, however, does not undermine the idea that putative representations of factors composing abstract models can be thought to have counterparts in the world. : 191 Realist intrinsic value as proposed by Chakravartty, is widely endorsed in modern scientific circles, while the supernatural intrinsic value endorsed by Max Weber and Jacques Ellul maintains its popularity throughout the world. Doubters about the reality of instrumental and intrinsic value are few. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value |
Figure and ground is a concept drawn from Gestalt psychology by media theorist Marshall McLuhan in the early 1970s. This concept underpins the meaning of his famous phrase, "The medium is the message". The concept was an approach to what was called "perceptual organization." He began to use the terms figure and ground as a way "to describe the parts of a situation" and "to help explain his ideas about media and human communication." The concept was later employed to explain how a communications technology, the medium or figure, necessarily operates through its context, or ground. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
To McLuhan, "'figure' refers to something that jumps out at us, something that grabs our attention, ‘ground’ refers to something that supports or contextualizes a situation and is usually an area of unattention." When we first experience a new image or sensation, there are certain aspects of the object that grab our attention and engage us and certain aspects that we unintentionally ignore. We should not focus on just the "figure" or the "ground" though, as McLuhan believed that both were equally as important to understanding the full meaning of the situation. "This distinction between that which is perceived and that which is blocked out in order to focus perception is central for McLuhan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
"McLuhan used different words to describe the figure/ground relationship, sometimes using content for figure and environment or, more often, medium for ground. "McLuhan looked at media through a figure/ground relationship." To him, people tended to focus on only specific parts of the media, and disregard other parts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
"To examine the total effect of any medium, McLuhan pointed out that we need to look at both figure AND ground, and their relationship to one another." He believed that "only focusing on the ‘content’ of the media was like looking at figures without examining their ground." "The ground, or environment, is not a passive container, but active processes that influence the relationships between all of the elements in it".McLuhan believed that to fully grasp the impact of a new technology in regard to figure (medium) and ground (context), one must understand that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
Neither piece is definitive without the other. His Understanding Media explores different grounds as they are structured by different media including print, radio, and television. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
Al Held, a well-known artist, exemplifies this idea in one of his paintings. The work is called The Big N and it "provides us with an introduction to the concepts of figure and ground." Looking at a glance, you might draw your attention to the black triangles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
"Once you were given the name of the painting, however, the frame became linked to the figures, and an 'N' suddenly appeared." In understanding the work, it is important to look at the bigger picture. Al Held's painting is well known for its display of framing, or context, and its importance to the meaning of the overall situation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
If either the frame or the painting itself were to change, the interpretation of the work might shift. Pertaining to media, we must look at both the figure and the ground to "understand effects." The ground which media creates gives a context for human communication, and thus "directs human action in unique and important ways. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
"McLuhan argued that we must study media in their historical context, particularly in relation to those technologies that preceded them. The present environment, itself made up of the effects of previous technologies, gives rise to new technologies, which, in turn, further shapes societies and individuals.Furthermore, all technologies have embedded within them their own assumptions about time and space. Again, the message conveyed by the medium can only be understood if the medium is concurrently analyzed with the environment in which it is used — and which, simultaneously, it effectively creates. McLuhan believed that an examination of the figure-ground relationship can offer a critical commentary on culture and society.Alternately, the idea of "figure" can also refer to content of a particular medium, while "ground" refers to the medium itself. McLuhan's aphorism "The medium is the message" can thus be read as an attempt to draw attention away from a preoccupation with the figure/message to a consideration of the importance of the ground/medium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_and_ground_(media) |
The meridian 38° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Europe, Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole. The 38th meridian east forms a great circle with the 142nd meridian west. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38th_meridian_east |
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 38th meridian east passes through: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38th_meridian_east |
Bucket of Blood Street is located off U.S. Route 66 in the Old Downtown district of Holbrook, Arizona. Bucket of Blood Street is one block south of the historical Santa Fe Railroad station on Navajo Road that was built in 1882.Holbrook was founded in the 1880s as a railroad stop. At the time, the desert town was mainly populated by ranchers, outlaws, cowboys and cattle rustlers, and was known for its gun fights. Holbrook had a reputation as a "town too tough for women and churches". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
Terrell's Cottage Saloon had existed on the street for years before coming to be known as Bucket of Blood Saloon, after a violent fight took place resulting in the death of two men. The saloon was popular with cowboys and ruffians; fistfights and gunfights often broke out there.The year 1886 was a particularly violent one and the town lost about ten percent of its population. A fight broke out at the saloon during a card game between rival cattle rustlers, including wranglers from the Hashknife Outfit of the Aztec Land and Cattle Company. The result of the fight was described as though a bucket of blood had been spilled on the floor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
A newspaper account describes another event on January 19, 1896, when the proprietor of the saloon shot and killed two men playing cards: "Suddenly a dispute arose and angry words passed between them." The manager of the saloon, Harry Donnelly, used a revolver to force another man, George C. Hiatt, a barber, into the street and shot him "through the heart" in front of the town drug store. Donnelly was arrested by Deputy Sheriff Hofford who was acting as the county sheriff, as Commodore Perry Owens was out of town at the time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
The newspaper report claims that when the widow Hiatt heard the news she fell "lifeless to the floor". The saloon was owned at the time by F. J. Wattron, however Donnelly managed it.Albert F. Potter's memoir, written around 1888, describes the events leading to the name Bucket of Blood somewhat differently. He wrote of participating in a "roundup on the Little Colorado River range ... 12 miles east of Holbrook." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
At sunrise two horsemen were seen riding towards his party from the direction of Holbrook. One man shouted, "Here we come! | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
All shot to pieces." The head of the other man was wrapped in bloody bandages covering a serious wound. Potter went on to write: "We recognized them as Joe Crawford, a cowboy who had worked for the Aztec Land and Cattle Company known as the Hashknife Outfit, and George Bell, a gambler. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
Crawford was so weak that he had to be lifted from the horse he was riding. We laid him on the horse wrangler's bed and with a handful of flour from the cook's bread pan I plastered the wound on his head and stopped the bleeding. Examination showed that a bullet had also passed through the cuff of his shirt and coat sleeve, and just grazed the side of his body. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
Scars of other old wounds showed that this was not Crawford's first fight. "Potter then describes Bell's involvement in an incident during a card game with a man named Ramon Lopez, during which Lopez struck Crawford in the head with his six-shooter gun. Crawford retaliated by drawing his gun and killing Lopez. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
Shooting then broke out in the saloon, and Crawford killed another man, after which "Crawford and Bell then made their getaway". Potter went on to write that he believed Joe Crawford "was in fact Grat Dalton, a member of the notorious Dalton Gang of outlaws who was later killed during an attempted bank robbery at Coffeyville, Kansas". Potter concluded that this was the backstory to the naming of Bucket of Blood Saloon.George W. Hennessey was the manager (not owner) of Bucket of Blood Saloon for about a year, circa 1908. He had been a member of the Hashknife Outfit.In 1913, a newspaper reported that a church was finally to be built in Holbrook; however, it was reported that the proprietor of the Bucket of Blood Saloon considered this the "end of an era" and cancelled his subscription to the newspaper in "disgust". It had until that time been the only county seat in the United States without a church. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
The Bucket of Blood Saloon building is located on Bucket of Blood Street in the eastern parcel of the Henning Block of the South Central Avenue Commercial Historic District, which is on the National Register of Historic Places.The building is 60 feet (18 m) long; the façade features a central entryway. Beneath wooden protective panels are glazed entrance doors with a transom window above, and four large windows on either side of the doorway. The building was constructed from dressed sandstone and rusticated sandstone blocks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
The parapet wall was stuccoed, and the other original walls were adobe. Only a short section of the adobe walls remains intact. The roof is constructed of corrugated tin. The interior floor and the ceiling are constructed of tongue-and-groove wood strips.For a time the Bucket of Blood Saloon served as the town hall, general community center, court and a social gathering place. By 1977, the Navajo Community College was using the saloon building as a warehouse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_of_Blood_Street |
TERMCAT is a public Catalan institution created in 1985 in order to ensure the development and integration of Catalan terminology for the preparation of terminological resources, standardization of terminology neologisms and advice on a regular and ongoing dialogue with users specialists. Since 1998, its terminology notices are obligatory in the scientific and technical publications of the public administration of the country. Neologisms are approved and published in the Official Journal Diari Oficial de la Generalitat de Catalunya.It was created in Barcelona in 1985 as a joint initiative of the Ministry of Culture of the Generalitat of Catalonia and the Institute of Catalan Studies (IEC). Since 1994 the Consortium for Standardization language was added to the management of the consortium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TERMCAT |
Cercaterm is an automated service for online multilingual consultations of TERMCAT with over 230,000 terminology entries available to the public. Anyone can consult the terms standardized by the TERMCAT Supervising Council, terminology products published since 1985, information from the centre's research projects, terms from consultations and projects in an advanced research phase, entries written by other entities and professionals and terminological criteria entries written by the centre. The interface works as a multilingual thematic search engine which also enables terminology consultations of TERMCAT through a personalized service module. The suggestions and comments made by users are one of the sources for incorporating new entries into Cercaterm.The entries include a reference that informs the users of the source of the information so they may assess the credibility of the data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TERMCAT |
Neoloteca is an on-line dictionary of all neologisms that are created in Catalan and is approved by the Supervisory Council of TERMCAT in cooperation with the Institut d'Estudis Catalans. The aim of Neoloteca is to specify and define new terms in Catalan and to give their equivalences in other languages. The terms can relate to any area of human society and endeavor including science, art and culture, technology, business and commerce, sport, etc. The terms proposed are regarded as the correct forms for use in all areas of public administration in Catalonia.By 1999 Neoloteca contained 6,000 terms that could be consulted using a theme-based index or alphabetical indexes in various languages. It regularly publishes updates in order to keep abreast of the latest developments in science and society in general. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TERMCAT |
The update in January 2014 offered, among other things, a series of terms relating to manga culture and to the different hand movements made when operating mobile devices. New terms are always published in the Official Gazette of the Catalan Government. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TERMCAT |
The Shanghai Urban Planning Exhibition Center (simplified Chinese: 上海城市规划展示馆; traditional Chinese: 上海城市規劃展示館; pinyin: Shànghǎi Chéngshì Guīhuà Zhǎnshì Guǎn) is located on People's Square, Shanghai, adjacent to the municipal government building. The Exhibition Center is a six-story building, with two basement levels, which displays Shanghai's urban planning and development. The focus of the exhibit is a large scale model of the entirety of urban Shanghai, showing existing buildings and approved future buildings. Other exhibits relate to Shanghai's history and planned development, including smaller scaled models focussing on particular areas of interest such as the Bund. The Exhibition Center also has space for temporary exhibitions with a wide range of subject matter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Urban_Planning_Exhibition_Center |
The Exhibition Center was built as part of the re-development of parkland at the edge of People's Park and around People's Square in the 1990s and 2000s. The Park and Square together occupy what was once the Shanghai racecourse, and today still make up one of the largest open spaces in central Shanghai. The building was designed by architect Ling Benli of the East China Architecture Design & Research Institute (ECADI), as a harmonious balance to the Grand Theatre, another contemporary building at the other end of People's Square. The Exhibition Center is 43 metres (141 ft) high, has a white aluminium panel cladding and a symbolic membrane structure roof. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Urban_Planning_Exhibition_Center |
The centerpiece of the exhibition is a huge scale model of the city of Shanghai, showing all existing and approved buildings. Visitors can view the model from alongside or ascend to a gallery running around it for views from above. The model is intended to represent the entire city, including all planned developments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Urban_Planning_Exhibition_Center |
However, a few support pillars penetrate the scale model. This means certain areas are missing from the model, and some views of the model are obscured by the columns. Alongside the model is a small theatre room housing a 360° screen. The room plays a video giving the impression the viewer is flying through the Shanghai of the future, viewing notable locations including some of the Shanghai Expo 2010 pavilions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Urban_Planning_Exhibition_Center |
The Broadcast Audience Research Council (BARC) India is a joint industry body founded by organisations that represent Indian broadcasters (IBDF), advertisers (ISA), and advertising and media agencies (AAAI). It is the world's largest television measurement science industry body. It uses audio watermark technology to measure viewership of TV channels, and it also measures time-shifted viewing and simulcasts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
The company was incorporated in 2010. It is based in Mumbai, India.It analyses the viewership habits of over 210 million TV households (891 million TV viewers), which makes it the world's largest television audience measurement service. Its measurement system is based on a sample of 50,000+ "panel homes", which will increase to 55,000 by 2023. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
It launched its TV viewership measurement service in April 2015 covering the landscape of Urban India. In October 2015, it started measuring all India TV homes (TV viewers in urban and rural India)BARC India was planned and implemented as an alternative to TAM Media Research, the audience measurement system put in place by the information and insights firm Nielsen and Kantar Media, a WPP company. It was set up according to guidelines of the Indian Ministry of Information & Broadcasting.Shashi Sinha has been elected as the chairman of BARC India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
Shashi succeeds Punit Goenka who completed his tenure as chairman. In August 2021, Nakul Chopra, the former chairman of the joint-industry body, returned as the CEO. He took over from Sunil Lulla who had joined the organisation in 2019 following the exit of the founding CEO Partho Dasgupta. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
BARC (Broadcast Audience Research Council) India is an industry body set up to design, commission, supervise and own an accurate, reliable and timely television audience measurement system for India. It currently measures TV Viewing habits of 210 million TV households in the country, using 50,000+ sample panel homes. This will go up to 55,000 in 2023, as mandated by the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting.Guided by the recommendations of the TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) and MIB notifications of January 2014, BARC India brings together the three key stakeholders in television audience measurement - broadcasters, advertisers, and advertising and media agencies, via their apex bodies. Standardisation Certificates obtained by BARC India are CESP Certification which validates representativeness of BARC India's TV Measurement Panel and by ISI, Kolkata certifies the representativeness of BARC India's Panel Design & Household Selection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
Nielsen (the owner of TAM Media along with Kantar Media) was sued by Indian TV channel NDTV for $810 million for fraud and $580 million for negligence in a New York court. NDTV's weighty lawsuit—194 pages; targeted at over 30 companies and individuals; and $1.4 billion in damages—against TAM and its investors accused them of deliberately publishing corrupt and tainted data, favoring rival channels in return for bribes. NDTV also alleged that Nielsen and Kantar were not funding TAM India adequately in order to increase its scale and invest in systems, security and quality procedures. A statement in the lawsuit read: “The primary remedy (of the corrupt activities) was to increase sample size from 8,000 boxes to 30,000 boxes, immediately stopping publication of data until the sample size was increased to appropriate levels. "The case was dismissed by the New York court on the issue of jurisdiction and asked NDTV to fight the legal battle in India.NDTV subsequently unsubscribed from TAM's services only to subscribe again in May 2014 citing the lack of alternate sources for such data as the TAM provided and the arrival of BARC India as a new measuring standard in the industry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
After nearly two years of being in the making (2013-2015), BARC's new ratings system formally rolled out in April 2015. Since most broadcasters had decided not to continue their subscription to TAM India, the industry underwent a ratings darkness period since April 1 where the old TAM software had been given up, and the new BARC India ratings software was yet to be installed. The broadcasters had a feel of these ratings a couple of weeks before the official rollout when BARC India made a presentation to share household level data. While there were no major changes, channel ranking across genres, gaps between channels widened or narrowed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
The initial rollout of the new ratings included a sample size of 11,000 Bar-o-meters, and covered the towns and cities with a population of 1,00,000 or more. Although this was less than what BARC India had assured to launch with, by October 2015, the sample reporting was scaled up to 20,000 Bar-o-meters, covering all 153mn TV owning homes in India. The sample has been since scaled up to 30,000 homes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Audience_Research_Council |
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