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This stage might have an emotional component as well. An example of thought in this stage: "I want to know what we do and how our culture is different from others." "There are a lot of non-Japanese people around me, and it gets pretty confusing to try and decide who I am." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity |
Cultural identity achievement: "is characterized by a clear, confident acceptance of oneself and an internalization of one's cultural identity." In this stage people often allow the acceptance of their cultural identity play a role in their future choices such as how to raise children, how to deal with stereotypes and any discrimination and approach negative perceptions. This usually leads to an increase in self-confidence and positive psychological adjustment | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity |
There is a set of phenomena that occur in conjunction between virtual culture – understood as the modes and norms of behavior associated with the internet and the online world – and youth culture. While we can speak of a duality between the virtual (online) and real sphere (face-to-face relations), for youth, this frontier is implicit and permeable. On occasions – to the annoyance of parents and teachers – these spheres are even superposed, meaning that young people may be in the real world without ceasing to be connected.In the present techno-cultural context, the relationship between the real world and the virtual world cannot be understood as a link between two independent and separate worlds, possibly coinciding at a point, but as a Moebius strip where there exists no inside and outside and where it is impossible to identify limits between both. For new generations, to an ever-greater extent, digital life merges with their home life as yet another element of nature. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity |
In this naturalizing of digital life, the learning processes from that environment are frequently mentioned not just since they are explicitly asked but because the subject of the internet comes up spontaneously among those polled. The ideas of active learning, of googling 'when you don't know', of recourse to tutorials for 'learning' a program or a game, or the expression 'I learnt English better and in a more entertaining way by playing' are examples often cited as to why the internet is the place most frequented by the young people polled.The internet is becoming an extension of the expressive dimension of the youth condition. There, youth talk about their lives and concerns, design the content that they make available to others and assess others' reactions to it in the form of optimized and electronically mediated social approval. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity |
Many of today's youth go through processes of affirmation procedures and is often the case for how youth today grow dependent on peer approval. When connected, youth speak of their daily routines and lives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity |
With each post, image or video they upload, they have the possibility of asking themselves who they are and to try out profiles differing from those they assume in the 'real' world. The connections they feel in more recent times have become much less interactive through personal means compared to past generations. The influx of new technology and access has created new fields of research on effects on teens and young adults. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity |
They thus negotiate their identity and create senses of belonging, putting the acceptance and censure of others to the test, an essential mark of the process of identity construction.Youth ask themselves about what they think of themselves, how they see themselves personally and, especially, how others see them. On the basis of these questions, youth make decisions which, through a long process of trial and error, shape their identity. This experimentation is also a form through which they can think about their insertion, membership and sociability in the 'real' world.From other perspectives, the question arises on what impact the internet has had on youth through accessing this sort of 'identity laboratory' and what role it plays in the shaping of youth identity. On the one hand, the internet enables young people to explore and perform various roles and personifications while on the other, the virtual forums – some of them highly attractive, vivid and absorbing (e.g. video games or virtual games of personification) – could present a risk to the construction of a stable and viable personal identity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity |
The Westminster system or Westminster model is a type of parliamentary government that incorporates a series of procedures for operating a legislature, first developed in England. Key aspects of the system include an executive branch made up of members of the legislature, and that is responsible to the legislature; the presence of parliamentary opposition parties; and a ceremonial head of state who is different from the head of government. The term comes from the Palace of Westminster, the current seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Westminster system is often contrasted with the presidential system that originated in the United States, or with the semi-presidential system, based on the government of France. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The Westminster system is used, or was once used, in the national and subnational legislatures of most former colonies of the British Empire, upon gaining self-government (with the exception of the United States and Cyprus), beginning with the first of the Canadian provinces in 1848 and the six Australian colonies between 1855 and 1890. It is the form of government bequeathed to New Zealand, and former British Hong Kong. The State of Israel adopted a largely Westminster-inspired system of government upon declaring independence from the British Mandate of Palestine. However, some former colonies have since adopted either the presidential system (Nigeria for example) or a hybrid system (like South Africa) as their form of government. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The Westminster system of government may include some of the following features: A sovereign or head of state who functions as the nominal or legal and constitutional holder of executive power, and holds numerous reserve powers, but whose daily duties mainly consist of performing ceremonial functions. Examples include King Charles III, the governors-general in the Commonwealth realms, or the presidents of many countries, and state or provincial governors in federal systems. Exceptions to this are Ireland and Israel, whose presidents are de jure and de facto ceremonial, and the latter possesses no reserve powers whatsoever. A head of government (or head of the executive), known as the prime minister (PM), premier, chief minister or first minister. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
While the head of state appoints the head of government, constitutional convention suggests that a majority of elected members of parliament must support the person appointed. If more than half of elected parliamentarians belong to the same political party, then the parliamentary leader of that party typically is appointed. An exception to this was Israel, in which direct prime-ministerial elections were made in 1996, 1999 and 2001. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
An executive branch led by the head of government usually made up of members of the legislature with the senior members of the executive in a cabinet adhering to the principle of cabinet collective responsibility; such members execute executive authority on behalf of the nominal or theoretical executive authority. An independent, non-partisan civil service that advises on, and implements, decisions of the elected government. Civil servants hold permanent appointments and can expect merit-based selection processes and continuity of employment when governments change. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
A parliamentary opposition (in a multi-party system) with an official leader of the opposition. A legislature, often bicameral, with at least one elected house—although unicameral systems also exist. Traditionally, the lower house is elected using first-past-the-post from single-member districts, which is still more common, although some use a system of proportional representation (e.g. Israel, New Zealand), parallel voting (e.g. Japan), or preferential voting (e.g. Papua New Guinea, Australia). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
A lower house of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by "withholding (or blocking) supply" (rejecting a budget), passing a motion of no confidence, or defeating a confidence motion. A parliament that can be dissolved and snap elections called at any time. Parliamentary privilege, which allows the legislature to discuss any issue it deems relevant without fear of consequences stemming from defamatory statements or records thereof. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Minutes of meetings, often known as Hansard, including an ability for the legislature to strike discussion from these minutes. The ability of courts to address silence or ambiguity in the statutory law through the development of common law. Another parallel system of legal principles also exists known as equity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Exceptions to this include India, Quebec in Canada, and Scotland in the UK, among other countries who mix common law with other legal systems.Most of the procedures of the Westminster system originated with the conventions, practices, and precedents of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which form a part of what is known as the Constitution of the United Kingdom. Unlike the uncodified British constitution, most countries that use the Westminster system have codified the system, at least in part, in a written constitution. However, uncodified conventions, practices, and precedents continue to play a significant role in most countries, as many constitutions do not specify important elements of procedure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
For example, some older constitutions using the Westminster system do not mention the existence of the cabinet or the prime minister, because these offices were taken for granted by the authors of these constitutions. Sometimes these conventions, reserve powers, and other influences collide in times of crisis and in such times the weaknesses of the unwritten aspects of the Westminster system, as well as the strengths of the Westminster system's flexibility, are put to the test. As an illustrative example, in the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975, the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam and replaced him with opposition leader Malcolm Fraser. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster system is quite complex. In essence, the head of state, usually a monarch or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or de jure source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, even though executive authority is nominally exercised in their name. The head of government, usually called the prime minister or premier, will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must, in any case, be able to ensure the existence of no absolute majority against the government. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
If the parliament passes a motion of no confidence, or refuses to pass an important bill such as the budget, then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a parliamentary dissolution so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate. Executive authority within a Westminster system is de jure exercised by the cabinet as a whole, along with more junior ministers, however, in effect, the head of government dominates the executive as the head of government is ultimately the person from whom the head of state will take advice (by constitutional convention) on the exercise of executive power, including the appointment and dismissal of cabinet members. This results in the situation where individual cabinet members in effect serve at the pleasure of the prime minister. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Thus the cabinet is strongly subordinate to the prime minister as they can be replaced at any time, or can be moved ("demoted") to a different portfolio in a cabinet reshuffle for "underperforming". In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the prime minister and the cabinet effectively implement executive powers. In a parliamentary republic like India, the president is the de jure executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the prime minister and the Council of Ministers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
In Israel, however, executive power is vested de jure and de facto in the cabinet and the president is de jure and de facto a ceremonial figurehead. As an example, the prime minister and cabinet (as the de facto executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the British prime minister wished to dissolve Parliament in order for a general election to take place, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the sovereign in order to attain such a wish. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
However, the sovereign in modern times has virtually always followed the advice of their prime minister without their own agency, this owes to the fact that the British sovereign is a constitutional monarch; he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing reserve powers in times of crisis. The sovereign's power to appoint and dismiss governments, appoint cabinet ministers to serve in the government, appoint diplomats, declare war, and to sign treaties (among other powers de jure held by the sovereign) is known as the royal prerogative, which in modern times is exercised by the sovereign solely on the advice of the Prime Minister. This custom also occurs in other countries are regions around the world using the Westminster System, as a legacy of British colonial rule. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
In Commonwealth realms such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the day-to-day functions that would be exercised by the sovereign personally in the United Kingdom are instead exercised by the governor-general. In such nations, the prime minister is obligated to formally seek permission from the governor-general when implementing executive decisions, in a manner similar to the British system. An analogous scenario also exists in republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, such as India or Trinidad and Tobago, where there is a president who functions similarly to a governor-general. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
An unusual case lies in Israel and Japan, where the respective prime ministers have the full legal power to implement executive decisions, and presidential (in Israel) or imperial (in Japan) approval is not required; the prime ministers of these nations are fully the de jure source of executive authority, and not the head of state. The head of state will often hold meetings with the head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United Kingdom and India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
In the UK, the sovereign holds confidential weekly meetings with the prime minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer his or her opinions and advice on issues of the day. In India, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the president, in a similar manner to the aforementioned British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The reserve powers of the head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy. Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Historically, the British sovereign held and directly exercised all executive authority. George I of Great Britain (reigned 1714 to 1727) was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a prime minister and a cabinet of the ministers, largely because he was also the monarch of Hanover in Germany and did not speak English fluently. Over time, further arrangements continued to allow the execution of executive authority on the sovereign's behalf and more and more de facto power ended up lying in the Prime Minister's hands. Such a concept was reinforced in The English Constitution (1876) by Walter Bagehot, who distinguished between the separate "dignified" and "efficient" functions of government. The sovereign should be a focal point for the nation ("dignified"), while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions ("efficient"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The electoral system is often set out in a Representation of the People Act. Common ministerial titles include parliamentary secretary and under-secretary. Ministers are supported by private secretaries and government departments are run by permanent secretaries, principal secretaries or chief secretaries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The head of state or their representative (such as a governor-general) formally appoints as the head of government whoever commands the confidence of the lower or sole house of the legislature and invites him or her to form a government. In the UK, this is known as kissing hands. Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally performed by the head of state, the head of state, by convention, acts according to the wishes of the head of government. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
A president, monarch, or governor-general might possess clearly significant reserve powers. Examples of the use of such powers include the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 and the Canadian King–Byng affair in 1926. The Lascelles Principles were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Because of differences in their written constitutions, the formal powers of monarchs, governors-general, and presidents vary greatly from one country to another. However, as sovereigns and governors-general are not elected, and some presidents may not be directly elected by the people, they are often shielded from any public disapproval stemming from unilateral or controversial use of their powers. In many Commonwealth realms a governor-general formally represents the monarch, who is usually absent from the realm. In such countries, the identity of the "head of state" may be unclear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
In the book The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot emphasised the divide of the constitution into two components, the Dignified (that part which is symbolic) and the Efficient (the way things actually work and get done), and called the Efficient "Cabinet Government".Members of the Cabinet are collectively seen as responsible for government policy, a policy termed cabinet collective responsibility. All Cabinet decisions are made by consensus, a vote is rarely taken in a Cabinet meeting. All ministers, whether senior and in the Cabinet, or junior ministers, must support the policy of the government publicly regardless of any private reservations. When a Cabinet reshuffle is imminent, a lot of time is taken up in the conversations of politicians and in the news media, speculating on who will, or will not, be moved in and out of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister, because the appointment of ministers to the Cabinet, and threat of dismissal from the Cabinet, is the single most powerful constitutional power which a Prime Minister has in the political control of the Government in the Westminster system. The Official Opposition and other major political parties not in the Government, will mirror the governmental organisation with their own Shadow Cabinet made up of Shadow Ministers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
In a Westminster system, some members of parliament are elected by popular vote, while others are appointed. Nearly all Westminster-based parliaments have a lower house with powers based on those of the House of Commons (under various names), comprising local, elected representatives of the people (with the only exception being elected entirely by nationwide Proportional Representation). Most also have a smaller upper house, which is made up of members chosen by various methods: Termless appointees, either lifetime or retiring, from successive prime ministers (such as the Senate of Canada) Appointees of the premier and the opposition leader (such as the Jamaican Senate) Direct election (such as the Australian Senate) Election by electoral colleges or sub-national legislatures (such as the Indian Rajya Sabha) Hereditary nobility (such as the British House of Lords until the House of Lords Act 1999) Any combination of the above (such as the Malaysian Senate)In the UK, the lower house is the de facto legislative body, while the upper house practices restraint in exercising its constitutional powers and serves as a consultative body. In other Westminster countries, however, the upper house can sometimes exercise considerable power, as is the case for the Australian Senate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Some Westminster-derived parliaments are unicameral for two reasons: The New Zealand Parliament, Parliament of Queensland, and the parliament of the Canadian province of Quebec have abolished their upper houses. The parliaments of all other Canadian provinces, the Parliament of Malta, the Papua New Guinea Parliament, the Legislative Council of Hong Kong and the Israeli Parliament never had upper houses.Hong Kong, a former British crown colony and currently a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China, has a unicameral Legislative Council. While the Legislative Councils in British Australasian and North American colonies were unelected upper houses and some of them had since abolished themselves, the Legislative Council of Hong Kong has remained the sole chamber and had in 1995 evolved into a fully elected house, yet only part of the seats are returned by universal suffrage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Responsible government was never granted during British colonial rule, and the Governor remained the head of government until the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, when the role was replaced by the Chief Executive. Secretaries had remained to be chosen by the Chief Executive not from the Legislative Council, and their appointments need not be approved by the Legislative Council. Although essentially more presidential than parliamentary, the Legislative Council had inherited many elements of the Westminster system, including parliamentary powers, privileges and immunity, and the right to conduct inquiries, amongst others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Minutes are known as Hansards, and the theme colour of the meeting chamber is red as in other upper houses. Government secretaries and other officials are seated on the right hand side of the President in the chamber. The Chief Executive may dissolve the Legislative Council under certain conditions, and is obliged to resign, e.g., when a re-elected Legislative Council passes again a bill that he or she had refused to sign. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The waters of the Thames and of the Potomac both flow into Lake Burley Griffin. Australian constitutional law is, in many respects, a unique hybrid with influences from the United States Constitution as well as from the traditions and conventions of the Westminster system and some indigenous features. Australia is exceptional because the government faces a fully elected upper house, the Senate, which must be willing to pass all its legislation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Although government is formed in the lower house, the House of Representatives, the support of the Senate is necessary in order to govern.The Australian Senate is unusual in that it maintains an ability to withhold supply from the government of the day – a power similar to that held in the UK until 1911 by the House of Lords, which has since then been impossible, in the Westminster system. A government that has lost supply is severely restricted in its abilities to act; unless a solution can be negotiated and supply can be restored, such an occurrence would normally trigger a federal election. Since the governor-general, technically speaking, can dismiss a federal government at any time, loss of supply is sometimes, controversially, considered a suitable trigger for a dismissal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
This is controversial because it conflicts with the Westminster tradition of government by a party with the confidence of the lower house (not an upper house like the Senate). Some political scientists have held that the Australian system of government was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the United States systems of government, especially since the Australian Senate is a powerful upper house like the US Senate; this notion is expressed in the nickname "the Washminster mutation". The ability of upper houses to block supply also features in the parliaments of most Australian states. The Australian system has also been referred to as a semi-parliamentary system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side. Many chambers connect the opposing rows, either with a perpendicular row of seats and desks at the furthermost point from the Speaker's Chair at the opposite end of the chamber (e.g. UK House of Lords or Israel Knesset) or the rows of chairs and desks are rounded at the end, opposite to the Speaker's Chair (e.g. Australian chambers, Ireland, South Africa, India). The chairs in which both the government and opposition sit, are positioned so that the two rows are facing each other. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
This arrangement is said to have derived from an early Parliament which was held in a church choir. Traditionally, the opposition parties will sit in one row of seats, and the government party will sit in the other. Of course, sometimes a majority government is so large that it must use the "opposition" seats as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
In the lower house at Westminster (the House of Commons) there are lines on the floor in front of the government and opposition benches that members may cross only when exiting the chamber. At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the Speaker of the House. The speaker usually wears black robes, and in some countries, a wig. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Robed parliamentary clerks often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well. These narrow tables in the centre of the chamber, is usually where ministers or members of the house come to speak. Other ceremonies sometimes associated with the Westminster system include an annual Speech from the Throne (or equivalent) in which the head of state gives a special address (written by the government) to parliament about what kind of policies to expect in the coming year, and lengthy State Opening of Parliament ceremonies that often involve the presentation of a large ceremonial mace. Some legislatures retain Westminster's colour-coded chambers, with the upper houses associated with the colour red (after the House of Lords) and the lower with green (after the House of Commons). This is the case in India, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Barbados. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Countries that use variations on the theme of the Westminster system, as of 2023, include the following: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The Westminster system was adopted by a number of countries which subsequently evolved or reformed their system of government departing from the original model. In some cases, certain aspects of the Westminster system were retained or codified in their constitutions. For instance South Africa and Botswana, unlike Commonwealth realms or parliamentary republics such as India, have a combined head of state and head of government but the President remains responsible to the lower house of parliament; it elects the President at the beginning of a new Parliament, or when there is a vacancy in the office, or when the sitting President is defeated on a vote of confidence. If the Parliament cannot elect a new President within a short period of time (a week to a month) the lower house is dissolved and new elections are called. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
The Union of South Africa between 1910 and 1961, and the Republic of South Africa between 1961 and 1984. The 1983 constitution abolished the Westminster system in South Africa. The Dominion of Newfoundland gave up self-government in 1934 and reverted to direct rule from London. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Use of the Westminster system resumed in 1949 when Newfoundland became a province of Canada. Rhodesia between 1965 and 1979, and Zimbabwe between 1980 and 1987. The 1987 constitution abolished the Westminster system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Nigeria following the end of British colonial rule in 1960, which resulted in the appointment of a Governor-General and then a President, Nnamdi Azikiwe. The system ended with the military coup of 1966. Ceylon between 1948 and 1972, and Sri Lanka from 1972 until 1978 when the constitution was remodelled into an Executive presidential system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Burma following independence in 1948 until the 1962 military coup d'état. Ghana between 1957 and 1960, then 1969 and 1972. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
State of Somaliland used the Westminster system during its brief independence in 1960, with Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal as its first and only Prime Minister. Swaziland (now Eswatini) between 1968 and 1973. Tanganyika between 1961 and 1962. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Sierra Leone between 1961 and 1971. Uganda between 1962 and 1963. Indonesia between 1945 and 1966. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Kenya between 1963 and 1964. Malawi between 1964 and 1966. The Gambia between 1965 and 1970. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
Guyana between 1966 and 1980. Empire of Japan between 1890 and 1940, under the Meiji Constitution the Diet of Japan was a bicameral legislature modelled after both the German Reichstag and the Westminster system. Influence from the Westminster system remained in Japan's Postwar Constitution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system |
School life expectancy is a measure of how many years of education a child of school-entering age would receive during their lifetime if the school enrollment rates stay the same as of today. It is computed by UNESCO Institute for Statistics and is used by statisticians and organisations to compare and assess the development of nations. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_life_expectancy |
Mental age is a concept related to intelligence. It looks at how a specific individual, at a specific age, performs intellectually, compared to average intellectual performance for that individual's actual chronological age (i.e. time elapsed since birth). The intellectual performance is based on performance in tests and live assessments by a psychologist. The score achieved by the individual is compared to the median average scores at various ages, and the mental age (x, say) is derived such that the individual's score equates to the average score at age x. However, mental age depends on what kind of intelligence is measured. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
For instance, a child's intellectual age can be average for their actual age, but the same child's emotional intelligence can be immature for their physical age. Psychologists often remark that girls are more emotionally mature than boys at around the age of puberty. Also, a six-year-old child intellectually gifted can remain a three-year-old child in terms of emotional maturity. Mental age can be considered a controversial concept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
During much of the 19th century, theories of intelligence focused on measuring the size of human skulls. Anthropologists well known for their attempts to correlate cranial size and capacity with intellectual potential were Samuel Morton and Paul Broca.The modern theories of intelligence began to emerge along with experimental psychology. This is when much of psychology was moving from philosophical to more biology and medical science basis. In 1890, James Cattell published what some consider the first "mental test". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
Cattell was more focused on heredity rather than environment. This spurs much of the debate about the nature of intelligence.Mental age was first defined by the French psychologist Alfred Binet, who introduced the intelligence test in 1905, with the assistance of Theodore Simon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
Binet's experiments on French schoolchildren laid the framework for future experiments into the mind throughout the 20th century. He created an experiment that was designed as a test to be completed quickly and was taken by children of various ages. In general, of course older children performed better on these tests than younger ones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
However, the younger children who had exceeded the average of their age group were said to have a higher "mental age", and those who performed below that average were deemed to have a lower "mental age". Binet's theories suggested that while mental age was a useful indicator, it was by no means fixed permanently, and individual growth or decline could be attributed to changes in teaching methods and experiences.Henry Herbert Goddard was the first psychologist to bring Binet's test to the United States. He was one of the many psychologists in the 1910s who believed intelligence was a fixed quantity. While Binet believed this was not true, the majority of those in the USA believed it was hereditary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
The limitations of the Stanford-Binet caused David Wechsler to publish the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) in 1955. These two tests were split into two different ones for children. The WAIS-IV is the known current publication of the test for adults. The reason for this test was to score the individual and compare it to others of the same age group rather than to score by chronological age and mental age. The fixed average is 100 and the normal range is between 85 and 115. This is a standard currently used and is used in the Stanford-Binet test as well.Recent studies showed that mental age and biological age are connected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
Modern intelligence tests, such as the current Stanford-Binet test, no longer compute the IQ using the above "ratio IQ" formula. Instead, the results of several different standardized tests are combined to derive a score. This score reflects how far the person's performance deviates from the average performance of others who are the same age, arbitrarily defined as an average score of 100. An individual's "deviation IQ" is then estimated, using a more complicated formula or table, from their score's percentile at their chronological age. But at least as recently as 2007, older tests using ratio IQs were sometimes still used for a child whose percentile was too high for this to be precise, or whose abilities may exceed a deviation IQ test's ceiling.A child's IQ can be roughly estimated using the formula: I Q = m e n t a l a g e c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e ⋅ 100 {\displaystyle \quad \mathrm {IQ} ={\frac {\mathrm {mental\;age} }{\mathrm {chronological\;age} }}\cdot 100} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
Measures such as mental age and IQ have limitations. Binet did not believe these measures represented a single, permanent, and inborn level of intelligence. He stressed that intelligence overall is too broad to be represented by a single number. It is influenced by many factors such as the individual's background, and it changes over time.Throughout much of the 20th century, many psychologists believed intelligence was fixed and hereditary while others believed other factors would affect intelligence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
After World War I, the concept of intelligence as fixed, hereditary, and unchangeable became the dominant theory within the experimental psychological community. By the mid-1930s, there was no longer agreement among researchers on whether or not intelligence was hereditary. There are still recurring debates about the influence of environment and heredity upon an individual's intelligence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age |
Homophily (from Ancient Greek ὁμός (homós) 'same, common', and φιλία (philía) 'friendship, love') is a concept in sociology describing the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with similar others, as in the proverb "birds of a feather flock together". The presence of homophily has been discovered in a vast array of network studies: over 100 studies have observed homophily in some form or another, and they establish that similarity is associated with connection. The categories on which homophily occurs include age, gender, class, and organizational role.The opposite of homophily is heterophily or intermingling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Individuals in homophilic relationships share common characteristics (beliefs, values, education, etc.) that make communication and relationship formation easier. Homophily between mated pairs in animals has been extensively studied in the field of evolutionary biology, where it is known as assortative mating. Homophily between mated pairs is common within natural animal mating populations.Homophily has a variety of consequences for social and economic outcomes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
To test the relevance of homophily, researchers have distinguished between two types: Baseline homophily: simply the amount of homophily that would be expected by chance given an existing uneven distribution of people with varying characteristics; and Inbreeding homophily: the amount of homophily over and above this expected value, typically due to personal preferences and choices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
In their original formulation of homophily, Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert K. Merton (1954) distinguished between status homophily and value homophily; individuals with similar social status characteristics were more likely to associate with each other than by chance: Status homophily: includes both society-ascribed characteristics (e.g. race, ethnicity, sex, and age) and acquired characteristics (e.g., religion, occupation, behavior patterns, and education). Value homophily: involves association with others who have similar values, attitudes, and beliefs, regardless of differences in status characteristics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Social networks in the United States today are strongly divided by race and ethnicity, which account for a large proportion of inbreeding homophily (though classification by these criteria can be problematic in sociology due to fuzzy boundaries and different definitions of race). Smaller groups have lower diversity simply due to the number of members. This tends to give racial and ethnic minority groups a higher baseline homophily. Race and ethnicity also correlates with educational attainment and occupation, which further increase baseline homophily. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
In terms of sex and gender, the baseline homophily networks were relatively low compared to race and ethnicity. In this form of homophily men and women frequently live together and have large populations that are normally equal in size. It is also common to find higher levels of gender homophily among school students. Most sex homophily are a result of inbreeding homophily. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Most age homophily is of the baseline type. An interesting pattern of inbreeding age homophily for groups of different ages was found by Marsden (1988). It indicated a strong relationship between someone's age and the social distance to other people with regard to confiding in someone. For example, the larger age gap someone had, the smaller chances that they were confided by others with lower ages to "discuss important matters." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Homophily based on religion is due to both baseline and inbreeding homophily. Those that belong in the same religion are more likely to exhibit acts of service and aid to one another, such as loaning money, giving therapeutic counseling, and other forms of help during moments of emergency. Parents have been shown to have higher levels of religious homophily than nonparent, which supports the notion that religious institutions are sought out for the benefit of children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Family of birth accounts for considerable baseline homophily with respect to education, occupation, and social class. In terms of education, there is a divide among those who have a college education and those who do not. Another major distinction can be seen between those with white collar occupations and blue collar occupations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Homophily occurs within groups of people that have similar interests as well. We enjoy interacting more with individuals who share similarities with us, so we tend to actively seek out these connections. Additionally, as more users begin to rely on the Internet to find like minded communities for themselves, many examples of niches within social media sites have begun appearing to account for this need. This response has led to the popularity of sites like Reddit in the 2010s, advertising itself as a "home to thousands of communities...and authentic human interaction." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
As social networks are largely divided by race, social-networking websites like Facebook also foster homophilic atmospheres. When a Facebook user 'likes' or interacts with an article or post of a certain ideology, Facebook continues to show that user posts of that similar ideology (which Facebook believes they will be drawn to). In a research article, McPherson, Smith-Lovin, and Cook (2003) write that homogeneous personal networks result in limited "social worlds in a way that has powerful implications for the information they receive, the attitudes they form, and the interactions they experience." This homophily can foster divides and echo chambers on social networking sites, where people of similar ideologies only interact with each other. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Geography: Baseline homophily often arises when the people who are located nearby also have similar characteristics. People are more likely to have contact with those who are geographically closer than those who are distant. Technology such as the telephone, e-mail, and social networks have reduced but not eliminated this effect. Family ties: These ties decay slowly, but familial ties, specifically that of domestic partners, fulfill many requisites that generate homophily. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Family relationships are generally close and keep frequent contact though they may be at great geographic distances. Ideas that may get lost in other relational contexts, will often instead lead to actions in this setting.Organizations: School, work, and volunteer activities provide the great majority of non-family ties. Many friendships, confiding relations, and social support ties are formed within voluntary groups. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
The social homogeneity of most organizations creates a strong baseline homophily in networks that are formed there.Isomorphic sources: The connections between people who occupy equivalent roles will induce homophily in the system of network ties. This is common in three domains: workplace (e.g., all heads of HR departments will tend to associate with other HR heads), family (e.g., mothers tend to associate with other mothers), and informal networks. Cognitive processes: People who have demographic similarity tend to own shared knowledge, and therefore they have a greater ease of communication and share cultural tastes, which can also generate homophily. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
According to one study, perception of interpersonal similarity improves coordination and increase the expected payoff of interactions, above and beyond the effect of merely "liking others." Another study claims that homophily produces tolerance and cooperation in social spaces. However, homophilic patterns can also restrict access to information or inclusion for minorities.Nowadays, the restrictive patterns of homophily can be widely seen within social media. This selectiveness within social media networks can be traced back to the origins of Facebook and the transition of users from MySpace to Facebook in the early 2000’s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
One study of this shift in a network’s user base from danah boyd (2011) found that this perception of homophily impacted many individuals' preference of one site over another. Most users chose to be more active on the site their friends were on. However, along with the complexities of belongingness, people of similar ages, economic class, and prospective futures (higher education and/or career plans) shared similar reasons for favoring one social media platform. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
The different features of homophily affected their outlook of each respective site. The effects of homophily on the diffusion of information and behaviors are also complex. Some studies have claimed that homophily facilitates access information, the diffusion of innovations and behaviors, and the formation of social norms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Other studies, however, highlight mechanisms through which homophily can maintain disagreement, exacerbate polarization of opinions, lead to self segregation between groups, and slow the formation of an overall consensus.As online users have a degree of power to form and dictate the environment, the effects of homophily continue to persist. On Twitter, terms such as “Stan Twitter”, “Black Twitter”, or “Local Twitter” have also been created and popularized by users to separate themselves based on specific dimensions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Homophily is a cause of homogamy—marriage between people with similar characteristics. Homophily is a fertility factor; an increased fertility is seen in people with a tendency to seek acquaintance among those with common characteristics. Governmental family policies have a decreased influence on fertility rates in such populations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily |
Clazuril is a drug used in veterinary medicine as a coccidiostat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clazuril |
The Third Space is a postcolonial sociolinguistic theory of identity and community realized through language. It is attributed to Homi K. Bhabha. Third Space Theory explains the uniqueness of each person, actor or context as a "hybrid". See Edward W. Soja for a conceptualization of the term within the social sciences and from a critical urban theory perspective. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Space_Theory |
Third Space theory emerges from the sociocultural tradition in psychology identified with Lev Vygotsky. Sociocultural approaches are concerned with the "... constitutive role of culture in mind, i.e., on how mind develops by incorporating the community's shared artifacts accumulated over generations". Bhabha applies socioculturalism directly to the postcolonial condition, where there are, "... unequal and uneven forces of cultural representation". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Space_Theory |
In discourse of dissent, the Third Space has come to have two interpretations: that space where the oppressed plot their liberation: the whispering corners of the tavern or the bazaar that space where oppressed and oppressor are able to come together, free (maybe only momentarily) of oppression itself, embodied in their particularity.In educational studies, Maniotes examined literary Third Space in a classroom where students' cultural capital merged with content of the curriculum as students backed up their arguments in literature discussions. Skerrett associates it with a multiliteracies approach.Pre-school: Third Space Theory has been applied to the prespace within which children learn to read, bringing domestic and school literacy practices into their own constructions of literacy.Another contemporary construction of three "spaces" is that one space is the domestic sphere: the family and the home; a second space is the sphere of civic engagement including school, work and other forms of public participation; and set against these is a Third Space where individual, sometimes professional, and sometimes transgressive acts are played out: where people let their "real" selves show. Sporting associations may be labeled as Third Space. Often bars and nightclubs are so labeled (Law 2000, 46–47). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Space_Theory |
Latterly the term Third Space has been appropriated into brand marketing where domestic spaces and workforce-engagement spaces are set against recreational retail space: shopping malls as third spaces (see Third place, Postrel 2006; and see also Davis 2008). Bill Thompson (2007) offers an opposite conceptualisation of Third Space as public, civic space in the built environment under pressure from shopping malls and corporate enterprises, transforming public space into an extension of the market. Higher education: The Third Space is used by Whitchurch to describe a subset of staff in Higher Education that work in roles sitting between professional and academic spheres, providing expert advice relating to learning and teaching without being practitioners. These include Learning/Instructional Designers and Education Technologists, among others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Space_Theory |
Third Space Theory can explain some of the complexity of poverty, social exclusion and social inclusion, and might help predict what sort of initiatives would more effectively ameliorate poverty and exclusion. Bonds of affinity (class, kin, location: e.g. neighbourhood, etc.) can function as "poverty traps". Third Space Theory suggests that every person is a hybrid of their unique set of affinities (identity factors). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Space_Theory |
Conditions and locations of social and cultural exclusion have their reflection in symbolic conditions and locations of cultural exchange. It appears to be accepted in policy that neither social capital nor cultural capital, alone or together, are sufficient to overcome social exclusion. Third Space Theory suggests that policies of remediation based in models of the Other are likely to be inadequate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Space_Theory |
Medically unexplained physical symptoms (MUPS or MUS) are symptoms for which a treating physician or other healthcare providers have found no medical cause, or whose cause remains contested. In its strictest sense, the term simply means that the cause for the symptoms is unknown or disputed—there is no scientific consensus. Not all medically unexplained symptoms are influenced by identifiable psychological factors. However, in practice, most physicians and authors who use the term consider that the symptoms most likely arise from psychological causes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
Typically, the possibility that MUPS are caused by prescription drugs or other drugs is ignored. It is estimated that between 15% and 30% of all primary care consultations are for medically unexplained symptoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
A large Canadian community survey revealed that the most common medically unexplained symptoms are musculoskeletal pain, ear, nose, and throat symptoms, abdominal pain and gastrointestinal symptoms, fatigue, and dizziness. The term MUPS can also be used to refer to syndromes whose etiology remains contested, including chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, multiple chemical sensitivity and Gulf War illness.The term medically unexplained symptoms is in some cases treated as synonymous to older terms such as psychosomatic symptoms, conversion disorders, somatic symptoms, somatisations or somatoform disorders; as well as contemporary terms such as functional disorders, bodily distress, and persistent physical symptoms. The plethora of terms reflects imprecision and uncertainty in their definition, controversy, and care taken to avoid stigmatising affected people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
Risk factors for medically unexplained symptoms are complex and include both psychological and organic features, and such symptoms are often accompanied by other somatic symptoms attributable to organic disease. As such it is recognised that the boundary defining symptoms as medically unexplained is increasingly becoming blurred.Women are significantly more likely than men to be diagnosed with Medically Unexplained Symptoms. Childhood adversity and/or abuse, and the death or serious illness of a close family member are significant risk factors.Many patients presenting with medically unexplained symptoms also meet the diagnostic criteria for anxiety and/or depression. The likelihood of meeting such criteria increases with the number of unexplained symptoms reported. However, anxiety and depression are also very common in individuals with medically explained illnesses, and again, the likelihood of a person receiving one of these diagnoses increases with the number of symptoms reported.Physical symptoms have been associated with adverse psychosocial and functional outcome across different cultures, irrespective of etiology (either explained or unexplained). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
The lack of known etiology in MUPS cases can lead to conflict between patient and health-care provider over the diagnosis and treatment of MUPS. Most physicians will consider that MUPS most probably have a psychological cause (even if the patient displays no evidence of psychological problems). Many patients, on the other hand, reject the implication that their problems are "all in their head", and feel their symptoms have a physical cause. Diagnosis of MUPS is seldom a satisfactory situation for the patient, and can lead to an adversarial doctor-patient relationship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
The situation may lead a patient to question the doctor's competence.A 2008 review in the British Medical Journal stated that a doctor must be careful not to tell a patient that nothing is wrong, "as clearly this is not the case". The symptoms that brought the patient to the doctor are real, even when the cause is not known. The doctor should try to explain the symptoms, avoid blaming the patient for them, and work with the patient to develop a symptom management plan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
When a cause for MUPS is found, the symptom(s) are no longer medically unexplained. Some cases of ulcers and dyspepsia were considered MUPS until bacterial infections were found to be their cause. Similarly, in illnesses where long diagnostic delays are common (e.g., certain types of autoimmune disease and other rare illnesses), the patients' symptoms are classifiable as MUPS right up until the point where a formal diagnosis is made (which, in some instances, can take upwards of five years). Even when a person has received a confirmed medical disease diagnosis, they may nonetheless be considered to have MUPS, if they present with symptoms that are either not fully explained by their disease diagnosis, or are considered by the physician to be more severe than would be predicted by their disease. For example, severe fatigue in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has been interpreted as MUPS because the fatigue cannot be clearly linked to any of the known biological markers for SLE. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
The most effective current treatment for some medically unexplained symptoms is a combination of therapeutic approaches tailored to the individual patient. Most MUS patients are in need of psychotherapy, relaxation therapy and physiotherapy under medical supervision. A combined therapeutic approach which is at least twice as effective as other therapeutic modalities published to date is described in Steele RE et al. "A novel and effective treatment modality for medically unexplained symptoms". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
The next best documented approach is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), with evidence from multiple randomized controlled trials. Antidepressants may also help, but the evidence is "not yet conclusive." The effectiveness of CBT and antidepressants has not been studied for all medically unexplained symptoms, however. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms |
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