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Social and emotional stimuli that relate to the well-being of another person can be studied with technology that tracks brain activity (such as Electroencephalograms and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging). Amygdala and insula activation occur when a person experiences emotions, such as fear and disgust respectively. Primary motor regions also activate during sympathy. This could be caused by empathic motor reactions to emotional faces (reflecting the expressions on their own faces) which seem to help people better understand the other person's emotion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
Researchers also suggest that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (via mirror neurons). Pain seems to activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to the activation of the neural mechanisms mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.Generally, empathic emotions (including sympathy) require the activation of top-down and bottom-up activity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
Top-down activity refers to cognitive processes that originate from the frontal lobe and require conscious thought whereas bottom-up activity begins from a sensation of stimuli in the environment. From that sensory level, people sense and experience the emotional cues of another. At the same time, top-down responses make sense of the emotional inputs streaming in and apply motive and environmental influence analyses to better understand the situation. Top-down processes include attention to emotion and emotion regulation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
Sympathy is a stage in social and moral development. It typically arises when a child is between two and three years old, although some instances of empathic emotion can be seen as early as 18 months. Basic sharing of emotions, a precursor for sympathy, can be seen in infants. For example, babies will often begin to cry when they hear another baby crying nearby. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
This suggests the infant can recognize emotional cues in its environment, even if it cannot fully comprehend the emotion. Another milestone in child development is the ability to mimic facial expressions. Both of these processes act on sensory and perceptual pathways; executive functioning for empathic emotions does not begin during these early stages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
Because of this, children and young adults experience another person's pain differently: Young children tend to be negatively aroused more often in comparison to the older subjects.Sympathy can elicit prosocial and altruistic behaviour. Altruistic behaviour happens when people who experience emotional reactions consistent with the state of another person feel "other-oriented" (inclined to help other people in need or distressed). People are more inclined to help those in need when they cannot easily escape the situation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
If exit is easy, an individual may instead reduce their own distress (distress caused by sympathy: feeling bad for the other) by avoiding contact with the other(s) in need. However sympathy is still experienced when it is easy to escape the situation, suggesting that humans are "other oriented" and altruistic.Sympathy can be used in altruistic situations. This can apply when the sympathy would benefit others at a cost to another individual. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
This can be the case in parenting. Parenting styles (specifically, the level of affection) can influence the development of sympathy.Prosocial and moral development extends into adolescence and early adulthood as humans learn to better assess and interpret the emotions of others. Prosocial behaviours have been observed in children between one and two years old. It is difficult to measure emotional responses in children that young by means of self-report methods as they are not as able to articulate such responses as well as adults can. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
The development of theory of mind—the ability to view the world from perspectives of other people—is correlated with the development of sympathy and other complex emotions. These emotions are called "complex" because they involve more than just one's own emotional states; complex emotions involve the interplay of multiple people's varying and fluctuating thoughts and emotions within given contexts. The ability to experience vicarious emotion, or to imagine how another person feels, is essential for empathic concern. Moral development is similarly tied to the understanding of outside perspectives and emotions. Moral reasoning has been divided into five categories, beginning with a hedonistic self-orientation and ending with an internalized sense of needs of others, including empathic emotions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
One study sought to determine whether sympathy demonstrated by children was solely for personal benefit, or if the emotion was an innate part of development. Parents, teachers, and 1,300 children (aged six and seven) were interviewed regarding each child's behavior. Over the course of one year, questionnaires were filled out regarding the progress and behavior of each child. This was followed by an interview. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
The study concluded that children develop sympathy and empathy independently of parental guidance. The study also found that girls are more sympathetic, prosocial, and morally motivated than boys. Prosocial behavior has been noted in children as young as twelve months when showing and giving toys to their parents, without promoting or being reinforced by praise. Levels of prosocial behavior increased with sympathy in children with low moral motivation, as it reflects the link between innate abilities and honing them with the guidance of parents and teachers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy |
Data imaginaries are a form of cultural imaginary related to social conceptions of data, a concept that comes from the field of critical data studies. A data imaginary is a particular framing of data that defines what data are and what can be done with them. Imaginaries are produced by social institutions and practices and they influence how people understand and use the object of the imaginary, in this case data.Different data imaginaries compete to be considered common sense. The current most established data imaginary is that of data analytics, which treats data as a neutral resource from which people can extract value. Competing imaginaries include those of data activists, prioritizing data justice, and critical data studies, prioritizing consideration of the context around data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
A data imaginary is a particular framing of data, according to Kitchin consisting of "how are understood and normatively conceived of within a population or by stakeholders." It is a social constructivist theoretical concept that comes from the field of critical data studies, which is concerned with identifying these frames and questioning them rather than just taking them at face value. According to Baack, this context is important to consider, as "what data to whom does not only depend on the technological properties of data, but is fundamentally social, and both culturally and historically situated." Examining data imaginaries treats the narratives around data as separate from the data themselves, focusing on the former.The concept of data imaginaries draws on the sociological imaginary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
In sociology, imaginaries are social constructions that stem from social institutions and practices that prioritize different aspects of a social structure, in this case ideas about the use of data. According to Vanheeswijck, one of the most significant writers on this topic is Charles Taylor in his book A Secular Age, which defines social imaginaries as common understandings that facilitate collective actions and exist in cultural practices rather than being theoretically articulated. Another contributory work to this field is Benedict Anderson's book Imagined Communities, which argues that nationalism is based in "imagined communities" formed around geography and data tools such as censuses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
This concept is a geographically focused understanding of data imaginaries. Theories of the social imaginary assert that these constructions are not fake or meaningless, as they direct how people think about a concept like data and what they think is able to be done with them. According to Denick, social imaginaries enable social practices by providing ways to understand the world. Data imaginaries are the narratives that shape how people conceive of and act upon data, though data do not always live up to the ideal aspirations presented. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
According to Kitchin, "different groups hold varying data imaginaries, concerning what data are generated and how, for what purpose," and how they "can serve particular agendas." People with differing opinions on how data should be used may share the same imaginary, which is concerned instead with how data can be used. People with alternative data imaginaries can challenge and reinterpret dominant ideas to promote their own understandings. Since this is a competition of ideas, a particular imaginary is 'successful' when people, the more the better, consider that imaginary common sense, i.e. the obvious way the world works. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
The data analytics imaginary is the most established one in modern western society. Kitchin has defined it as framing data as "speedy (rapid insights), accessible (easily interpreted), revealing (extracting hidden knowledge), panoramic (all-seeing), prophetic (able to foresee and shape the future), and smart (possessing latent intelligence)." This imaginary treats data as a single social or economic resource akin to a product like oil, requiring an equivalent supporting infrastructure. Data are considering a mine-able resource from which value can be extracted.An example of the influence of this framing, according to Cinnamon, is how data are considered the primary solution for urban challenges. Furthermore, grassroots civic activism involving data often embraces this imaginary, challenging particular uses of data but not the notions of how they can be used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
Data activists have competing imaginaries to the more common data analytics imaginary. These can vary depending on individual priorities, as they are not as well established, but they tend to prioritize data justice and community-oriented politics. These imaginaries challenge current assumptions around datafication in the modern world.An example of this framing being used, according to Segura and Waisbord, is activist efforts to oppose social and institutional issues such as gender-based violence and police violence in Latin America by documenting the problems and using the data gathered to advocate for solutions. Under this perspective, data are treated as tools to achieve some form of justice rather than as a neutral resource. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
Critical data studies, the academic discipline that produced the notion of data imaginaries, has its own imaginary. This imaginary is particularly concerned with the role of power and politics, seeing data as situated within "a complex assemblage that actively shapes their constitution" according to Rob Kitchin, a leading scholar in the field. Critical data studies challenges the assumption that data are inherently neutral, calling out the framing processes that arise in the methodologies and epistemologies that are applied to data. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_imaginaries |
The Maggie Edmond Enduring Architecture Award is an architecture prize presented annually by the Victorian Chapter of the Australian Institute of Architects (AIA) since 2003. The award is presented to recognise long lasting, authentic and enduring architecture with usually more than 25 years since the completion of construction. The Enduring Architecture Award recognises achievement for the design of buildings of outstanding merit, which remain important as high quality works of architecture when considered in the contemporary context. Nominations for the award can be made by AIA members, non–members and non–architects, but must provide adequate material and information supporting the nomination for consideration of the jury. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie_Edmond_Enduring_Architecture_Award |
Recipients of the state-based award are then eligible for consideration for the National Award for Enduring Architecture presented later in the same year, as part of the Australian National Architecture Awards. The named award recognises Melbourne based architect Maggie Edmond, recipient of the first Victorian Enduring Architecture Award in 2003 for the Chapel of St Joseph in Mont Albert North designed by her firm Edmond & Corrigan and built in 1978. The average age of buildings that have won the Award is 39.2 years (2003–2023). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie_Edmond_Enduring_Architecture_Award |
Greenprinting relates to the conservation of land. Greenprinting is the creation of conservation scenarios that help communities make informed conservation decisions. Greenprinting can galvanize public support and encourage partners to work toward common conservation goals. Greenprinting often involves use of state-of-the-art maps and models created with Geographic Information System (GIS) software that combines layers of spatial and demographic information to guide growth management efforts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenprinting |
Zebra is the American medical slang for arriving at a surprising, often exotic, medical diagnosis when a more commonplace explanation is more likely. It is shorthand for the aphorism coined in the late 1940s by Theodore Woodward, professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, who instructed his medical interns: "When you hear hoofbeats behind you, don't expect to see a zebra." (Since zebras are much rarer than horses in the United States, the sound of hoofbeats would almost certainly be from a horse.) By 1960, the aphorism was widely known in medical circles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_(medicine) |
The saying is a warning against the statistical Base rate fallacy where the likelihood of something like a disease among the population is not taken into consideration for an individual. Medical novices are predisposed to make rare diagnoses because of (a) the availability heuristic ("events more easily remembered are judged more probable") and (b) the phenomenon first enunciated in Rhetorica ad Herennium (c. 85 BC), "the striking and the novel stay longer in the mind." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_(medicine) |
Thus, the aphorism is an important caution against these biases when teaching medical students to weigh medical evidence.Diagnosticians have noted, however, that "zebra"-type diagnoses must nonetheless be held in mind until the evidence conclusively rules them out: In making the diagnosis of the cause of illness in an individual case, calculations of probability have no meaning. The pertinent question is whether the disease is present or not. Whether it is rare or common does not change the odds in a single patient. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_(medicine) |
... If the diagnosis can be made on the basis of specific criteria, then these criteria are either fulfilled or not fulfilled. — A. McGehee Harvey, James Bordley II, Jeremiah Barondess This quote, however, falls into the Base rate fallacy as the odds of a rare disease in a single patient is indeed affected by likelihood of a person in the population having that disease. Comparable slang for an obscure and rare diagnosis in medicine is fascinoma. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_(medicine) |
Necrotic skin lesions in the United States are often diagnosed as loxoscelism (recluse spider bites), even in areas where Loxosceles species are rare or not present. This is a matter of concern because such misdiagnoses can delay correct diagnosis and treatment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_(medicine) |
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is considered a rare condition and those with it are known as medical zebras. The zebra was adopted across the world as the EDS mascot to bring the patient community together and raise awareness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_(medicine) |
Sutton's law – perform first the diagnostic test expected to be most useful Occam's razor – select from among competing hypotheses the one that makes the fewest new assumptions Leonard's law of physical findings – it's obvious or it's not there Hickam's dictum – "Patients can have as many diseases as they damn well please" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_(medicine) |
Yaminjeongeum (Korean: 야민정음; Hanja: 野民正音) is a South Korean internet meme which disassembles Hangul characters of a word and replaces them with others which appear similar to the correct form. For example, daejang (대장, "chief") is changed into meojang (머장), since dae (대) resembles meo (머). The name Yaminjeongeum is a blend of Hunminjeongeum and Yagael (야갤); Yagael is short for Gungnae Yagu Gaelleori (국내야구 갤러리; 國內野球 갤러리), the domestic baseball league section of DC Inside. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaminjeongeum |
There is no definitive source of the origin of Yaminjeongeum. According to DC wiki, a wiki of DC Inside, it was slang girls used in the 2000s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaminjeongeum |
There are various ways to convert a word into yaminjeongeum: just replacing its consonants or vowels, rotating it, compacting it, or even using Latin alphabet. Some word plays are often considered as Yaminjeongeum, though they existed before it. There is no standard of the meme, only popular forms. The following are some common examples of it: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaminjeongeum |
In early days, Yaminjeongeum was only used in DC Inside, but it has spread to other South Korean internet communities such as Namuwiki. Now it is commonly used in public, especially by teens, and even appears on TV ad. Google Translate translates some Yaminjeongum correctly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaminjeongeum |
Critics state that the meme destroys Hangul and is a type of verbal violence, but supporters state that it is just a part of culture and improves the Korean language. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaminjeongeum |
A cognitive model is an approximation of one or more cognitive processes in humans or other animals for the purposes of comprehension and prediction. There are many types of cognitive models, and they can range from box-and-arrow diagrams to a set of equations to software programs that interact with the same tools that humans use to complete tasks (e.g., computer mouse and keyboard). In terms of information processing, cognitive modeling is modeling of human perception, reasoning, memory and action. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Cognitive models can be developed within or without a cognitive architecture, though the two are not always easily distinguishable. In contrast to cognitive architectures, cognitive models tend to be focused on a single cognitive phenomenon or process (e.g., list learning), how two or more processes interact (e.g., visual search bsc1780 decision making), or making behavioral predictions for a specific task or tool (e.g., how instituting a new software package will affect productivity). Cognitive architectures tend to be focused on the structural properties of the modeled system, and help constrain the development of cognitive models within the architecture. Likewise, model development helps to inform limitations and shortcomings of the architecture. Some of the most popular architectures for cognitive modeling include ACT-R, Clarion, LIDA, and Soar. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Cognitive modeling historically developed within cognitive psychology/cognitive science (including human factors), and has received contributions from the fields of machine learning and artificial intelligence among others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
A number of key terms are used to describe the processes involved in the perception, storage, and production of speech. Typically, they are used by speech pathologists while treating a child patient. The input signal is the speech signal heard by the child, usually assumed to come from an adult speaker. The output signal is the utterance produced by the child. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
The unseen psychological events that occur between the arrival of an input signal and the production of speech are the focus of psycholinguistic models. Events that process the input signal are referred to as input processes, whereas events that process the production of speech are referred to as output processes. Some aspects of speech processing are thought to happen online—that is, they occur during the actual perception or production of speech and thus require a share of the attentional resources dedicated to the speech task. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Other processes, thought to happen offline, take place as part of the child's background mental processing rather than during the time dedicated to the speech task. In this sense, online processing is sometimes defined as occurring in real-time, whereas offline processing is said to be time-free (Hewlett, 1990). In box-and-arrow psycholinguistic models, each hypothesized level of representation or processing can be represented in a diagram by a “box,” and the relationships between them by “arrows,” hence the name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Sometimes (as in the models of Smith, 1973, and Menn, 1978, described later in this paper) the arrows represent processes additional to those shown in boxes. Such models make explicit the hypothesized information- processing activities carried out in a particular cognitive function (such as language), in a manner analogous to computer flowcharts that depict the processes and decisions carried out by a computer program. Box-and-arrow models differ widely in the number of unseen psychological processes they describe and thus in the number of boxes they contain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Some have only one or two boxes between the input and output signals (e.g., Menn, 1978; Smith, 1973), whereas others have multiple boxes representing complex relationships between a number of different information-processing events (e.g., Hewlett, 1990; Hewlett, Gibbon, & Cohen- McKenzie, 1998; Stackhouse & Wells, 1997). The most important box, however, and the source of much ongoing debate, is that representing the underlying representation (or UR). In essence, an underlying representation captures information stored in a child's mind about a word he or she knows and uses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
As the following description of several models will illustrate, the nature of this information and thus the type(s) of representation present in the child's knowledge base have captured the attention of researchers for some time. (Elise Baker et al. Psycholinguistic Models of Speech Development and Their Application to Clinical Practice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. June 2001. 44. p 685–702.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
A computational model is a mathematical model in computational science that requires extensive computational resources to study the behavior of a complex system by computer simulation. The system under study is often a complex nonlinear system for which simple, intuitive analytical solutions are not readily available. Rather than deriving a mathematical analytical solution to the problem, experimentation with the model is done by changing the parameters of the system in the computer, and studying the differences in the outcome of the experiments. Theories of operation of the model can be derived/deduced from these computational experiments. Examples of common computational models are weather forecasting models, earth simulator models, flight simulator models, molecular protein folding models, and neural network models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
A symbolic model is expressed in characters, usually non-numeric ones, that require translation before they can be used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
A cognitive model is subsymbolic if it is made by constituent entities that are not representations in their turn, e.g., pixels, sound images as perceived by the ear, signal samples; subsymbolic units in neural networks can be considered particular cases of this category. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations. See more details at hybrid intelligent system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
In the traditional computational approach, representations are viewed as static structures of discrete symbols. Cognition takes place by transforming static symbol structures in discrete, sequential steps. Sensory information is transformed into symbolic inputs, which produce symbolic outputs that get transformed into motor outputs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
The entire system operates in an ongoing cycle. What is missing from this traditional view is that human cognition happens continuously and in real time. Breaking down the processes into discrete time steps may not fully capture this behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
An alternative approach is to define a system with (1) a state of the system at any given time, (2) a behavior, defined as the change over time in overall state, and (3) a state set or state space, representing the totality of overall states the system could be in. The system is distinguished by the fact that a change in any aspect of the system state depends on other aspects of the same or other system states.A typical dynamical model is formalized by several differential equations that describe how the system's state changes over time. By doing so, the form of the space of possible trajectories and the internal and external forces that shape a specific trajectory that unfold over time, instead of the physical nature of the underlying mechanisms that manifest this dynamics, carry explanatory force. On this dynamical view, parametric inputs alter the system's intrinsic dynamics, rather than specifying an internal state that describes some external state of affairs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Early work in the application of dynamical systems to cognition can be found in the model of Hopfield networks. These networks were proposed as a model for associative memory. They represent the neural level of memory, modeling systems of around 30 neurons which can be in either an on or off state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
By letting the network learn on its own, structure and computational properties naturally arise. Unlike previous models, “memories” can be formed and recalled by inputting a small portion of the entire memory. Time ordering of memories can also be encoded. The behavior of the system is modeled with vectors which can change values, representing different states of the system. This early model was a major step toward a dynamical systems view of human cognition, though many details had yet to be added and more phenomena accounted for. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
By taking into account the evolutionary development of the human nervous system and the similarity of the brain to other organs, Elman proposed that language and cognition should be treated as a dynamical system rather than a digital symbol processor. Neural networks of the type Elman implemented have come to be known as Elman networks. Instead of treating language as a collection of static lexical items and grammar rules that are learned and then used according to fixed rules, the dynamical systems view defines the lexicon as regions of state space within a dynamical system. Grammar is made up of attractors and repellers that constrain movement in the state space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
This means that representations are sensitive to context, with mental representations viewed as trajectories through mental space instead of objects that are constructed and remain static. Elman networks were trained with simple sentences to represent grammar as a dynamical system. Once a basic grammar had been learned, the networks could then parse complex sentences by predicting which words would appear next according to the dynamical model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
A classic developmental error has been investigated in the context of dynamical systems: The A-not-B error is proposed to be not a distinct error occurring at a specific age (8 to 10 months), but a feature of a dynamic learning process that is also present in older children. Children 2 years old were found to make an error similar to the A-not-B error when searching for toys hidden in a sandbox. After observing the toy being hidden in location A and repeatedly searching for it there, the 2-year-olds were shown a toy hidden in a new location B. When they looked for the toy, they searched in locations that were biased toward location A. This suggests that there is an ongoing representation of the toy's location that changes over time. The child's past behavior influences its model of locations of the sandbox, and so an account of behavior and learning must take into account how the system of the sandbox and the child's past actions is changing over time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
One proposed mechanism of a dynamical system comes from analysis of continuous-time recurrent neural networks (CTRNNs). By focusing on the output of the neural networks rather than their states and examining fully interconnected networks, three-neuron central pattern generator (CPG) can be used to represent systems such as leg movements during walking. This CPG contains three motor neurons to control the foot, backward swing, and forward swing effectors of the leg. Outputs of the network represent whether the foot is up or down and how much force is being applied to generate torque in the leg joint. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
One feature of this pattern is that neuron outputs are either off or on most of the time. Another feature is that the states are quasi-stable, meaning that they will eventually transition to other states. A simple pattern generator circuit like this is proposed to be a building block for a dynamical system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Sets of neurons that simultaneously transition from one quasi-stable state to another are defined as a dynamic module. These modules can in theory be combined to create larger circuits that comprise a complete dynamical system. However, the details of how this combination could occur are not fully worked out. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Modern formalizations of dynamical systems applied to the study of cognition vary. One such formalization, referred to as “behavioral dynamics”, treats the agent and the environment as a pair of coupled dynamical systems based on classical dynamical systems theory. In this formalization, the information from the environment informs the agent's behavior and the agent's actions modify the environment. In the specific case of perception-action cycles, the coupling of the environment and the agent is formalized by two functions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
The first transforms the representation of the agents action into specific patterns of muscle activation that in turn produce forces in the environment. The second function transforms the information from the environment (i.e., patterns of stimulation at the agent's receptors that reflect the environment's current state) into a representation that is useful for controlling the agents actions. Other similar dynamical systems have been proposed (although not developed into a formal framework) in which the agent's nervous systems, the agent's body, and the environment are coupled together | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Behavioral dynamics have been applied to locomotive behavior. Modeling locomotion with behavioral dynamics demonstrates that adaptive behaviors could arise from the interactions of an agent and the environment. According to this framework, adaptive behaviors can be captured by two levels of analysis. At the first level of perception and action, an agent and an environment can be conceptualized as a pair of dynamical systems coupled together by the forces the agent applies to the environment and by the structured information provided by the environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Thus, behavioral dynamics emerge from the agent-environment interaction. At the second level of time evolution, behavior can be expressed as a dynamical system represented as a vector field. In this vector field, attractors reflect stable behavioral solutions, where as bifurcations reflect changes in behavior. In contrast to previous work on central pattern generators, this framework suggests that stable behavioral patterns are an emergent, self-organizing property of the agent-environment system rather than determined by the structure of either the agent or the environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
In an extension of classical dynamical systems theory, rather than coupling the environment's and the agent's dynamical systems to each other, an “open dynamical system” defines a “total system”, an “agent system”, and a mechanism to relate these two systems. The total system is a dynamical system that models an agent in an environment, whereas the agent system is a dynamical system that models an agent's intrinsic dynamics (i.e., the agent's dynamics in the absence of an environment). Importantly, the relation mechanism does not couple the two systems together, but rather continuously modifies the total system into the decoupled agent's total system. By distinguishing between total and agent systems, it is possible to investigate an agent's behavior when it is isolated from the environment and when it is embedded within an environment. This formalization can be seen as a generalization from the classical formalization, whereby the agent system can be viewed as the agent system in an open dynamical system, and the agent coupled to the environment and the environment can be viewed as the total system in an open dynamical system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
In the context of dynamical systems and embodied cognition, representations can be conceptualized as indicators or mediators. In the indicator view, internal states carry information about the existence of an object in the environment, where the state of a system during exposure to an object is the representation of that object. In the mediator view, internal states carry information about the environment which is used by the system in obtaining its goals. In this more complex account, the states of the system carries information that mediates between the information the agent takes in from the environment, and the force exerted on the environment by the agents behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
The application of open dynamical systems have been discussed for four types of classical embodied cognition examples: Instances where the environment and agent must work together to achieve a goal, referred to as "intimacy". A classic example of intimacy is the behavior of simple agents working to achieve a goal (e.g., insects traversing the environment). The successful completion of the goal relies fully on the coupling of the agent to the environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Instances where the use of external artifacts improves the performance of tasks relative to performance without these artifacts. The process is referred to as "offloading". A classic example of offloading is the behavior of Scrabble players; people are able to create more words when playing Scrabble if they have the tiles in front of them and are allowed to physically manipulate their arrangement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
In this example, the Scrabble tiles allow the agent to offload working memory demands on to the tiles themselves. Instances where a functionally equivalent external artifact replaces functions that are normally performed internally by the agent, which is a special case of offloading. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
One famous example is that of human (specifically the agents Otto and Inga) navigation in a complex environment with or without assistance of an artifact. Instances where there is not a single agent. The individual agent is part of larger system that contains multiple agents and multiple artifacts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
One famous example, formulated by Ed Hutchins in his book Cognition in the Wild, is that of navigating a naval ship.The interpretations of these examples rely on the following logic: (1) the total system captures embodiment; (2) one or more agent systems capture the intrinsic dynamics of individual agents; (3) the complete behavior of an agent can be understood as a change to the agent's intrinsic dynamics in relation to its situation in the environment; and (4) the paths of an open dynamical system can be interpreted as representational processes. These embodied cognition examples show the importance of studying the emergent dynamics of an agent-environment systems, as well as the intrinsic dynamics of agent systems. Rather than being at odds with traditional cognitive science approaches, dynamical systems are a natural extension of these methods and should be studied in parallel rather than in competition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model |
Sine nomine (abbreviated s.n.) is a Latin expression, meaning "without a name". It is most commonly used in the contexts of publishing and bibliographical listings such as library catalogs, to signify that the publisher (or distributor, etc.) of a listed work is unknown, or not printed or specified on the work. It is to be compared with sine loco (s.l. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_nomine |
), "without a place", used where the place of publication of a work is unknown or unspecified. While it may sometimes be used to disclose an unknown authorship, this is more commonly indicated as anon. or similar. The phrase and its abbreviation have been deprecated in Anglophone cataloging with the adoption of the Resource Description and Access standard, which instead prescribes the unabbreviated English phrase "publisher not identified" (or "distributor not identified", etc.). Sine loco is likewise replaced by "place of publication not identified". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_nomine |
The communicative constitution of organizations (CCO) perspective is broadly characterized by the claim that communication is not something that happens within organizations or between organizational members; instead, communication is the process whereby organizations are constituted. Specifically, this view contends: “organization is an effect of communication not its predecessor." This perspective is part of a broader constitutive view of communication arguing, "elements of communication, rather than being fixed in advance, are reflexively constituted within the act of communication itself".CCO is one of several views or metaphors of organizing, see Images of Organization and Organizing (management) for contrasting and complementary views. There are three popular branches, schools, or perspectives of the CCO: McPhee & Zaug's Four Flows The Montréal School Luhman's Social Systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
The model of communication as constitutive of organizations has origins in the linguistic approach to organizational communication taken in the 1980s. Theorists such as Karl E. Weick were among the first to posit that organizations were not static but inherently comprised by a dynamic process of communicating. The notion of a communicative constitution of organization comprises three schools of thought: (1) The Montreal School, (2) the McPhee's Four Flows based on Gidden's Structuration Theory, and (3), Luhmann's Theory of Social Systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
All CCO perspectives agree that “communication is the primary mode of explaining social reality”. While the Montreal School emphasizes speech acts, the four-flows highlights internal and external relations of the organization to members, members to other members, and the organization to outsiders. Luhmann contends that only decision-oriented messages allow the organization to emerge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
In their seminal 2000 article, which was republished in 2009 The Communicative Constitution of Organizations: A Framework for Explanation, Robert D. McPhee and Pamela Zaug distinguish four types of communicative flows generate a social structure through interaction. The flows, though distinct, can affect one another in the model and lead to multi-way conversation or texts typically involving reproduction of as well as resistance to the rules and resources of the organization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Reflexive self-structuring separates organizations from other groupings such as a crowd or mob. The self-structuring process is deliberately carried out through communication among role-holders and groups. Communication regarding self-structuring is recursive and dialogic in nature. It concerns the control, design, and documentation of an organization's relations, norms, processes, and entities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Communication of formal structure predetermines work routines rather than allowing them to emerge and controls the collaboration and membership-negotiation processes. Physical examples of organizational self-structuring include a charter, organizational chart, and policy manual. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Organizational self-structuring is a political, subjective process that can be affected by systems, individuals, interests, and traditions in which it takes place. It is not necessarily free of error or ambiguity. To constitute an organization, the communication must imply the formation and governance of a differentiated whole with its own reflexive response cycle and mechanisms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Organizations are necessarily composed of, yet are distinct from, individual members. Because humans are not inherently members of organizations, negotiatory communication must occur to incorporate them. Membership negotiation links an organization to its members by establishing and maintaining relationships. Practices in membership negotiation include job recruitment and socialization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
In recruitment, potential members are evaluated, both parties must agree to a relationship, and the member must be incorporated into the structure of the organization. The negotiation process can be influenced by powers including prior existence and supervision, and all parties involved may redefine themselves to fit expectations. Among higher status members, power-claiming and spokesmanship are examples of negotiation processes to gain resources of an organization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Activity coordination is a result of the fact that organizations inherently have at least one purpose to which the members' activity is contributing. Often an organization's self-structuring defines the division of labor, work flow sequences, policies, etc. that set the course for activity coordination. The structure is reflexively changing and may not be complete, relevant, fully understood, or free of problems. Therefore, a necessity of communication arises among members to amend and adjust the work process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Activity coordination can include adjusting the work process and resolving immediate or unforeseen practical problems. Activity coordination operates on the assumption that members are working in an interdependent social unit beyond the work tasks themselves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
It incorporates any processes and attitudes and therefore includes coordination for members to not complete work or to seek power over one another. The work of Dr. Henry Mintzberg exemplifies activity coordination in the mechanism of mutual adjustment in his theory of organizational forms. In this example, co-workers informally coordinate work arounds for issues on the job. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Institutional positioning links the organization to the environment outside the organization at a macro level. Examples of entities outside the organization include suppliers, customers, and competitors. Communication outside the organization negotiates terms of recognition of the organization’s existence and place in what is called "identity negotiation" or "positioning". Often the communicators of this message are individuals who concurrently negotiate their own relationships but messages can come from the greater organization as a whole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Though there is not one configuration that an organization must embody, in order to be considered by peer institutions, the minimum process involves negotiating inclusion in the environment. Organizations must establish and maintain a presence, image, status, and a two-way communication channel with partners. Objects such as organizational charts can assert a particular image and demonstrate legitimacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Organizations which are marginalized due to their lack of institutional positioning include startup companies and illegal groups such as the Mafia. Generally, the more secure an organization, the stronger relationships and control over uncertainty and resources it has in its environment. Pre-existing institutional (corporations, agencies), political, legal, cultural, etc. structures allow for easier constitution of complex organizations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
One of the most distinctive stances of the Montreal School approach, birthed in the Université de Montréal by James Taylor, Francois Cooren (see particularly Cooren, 2004), and Bruno Latour amongst others, is that texts have agency. Texts do something to humans that is not reducible to certain human interactions and human actions.The Montreal flavor of CCO is exemplified by Taylor et al. (1996) and the volume edited by Cooren, Taylor, and Van Emery (2006). The Montréal school foregrounds process of coorientation, or the orientation of two individuals to one another, and the object of conversation. Cooren, Kuhn, Cornelissen, and Clark (2011) suggest that coorientation occurs when individuals focus on each other and the multitudes of agencies within the organizational environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Cooren et al. (2011), the current leading voice in the Montréal school, suggests that Greimas language theory (described by Cooren & Taylor, 2006 as almost incomprehensible) and Latour’s (1995, 2005) Actor Network Theory are the basis of the Montréal school’s thinking. Taylor and Van Every (2001) rely on Austin’s (1962) and Searle’s (1975) Speech Act Theory. Two central terms to the Montréal school are derived from Austin’s work on language: text and conversation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
The text represents big ‘D’ Discourse in the organization, or the way people talk, while conversation represents the messages exchanged between two parties that solidify into text. In this way, Taylor et al. (1996) claim that organizations are not real in the material sense; instead, organizations are a culmination of conversations and texts. Further, Taylor et al. (1996) suggest that organizations always speak through an agent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Over the course of time, distanciation, or solidification of various texts lead to what laypeople refer to as the organization, occurs. Taylor et al. (1996) propose several degrees of separation between text and conversation. First, text is translated into action through the ability of communication to carry intention. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Second, conversation turns into a narrative representation as interlocutors agree on meaning. Third, text is translating into (semi)permanent medium; for example, we write down regulations in an employee handbook. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Such medium permits storage of texts to help them become conversation. Fourth, these media specialize the language as professionalism. Fifth, physical and material structures are created by the organization to perpetuate conversation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Finally, publication, dissemination, diffusion, and other forms of broadcast are employed to convey the message created by members of the organization. Through this CCO process, the social arrangements of the workplace become codified. The Montréal school’s proponents contend that the essence of organizing is captured in the submission, imbrication, and embeddedness of text and conversation (Schoeneborn et al., 2014).Several other key terms are related with the Montréal school: coorientation (Taylor, 2009), plenum of agencies (Cooren, 2006), closure (Cooren & Fairhurst, 2004), hybridity (Castor & Cooren, 2006), imbrication (Taylor, 2011), and most recently ventriloquism (Cooren et al. 2013). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Coorientation, as described above is an A-B-X relationship between two actors and an object; the object can be psychological, physical, or social. A plenum of agencies refers to the potential of both human and non-human actants (a term borrowed from Actor Network Theory; Latour, 1995) to interact within the organizational environment. Closure is the punctuation of conversations to provide deeper understanding by interlocutors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Hybridity refers to human and nonhuman actants working together to co-orient a claim. Imbrication refers to the emerging structures created by discourse in the organization over time that become an unquestioned part of what we call the organization. Finally, ventriloquism is the study of how interacts (both human and non-human) position and are positioned by the need to act via different values, principles, interests, norms, experiences, and other structures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Luhmann's systems theory focuses on three topics, which are interconnected in his entire work: Systems theory as societal theory Communication theory and Evolution theoryThe core element of Luhmann's theory is communication. Social systems are systems of communication, and society is the most encompassing social system. Being the social system that comprises all (and only) communication, today's society is a world society. A system is defined by a boundary between itself and its environment, dividing it from an infinitely complex, or (colloquially) chaotic, exterior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
The interior of the system is thus a zone of reduced complexity: Communication within a system operates by selecting only a limited amount of all information available outside. This process is also called "reduction of complexity". The criterion according to which information is selected and processed is meaning (in German, Sinn). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Both social systems and psychical or personal systems (see below for an explanation of this distinction) operate by processing meaning. The third strand of CCO was first acknowledged by Taylor (1995) but has only recently been included as a strand of CCO theorizing. Luhmann (1995) claims that individuals do not create meaning, instead all meaning comes from social systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
Perhaps this is why Luhmann’s general system perspective has only recently been considered a part of the CCO body of scholarship. Luhmann takes care to define communication as a tripartite conceptualization of interactive forces. Specifically, Seidl (2014) explains that Luhmann suggests communication is an amalgam of information, utterance, and understanding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_Constitution_of_Organizations |
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