text stringlengths 9 3.55k | source stringlengths 31 280 |
|---|---|
For example, acoustically speaking English /l/ and /r/ can be quite similar (especially in clusters, such as 'grass' vs. 'glass'), yet visual information can show a clear contrast. This is demonstrated by the more frequent mishearing of words on the telephone than in person. Some linguists have argued that speech is best understood as bimodal (aural and visual), and comprehension can be compromised if one of these two domains is absent (McGurk and MacDonald 1976). Visemes can often be humorous, as in the phrase "elephant juice", which when lip-read appears identical to "I love you". Applications for the study of visemes include speech processing, speech recognition, and computer facial animation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viseme |
Atomism or social atomism is a sociological theory arising from the scientific notion atomic theory, coined by the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus and the Roman philosopher Lucretius. In the scientific rendering of the word, atomism refers to the notion that all matter in the universe is composed of basic indivisible components, or atoms. When placed into the field of sociology, atomism assigns the individual as the basic unit of analysis for all implications of social life. This theory refers to "the tendency for society to be made up of a collection of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals, operating as separate atoms." Therefore, all social values, institutions, developments and procedures evolve entirely out of the interests and actions of the individuals who inhabit any particular society. The individual is the "atom" of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism_(social) |
Political theorists such as John Locke and Thomas Hobbes extend social atomism to the political realm. They assert that human beings are fundamentally self-interested, equal, and rational social atoms that together form an aggregate society of self-interested individuals. Those participating in society must sacrifice a portion of their individual rights in order to form a social contract with the other persons in society. Ultimately, although some rights are renounced, self-interested cooperation occurs for the mutual preservation of the individuals and for society at large. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism_(social) |
According to the philosopher Charles Taylor, The term "atomism" is used loosely to characterize the doctrines of social contract theory which arose in the seventeenth century and also successor doctrines which may not have made use of the concept of social contract but which inherited a vision of society as in some sense constituted by individuals for the fulfilment of ends which were primarily individual. Certain forms of utilitarianism are successor doctrines in this sense. The term is also applied to contemporary doctrines which hark back to social contract theory, or which try to defend in some sense the priority of the individual and his rights over society, or which present a purely instrumental view of society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism_(social) |
Those who criticize the theory of social atomism believe that it neglects the idea of the individual as unique. The sociologist Elizabeth Wolgast asserts that, From the atomistic standpoint, the individuals who make up a society are interchangeable like molecules in a bucket of water – society a mere aggregate of individuals. This introduces a harsh and brutal equality into our theory of human life and it contradicts our experience of human beings as unique and irreplaceable, valuable in virtue of their variety – in what they don't share – not in virtue of their common ability to reason. Those who question social atomism argue that it is unjust to treat all persons equally when individual necessities and circumstances are clearly dissimilar. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism_(social) |
Dissemination of IT for the Promotion of Materials Science (DoITPoMS) is a web-based educational software resource designed to facilitate the teaching and learning of Materials science, at the tertiary level for free. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS |
The DoITPoMS project originated in the early 1990s, incorporating customized online sources into the curriculum of the Materials Science courses in the Natural Sciences Tripos of the University Cambridge. The initiative became formalized in 2000, with the start of a project supported by the UK national Fund for the Development of Teaching and Learning (FDTL). This was led by the Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy at the University of Cambridge with five partner institutions, including the University of Leeds, London Metropolitan University, the University of Manchester, Oxford Brookes University, and the University of Sheffield. This period of cooperation lasted for about 10 years.The FDTL project was aimed at building on expertise concerning the use of Information Technology (IT) to enhance the student learning experience and to disseminate these techniques within the Materials Education community in the UK and globally. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS |
This was done by creating an archive of background information, such as video clips, micrographs, simulations, etc, and libraries of teaching and learning packages (TLPs) that covers a particular topic, which were designed both for independent usage by students and as a teaching aid for educators. A vital feature of these packages is a high level of user interactivity.DoITPoMS has no commercial sponsors and no advertising is permitted on the site. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS |
The background science to the resources within DoITPoMS has all been input by unpaid volunteers, most of whom have been academics based in universities. A single person retains responsibility for a particular resource, and these people are credited to the site. While the logo of University of Cambridge does appear on the site, is content is available freely and licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 UK. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS |
The set of resources currently available on the site comprises Libraries of TLPs (~75), Micrographs (~900), Video clips (~150), Lecture demonstration packages (5), and Stand-alone simulations (2). These all have slightly different purposes, and the modes of usage cover a wide range. In each TLP, several simulations typically allow the user to input data to visualise the characteristics of particular effects or phenomena. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS |
This to enable students to explore areas in their way and facilitates the creation of exercises by educators. Each TLP has a set of questions at the end, designed to test whether the main points of the TLP have been understood.The TLPs cover many diverse topics within the broad field of Materials science, ranging from basics, such as crystal structures and thermal conduction, to more applied areas, such as the design and functioning of batteries and fuel cells. Tools such as X-ray diffraction and the finite element method are also included. Many, although not all, of these topics, go into greater depth and are designed explicitly as educational resources.Approximately half a million users accessed the site in 2021. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS |
Konstanze Krüger-Farrouj (née Konstanze Deubner, born 22 January 1968) is a German zoologist and behaviour researcher. She is Professor of Horse Management at Nürtingen-Geislingen University of Applied Science, and her special field of research is the social system of horses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Krüger studied veterinary medicine at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU). After completing her studies in 1996, she accepted a position as scientific assistant at the Institute for Animal Anatomy and Histology at the LMU in Munich. From April 1999 to February 2006, she ran the Einthal Equestrian Park in Obertraubling, together with her husband. From June 2004, she held a research position at Biology 1 in the department of Zoology at the University of Regensburg, researching social learning and social cognition in horses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
In October 2008 she organised the 1st International Equine Science Meeting. On 1 March 2012, she became Germany's first Professor of Horse Management, taking charge of the department at the Nürtingen-Geislingen University of Applied Science. In March 2012, she organised the 2nd International Equine Science Meeting at the University of Regensburg, sponsored by the DFG. In Okctober 2012, she was promoted to the position of Professor of Zoology at the University of Regensburg. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Social cognition in horses Social ecology of horses Innovative Behaviour in horse | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Longterm field Studies Social Network Analysis Hierarchy Calculations Behaviour Test | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Behaviour of horses in the "round pen technique"The behaviour of horses in the Join-Up-Method is a learned response specific to a particular location, and not a natural "language" as claimed by Monty Roberts in his books. The research explains how and why this training can be generalised to other people and places and therefore be an important tool in the training of horses.Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horsesThis research supports the opinion of many equestrian experts that it is wise to use an experienced horse to demonstrate new exercises to horses in training. It also reveals that only horses from the same social group are suitable demonstrators.Visual laterality in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) interacting with humansAccording to the situation, horses sometimes prefer to observe things with their left eye, and sometimes with the right. For every day training purposes, it is best to allow horses to observe a potentially dangerous object with its left eye until it calms down.Third-party interventions keep social partners from exchanging affiliative interactions with othersThis study demonstrates that it is important when keeping horses in groups to ensure that the groups are composed of horses of mixed ages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
For the last 30 years, horses have been described as being incapable of demonstrating social learning (Baer et al. 1983.; Baker and Crawford 1986; Clarke et al. 1996; Lindberg et al. 1999) because the social complexity of horses was underestimated and the experimental designs were therefore not suitably constructed. In several studies this was taken into account, and for the first time horses did show social learning. This has important implications for other species in which social learning has similarly not been shown. The experimental design for these species should now be reconsidered and new experiments conducted in which the social aspects of the species are taken into account. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Krueger, K., Flauger, B., Farmer, K., & Hemelrijk, C. (2014). Movement initiation in groups of feral horses. Behav. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Process., 103, 91–101. Krueger K, Farmer K, Heinze J (2013) The effects of age, rank and neophobia on social learning in horses. Anim. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Cogn 17, 645-655 Schneider, G.; Krueger, K. (2012) Third-party interventions keep social partners from exchanging affiliative interactions with others Anim. Behav. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
83 377–387. Krueger, K; Farmer, K. (2011) Laterality in the Horse mup 4 160–167. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Krueger, K.; Flauger, B.; Farmer, K.; Maros, K. (2011) Horses (Equus caballus) use human local enhancement cues and adjust to human attention Anim. Cogn. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
14 187–201. Farmer, K.; Krueger, K.; Byrne, R. (2010) Visual laterality in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) interacting with humans Anim. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Cogn. 13 229–238. Krueger, K.;Heinze, J. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
(2008) Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horses' behavior Anim. Cogn. 11 431–439. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Krueger, K.; Flauger, B. (2008) Social feeding decisions in horses (Equus caballus) Behav. Process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
78 76–83. Krueger, K.; Flauger, B. (2007) Social learning in horses from a novel perspective Behav. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Process. 76 37–39. Krueger, K. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
(2007) Behaviour of horses in the "round pen technique" Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 104 162–170. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Trainingslehre Für Dressurpferde Das Pferd im Blickpunkt der Wissenschaft | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Krueger K. 2008–2009. Journal Bayerns Pferde Zucht und Sport, Der Linksdrall: Sensorische Einseitigkeit bei Pferden 2008, 10, pp. 66–68 Pferdeverhalten: So integriere ich mein Pferd in die Herde. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
2008, 12, pp. 64–69 Das Sozialsystem des Pferdes: Das Know-how für den täglichen Umgang. 2009, 1, pp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
72–76 Das Sozialsystem des Pferdes, Teil II: Führungspersönlichkeiten. 2009, 2, pp. 76–80 Visuelle Fähigkeiten der Pferde. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
2009 Die Erkennung von Artgenossen und Menschen. 2009 Das Gedächtnis der Pferde, 2009, 7 Die Unarten des Pferdes, 2009, 9, pp. 84–89 Charakterpferde, 2009, 12 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
Opening Speaker 43. Internationale Tagung Angewandte EthologieDie sensorische Lateralität als Indikator für emotionale und kognitive Reaktionen auf Umweltreize beim Tier (Übersichtreferat) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanze_Krüger |
A committee machine is a type of artificial neural network using a divide and conquer strategy in which the responses of multiple neural networks (experts) are combined into a single response. The combined response of the committee machine is supposed to be superior to those of its constituent experts. Compare with ensembles of classifiers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_machine |
In this class of committee machines, the responses of several predictors (experts) are combined by means of a mechanism that does not involve the input signal, hence the designation static. This category includes the following methods: Ensemble averagingIn ensemble averaging, outputs of different predictors are linearly combined to produce an overall output. BoostingIn boosting, a weak algorithm is converted into one that achieves arbitrarily high accuracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_machine |
In this second class of committee machines, the input signal is directly involved in actuating the mechanism that integrates the outputs of the individual experts into an overall output, hence the designation dynamic. There are two kinds of dynamic structures: Mixture of expertsIn mixture of experts, the individual responses of the experts are non-linearly combined by means of a single gating network. Hierarchical mixture of expertsIn hierarchical mixture of experts, the individual responses of the individual experts are non-linearly combined by means of several gating networks arranged in a hierarchical fashion. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_machine |
The AgroEurasia International Agriculture Fair (Turkish: Avrasya Tarim) is one of the largest agricultural exhibitions in Eurasia. Since 2006, it has been held in December in the Tuyap Fair and Congress Center in Istanbul, Turkey. With an exhibition area of roughly 40,000 square metres (430,000 sq ft), an average of 350 company and company representatives participating and over 45,000 visitors from about 40 different countries, it is a meeting place for the Eurasian agricultural sector. In 2011, over 3,000 international visitors from 34 countries attended: Afghanistan, Albania, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Kosovo, Libya, Macedonia, Moldova, Russia, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.The exhibition is organised by TÜYAP Fairs and Exhibitions Inc. in cooperation with the Turkish Ministry of Agriculture, the Union of Turkish Chambers of Agriculture, and the Turkish Association of Agricultural Machinery Manufacturers (TARMAKBİR). The fair is supported by the İstanbul Directorate of Urban Agriculture, the Union of İstanbul Chambers of Agriculture and the Oilseeds & Agricultural Sales Cooperatives Union of Thrace. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgroEurasia |
John Walter Thibaut (1917–1986) was a social psychologist, one of the last graduate students of Kurt Lewin. He spent a number of years as a professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and was the first editor of the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thibaut |
The research group which he headed at UNC was regularly attended by Harry Upshaw, Jack Brehm, Kurt Back, and Edward E. Jones. He is best known for "A Social Psychology of Groups", co-authored by his long-time collaborator Harold Kelley. The examination of social exchange led Thibaut and Kelley to develop Interdependence Theory, a process which was facilitated by Thibaut spending a year at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences where he had significant interaction with Kenneth Arrow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thibaut |
The early variations of Interdependence Theory stem from Alvin Ward Gouldner's (1960) norm of reciprocity, which argues that people ought to return benefits given to them in a relationship. Peter M. Blau built on the work done by George C. Homans in Exchange and Power in Social Life (1964). Later modifications to this theory focus attention on relational development and maintenance rules (see Murstein et al.). Thibaut's later research was in the area of procedural justice, where he co-authored a book with legal expert Laurens Walker. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thibaut |
Back, K., Festinger, L., Hymovitch, B., Kelley, H., Schachter, S., & Thibaut, J. (1950). The methodology of studying rumor transmission. Human Relations, 3(3), 307–312. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thibaut |
Festinger, L., & Thibaut, J. (1951). Interpersonal communication in small groups. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46(1), 92–99. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thibaut |
Parasocial interaction (PSI) refers to a kind of psychological relationship experienced by an audience in their mediated encounters with performers in the mass media, particularly on television and on online platforms. Viewers or listeners come to consider media personalities as friends, despite having no or limited interactions with them. PSI is described as an illusory experience, such that media audiences interact with personas (e.g., talk show hosts, celebrities, fictional characters, social media influencers) as if they are engaged in a reciprocal relationship with them. The term was coined by Donald Horton and Richard Wohl in 1956.A parasocial interaction, an exposure that garners interest in a persona, becomes a parasocial relationship after repeated exposure to the media persona causes the media user to develop illusions of intimacy, friendship, and identification. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Positive information learned about the media persona results in increased attraction, and the relationship progresses. Parasocial relationships are enhanced due to trust and self-disclosure provided by the media persona.Media users are loyal and feel directly connected to the persona, much as they are connected to their close friends, by observing and interpreting their appearance, gestures, voice, conversation, and conduct. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Media personas have a significant amount of influence over media users, positive or negative, informing the way that they perceive certain topics or even their purchasing habits. Studies involving longitudinal effects of parasocial interactions on children are still relatively new, according to developmental psychologist Sandra L. Calvert.Social media introduces additional opportunities for parasocial relationships to intensify because it provides more opportunities for intimate, reciprocal, and frequent interactions between the user and persona. These virtual interactions may involve commenting, following, liking, or direct messaging. The consistency in which the persona appears could also lead to a more intimate perception in the eyes of the user. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Parasocial interaction was first described from the perspective of media and communication studies. In 1956, Horton and Wohl explored the different interactions between mass media users and media figures and determined the existence of a parasocial relationship (PSR), where the user acts as though they are involved in a typical social relationship. However, parasocial interaction existed before mass media, when a person would establish a bond with political figures, gods or even spirits.Since then, the term has been adopted by psychologists in furthering their studies of the social relationships that emerge between consumers of mass media and the figures they see represented there. Horton and Wohl suggested that for most people, parasocial interactions with persona complement their current social interactions, while also suggesting that there are some individuals who exhibit extreme parasociality, or they substitute parasocial interactions for actual social interactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Perse and Rubin (1989) contested this view, finding that parasocial interactions occurred as a natural byproduct of time spent with media figures.Although the concept originated from a psychological topic, extensive research of PSI has been performed in the area of mass communication with manifold results. Psychologists began to show their interest in the concept in the 1980s, and researchers began to develop the concept extensively within the field of communication science. Many important questions about social psychology were raised concerning the nature of these relationships that are problematic for existing theories in those fields. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The concept of parasocial interaction and detailed examination of the behavioral phenomena that it seeks to explain have considerable potential for developing psychological theory.The conceptual development of parasocial interaction (PSI) and parasocial relationship (PSR) are interpreted and employed in different ways in various literatures. When it is applied in the use-and-gratifications (U&G) approaches, the two concepts are typically treated interchangeably, with regard primarily to a special type of "interpersonal involvement" with media figures that includes different phenomena such as interaction and identification. In contrast to the U&G approaches, research domains such as media psychology and semiotics argue for a clear distinction between the terms.PSI specifically means the "one-sided process of media person perception during media exposure", whereas PSR stands for "a cross-situational relationship that a viewer or user holds to a media person, which includes specific cognitive and affective components". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Schmid & Klimmt (2011) further argue that PSI and PSR are progressive states such that what begins as a PSI has the potential to become a PSR. Dibble, Hartmann and Rosaen (2016) suggest that a PSR can develop without a PSI occurring, such as when the characters do not make a direct connection with the viewer.In sum, the terms, definitions, and models explicating PSI and PSR differ across scientific backgrounds and traditions. For example, Dibble et al. (2016) argued that PSI and PSR are often "conflated conceptually and methodologically". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
: 21 To test their assertion, they tested for parasocial indicators with two different scales used for parasocial inquiry: the traditional PSI-Scale and the newer EPSI-Scale, and compared results between the two.The traditional PSI-Scale, along with modified forms of it, is the most widely used measure of PSI assessment. However, Dibble et al. (2016) found evidence supporting their hypothesis that the newer EPSI-Scale was a better measure of PSIs and that the traditional scale merely revealed participants' liking of characters. Because of varying conceptions, it is difficult for researchers to reach a consensus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Studying social interaction, and by extension parasocial interaction (PSI), follows a social cognitive approach to defining individual cognitive activity. Accordingly, there are similar psychological processes at work in both parasocial relationships and face-to-face interactions. However, the parasocial relationship does not follow the process of the typical long-term relationship. The media user remains a stranger to the media figure, whereas this "strangeness" would gradually evaporate in typical social interaction.Many parasocial relationships fulfill the needs of typical social interaction, but potentially reward insecurity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Many who possess a dismissive attachment style to others may find the one-sided interaction to be preferable in lieu of dealing with others, while those who experience anxiety from typical interactions may find comfort in the lives of celebrities consistently being present. Additionally, whatever a celebrity or online figure may do can provoke emotional responses from their audiences—some even going as far as suffering from negative feelings because of it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The research of PSI obtained significant interest after the advent of the uses and gratifications approach to mass communication research in the early 1970s. A study of early soap opera identified two essential functions of PSI: companionship and personal identity. Rosengren and Windahl further argued that PSI could be identified in the process of viewers' interacting with media figures, but such interaction did not produce identification. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
This is an important distinction, because identification has a longer history than PSI. Subsequent research has indicated that PSI is evident when identification is not present.During the last several decades, PSI has been documented in the research analyzing the relationship between audience members and television newscasters, TV and radio talk-show hosts, sitcom characters and other TV celebrities or performers. Research has also been conducted on how a favorable PSI can be facilitated between celebrities and their followers on social media, specifically through the interactions followers have with the celebrities posts on social media. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Although different PSI scales have been employed in these studies, PSI was clearly documented with each persona.Noticing the importance of media in the area of psychological research, academic David Giles asserted in his 2002 paper that there is a need for PSI research to move away from the field of mass communication and into the field of psychology. Studies in this area are commonly conducted by focusing a key psychological issue for PSI: concerning the similarity between parasocial relations and ordinary social relations. For example, academic John Turner adopted the idea of homophily (i.e., the tendency for friendships to form between people that are alike in some designated respect) to examine the interpersonal and psychological predictors of parasocial interaction with television performers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The author found that one dimension of homophily (i.e., attitude) was the best predictor of parasocial interaction.Hataway indicated that although there seems to be prevailing to analyze PSI in the domain of social psychology, a solid connection to psychological theory and developmental theory has been missing. Hataway further suggested that more psychological research is needed in order to develop parasocial theory. Specific issues cited were "how parasocial relationships are derived from parasocial interaction and the way those relationships further influence media usage as well as a social construction of reality, and how parasocial interaction is cognitively produced". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
: 18 He saw that the majority of PSI research has been conducted by mass communication scholars as a weakness and called for psychologists to refer to Giles's 2002 paper for directions of studies.Another important consideration for the study of PSI at a psychological level is that there is a form of PSI existing even in interpersonal social situation. People may use fundamentally the same cognitive processes in both interpersonal and mediated communication. Giles's 2002 paper also suggested that the element of direct interaction occurred in mediated interaction, such as talking to a presenter or celebrity guest, may continue in social interaction, with a cartoon character or a fictional protagonist in the mind. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
This may finally constitute a new way of interpreting social interaction. A further consideration is application of social cognitive approaches in individual levels. It is traditionally accepted that this approach is inadequate by itself for the study of relationships.However, a number of growing literature on the role of imagination in social interaction suggests that some imaginative activity (e.g., imaginary friends) may be an influential factor in the outcome of real social interaction. PSI is nowadays regarded as an extension of normal social cognition, specifically in terms of the use of the imagination. Current PSI literature commonly acknowledge that the psychological processes acting at the individual level parallel those used in ordinary social activity and relationship building. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The formation of parasocial relationships occurs frequently among adolescents, often creating one-sided and unreciprocated bonds with celebrities they encounter in the media. Parasocial interaction is best explored across a lifespan, which explains the growing focus on parasocial interaction in children and adolescents. Studies conducted have found differences between young girls and boys and how each group engages in parasocial behaviour. Adolescent boys have the tendency to favour male athletes, as opposed to adolescent girls who preferred celebrities such as musicians or actresses.Sex-role stereotyping is more common in children ages 5–6, but decreases in children age 10–11. Existing literature intimates that attachments, parasocial or otherwise, established in early childhood, are highly influential on relationships created later in life. Many studies have focused on adolescent girls because they are more likely to form a strong bond with a media figure and be influenced in terms of lifestyle choices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The primary effect is that of learning: consistent with Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory, much evidence shows that children learn from positive and negative televised role models, and acquire norms and standards for conduct through media outlets such as television and video games. This is supported by a study by Cynthia Hoffner with children aged 7–12, which showed that the gender of children's favorite televised characters was strongly correlated to the gender of the children. The research showed "wishful identification" with parasocial relationships, namely, that boys preferred intelligence, while girls preferred attractiveness when picking favorite characters. These alternatives are both enhanced and mitigated by their separation from reality.Parasocial interactions are particularly appealing to adolescents in the throes of identity formation and increasing autonomy from parents because these relationships provide idealized figures with whom the adolescent can envision total acceptance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The lack of actual contact with these idealized figures can offer positive social interactions without risk of rejection or consequent feelings of unworthiness. One cannot know everything about a media figure or icon, allowing adolescents to attach fantasized attributes onto these figures in order to meet their own specific wants or needs. On the other hand, entities far removed from reality tend to be less influential on children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
A study by Rosaen and Dibble examined correlation between realism of favorite television character and strength of parasocial relationships. Results showed a positive correlation between social realism (how realistic the character is) and strength of parasocial relationships. Results also show age-related differences among children. Older children tended to prefer more realistic characters, while younger children generally had more powerful parasocial relationships with any character. Age did not impact the correlation between social realism and strength of parasocial interaction, which suggests that more real characters are grounds for more powerful parasocial relationships in children of all ages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Parasocial relationships may be formed during an individual's early childhood. In particular, toddlers have a tendency to form parasocial connections with characters that they are exposed to from TV shows and film. Children's television shows, such as Dora the Explorer, involve the show's characters directly addressing the audience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The result is young children participating in "pseudo-conversations" with the on-screen characters. The process of engagement and interaction lead children to creating a one-sided bond where they believe that they have formed a relationship with these fictional characters, viewing them as friends. Exposure to this type of media often leads to opportunities for learning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Research has shown that children are more capable of grasping a concept if a character that they are parasocially connected to is the one to present it to them.The ability to learn from parasocial relationships is directly correlated to the strength of the relationship, as has been shown in work by Sandra L. Calvert and colleagues. In a 2011 study by Lauricella, Gola, and Calvert, eight 21-month-old infants were taught seriation sequencing by one of two characters. One character, Elmo, is iconic in American culture and therefore socially meaningful, and the other, DoDo, although popular with children in Taiwan, is less well known in American media. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Children were better able to learn from the socially meaningful character (Elmo) than from the character who was less easily recognized (DoDo).Children could become better able to learn from less socially-relevant characters such as DoDo, by developing a parasocial relationship with that character. Accordingly, after children were given DoDo toys to play with, their ability to learn from that character increased. In a later study, this effect was found to be greatest when children showed stronger parasocial relationships: Children's success on the seriation task, and therefore their ability to learn from a less familiar character, was greatest for children who exhibited more emotional nurturing behaviors toward the DoDo toy during play.Personalization of a character makes a child more likely to nurture the character, and thus more likely to form a parasocial relationship that would improve learning from videos featuring the character. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
In place of DoDo and Elmo, a 2014 study instead gave children Scout and Violet dolls. These interactive plush toy dogs can be programmed to say a child's name and have particular favorites (i.e., a favorite food, color, and song). 18-month-old children were given either personalized toys (matched for gender, programmed to say the child's name, and programmed to have the same favorites as the child) or non-personalized toys (the opposite gender, programmed to call the children "Pal" and have random favorites). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
At the end of the study, children who had received personalized dolls were better able to learn from their characters than were children who had received non-personalized toys. Children also nurtured personalized toys more than non-personalized toys. It seems that perceived similarities increase children's interest and investment in the characters, which motivates the development of parasocial relationships and helps improve later screen-based learning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
In the past two decades, people have become increasingly interested in the potential negative impacts media has on people's behavior and cognition. Many researchers have begun to look more closely at how people's relationships with various media outlets affect behavior, self-perception and attachment styles, and specifically in regards to creating parasocial relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Further research has examined these relationships with regard to body image and self-perception. Interest in this more narrow area of research has increased as body image issues have become more prevalent in today's society.A study was conducted to examine the relationship between media exposure and adolescents' body image. Specifically, researchers looked at parasocial relationships and the different motivations for self-comparison with a character. This study surveyed 391 7th and 8th grade students and found that media exposure negatively predicted body image. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
In addition to the direct negative impact, the study indicated that parasocial relationships with favorite characters, motivations to self-compare, and engagement in social comparison with characters amplified the negative effects on kids' body images. Furthermore, the researchers found that making social comparisons with favorite characters distorted actual, or ideal, body image and self-perception. Studies have been done exploring these effects across gender.A study examined the parasocial relationships between men and superheroes; the study looked at muscular versus non-muscular superheroes and men who either did or did not develop a one-sided psychological bond with a superhero character. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The results from this study indicated a significant impact on body image, particularly when exposed to muscular superhero characters. Research conducted by Ariana F. Young, Shira Gabriel, and Jordan L. Hollar in 2013 showed that men who did not form a parasocial relationship with a muscular superhero had poor self-perception and felt negative about their bodies after exposure to the muscular character. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
However, if the men had a PSR with the superhero, the negative effects on body satisfaction were eliminated.The increasing presence of beauty filters on social media has also played a large role in users' body image. On Facebook, within the first year filters were available, over 400,000 creators released and utilized over 1.2 million filters. These filters were consistently seen by billions of viewers, as more than 150 creators surpassed 1 billion views on their content. These filters edit the appearance of the creator which can give a false reality to viewers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Further studies have looked into parasocial relationships and more specifically at the impacts on violent and aggressive behavior. A study done by Keren Eyal and Alan M. Rubin examined aggressive and violent television characters and the potential negative impacts they may have on viewers. The study was based on social cognitive theory and looked at trait aggression in viewers and identification and parasocial interaction with aggressive characters. The researchers measured trait aggression in each of the participants and compared that to the level of identification with aggressive characters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The study found that more aggressive viewers were more likely to identify with aggressive characters and further develop parasocial relationships with the aggressive characters.Parasocial interaction has been linked to psychological attachment theory and its consequences have seen the same dramatic effects as real relationship breakups. In considering the relationship between parasocial interaction and attachment styles, Jonathan Cohen found that individuals who were more anxious media consumers tended to be more invested in parasocial relationships.In parasocial interaction there is no "normal" social interaction; it is a very one-sided relationship. The knowledgeable side has no direct control over the actions of the side it observes, and it is very difficult for it to contact and influence it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
While much research focuses on the formation and maintenance of parasocial relationships, other research has begun to focus on what happens when a parasocial relationship is dissolved. Eyal and Cohen define parasocial breakup as "a situation where a character with whom a viewer has developed a PSR goes off the air". The distress that media consumers experienced after a parasocial breakup was quite similar to that of a social relationship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
However, the emotional distress experienced after the parasocial breakup was weaker than that of the real life interpersonal relationship.Lather and Moyer-Guse also considered the concept of parasocial breakup, but in a more temporary sense. While the study focused on parasocial breakups as a result of the writers' strike from 2007 to 2008, the researchers found that media consumers still experienced different levels of emotional distress. This study, like previous studies, showed that parasocial relationships operate very similarly to real-life relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
In 1998, John Eighmey, from Iowa State University, and Lola McCord, from the University of Alabama, published a study titled "Adding Value in the Information Age: Uses and Gratifications of Sites on the World Wide Web." In the study, they observed that the presence of parasocial relationships constituted an important determinant of website visitation rates. "It appears," the study states, "that websites projecting a strong sense of personality may also encourage the development of a kind of parasocial relationship with website visitors. "In 1999, John Hoerner, from the University of Alabama, published a study titled "Scaling the Web: A Parasocial Interaction Scale for World Wide Web Sites", in which he proposed a method for measuring the effects of parasocial interaction on the Internet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The study explained that websites may feature "personae" that host to the visitors to the sites in order to generate public interest.Personae, in some cases, are nothing more than the online representations of the actual people, often prominent public figures, but sometimes, according to the study, will be the fictional creations of the sites' webmasters. Personae "take on many of the characteristics of a companion, including regular and frequent appearances, a sense of immediacy...and the feeling of a face-to-face meeting." The study makes the point that, even when no such personae have been created, parasocial relationships might still develop. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Webmasters might foster parasocial interactions through a conversational writing style, extensive character development and opportunities for email exchange with the website's persona.Hoerner used the Parasocial Interaction (PSI) scale, developed by Rubin, Perse, and Powell in 1985, and modified the scale to more accurately assess parasocial interactions on the Internet. They used the scale to gauge participants' reactions to a number of different websites, and, more generally, to determine whether or not parasocial interaction theory could be linked to Internet use. The study concluded, first, that parasocial interaction is not dependent on the presence of a traditional persona on a website. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Data showed that websites with described "strong personae" did not attract significantly more hits than other websites selected by the study conductors. "The literal, mediated personality from the newscast or soap opera of the past is gone. The design metaphor, flow of the web experience, and styles of textual and graphic presentations of the information all become elements of a website persona and encourage parasocial interaction by the visitor/user with that persona." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Though most literature has focused on parasocial interaction as a television and film phenomenon, new technologies, namely the Internet, have necessitated a closer look at such interactions. The applications of PSI to computer-mediated environments are continuously documented in literature of the last decade. Many researchers concluded that, just as parasocial relationships are present in television and radio, they are also present in online environments such as blogs and other social networking sites. Through an exploration of followers on politicians' blogs, academics Kjerstin Thorson and Shelly Rodgers found that parasocial interacting with the politician influences people's opinions about the politician, and promotes them to vote for the politician.Social media is designed to be a new channel through which parasocial interaction/relationship can be formed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Research has shown that interacting with individuals through blogs and social media such as Twitter can influence the perceptions of those individuals. As Internet users become more active on social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, followers often feel more engaged with them, making the parasocial relationships stronger. Social media is defined as "Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
While the usage of social media for personal means is common, the use of social media by celebrities has given them an opportunity to have a larger platform for personal causes or brand promotion by facilitating word-of-mouth.Social media networks inherit at least one key attribute from the Internet, in that they offer open accessibility for all users. Philip Drake and Andy Miah argue that the Internet, and therefore social networks and blogs, downsize the gatekeeping processes that exist in other mass media forms. They further state that this means that online information can spread unfiltered and thus does not rest on strict framework conditions such as those on television or in newspapers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
This, however, remains subject to an ongoing debate within research.Through presence on social media platforms, stars and celebrities attempt on the one hand to participate in the production of their image; on the other hand, they must remain present in these media in order to stay on the media's and consequently on the audience's agenda. According to Daschmann, celebrities all have to compete for the public's (limited) attention. In such a competitive environment a famous person must therefore remain present on all the accessible media channels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Twitter is one of the most popular social media platforms and a common choice for celebrities who want to chat with their fans without divulging personal access information. In 2013, the analysis from Stever and Lawson assumed that Twitter can be used to learn about parasocial interaction and the study provided a first step in that endeavor. The study included a sample of 12 entertainment media celebrities, 6 males and 6 females, all taken from 2009 to 2012 Twitter feeds.The result showed that, although fans interacting with celebrities via Twitter have limited access to communicate with the celebrity, the relationship is still parasocial even though a fan might receive the occasional reply from the celebrity. Twitter can provide a direct connection between followers and celebrities or influencers that gives access to everyday information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
It is an entertaining way for most fans since Twitter enables them to be a part of life that they enjoy.The more followers one has on Twitter, the greater perceived social influence one has. This is particularly because tweets are broadcast to every follower, who may then retweet these posts to their own followers, which are then rebroadcast to thousands of other Twitter members. Seen as the equivalent to a movie earning a box-office hit or a single track hitting the top of the Billboard charts, the phenomenon of "trending" (i.e., words tagged at a higher rate than others on a social media platform) on Twitter grants users the ability to earn influence on the platform. Twitter, alongside other social media websites, can be utilized by its users as a form of gaining social capital. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Academics at the 2022 Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences referred to interactions on livestreaming services as "cyber-social relations"; they stated that these interactions "take a middle position between" social (there are no spatial proximity and no bodily contact) and parasocial relations (as there is reciprocity and temporal proximity). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
YouTube, a social media platform dedicated to sharing video-related content produced by its users, has grown in popularity to become a form of media that's likened to television for the current generation. By content creators granting insight into their daily lives through the practice of vlogging, viewers form close one-sided relationships with these creators that manifest in comment chains, fan art and consistent responses with the creator in question. Parasocial interaction and relationships are commonly formed between the creators and their audiences due to the creator's desire to interact with their fanbase through comments or posts. Many creators share "personal" details of their lives, even if there is little authenticity in the polished identity they convey online.The interaction between viewers and celebrities is not limited to product placement or branding – the viewers could socialize with celebrities or influencers that they might not have any chance to contact in reality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Megan Farokhmanesh, for The Verge, wrote that parasocial relationships "are vital to YouTubers' success, and they are what turns viewers into a loyal community. ... Viewers who feel friendship or intimacy with their favorite creators can also have higher expectations and stronger reactions when those expectations are disappointed. ... Because creators often earn money off their fans through memberships, Patreons, and other cash avenues, there are fans who feel entitled to specific details about the lives of creators or even specific content. ... The divide between creators' lives and their work is a fine line".In a study conducted by Google in 2017, a reported 40% of millennial YouTube subscribers claimed their "favorite creators understands them better than their friends." For many viewers, parasocial relationships check off the four factors that are defined by Mark Granovetter's "The Strength of Weak Ties" theory: intimacy is gained by the creator's sharing of personal details, by which their viewers may react emotionally; viewers dedicate time to watching content the creator uploads; and what the creator posts—whether sponsored or not—may make the viewer feel as if they are being offered something, like a favor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Twitch, a video livestreaming service with focuses such as video game live streaming, creative content, and "in real life" streams, has also grown in popularity since launching in June 2011. Twitch's platform encourages creators to directly engage with their fans. According to research, a large draw towards the website is the aspect of users directly participating in a livestream through the chat function. In turn, streamers interact with their audience by greeting them by username or addressing their messages in comments.As noted in one study, this type of interaction forms "a sense of community". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Twitch livestreams create a digital "third place", a term coined by Ray Oldenburg that describes a public and informal get-together of individuals that are foundational to building a community. This sense of community is further enhanced when users become regular participants of a stream, either by watching live shows frequently or subscribing to the creator.Subscribing to a Twitch channel is another way in which viewers participate in a live stream. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
This is a considered a form of digital patronage where audiences pay money to financially support a creator. Forming what an audience member perceives as a personal relationship with their favourite streamer plays a large role in whether or not they choose to subscribe.Wired stated that Twitch pioneered "the digital parasocial thing. More specifically, monetizing it on a massive scale". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
David Finch, in the book Implications and Impacts of eSports on Business and Society, highlighted that streamers on Twitch have many options to monetize their content such as donations through Twitch, channel subscriptions and ad revenue; additionally, Twitch is more associated with livestreaming than YouTube and has "a much higher degree of interaction" between the content creator and the viewer. : 73–74 Finch wrote that "the popularity of Twitch parallels other emerging digital media forms in that it is user-generated, draws on parasocial relationships established online and establishes intimacy in new ways. ... Twitch viewers might similarly regard their time on their favourite Twitch channels as familiar, hilarious and informative encounters with their gaming pals". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
: 74 Academics Time Wulf, Frank Schneider, and Stefan Beckert found that parasocial relationships are a key component to a Twitch streamer's success and the audience's enjoyment of Twitch; particularly, Twitch's chat features can foster this relationship. They highlighted that "professional streamers have a personal schedule of streaming times so that users can rely on seeing their friends again—similar to characters of a periodic TV show. Therefore, viewers are able to maintain their relationships to streamers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
The stronger bonds between viewers and streamers grow, the more users may root for their favorite streamer's success". The Guardian also highlighted the interactive nature of Twitch and that the "format is extremely good at cultivating community, a virtual hangout spot for its millions of teenage and college-age users".Twitch streamers have also discussed the negatives associated with these parasocial relationships such as harassment and stalking by fans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Cecilia D'Anastasio, for Kotaku, wrote that "Twitch streamers are like digital-age geisha. They host, they entertain, they listen, they respond. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_breakup |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.