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Studies show two-thirds of newspaper readers do not know their newspaper's position on specific issues- and most media stories are quickly forgotten. Studies on public opinion of the Bush administration's energy policies show that the public pays more attention to issues that receive a lot of media coverage, and forms collective opinions about these issues. This demonstrates that the mass media attention to an issue affects public opinion. More so, extensive exposure to television has led to "mainstreaming", aligning people's perception of political life and society with television's portrayal of it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_socialization |
There are different patterns in socialization based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, income, education, geographic region, and city size. For example, generally, African Americans and Hispanics rely on television for their information more than white people. More women than men watch daytime television, and more men than women follow sports programs. Older people read more newspapers than younger people, and people from the ages of twelve to seventeen (although they consume the most media) consume the least amount of news. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_socialization |
Northerners listen to radio programs more than Southerners do. News outlets on the East Coast tend to cover international affairs in Europe and the Middle East the most, while West Coast news outlets are more likely to cover Asian affairs; this demonstrates that region affects patterns in media socialization. Income level is also an important factor; high-income families rely more on print media than television, and consume less television than most of the population.Ultimately, however, the common core of information, and the interpretation the media applies to it, leads to a shared knowledge and basic values throughout the United States. Most media entertainment and information does not vary much throughout the country, and it is consumed by all types of audiences. Although there are still disagreements and different political beliefs and party affiliations, generally there are not huge ideological disparities among the population because the media helps create a broad consensus on basic US democratic principles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_socialization |
Marian Stamp Dawkins (born Marian Ellina Stamp; 13 February 1945) is a British biologist and professor of ethology at the University of Oxford. Her research interests include vision in birds, animal signalling, behavioural synchrony, animal consciousness and animal welfare. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Dawkins was educated at Queen's College, London and Somerville College, Oxford, where she earned bachelor's and PhD (1970) degrees. Her doctoral research was supervised by Niko Tinbergen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Dawkins was appointed a lecturer in zoology in 1977 and in 1998 was made professor of animal behaviour. She is currently (2014) Head of the Animal Behaviour Research Group and is the Director of the John Krebs Field Laboratory.Dawkins has written extensively on animal behaviour and issues of animal welfare. Along with other academics in the field, such as Ian Duncan, Dawkins promoted the argument that animal welfare is about the feelings of animals. This approach indicates the belief that animals should be considered as sentient beings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Dawkins wrote, "Let us not mince words: Animal welfare involves the subjective feelings of animals.In 1989, Dawkins published a study in which she filmed hens from above while they performed common behaviours (e.g. turning, standing, wing-stretching). From these films, she calculated the amount of floor-space required by the hens during these behaviours and compared this to the amount of floor-space available in battery cages. She was able to show that many of these common behaviours were highly restricted, or prevented, in battery cages.In 1990, she contributed to a paper in which she developed her ideas regarding how to assess animal welfare by asking questions of animals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
She proposed using preference tests and consumer demand studies to ask what animals prefer (e.g. space, social contact) and how highly motivated they are for these. She argued that animals were more likely to suffer if they were not provided with resources for which they are highly motivated.Central to her most recent (2012) view on animal welfare is scepticism about whether science can establish that animals have consciousness and therefore its role in definition and measurement of animal welfare and suffering. Instead, her view is that good animal welfare rests on determining the needs and wants of animals, which do not require that they are conscious. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
These theses are presented in her book Why Animals Matter: Animal Consciousness, Animal Welfare, and Human Well-being (2012). Her views on animal consciousness have been criticised by evolutionary biologist Marc Bekoff, who argues that she too readily rejects anthropomorphic research on animals. She responded to the criticism by stating her position as "wrongly interpreted", and says that "my concern is to make the case for animal emotions as watertight as possible and thereby to strengthen it. That is the way science progresses and always has." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Animal Suffering: The Science of Animal Welfare. Chapman and Hall. 1980. Unravelling Animal Behaviour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Longman. 1986. The Tinbergen legacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Edited by Marian Stamp Dawkins, Tim R. Halliday and Richard Dawkins. London: Chapman & Hall. 1991. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Through Our Eyes Only? : The Search for Animal Consciousness. Oxford: Oxford University Press. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
1993. Living with the Selfish Gene. One of the collected essays in Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Editors: Alan Grafen, Mark Ridley. Oxford University Press. 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
The scientific basis for assessing suffering in animals. PDF Version Chapter in Peter Singer: In Defense of Animals: The Second Wave. Malden, MA: Blackwell. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
2006. Observing Animal Behaviour: Design and Analysis of Quantitative Data. Oxford: Oxford University Press. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
2007. The Future of Animal Farming: Renewing the Ancient Contract. Edited by Marian Stamp Dawkins and Roland Bonney. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Malden, MA: Blackwell. 2008. An Introduction to Animal Behaviour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
With Aubrey Manning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Why Animals Matter: Animal Consciousness, Animal Welfare, and Human Well-being. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Dawkins was awarded the RSPCA/British Society for Animal Protection prize in 1991, Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour's Niko Tinbergen Medal in 2009, and the World Poultry Science Association Robert Fraser Gordon Medal in 2011.Dawkins was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2014 New Year Honours for services to animal welfare. In 2014, she was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) for “substantial contributions to the improvement of natural knowledge”. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
She was born in Hereford to Arthur Maxwell Stamp and (Alice) Mary Stamp (née Richards).On 19 August 1967, she married fellow ethologist Richard Dawkins in the Protestant church in Annestown, County Waterford, Ireland. They divorced in 1984. She remains known as Marian Stamp Dawkins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Dawkins |
Ineffective erythropoiesis is active erythropoiesis with premature death of red blood cells, a decreased output of RBCs from the bone marrow, and, consequently, anemia. It is a condition characterised by the presence or abundance of dysfunctional progenitor cells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffective_erythropoiesis |
Antonia Catherine Lyons is a New Zealand health psychology academic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Lyons completed her PhD at Massey University in 1996. Her first academic post was as lecturer in health psychology at the University of Birmingham, UK, from 1996 to 2002. She returned to Massey University (NZ; Albany and Wellington campuses) and rose to professor at this institution. Lyons took up the role of Professor of Health Psychology at Victoria University of Wellington in 2018, where she is also Head of School, School of Health. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
In 2009, Lyons received a Marsden Fund grant to study young adults, their drinking and social media called 'Young Adults, Drinking Stories and the Cult of Celebrity.' In 2004 Lyons received a fast-start Marsden Fund grant called 'Working hard, playing hard: Gender relations and alcohol consumption'. Lyons contributes to blogs such as The Conversation and Sciblogs.co.nz | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Lyons, A.C., McCreanor, T., Goodwin, I., & Moewaka Barnes, H. (Eds). (2017). Youth drinking cultures in a digital world: Alcohol, social media and cultures of intoxication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Abingdon UK: Routledge. Rohleder, P & Lyons, A.C. (Eds.). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
(2015). Qualitative research in clinical and health psychology. Basingstoke UK: Palgrave MacMillan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Lyons, Antonia C., and Sara A. Willott. "Alcohol consumption, gender identities and women's changing social positions." Sex roles 59, no. 9-10 (2008): 694–712. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Lyons, Antonia C., and Kerry Chamberlain. Health psychology: A critical introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Treharne, Gareth J., George D. Kitas, Antonia C. Lyons, and David A. Booth. "Well-being in rheumatoid arthritis: the effects of disease duration and psychosocial factors." Journal of health psychology 10, no. 3 (2005): 457–474. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Treharne, Gareth J., Antonia C. Lyons, David A. Booth, and George D. Kitas. "Psychological well‐being across 1 year with rheumatoid arthritis: Coping resources as buffers of perceived stress." British journal of health psychology 12, no. 3 (2007): 323–345. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Lyons |
Applied improvisation is the application of improvisational theatrical methods in various non-theatrical fields, including consulting, training, and teaching. It is known to be used as an experiential educational approach, one which enables participants to explore and improve their leadership, management and interpersonal capabilities in several fields, which include collaboration, communications, creativity, and team-building. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_improvisation |
Applied improvisation began in the late 1990s with the performative turn in social science. The increased focus on performance and improvisation led to the application of improvisational methods in non-theatrical fields. In 2002, the Applied Improvisation Network was founded, a non-profit organization of people committed to using applied improvisation. Applied improvisation sees use in consulting and corporate training, particularly in the areas of sales and leadership. Applied improvisation is also often used in design thinking, service design, and UX design.In addition to the business world, applied improvisation sees use in disaster readiness training, drama therapy, medicine, and education. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_improvisation |
Danish Christmas plates are collectibles which are issued annually by porcelain manufacturers in Denmark. The first annual Christmas plate was produced by Bing & Grøndahl in 1895, with Royal Copenhagen following suit in 1908. Blue and white in color, and bearing the year of issuance, the mold is discontinued after Christmas Eve. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Christmas_plates |
The first Christmas plate was issued by Bing & Grøndahl in 1895. Harald Bing came up with the idea, hoping to develop a series with Danish scenes. Designed by Frans August Hallin (1865–1947), the first plate is titled Bag den Frosne Rude (Behind the Frosted Pane) with a view of some of Copenhagen's landmark buildings at night as seen through the icy windows of Frederiksberg Palace. Hallin was a Swede who came to Copenhagen in 1885. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Christmas_plates |
He also designed the plates for 1896 and 1897 and later became the company's deputy director.When Royal Copenhagen began its own series in 1908, its first plate Maria med Barnet (Mary with the Child) was designed by Christian Thomsen (1860–1921), a sculptor who joined the factory in 1898. The simple yet modern-looking style of the factory's plates began in 1888 when Royal Copenhagen (then Den Kongelige Porcelainsfabrik) designed a series of plates with its well-known logo of three waves and a royal crown, all in blue. Crown Princess Louise liked them so much that she immediately bought one. The news spread like quickly, causing people to rush out to buy them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Christmas_plates |
The design of Royal Copenhagen's first Christmas plate in 1908 was the result of a competition which produced quite a variety of scenes. Thereafter, different artists were invited to provide subjects for the plates, often on the basis of current events. In 1935, for example, the recently completed Little Belt Bridge was shown. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Christmas_plates |
One of the best known subjects is a kneeling angel which, in 1945, symbolized a thankful prayer from those who had survived the war. Other well-known symbols of Denmark which have appeared include The Little Mermaid and Tivoli's Pantomime Theatre. Hans Christian Andersen's childhood home appeared in 2005 on the occasion of the author's 200th anniversary.Christmas plates are produced using a special technique known as Danish underglaze. On the basis of the artist's drawing, the design is copied to a plaster mold from which the plates are produced. Each plate is individually painted with a blue underglaze after which it is glazed and fired. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Christmas_plates |
Carnival glass is moulded or pressed glass to which an iridescent surface shimmer has been applied. It has previously been referred to as aurora glass, dope glass, rainbow glass, taffeta glass, and disparagingly as 'poor man's Tiffany'. The name Carnival glass was adopted by collectors in the 1950s as items of it were sometimes given as prizes at carnivals, fetes, and fairgrounds. However, evidence suggests that the vast majority of it was purchased by households to brighten homes at a time when only the well-off could afford bright electric lighting, as its finish catches the light even in dark corners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
From the beginning of the 20th century, carnival glass was mass-produced around the world, but largely and initially in the U.S. It reached the height of its popularity in the 1920s, though it is still produced in small quantities today. Carnival glass gets its iridescent sheen from the application of metallic salts while the glass is still hot from the pressing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
It was designed to look like the much finer and much more expensive blown iridescent glass by makers such as Tiffany. Both functional and ornamental objects were produced in the carnival finish and patterns ranged from simple through geometric and 'cut' styles to pictorial and figurative. A wide range of colours and colour combinations, and scarcely used colours can command very high prices on the collector market. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Carnival glass originated as a glass called 'Iridill', produced beginning in 1908 by the Fenton Art Glass Company (founded in 1905). Iridill was inspired by the fine blown art glass of such makers as Tiffany and Steuben, but did not sell at the anticipated premium prices and was subsequently discounted. After these markdowns, Iridill pieces were used as carnival prizes. Iridill became popular and very profitable for Fenton, which produced many different types of items in this finish, in over 150 patterns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Fenton maintained their position as the largest manufacturer and were one of very few makers to use a red coloured glass base for their carnival glass. After interest waned in the late 1920s, Fenton stopped producing carnival glass for many years. In more recent years, due to a resurgence in interest, Fenton restarted production of carnival glass until its closure in 2007. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Most U.S. carnival glass was made before 1925, with production in clear decline after 1931. Some important production continued outside the US through the depression years of the early 1930s, tapering off to very little by the 1940s. Often the same moulds were used to produce clear and transparent coloured glass as well as carnival versions, so producers could switch production between these finishes easily according to demand. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Carnival glass was made in a wide array of colours, shades, colour combinations and variants. More than fifty have been formally classified. These classifications do not go by the surface colours showing, which can be even more varied, but by the 'base' colours of the glass before application of the iridizing mineral salts. In order to establish the base colour, one finds an area of the item which had no mineral salts applied (often the base) and holds the item up to the light in such a way that the area in question can be seen through. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
This is usually easy enough to do, but it can still be difficult for the inexperienced to differentiate the exact base colour between the many possibilities, as there are often only subtle differences and variations. The final (post doping) surface shades also vary according to the depth of base colour, as well as any special treatments and the type and amount of salts used. This last variable caused significant variation to occur, even between batches of what should have been essentially the same colour or colour-way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
This happened most frequently in early production but to such an extent that collectors now differentiate between these items, describing the degree of iridescence showing. The most popular colour for carnival glass is now known by collectors as 'marigold' although that name was not in use at the time. Marigold has a clear glass base and is the most easily recognizable carnival colour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
The final surface colours of marigold are mostly a bright orange-gold turning perhaps to copper with small areas showing rainbow or 'oil-slick' highlights. The highlights appear mostly on ridges in the pattern and vary in strength according to the light. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Marigold carnival glass is the most frequently found colour and in general commands lower prices in the collector market. However, variants of marigold such as those based on 'moonstone', a translucent white, and 'milk glass', an opaque white base, can be more sought after. Other base colours include; amethyst, a reddish purple; blue, green, red and amber. These basic colours are then further delineated by shade; depth of colour; colour combinations such as 'amberina'; colour pattern such as 'slag'; special treatments such as 'opalescent' and finally luminescence such as that given off by 'vaseline glass' or 'uranium glass' under ultra violet light (blacklight). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Carnival Glass was produced in a wide variety of items, from utilitarian to the purely decorative. Even within groups of items a variety of shapes can be found with further variation in edging and bases as well as different treatments of the basic shape while still malleable fresh from the mould. For example, of three items coming from the same mould, one could be left as is, another folded inwards and the third splayed outwards. Edge styles varied from plain to include frilled after moulding, or pie crust, furrowed or bullet, as a part of the mould pattern. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
The basic items produced included bowls, plates, vases, jugs or pitchers and tumblers but many other more specialised items of tableware were made also. These included large centre piece items such as jardinières and float bowls as well as smaller useful items such as butter dishes, celery vases and cruet sets. In smaller numbers and less often found are items to do with lighting or associated with smoking and those designed solely for show as ornaments such as figural sculptures or statuettes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Carnival glass was produced in large quantities in the US by the Fenton, Northwood, Imperial, Millersburg, Westmoreland (also began producing in 1908), Dugan/Diamond, Cambridge, and U.S. Glass companies as well as many smaller manufacturers. Competition became so fierce that new patterns were continually being developed, so each company ended up making a wide range of patterns of most types adding up to a panoply of choice. By selling sample pieces to carnival fair operators, it was hoped that a winner would then go on to purchase further items in the same or a similar pattern. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Pressed glass 'blancs' were brought in and iridized by third parties as well. Different and in many cases highly distinctive carnival glass patterns were designed and made by non-US makers, most notably by Crown Crystal of Australia, now famed for their depiction of that continent's distinctive fauna and flora in their glass. Sowerby (England) are notable for their use of swan, hen and dolphin figural pieces in carnival finish as well as pieces which have figural parts such as bird figured legs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
There is even a figural boat. Of their non-figural production, the strong, bold and easily recognizable 'African Shield', 'King James' and 'Drape' patterns provided a good canvas for shimmering carnival colours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
German production of carnival was dominated by the Brockwitz glassworks, with mainly geometric patterns which take their cues from cut glass. Other major European makers included Inwald (Czechoslovakia), Eda glasbruk (Sweden) and Riihimäki (Finland). These again produced cut glass styles and simple geometrics with a few floral patterns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
However, the most distinctive continental European patterns are probably the similarly styled 'Classic Arts' & 'Egyptian Queen', produced by the Czech Rindskopf works, sporting stained bands of figures over a very simple geometric form in a very even marigold. In other parts of the world most notable are the Argentinian Cristalerias Rigolleau for their innovative and highly distinctive ash trays and Cristalerias Piccardo for their highly desirable 'Jewelled Peacock Tail' vase. Finally, the Indian Jain company should not go unmentioned, notable for their distinctive elephant, fish and hand figural sections incorporated into the body of trumpet shaped vases and for their desirable and highly complex goddess vases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Carnival glass is highly collectible. Prices vary widely, with some pieces worth very little, while other, rare items command thousands of dollars. Examples of carnival glass can be easily found in antique stores and eBay. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Identification of carnival glass is frequently difficult. Many manufacturers did not include a maker's mark on their product, and some did for only part of the time they produced the glass. Identifying carnival glass involves matching patterns, colours, sheen, edges, thickness, and other factors from old manufacturer's trade catalogs, other known examples, or other reference material. Since many manufacturers produced close copies of their rivals' popular patterns, carnival glass identification can be challenging even for an expert. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival_glass |
Knowledge representation and reasoning (KRR, KR&R, KR²) is the field of artificial intelligence (AI) dedicated to representing information about the world in a form that a computer system can use to solve complex tasks such as diagnosing a medical condition or having a dialog in a natural language. Knowledge representation incorporates findings from psychology about how humans solve problems and represent knowledge in order to design formalisms that will make complex systems easier to design and build. Knowledge representation and reasoning also incorporates findings from logic to automate various kinds of reasoning, such as the application of rules or the relations of sets and subsets. Examples of knowledge representation formalisms include semantic nets, systems architecture, frames, rules, and ontologies. Examples of automated reasoning engines include inference engines, theorem provers, and classifiers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
The earliest work in computerized knowledge representation was focused on general problem-solvers such as the General Problem Solver (GPS) system developed by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon in 1959. These systems featured data structures for planning and decomposition. The system would begin with a goal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
It would then decompose that goal into sub-goals and then set out to construct strategies that could accomplish each subgoal. In these early days of AI, general search algorithms such as A* were also developed. However, the amorphous problem definitions for systems such as GPS meant that they worked only for very constrained toy domains (e.g. the "blocks world"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
In order to tackle non-toy problems, AI researchers such as Ed Feigenbaum and Frederick Hayes-Roth realized that it was necessary to focus systems on more constrained problems.These efforts led to the cognitive revolution in psychology and to the phase of AI focused on knowledge representation that resulted in expert systems in the 1970s and 80s, production systems, frame languages, etc. Rather than general problem solvers, AI changed its focus to expert systems that could match human competence on a specific task, such as medical diagnosis.Expert systems gave us the terminology still in use today where AI systems are divided into a knowledge base, with facts about the world and rules, and an inference engine, which applies the rules to the knowledge base in order to answer questions and solve problems. In these early systems the knowledge base tended to be a fairly flat structure, essentially assertions about the values of variables used by the rules.In addition to expert systems, other researchers developed the concept of frame-based languages in the mid-1980s. A frame is similar to an object class: It is an abstract description of a category describing things in the world, problems, and potential solutions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Frames were originally used on systems geared toward human interaction, e.g. understanding natural language and the social settings in which various default expectations such as ordering food in a restaurant narrow the search space and allow the system to choose appropriate responses to dynamic situations. It was not long before the frame communities and the rule-based researchers realized that there was a synergy between their approaches. Frames were good for representing the real world, described as classes, subclasses, slots (data values) with various constraints on possible values. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Rules were good for representing and utilizing complex logic such as the process to make a medical diagnosis. Integrated systems were developed that combined frames and rules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
One of the most powerful and well known was the 1983 Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE) from Intellicorp. KEE had a complete rule engine with forward and backward chaining. It also had a complete frame-based knowledge base with triggers, slots (data values), inheritance, and message passing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Although message passing originated in the object-oriented community rather than AI it was quickly embraced by AI researchers as well in environments such as KEE and in the operating systems for Lisp machines from Symbolics, Xerox, and Texas Instruments.The integration of frames, rules, and object-oriented programming was significantly driven by commercial ventures such as KEE and Symbolics spun off from various research projects. At the same time as this was occurring, there was another strain of research that was less commercially focused and was driven by mathematical logic and automated theorem proving. One of the most influential languages in this research was the KL-ONE language of the mid-'80s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
KL-ONE was a frame language that had a rigorous semantics, formal definitions for concepts such as an Is-A relation. KL-ONE and languages that were influenced by it such as Loom had an automated reasoning engine that was based on formal logic rather than on IF-THEN rules. This reasoner is called the classifier. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
A classifier can analyze a set of declarations and infer new assertions, for example, redefine a class to be a subclass or superclass of some other class that wasn't formally specified. In this way the classifier can function as an inference engine, deducing new facts from an existing knowledge base. The classifier can also provide consistency checking on a knowledge base (which in the case of KL-ONE languages is also referred to as an Ontology).Another area of knowledge representation research was the problem of common-sense reasoning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
One of the first realizations learned from trying to make software that can function with human natural language was that humans regularly draw on an extensive foundation of knowledge about the real world that we simply take for granted but that is not at all obvious to an artificial agent. Basic principles of common-sense physics, causality, intentions, etc. An example is the frame problem, that in an event driven logic there need to be axioms that state things maintain position from one moment to the next unless they are moved by some external force. In order to make a true artificial intelligence agent that can converse with humans using natural language and can process basic statements and questions about the world, it is essential to represent this kind of knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
One of the most ambitious programs to tackle this problem was Doug Lenat's Cyc project. Cyc established its own Frame language and had large numbers of analysts document various areas of common-sense reasoning in that language. The knowledge recorded in Cyc included common-sense models of time, causality, physics, intentions, and many others.The starting point for knowledge representation is the knowledge representation hypothesis first formalized by Brian C. Smith in 1985: Any mechanically embodied intelligent process will be comprised of structural ingredients that a) we as external observers naturally take to represent a propositional account of the knowledge that the overall process exhibits, and b) independent of such external semantic attribution, play a formal but causal and essential role in engendering the behavior that manifests that knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Currently, one of the most active areas of knowledge representation research are projects associated with the Semantic Web. The Semantic Web seeks to add a layer of semantics (meaning) on top of the current Internet. Rather than indexing web sites and pages via keywords, the Semantic Web creates large ontologies of concepts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Searching for a concept will be more effective than traditional text only searches. Frame languages and automatic classification play a big part in the vision for the future Semantic Web. The automatic classification gives developers technology to provide order on a constantly evolving network of knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Defining ontologies that are static and incapable of evolving on the fly would be very limiting for Internet-based systems. The classifier technology provides the ability to deal with the dynamic environment of the Internet. Recent projects funded primarily by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) have integrated frame languages and classifiers with markup languages based on XML. The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capability to define classes, subclasses, and properties of objects. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) provides additional levels of semantics and enables integration with classification engines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Knowledge-representation is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on designing computer representations that capture information about the world that can be used for solving complex problems. The justification for knowledge representation is that conventional procedural code is not the best formalism to use to solve complex problems. Knowledge representation makes complex software easier to define and maintain than procedural code and can be used in expert systems. For example, talking to experts in terms of business rules rather than code lessens the semantic gap between users and developers and makes development of complex systems more practical. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Knowledge representation goes hand in hand with automated reasoning because one of the main purposes of explicitly representing knowledge is to be able to reason about that knowledge, to make inferences, assert new knowledge, etc. Virtually all knowledge representation languages have a reasoning or inference engine as part of the system.A key trade-off in the design of a knowledge representation formalism is that between expressivity and practicality. The ultimate knowledge representation formalism in terms of expressive power and compactness is First Order Logic (FOL). There is no more powerful formalism than that used by mathematicians to define general propositions about the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
However, FOL has two drawbacks as a knowledge representation formalism: ease of use and practicality of implementation. First order logic can be intimidating even for many software developers. Languages that do not have the complete formal power of FOL can still provide close to the same expressive power with a user interface that is more practical for the average developer to understand. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
The issue of practicality of implementation is that FOL in some ways is too expressive. With FOL it is possible to create statements (e.g. quantification over infinite sets) that would cause a system to never terminate if it attempted to verify them. Thus, a subset of FOL can be both easier to use and more practical to implement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
This was a driving motivation behind rule-based expert systems. IF-THEN rules provide a subset of FOL but a very useful one that is also very intuitive. The history of most of the early AI knowledge representation formalisms; from databases to semantic nets to theorem provers and production systems can be viewed as various design decisions on whether to emphasize expressive power or computability and efficiency.In a key 1993 paper on the topic, Randall Davis of MIT outlined five distinct roles to analyze a knowledge representation framework: "A knowledge representation (KR) is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself, used to enable an entity to determine consequences by thinking rather than acting," i.e., "by reasoning about the world rather than taking action in it." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
"It is a set of ontological commitments", i.e., "an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world?" "It is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) the representation's fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; (ii) the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and (iii) the set of inferences it recommends." "It is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation", i.e., "the computational environment in which thinking is accomplished. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
One contribution to this pragmatic efficiency is supplied by the guidance a representation provides for organizing information" so as "to facilitate making the recommended inferences." "It is a medium of human expression", i.e., "a language in which we say things about the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
"Knowledge representation and reasoning are a key enabling technology for the Semantic Web. Languages based on the Frame model with automatic classification provide a layer of semantics on top of the existing Internet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Rather than searching via text strings as is typical today, it will be possible to define logical queries and find pages that map to those queries. The automated reasoning component in these systems is an engine known as the classifier. Classifiers focus on the subsumption relations in a knowledge base rather than rules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
A classifier can infer new classes and dynamically change the ontology as new information becomes available. This capability is ideal for the ever-changing and evolving information space of the Internet.The Semantic Web integrates concepts from knowledge representation and reasoning with markup languages based on XML. The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capabilities to define knowledge-based objects on the Internet with basic features such as Is-A relations and object properties. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) adds additional semantics and integrates with automatic classification reasoners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
In 1985, Ron Brachman categorized the core issues for knowledge representation as follows: Primitives. What is the underlying framework used to represent knowledge? Semantic networks were one of the first knowledge representation primitives. Also, data structures and algorithms for general fast search. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
In this area, there is a strong overlap with research in data structures and algorithms in computer science. In early systems, the Lisp programming language, which was modeled after the lambda calculus, was often used as a form of functional knowledge representation. Frames and Rules were the next kind of primitive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Frame languages had various mechanisms for expressing and enforcing constraints on frame data. All data in frames are stored in slots. Slots are analogous to relations in entity-relation modeling and to object properties in object-oriented modeling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Another technique for primitives is to define languages that are modeled after First Order Logic (FOL). The most well known example is Prolog, but there are also many special-purpose theorem-proving environments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
These environments can validate logical models and can deduce new theories from existing models. Essentially they automate the process a logician would go through in analyzing a model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Theorem-proving technology had some specific practical applications in the areas of software engineering. For example, it is possible to prove that a software program rigidly adheres to a formal logical specification. Meta-representation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
This is also known as the issue of reflection in computer science. It refers to the capability of a formalism to have access to information about its own state. An example would be the meta-object protocol in Smalltalk and CLOS that gives developers run time access to the class objects and enables them to dynamically redefine the structure of the knowledge base even at run time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Meta-representation means the knowledge representation language is itself expressed in that language. For example, in most Frame based environments all frames would be instances of a frame class. That class object can be inspected at run time, so that the object can understand and even change its internal structure or the structure of other parts of the model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
In rule-based environments, the rules were also usually instances of rule classes. Part of the meta protocol for rules were the meta rules that prioritized rule firing. Incompleteness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Traditional logic requires additional axioms and constraints to deal with the real world as opposed to the world of mathematics. Also, it is often useful to associate degrees of confidence with a statement. I.e., not simply say "Socrates is Human" but rather "Socrates is Human with confidence 50%". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
This was one of the early innovations from expert systems research which migrated to some commercial tools, the ability to associate certainty factors with rules and conclusions. Later research in this area is known as fuzzy logic. Definitions and universals vs. facts and defaults. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
Universals are general statements about the world such as "All humans are mortal". Facts are specific examples of universals such as "Socrates is a human and therefore mortal". In logical terms definitions and universals are about universal quantification while facts and defaults are about existential quantifications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
All forms of knowledge representation must deal with this aspect and most do so with some variant of set theory, modeling universals as sets and subsets and definitions as elements in those sets. Non-monotonic reasoning. Non-monotonic reasoning allows various kinds of hypothetical reasoning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
The system associates facts asserted with the rules and facts used to justify them and as those facts change updates the dependent knowledge as well. In rule based systems this capability is known as a truth maintenance system. Expressive adequacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning |
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