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ISBN 0-7619-6018-X Holborrow, Marnie (1993) Review Article: linguistic Imperialism. ELT Journal 47/4 pp. 358–360.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-medium_education
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Holliday, Adrian (2005), Struggle to Teach English as an International Language , Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-442184-8 Kontra, Miklos, Robert Phillipson, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas & Tibor Varady (1999), Language: A Right and a Resource, Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9116-64-5 Kramsch, Klaire and Patricia Sullivan (1996) Appropriate Pedagogy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-medium_education
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ELT Journal 50/3 pp. 199–212. Malik, S.A.
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Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers. Pennycook, Alastair (1995), The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language, Longman.
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ISBN 0-582-23473-5 Pennycook, Alastair (1998), English and the Discourses of Colonialism, Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17848-7 Pennycook, Alastair (2001), Critical Applied Linguistics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-3792-2 Pennycook, Alastair (2007) Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows.
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Routledge. ISBN 0-415-37497-9 Phillipson, Robert (1992), Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-437146-8 Phillipson, Robert (2000), Rights to Language, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-medium_education
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ISBN 0-8058-3835-X Phillipson, Robert (2003) English-Only Europe? Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28807-X Piller, Ingrid (2016), Linguistic Diversity and Social Justice.
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Oxford University Press. Punjab Text Book Board (1997) My English Book Step IV. Lahore: Metro Printers.
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Rajagopalan, Kanavilli (1999) Of EFL Teachers, Conscience and Cowardice. ELT Journal 53/3 200–206. Ramanathan, Vaidehi (2005) The English-Vernacular Divide.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-medium_education
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Multilingual Matters. ISBN 1-85359-769-4 Rahman, Tariq (1996) Language and Politics in Pakistan Karachi: Oxford University Press Ricento, Thomas (2000) Ideology, Politics, and Language Policies. John Benjamins.
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ISBN 1-55619-670-9 Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove & Robert Phillipson ; Mart Rannut (1995), Linguistic Human Rights, Mouton De Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014878-1 Sonntag, Selma K. (2003) The Local Politics of Global English.
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Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0598-1 Spichtinger, Daniel (2000) The Spread of English and its Appropriation. University of Vienna, Vienna.
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Tsui, Amy B.M. & James W. Tollefson (in press) Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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ISBN 0-8058-5694-3 Widdowson, H.G. (1998a) EIL: squaring the Circles. A Reply.
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World Englishes 17/3 pp. 397–401. Widdowson, H.G.
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(1998b) The Theory and Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis. Applied Linguistics 19/1 pp. 136–151.
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Global cultural flow involves the flow of people, artifacts, and ideas across national boundaries as result of globalization. : 296 Global cultural flows can be observed in five interdependent 'Landscapes', or dimensions, that distinguish the fundamental disjunctures between economy, culture, and politics in the global cultural economy.The five dimensions of global cultural flow include:: 296 ethnoscapes — flow of people Human migrations; technoscapes — flow and configurations of technology; financescapes — flow of money and global Business networks; mediascapes — flow of cultural industry networks; and ideoscapes — flow of ideas, images, and their nexuses.These dimensions restructure "the means by which individuals establish personal and collective identities." The common suffix -scape denotes these terms as being "perspectival constructs inflected…by the historical, linguistic, and political situatedness of different kinds of actors: nation-states, multinationals, diasporic communities, as well as subnational groupings and movements (whether religious, political or economic)," as well as "intimate face-to-face groups, such as villages, neighborhoods and families. ": 296 The five dimensions were introduced by anthropologist and globalization theorist Arjun Appadurai in his essay "Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy" (1990). Because cultural exchange and transactions have typically been restricted in the past due to geographical and economical obstacles, Appadurai's five dimensions allow for cultural transactions to occur.
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The concept of global cultural flows was introduced by anthropologist Arjun Appadurai in his essay "Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy" (1990), in which he argues that people ought to reconsider the Binary oppositions that were imposed through colonialism, such as those of ‘global’ vs. ‘local’, south vs. north, and metropolitan vs. non-metropolitan. He instead proposes that "flows" or "scapes" move through the world, carrying capital, images, people, information, technologies, and ideas.As these flows travel through national boundaries, they form different combinations and interdependencies, mutate, and divide cultural ideas into "nation" and "state. "Appadurai further states that, despite disjunctures having always existed between the flows of people, machinery, money, ideas and images, the world is at a crossroads where this is happening to a larger extent; he thus points to the importance of studying the "-scapes." These disjunctures also contribute to the central idea of deterritorialization, which Appadurai describes as the main force affecting globalization in the sense that people from different countries and socioeconomic backgrounds are mixing with one another; namely, the lower classes of some countries integrating in to wealthier societies via the workforce.
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Subsequently, these people reproduce their ethnic culture, but in a deterritorialized context.Appadurai claims that global flows occur in and through the growing disjunctures between the scapes. The Olympic Games, for instance, organize financescapes (regional, national, and international business networks come in to invest in the host city) and mediascapes (the opening and closing ceremonies showcase national cultures), as well as ideoscapes (images of the host city and country, their history, and customs circulate worldwide to attract tourists) and ethnoscapes (migrations of business networks and localities that are removed from parts of the city to make space for Olympic venues). Finanscapes can become in disjunction with ethnoscapes, as networks of global Social movements often protest against Human Rights Violations that take place during the Games; as result, ideoscapes then clash with ethnoscapes, as city brands and narratives are disrupted by these demonstrations and subsequent negative press.
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The ethnoscape refers to human migration, the flow of people across boundaries. This includes migrants, refugees, exiles, and tourists, among other moving individuals and groups, all of whom appear to affect the politics of (and between) nations to a considerable degree. : 297 Ethnoscapes allow for one to recognize that their notions of space, place, and community have become much more complex—indeed, a ‘single community’ may now be dispersed across the globe.
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: 297 Appadurai claims that this is not to say there are no relatively stable communities and networks of kinship, friendship, work, and leisure, as well as of birth, residence, and other filial forms. Rather, it highlights that the shape of these stabilities is warped by human motion, as more people deal with the realities of having to move or the desires of wanting to move. : 297 Tourism, in particular, generally provide people from developed countries with contact to people in the Developing World.
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The technoscape is the flow of technology (mechanical and informational) and the ability to move such technology at rapid speeds. : 97 The flow of technology especially increases as the pace of technological innovation increases.Accordingly, the introduction of new technology (e.g., the Internet) increases cultural interactions and exchanges. For example, smartphones are moved across boundaries and radically affect day-to-day life for individuals all along the commodity chain.
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Financescape refers to the flow of money and global business networks across borders. Appadurai poses that when considering the financescape framework, one must consider how global capital today moves in an increasingly fluid and non-isomorphic manner, thus contributing to an overall unpredictability of all the five aspects of global cultural flows as a whole.The fluidity of capital has been expounded on further by sociologists such as Anthony Giddens, who, in his 1999 BBC Reith lecture on globalization, claims that the advent of electronic money has rendered the transfer of capital and finance around the world subject to an increasingly easy process that posits a major paradigm shift. Giddens suggests that this ease has the potential to destabilize what would be considered prior as stable economies. Today, the global transfer of money has only accelerated in pace, with transactions in various large, international finance hubs (e.g. NYSE) have almost immediate effects on economies around the globe.
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The mediascape refers to the scope of electronic and print media in global cultural flows; it refers both to the distribution of the electronic capabilities to produce and disseminate information (newspapers, Magazines, television, Films, etc.), as well as to "the images of the world created by these media." Such mediascapes provide vast deposits of images, narratives, and ethnoscapes to viewers, profoundly mixing the "world of commodities" and the "world of news and politics. ": 298–9 In particular, advertising can directly impact the landscape (in the form of posters and billboards) and also subtly influence—through persuasive techniques and an increasingly pervasive presence—the way that people perceive reality. The term mediascape predates Appadurai's use; it was first used in trade by the American company Mediascape Corporation, formed in 1992, for the purpose of delivering rich media through the Internet and Web.
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The corporation is the U.S. owner of the federal trademark for use of that mark in relation to multimedia products in commerce. The term mediascape may also describe visual culture.
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For example, "the American mediascape is becoming increasingly partisan" or simply to denote "what's on" as in "a quick survey of the British mediascape shows how much Channel 4 has lost its way". It is also used as a generic term to describe a digital media artifact where items of digital media are associated with regions in space and can then be triggered by the location of the person experiencing the media. Thus, in a mediascape, a person may walk around an area and as they do so they will hear digitally stored sounds associated with different places in that area.
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The ideoscape is the flow of ideas and ideologies, and is composed of concepts, terms, and images. This movement of ideas can take place on a small-scale, such as an individual sharing their personal views on Twitter, or it can take place on a larger and more systematic level (such as missionaries).The ideoscape is often political and usually has to do with the ideologies of states along with the counter-ideologies of movements explicitly oriented towards capturing state power *or a piece of it). Ideoscapes therefore can consist of such ideas as "freedom, welfare, rights, sovereignty, representation, and democracy. ": 1–24
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The mental lexicon is defined as a mental dictionary that contains information regarding the word store of a language user, such as their meanings, pronunciations, and syntactic characteristics. The mental lexicon is used in linguistics and psycholinguistics to refer to individual speakers' lexical, or word, representations. However, there is some disagreement as to the utility of the mental lexicon as a scientific construct.The mental lexicon differs from the lexicon more generally in that it is not just a collection of words; instead, it deals with how those words are activated, stored, processed, and retrieved by each speaker/hearer. Furthermore, entries in the mental lexicon are interconnected with each other on various levels.
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An individual's mental lexicon changes and grows as new words are learned and is always developing, but there are several competing theories seeking to explain exactly how this occurs. Some theories about the mental lexicon include the spectrum theory, the dual-coding theory, Chomsky's nativist theory, as well as the semantic network theory. Neurologists and neurolinguists also study the areas of the brain involved in lexical representations.
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The following article addresses some of the physiological, social, and linguistic aspects of the mental lexicon. Recent studies have also shown the possibility that the mental lexicon can shrink as an individual ages, limiting the number of words they can remember and learn. The development of a second mental lexicon (L2) in bilingual speakers has also emerged as a topic of interest, suggesting that a speaker's multiple languages are not stored together, but as separate entities that are actively chosen from in each linguistic situation.
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Although the mental lexicon is often called a mental "dictionary", in actuality, research suggests that it differs greatly from a dictionary. For example, the mental lexicon is not organized alphabetically like a dictionary; rather, it seems to be organized by links between phonologically and semantically related lexical items. This is suggested by evidence of phenomena such as slips of the tongue, for instance replacing anecdote with antidote.While dictionaries contain a fixed number of words to be counted and become outdated as language is continually changing, the mental lexicon consistently updates itself with new words and word meanings, while getting rid of old, unused words.
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The active nature of the mental lexicon makes any dictionary comparison unhelpful. Research is continuing to identify the exact way that words are linked and accessed. A common method to analyze these connections is through a lexical decision task, in which participants are required to respond as quickly and accurately as possible to a string of letters presented on a screen to say if the string is a non-word or a real word.
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In the sample model of the mental lexicon pictured to the right, the mental lexicon is split into three parts under a hierarchical structure: the concept network (semantics), which is ranked above the lemma network (morphosyntax), which in turn is ranked above the phonological network. Working in tandem with the mental lexicon, in particular with the phonological network, is the mental syllabary, which is responsible for activating articulatory gestures in response to the phonological network. According to the theory which this diagram illustrates, different components both within and outside of the mental lexicon are linked together by neural activations called S-pointers, which form pathways together with large clusters of neurons called buffers (e.g. “concept production” and “word audio” in the diagram).
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One theory about the mental lexicon states that it organizes our knowledge about words "in some sort of dictionary." Another states that the mental lexicon is "a collection of highly complex neural circuits". The latter, semantic network theory, proposes the idea of spreading activation, which is a hypothetical mental process that takes place when one of the nodes in the semantic network is activated, and proposes three ways this is done: priming effects, neighborhood effects, and frequency effects, which have all been studied in depth over the years. Priming is a term used in lexical decision tasks that accounts for decreased reaction times of related words.
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Interchangeable with the word "activation" in many cases, priming refers to the ability to have related words assist in the reaction times of others. In the example above, the word bread "primed" butter to be retrieved faster. Neighborhood effects refer to the activation of all similar "neighbors" of a target word.
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Neighbors are defined as items that are highly confusable with the target word due to overlapping features of other words. An example of this would be that the word "game" has the neighbors "came, dame, fame, lame, name, same, tame, gale, gape, gate, and gave," giving it a neighborhood size of 11 because 11 new words can be constructed by only changing 1 letter of "game". The neighborhood effect claims that words with larger neighborhood sizes will have quicker reaction times in a lexical decision task suggesting that neighbors facilitate the activation of other neighborhood words.
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Frequency effects suggest that words that are frequent in an individual's language are recognized faster than words that are infrequent. Forster and Chambers, 1973, found that high frequency words were named faster than low frequency ones, and Whaley, 1978 found that high frequency words were responded to faster than low frequency ones in a lexical decision task.In the spectrum theory, at one end "each phonological form is connected to one complex semantic representation", at the opposite end, homonyms and polysemes have their "own semantic representation".
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The middle of the spectrum contains the theories that "suggest that related senses share a general or core semantic representation". The "dual coding theory (DCT)" contrasts multiple and common coding theories. DCT is "an internalized nonverbal system that directly represents the perceptual properties and affordances of nonverbal objects and events, and an internalized verbal system that deals directly with linguistic stimuli and responses". Others work around Chomsky's theory that "all syntactic and semantic features are included directly in the abstract mental representation of a lexical word".
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Not all linguists and psychologists support the mental lexicon's existence and there is much controversy over the concept. In a 2009 article, Jeffrey Elman proposes that the mental lexicon does not exist at all. Elman suggests that because context, both linguistic and nonlinguistic, is fundamentally inseparable from language, the human mind should be viewed more holistically when discussing the storage of lexical information. In Elman's view, this is a more realistic approach than assuming that the mental lexicon stores every minute contextual detail about every single lexical item. Elman states that words are not observed "as elements in a data structure" that are "retrieved from memory, but rather as stimuli that alter mental states".
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One aspect of research on the development of the mental lexicon has focused on vocabulary growth. Converging research suggests that at least English-speaking children learn several words a day throughout development. The figure on the right illustrates the growth curve of a typical English-speaking child's vocabulary size.The words acquired in the early stages of language development tend to be nouns or nounlike, and there are some similarities in first words across children (e.g., mama, daddy, dog). Fast mapping is the idea that children may be able to gain at least partial information about the meaning of a word from how it is used in a sentence, what words it is contrasted with, as well as other factors.
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This allows the child to quickly hypothesize about the meaning of a word. Research suggests that, despite the fast mapping hypothesis, words are not just learned as soon as we are exposed to them, each word needs some type of activation and/or acknowledgement before it is permanently and effectively stored. For young children, the word may be accurately stored in their mental lexicon, and they can recognize when an adult produces the incorrect version of the word, but they may not be able to produce the word accurately.
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As a child acquires their vocabulary, two separate aspects of the mental lexicon develop, named the lexeme and the lemma. The lexeme is defined as the part of the mental lexicon that stores morphological and formal information about a word, such as the different versions of spelling and pronunciation of the word. The lemma is defined as the structure within the mental lexicon that stores semantic and syntactic information about a word, such as part of speech and the meaning of the word. Research has shown that the lemma develops first when a word is acquired into a child's vocabulary, and then with repeated exposure the lexeme develops.
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The development of the mental lexicon in bilingual children has increased in research over recent years, and has shown many complexities including the notion that bilingual speakers contain additional and separate mental lexicons for their other languages. Selecting between two or more different lexicons has shown to have benefits extending past language processes. Bilinguals significantly outperform their monolingual counterparts on executive control tasks. Researchers suggest that this enhanced cognitive ability comes from continually choosing between L1 and L2 mental lexicons. Bilinguals have also shown resilience against the onset of Alzheimer's disease, monolinguals being an average of 71.4 years old and the bilinguals 75.5 years old when symptoms of dementia were detected, a difference of 4.1 years.
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Studies have shown that the temporal and parietal lobes in the left hemisphere are particularly relevant for the processing of lexical items.The following are some hypotheses pertaining to semantic comprehension in the brain: Organized Unitary Content Hypothesis (OUCH): this hypothesis posits that lexical items that co-occur with high frequency are stored in the same area in the brain. Domain-Specific Hypothesis: this hypothesis uses the theory of evolution to posit that certain categories that have an evolutionary advantage over others (such as useful items like tools) have specialized and functionally dissociated neural circuits in the brain. Sensory/Functional Hypothesis: this hypothesis posits that the ability to identify (i.e. be able to recognize and name) living things depends on visual information, while the ability to identify non-living things depends on functional information. Thus this hypothesis suggests that modality-specific subsystems compose an overarching semantic network of lexical items.
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Anomic aphasia, aphasia (expressive + receptive aphasia) and Alzheimer's disease can all affect recalling or retrieving words. Anomia renders a person completely unable to name familiar objects, places and people; sufferers of anomia have difficulties recalling words. Anomia is a lesser level of dysfunction, a severe form of the "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon where the brain cannot recall the desired word. Stroke, head trauma, and brain tumors can cause anomia.Expressive and receptive aphasia are neurological language disorders.
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Expressive aphasia limits the ability to convey thoughts through the use of speech, language or writing. Receptive aphasia affects a person's ability to comprehend spoken words, causing disordered sentences that have little or no meaning and which can include addition of nonce words.Harry Whitaker states that Alzheimer's disease patients are forgetful of proper names.
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Patients have difficulty generating names, especially with phonological tasks such as words starting with a certain letter. They also have word-retrieval difficulties in spontaneous speech but still have relatively preserved naming of presented stimuli. Later, loss of naming of low-frequency lexical items occurs. Eventually, the loss of ability to comprehend and name the same lexical item indicates semantic loss of the lexical item.
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A 2006 study published in PNAS concludes, based on fMRI data showing activation of different parts of the brain for nouns and verbs, that different syntactic categories are stored separately in the mental lexicon. This study found that both nouns and verbs are primarily processed in the left brain, but with nouns more strongly activating the fusiform gyrus and verbs more strongly activating the prefrontal cortex, superior temporal gyrus, and superior parietal lobule. The notion of segregated syntactic categories within the mental lexicon is more recently supported by a 2020 article in Cognition, which measured speech onset latency when forty-eight speakers (no specification of speech disorders or lack thereof) were distracted from a target verb or noun with a related verb or a related noun. This study found that speech onset latency was greater by approximately 30ms when both the target and distractor were verbs than when the target was a verb and the distractor was a phonologically and semantically minimally different noun; a similar result of approximately 40ms difference was observed when noun targets were paired with noun distractors in comparison with minimally different verb distractors.However, a 2011 paper in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews opposes the idea that nouns and verbs are stored separately, instead supporting the point of view that the understanding of nouns and verbs as separate categories arises from semantic and pragmatic notions of objects and actions, respectively, as well as from the learned syntactic environments of the two categories. This perspective is described within the article as "emergentist", from the notion that syntactic classes emerge from other non-syntactic lexical knowledge.
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Not all researchers of the mental lexicon agree that syntax forms a component thereof: Michael T. Ullman proposes in his declarative/procedural model of language that the mental grammar is a distinct entity from the mental lexicon, and that it is the mental grammar, rather than any part of the lexicon, which encodes and processes syntactic (as well as some morphological) information. In this theory, the mental grammar forms the part of the language faculty that utilizes procedural memory, which is tied to computational tasks and fine motor skills and which is stored in the frontal lobe and basal ganglia. The lexicon, in turn, is the part that uses declarative memory, which is more strongly oriented towards rote memorization and which is stored in the temporal lobe. Ullman's argument for such a separation hinges around the claim that association between meaning and form is arbitrary, therefore the acquisition of such associations must be done through memorization; meanwhile grammatical rules can be intuitively derived from knowledge that has already been learned.
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Furthermore, Ullman posits that whereas phonology, orthography, and semantics, as well as syntax, are largely confined to their respective memory systems, morphology overlaps between both declarative and procedural memory systems — for example, in regular affixation, the morphological component would be procedural, but for irregular conjugations of verbs (e.g. teach/taught) it is the declarative memory that would be accessed.Since Ullman's initial 2001 proposal, several other researchers have sought to apply the declarative/procedural model to L2 acquisition of syntax. For example, a 2015 study published in Studies in Second Language Acquisition observed that native English speakers placed in an immersive environment (a strategy-based game) for the purpose of acquiring an artificial and deliberately dissimilar to English L2 tended to rely heavily on declarative memory initially even when making syntactic judgements (i.e. completing grammaticality judgement tasks, abbreviated: GJTs). This study also found that after a slightly longer period of exposure to the artificial L2, some learners would begin to engage their procedural memory in a similar manner as they do in English for syntactic judgements, whereas others would make use of extralinguistic neural circuits for this purpose.
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Another 2015 study, which sought to ensure an implicit acquisition environment by framing the experiment to participants as being about scrambled sentences rather than L2 acquisition, also observed declarative memory being used in the earliest stages of syntax acquisition, and found that testing participants' initial acquisition of an artificial language after a time delay of at least one week resulted in greater use of procedural memory than immediately after the initial acquisition tasks.Studies pushing back against a declarative/procedural split relating to lexicon and grammar also exist. For example, a 2010 study on L1 acquisition of Finnish verbal morphology, which asked monolingual children aged 4–6 to conjugate both real and constructed verbs in the past tense, concluded that the correlation between declarative memory (in the form of vocabulary development) and proficiency at conjugating past-tense verbs was too strong for the declarative/procedural model to be tenable with respect to this level of morphosyntax, given the continued existence of more appropriate models which posit a stronger relationship between lexicon and grammar. Nonetheless, this study explicitly does not rule out procedural memory still playing a larger role in sentence formation.
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As research on the mental lexicon continues to expand into our modern world of abbreviations, researchers have begun to question whether the mental lexicon has the capacity to store acronyms as well as words. Using a lexical decision task with acronyms as priming words, researchers from Ghent University in 2009 saw that acronyms could in fact prime other related information. This finding suggests that acronyms are stored alongside their related information in the mental lexicon just as a word would be. The same research also demonstrated that these acronyms would still prime related information despite inaccurate capitalization (i.e. bbc had the same priming effects as BBC). A 2006 study from the University of Massachusetts Amherst concludes that at least phonologically, acronyms are stored as sequences of the names of their constituent letters. From a semantics standpoint, there is no clear consensus, as a 2008 article from the journal Lexis suggests that acronyms are their own semantic units and that their ability to inflect supports this, while another from 2010 published by the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association contends that acronyms are semantically stored as the words that they are formed from.
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The majority of current research focuses on the acquisition and functioning of the mental lexicon, without much focus on what happens to the mental lexicon over time. There are current debates surrounding the possibility of mental lexicon shrinkage; some suggest that as individuals age, they become less capable of storing and remembering words, indicating that their "mental dictionary" is in fact shrinking. It is still unclear how much of this potential lexical shrinkage is due to age-related decline, or if the reported shrinkage is due to factors such as outdated models of learning used in various methodologies.One study showed that the size of a Japanese woman's (referred to as AA) healthy mental lexicon of Kanji shrank at a rate of approximately 1% per year between ages 83 and 93 on average. This was tested through a simple naming task of 612 Kanji nouns, once when the subject was 83 (1998), and then again at the age of 93 (2008).
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This study discussed currently related findings in the literature (as of 2010), Identifying that AA's rate of lexical decline was a midpoint in the range of an identified decline rate of 0.2-1.4% per year. These discussions of the literature suggested that age 70 is a critical age, during which decline rates remain stable with no great or negative acceleration taking place. While no mental examination was conducted on AA during the time the naming experiments were performed, AA was tested using a Japanese version of the mini–mental state examination in June 2009.
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Her scorings indicated mild to moderate dementia, however the scores relating to language indicated that her language functions were not impaired.In contrast, another study argues that the recorded decline in cognitive performance and mental lexicon, is rather an outcome of overestimating the evidence in support of cognitive performance declining in healthy aging. They found that, when properly evaluated, the empirical record often indicated that the opposite was true, claiming that the models of learning currently assumed in aging research are incapable of capturing paired-associative learning in an empirical base. Arguing rather than the declining of cognition in healthy aging, the way we learn and process information changes as we age.
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They found that when the effects of learning upon performance are controlled as variables, there is very little variance remaining that can be interpreted as cognitive decline, and that these changes in performance are better accounted for by learning models. Upon the introduction of a more accurate model of learning, it was found that the accuracy of older adults' lexical processing appears to improve continuously over their lifespan, becoming more attuned to the information structure of the lexicon. It was noted that if investigators simply attended to speed in lexical decision tasks, inevitably evidence of decline will be found. However, if investigators integrate measurements of accuracy into their analyses, a negative relationship is found between the recorded speed and lexical accuracy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_lexicon
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The Office of Health Economics (OHE) is a research and consultancy company and registered charity based in London.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Office_of_Health_Economics
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The OHE was founded in 1962, making it one of the oldest institutions in the field of health economics. It was established by the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry to: commission and undertake research on the economics of health and health care, collect and analyse health and health care data for the UK and other countries, disseminate the results of its work and stimulate discussion of them and their policy implications.In 2016, the OHE became a charity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Office_of_Health_Economics
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The OHE conducts work for clients across different sectors, including the UK's Department of Health. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Office_of_Health_Economics
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A reference scenario is an imagined situation where a library patron brings a question to a librarian and there is then a conversation, called in the field a reference interview, where the librarian works to help the patron find the information they want. These scenarios are used in training future librarians how to help patrons. Basically, a scenario is as short as a couple of sentences, including a question and a situation that underlies that question. A great deal of reference teaching puts students to researching the answers to made-up questions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_scenario
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This focuses the student on learning about the reference sources at hand by using them to answer those questions. Scenarios are something different. They focus the student on the interaction with patrons.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_scenario
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In class practice sessions, one student can be the patron and the other the librarian, as long as the one practicing as the librarian doesn't know the whole scenario in advance. Scenarios are valued because often the question asked is not the end of the patron's information hunt, but the start. Patrons often start by voicing a question that they think the library can answer, rather than the question they are really seeking to answer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_scenario
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Or they pose a question that the librarian doesn't understand. Reference librarian skills are very much about mediating a gap between what the patron wants and what the library can provide. This can involve the librarian making him or herself a partner in the patron's search, teaching them what the library really has to offer, or even just clarifying a confusing word: Does the patron want information about soaps to clean with or soaps as in soap operas?
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_scenario
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The law of one price (LOOP) states that in the absence of trade frictions (such as transport costs and tariffs), and under conditions of free competition and price flexibility (where no individual sellers or buyers have power to manipulate prices and prices can freely adjust), identical goods sold in different locations must sell for the same price when prices are expressed in a common currency. This law is derived from the assumption of the inevitable elimination of all arbitrage.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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The intuition behind the law of one price is based on the assumption that differences between prices are eliminated by market participants taking advantage of arbitrage opportunities.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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Assume different prices for a single identical good in two locations, no transport costs, and no economic barriers between the two locations. Arbitrage by both buyers and sellers can then operate: buyers from the expensive area can buy in the cheap area, and sellers in the cheap area can sell in the expensive area. Both scenarios result in a single, equal price per homogeneous good in all locations.For further discussion, see Rational pricing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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Commodities can be traded on financial markets, where there will be a single offer price (asking price), and bid price. Although there is a small spread between these two values the law of one price applies (to each). No trader will sell the commodity at a lower price than the market maker's bid-level or buy at a higher price than the market maker's offer-level. In either case moving away from the prevailing price would either leave no takers, or be charity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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In the derivatives market the law applies to financial instruments which appear different, but which resolve to the same set of cash flows; see Rational pricing. Thus:A security must have a single price, no matter how that security is created. For example, if an option can be created using two different sets of underlying securities, then the total price for each would be the same or else an arbitrage opportunity would exist.A similar argument can be used by considering arrow securities as alluded to by Arrow and Debreu (1944).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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The law does not apply intertemporally, so prices for the same item can be different at different times in one market. The application of the law to financial markets is obscured by the fact that the market maker's prices are continually moving in liquid markets. However, at the moment each trade is executed, the law is in force (it would normally be against exchange rules to break it).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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The law also need not apply if buyers have less than perfect information about where to find the lowest price. In this case, sellers face a tradeoff between the frequency and the profitability of their sales. That is, firms may be indifferent between posting a high price (thus selling infrequently, because most consumers will search for a lower one) and a low price (at which they will sell more often, but earn less profit per sale).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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The Balassa–Samuelson effect argues that the law of one price is not applicable to all goods internationally, because some goods are not tradable. It argues that the consumption may be cheaper in some countries than others, because nontradables (especially land and labor) are cheaper in less-developed countries. This can make a typical consumption basket cheaper in a less-developed country, even if some goods in that basket have their prices equalized by international trade.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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absence of trade frictions free competition price flexibilityThe law of one price has been applied towards the analysis of many public events, such as: In 2015, An International Monetary Fund working paper found that the law of one price holds for most tradeable products in Brazil but does not apply in the same way to its non-tradeable goods. A director of the Council on Foreign Relations held in 2013 that the then-current Apple iPad mini followed the law of one price, as far as its price nearly reached the same US dollar exchange rate in each applicable country. Indonesian governmental oil subsidies against oil smugglers; The smugglers selling stolen government-discounted oil back to its market rate. An apparent violation of the law involving international Royal Dutch/Shell stocks.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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After merging in 1907, holders of Royal Dutch Petroleum (traded in Amsterdam) and Shell Transport shares (traded in London) were entitled to 60% and 40% respectively of all future profits. Royal Dutch shares should therefore automatically have been priced at 50% more than Shell shares. However, they diverged from this by up to 15%.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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This discrepancy disappeared with their final merger in 2005. In recent years the company has had two different shares, "A" and "B" shares. Although each carries the same rights to dividends etc, they usually trade at different prices. This can be explained by different tax treatments.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_one_price
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The Norwegian Media Authority (Norwegian: Medietilsynet) is a Norwegian government agency subordinate to the Ministry of Culture and Equality charged with various tasks relating to broadcasting, newspapers and films. It enforces rules on content, advertising and sponsorship for broadcast media, administers newspaper production grants and enforces rules on media ownership. Prior to 2023 the authority also classified movies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Media_Authority
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The authority's tasks include enforcing rules on content, advertising and sponsorship for broadcast media; handling license applications for local broadcast media handling applications for newspaper production grants for non-leading newspapers, minority language newspapers and Sami newspapers overseeing and intervening against the acquisition of media ownership (either prohibiting the acquisition or merger, or allowing an acquisition on such conditions as the Authority sets, including ordering the divestment of other media ownership interests.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Media_Authority
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The agency was established 1 January 2005 by merging three government agencies: Norwegian Board of Film Classification (Statens filmtilsyn), which was in charge of rating movies. Norwegian Media Ownership Authority (Eierskapstilsynet), which oversaw media ownership. Mass Media Authority (Statens medieforvaltning, SMF), which had tasks related to broadcasting and newspapers.The new authority was located in Fredrikstad from 20 March 2006, where the Mass Media Authority already was located, but in a new building. In 2003, the agency was moved from Oslo to Fredrikstad from 20 March 2006, where the Mass Media Authority had been located.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Media_Authority
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This was a program along with six other directorates and inspectorates which were move out of Oslo, which had been initialized by Victor Norman, Minister of Government Administration and Reform of the Conservative Party. It cost 729 million Norwegian krone (NOK) to move the seven agencies. An official report from 2009 concluded that the agencies had lost 75 to 90% of their employees, mostly those with long seniority, and that for a while critical functions for society were dysfunctional.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Media_Authority
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No costs reductions had been made, there was no significant impact on the target area, and there was little impact on the communication between the agencies and the ministries. In a 2010 report, Professor Jarle Trondal concluded that none of the agencies had become more independent after the move, despite this being one of the main arguments from the minister. Norman successor, Heidi Grande Røys of the Socialist Left Party, stated that the moving had had an important symbolic effect on the target areas, and that she did not see the lack of advantages as a reason to not move similar agencies later.The first director of the agency was Tom Thoresen, who was succeeded in 2017 by Mari Velsand.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Media_Authority
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As of 2004, it was no longer necessary to classify the films that should be seen by people 18 years of age or older. If a distributor decides to register a film without classification, the distributor of the film will be criminally liable if the film has content prohibited by Norwegian law. The prohibited contents in movies and other entertainment media in Norway are: Child pornography Pornography (with exceptions) Improper use of serious depictions of violence for entertainment purposes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Media_Authority
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BMC Veterinary Research is a peer-reviewed open access veterinary science and medical journal that launched in 2005 published by BioMed Central. Part of the BMC Series of journals, it has a broad scope covering all aspects of veterinary science and medicine, including the epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention and treatment of medical conditions of domestic, farm and wild animals, as well as the biomedical processes that underlie their health.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMC_Veterinary_Research
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The journal is abstracted and indexed by PubMed, MEDLINE, CAS, EMBASE, Scopus, Current Contents, CABI and Web of Science. According to the Journal Citation Reports, its 2-year impact factor was 2.6 in 2022.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMC_Veterinary_Research
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Rational fideism is the philosophical view that considers faith to be precursor for any reliable knowledge. Every paradigmatic system, whether one considers rationalism or empiricism, is based on axioms that are neither self-founding nor self-evident (see the Münchhausen trilemma), so it appeals to assumptions accepted as belief (in reason or experience respectively). Thus, faith is basic to knowability. On the other hand, such a conclusion is reached not with an act of faith but with reasoning, a rational argumentation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_fideism
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"Rational fideism" has been defined variously. The following are some definitions. For Joseph Glanvill rational fideism is the view that "Faith, and faith alone, is the basis for our belief in our reason. We believe in our reason because we believe in God's veracity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_fideism
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We do not try to prove that God is truthful; we believe this. Thus, faith in God gives us faith in reason, which in turn "justifies" our belief that God is no deceiver. "Richard Popkin sees rational fideism as the opposite of "pure, blind, fideism".Similarly, Domenic Marbaniang sees rational fideism as "the view that the knowledge of God can be certified through faith alone that is based on a revelation that is rationally verified."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_fideism
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Observing that the way of both rationalism and empiricism towards the knowledge of ultimate or transcendent reality is bleak, he thinks that while fideism is the view that truth in religion rests solely on faith and not on a reasoning process, rational fideism "holds that truth in religion rests solely on faith; not blind faith, but faith that can give rational and cogent answers or reason to warrant the belief. "According to C. Stephen Evans, rational fideism involves the possibility of reason becoming self-critical. Seeing it as the kind of responsible fideism, he states, "If human reason has limitations and also has some ability to recognise those limitations, then the possibility of responsible fideism emerges." Evans states that not only does reason have limitations, it is also tainted by sin making one entitled to faith where reason fails.Patrick J. Clarke defines rational fideism as the approach that sees "reason as capable of providing the intellectual foundation of faith, not a priori but a posteriori, much as philosophy provides an intellectual foundation to theology."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_fideism
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Brendan Sweetman notes a type of rational fideism as a view developed by some thinkers who hold that the pragmatic spiritual and moral success of believing in God on faith alone could be used as an "indirect argument for the truth of fideism."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_fideism
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Bard High School Early College (BHSEC) is a series of early college schools with multiple campuses in the United States, enrolling approximately 3,000 students across all campuses. The schools allow students to begin their college studies two years early, graduating with a Bard College Associate in Arts degree in addition to their high school diploma. Students complete their high school studies in the ninth and tenth grade, after which point they begin taking credit-bearing college courses under the same roof. Unlike some dual-enrollment programs, students stay on the same campus for all four years, and both high school- and college-level courses are taught by the same faculty.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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Teachers at the Bard High School Early Colleges are both certified public school teachers as well as experienced academic scholars, often holding terminal degrees in their areas of study. The first campus, Bard High School Early College Manhattan, opened in New York City in 2001 as a partnership between Bard College and various local public school systems. There are currently eight Bard High School Early College campuses across the country (see below). The Bard High School Early Colleges are part of a larger network of early college programs run by Bard College, called the Bard Early Colleges, which also include half-day programs in New Orleans, Louisiana; in partnership with the Harlem Children's Zone in New York City; and in Hudson, New York.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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BHSEC has a conventional admissions process. Applicants must maintain a B letter grade of 85 percent or higher in order to be considered. Bard has its own academic standards, and if a student meets them, they will be called to a one-on-one interview.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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Founded in 2001 as a partnership of the New York City Department of Education and Bard College and funded in part by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Bard High School Early College Manhattan was the first public Bard Early College. However, the early college model and many of the teaching philosophies employed across the Bard Early Colleges were primarily developed at Bard College at Simon's Rock, the oldest early college entrance program and only accredited four-year early college to date. BHSEC Manhattan was the first school in the Gates Foundation's Early College High School Initiative, which aims to improve education, in the United States, by introducing smaller public high schools which help remove the barriers to a college education by offering students a college education in a high school setting. As of 2023, over 4,000 A.A.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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degrees have been awarded across all BHSEC campuses. The schools boast a 98% high school graduation rate and a 95% A.A. degree attainment rate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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Many graduates of BHSEC transfer their 60+ college credits to another college or university and finish their Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree in two more years; others opt to study for three or four years in their subsequent institutions. According to the National Student Clearinghouse, the six-year B.A. attainment rate for the classes of 2005-2009 was 98%.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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In the BHSEC program, students spend what is traditionally ninth and tenth grade finishing the bulk of their high school work. Students are encouraged to take all required state testing by the end of 10th grade, when possible – in New York City, students take the five Regents exams required for the High School Regents diploma, which they receive in addition to the Associates of Arts degree from Bard College. Unlike most public high schools, however, BHSEC does not offer courses tailored to prepare students for state tests, nor are there any Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses offered (as the last two years are already spent in an accredited college program). In order to complete the high school curriculum in two years, courses are taught at an accelerated pace. BHSEC does not rank its students and does not honor titles such as Valedictorian, nor does it implement a Dean's list.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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The two years spent, in the college program, are denoted "Year 1" and "Year 2." As a college program, students may select their courses based primarily on their academic interests and preferences for certain professors; however, they must also meet the college program's core requirements. These requirements include four semesters of the Bard Seminar, in which students read and discuss seminal works of western thought, from Plato and the classics through Shakespeare and ending in postmodernism. Students are also required to complete two semesters of math, two semesters of laboratory science, one semester of a U.S.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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history course, one semester of a world history course, two semesters of literature, and two semesters of a foreign language (at least one at intermediate level) and three arts credits. Students may also create their own courses with the independent study program, provided that a faculty member is knowledgeable in the subject, awarding one to three credits, depending on the amount of college-level reading completed. Every semester, a student must take 14-18 credits.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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With permission from the dean, students may take more than 18 credits in a semester. Students can also transfer credits from other universities to meet their requirements for the college program. BHSEC's college program offers classes that are more specialized than in the high school program, such as linear algebra, reason and politics, novels of Dostoyevsky, philosophy of religion, physics of sound and music, the social contract and its critics, criminal law through literature, and culture and history of food. These courses are taught by college professors, many of whom have published books and articles in their fields. Across campuses, college course offering are based on the interest and expertise of the faculty members.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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Across all of Bard College's campuses and programs, the school year begins with a week-long Writing and Thinking Workshop. Students spend each day engaging in critical reading, writing, and thinking exercises, which are employed in the classroom throughout the school year. It is an opportunity to introduce new students to and re-familiarize current students with BHSEC's academic environment.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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Across disciplines, teaching at the Bard Early Colleges employs practices developed at the Bard Institute for Writing and Thinking to advance the philosophy that “Writing is both a record of completed thought and an exploratory process that supports teaching and learning across disciplines. At all levels writing allows the writer to discover what she or he wants to say.” Students and their teachers write together using various classroom exercises and teaching methods to respond to texts reflecting diverse genres, voices, and perspectives. This written dialog then becomes the basis for classroom discussion.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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Bard High School Early College Bronx Bard High School Early College Manhattan Bard High School Early College Queens Bard High School Early College Newark Bard High School Early College Cleveland Bard High School Early College Cleveland East Bard High School Early College Baltimore Bard High School Early College DC
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_High_School_Early_College
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