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Several humanistic psychologists, most notably Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erich Fromm, developed theories and practices pertaining to human happiness and flourishing. More recently, positive psychologists have found empirical support for the humanistic theories of flourishing. In addition, positive psychology has moved ahead in a variety of new directions.
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In 1984, psychologist Ed Diener published his tripartite model of subjective well-being, which posited "three distinct but often related components of wellbeing: frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and cognitive evaluations such as life satisfaction." In this model, cognitive, affective and contextual factors contribute to subjective well-being. According to Diener and Suh, subjective well-being is "based on the idea that how each person thinks and feels about his or her life is important.
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"Carol Ryff's Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being was published in 1989, and additional testing of its factors was published in 1995. It postulates that self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations with others are key to well-being.According to Corey Keyes, who collaborated with Carol Ryff and uses the term flourishing as a central concept, mental well-being has three components: hedonic (i.e. subjective or emotional), psychological, and social well-being. Hedonic well-being concerns emotional aspects of well-being, whereas psychological and social well-being, e.g. eudaimonic well-being, concerns skills, abilities, and optimal functioning. This tripartite model of mental well-being has received extensive empirical support across cultures.
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Before the use of the term "positive psychology" there were researchers who focused on topics that would now be included under the umbrella of positive psychology. Some view positive psychology as a meeting of Eastern thought, such as Buddhism, and Western psychodynamic approaches. The historical roots of positive psychology are found in the teachings of Aristotle, whose Nicomachean Ethics teaches the cultivation of virtue as the means of attaining happiness and well-being, which he referred to as eudaimonia.
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There is no accepted "gold standard" theory in positive psychology. However, the work of Seligman is regularly quoted. So too the work of Csikszentmihalyi and older models of well-being, such as Carol Ryff's six-factor model of psychological well-being and Diener's tripartite model of subjective well-being. Later, Paul Wong introduced the concept of Second Wave Positive Psychology.
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In Authentic Happiness (2002) Seligman proposed three kinds of a happy life that can be investigated: Pleasant life: research into the Pleasant Life, or the "life of enjoyment," examines how people optimally experience, forecast, and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g., relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.). Seligman says this most transient element of happiness may be the least important. Good Life: investigation of the beneficial effects of immersion, absorption, and flow felt by individuals when optimally engaged with their primary activities, is the study of the Good Life, or the "life of engagement." Flow is experienced when there is a match between a person's strength and their current task, i.e., when one feels confident of accomplishing a chosen or assigned task. Meaningful Life: inquiry into the Meaningful Life, or "life of affiliation," questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more enduring than themselves (e.g., nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).
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In Flourish (2011), Seligman argued that the last category of his proposed three kinds of a happy life, "meaningful life," can be considered as three different categories. The resulting summary for this theory is the mnemonic acronym PERMA: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments. Positive emotions include a wide range of feelings, not just happiness and joy, but excitement, satisfaction, pride, and awe, amongst others. These are connected to positive outcomes, such as longer life and healthier social relationships.
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Engagement refers to involvement in activities that draw and build upon one's interests. Csikszentmihalyi explains true engagement as flow, a state of deep effortless involvement, a feeling of intensity that leads to a sense of ecstasy and clarity. The task being done must call upon a particular skill and it should be possible while being a little bit challenging.
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Engagement involves passion for and concentration on the task at hand - complete absorption and loss of self-consciousness. Relationships are essential in fueling positive emotions, whether they are work-related, familial, romantic, or platonic. As Peterson puts it, "other people matter."
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Humans receive, share, and spread positivity to others through relationships. Relationships are important in bad times and good times. Relationships can be strengthened by reacting to one another positively.
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Typically positive things take place in the presence of other people. Meaning is also known as purpose, and answers the question of "why?" Discovering a clear "why" puts everything into context from work to relationships to other parts of life.
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Finding meaning is learning that there is something greater than oneself. Working with meaning drives people to continue striving for a desirable goal. Accomplishments are the pursuit of success and mastery.
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Unlike the other parts of PERMA, they are sometimes pursued even when accomplishments do not result in positive emotions, meaning, or relationships. Accomplishments can activate other elements of PERMA, such as pride, under positive emotion. Accomplishments can be individual or community-based, fun- or work-based.Each of the five PERMA elements was selected according to three criteria: It contributes to well-being. It is pursued for its own sake. It is defined and measured independently of the other elements.
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The Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook (2004) was the first attempt by Seligman and Peterson to identify and classify positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provided a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. It identified six classes of virtues (i.e., "core virtues"), underlying 24 measurable character strengths.The CSV suggested these six virtues have a historical basis in the vast majority of cultures and that they can lead to increased happiness when built upon. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality leads to three theories; 1) The study of positive human qualities broadens the scope of psychological research to include mental wellness, 2) the leaders of the positive psychology movement challenge moral relativism by suggesting people are "evolutionarily predisposed" toward certain virtues, and 3) virtue has a biological basis.The organization of the six virtues and 24 strengths is as follows: Wisdom and knowledge: creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective, innovation, prudence Courage: bravery, persistence, vitality, zest Humanity: love, kindness, social intelligence Justice: citizenship, fairness, leadership, integrity, excellence Temperance: forgiveness and mercy, humility, self-control Transcendence: appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, humor, spiritualitySubsequent research challenged the need for six virtues.
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Instead, researchers suggested the 24 strengths are more accurately grouped into just three or four categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths, or alternatively, Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness. These strengths, and their classifications, have emerged independently elsewhere in literature on values. Paul Thagard described examples, which included Jeff Shrager's workshops to discover the habits of highly creative people. Some research indicates that well-being effects that appear to be due to spirituality are actually better described as due to virtue.
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In the 1970s, psychologist Csikszentmihalyi began studying flow, a state of absorption where one's abilities are well-matched to the demands at-hand. He often refers to it as "optimal experience". Flow is characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is intrinsically rewarding; it can also assist in the achievement of goals (e.g., winning a game) or improving skills (e.g., becoming a better chess player).
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Anyone can experience flow and it can be felt in different domains, such as play, creativity, and work. Flow is achieved when the challenge of the situation meets one's personal abilities. A mismatch of challenge for someone of low skills results in a state of anxiety and feeling overwhelmed; insufficient challenge for someone highly skilled results in boredom.
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A good example of this would be an adult reading a children's book. They would not feel challenged enough to be engaged or motivated in the reading. Csikszentmihalyi explained this using various combinations of challenge and skills to predict psychological states.
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These four states included the following: Apathy low challenge and low skill(s) Relaxation low challenge and high skill(s) Anxiety high challenge and low skill(s) Flow high challenge and high skill(s)Accordingly, an adult reading a children's book would most likely be in the relaxation state. The adult has no need to worry that the task will be more than they can handle.
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Challenge is a well-founded explanation for how one enters the flow state and employs intense concentration. However, other factors contribute. For example, one must be intrinsically motivated to participate in the activity/challenge. If the individual is not interested in the task, then there is no possibility of their being absorbed into the flow state.
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Flow can be beneficial in parenting children. When flow is enhanced between parents and their children, the parents are more capable of thriving in their role as a parent. A parenting style that is positively oriented will result in children that experience lower levels of stress and improved well-being.Flow also has benefits in a school setting. When students are in a state of flow they are fully engaged, leading to better retention of information.
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Students who experience flow have a more enjoyable and rewarding experience. Reduced stress can also be a benefit of this state which helps with students' mental health and well-being. As well as increased resilience this also helps students to overcome challenges or setbacks by teaching them a growth mindset.Most teachers and parents want students become more engaged and interested in the classroom.
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The design of the education system was not able to account for such needs. One school implemented a program called PASS. They acknowledged that students needed more challenge and individual advancement; they referred to this as sport culture.
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This PASS program integrated an elective class into which students could immerse themselves. Such activities included self-paced learning, mastery-based learning, performance learning, and so on.Flow benefits general well-being. It is a positive and intrinsically motivating experience.
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It is known to "produce intense feelings of enjoyment". It can improve our lives by making them happier and more meaningful. Csikszentmihalyi discovered that our personal growth and development generates happiness. Flow is positive experience because it promotes that opportunity for personal development.
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While Flow can be beneficial to students, narrow focus when students are experiencing Flow can cause them to become overly focused on a particular task. This can lead to students neglecting other important aspects of their learning.In positive psychology there can be misunderstandings on what clinicians and individuals define as positive. In certain instances, positive qualities, such as optimism, can be detrimental to health, and therefore appear as a negative quality. Alternatively, negative processes, such as anxiety, can be conducive to health and stability and thus would appear as a positive quality. Due to this shortcoming from the initial wave of positive psychology, there has since been a second wave that has further identified and characterized "positive" and "negative" complexes through the use of critical and dialectical thinking. Researchers in 2016 chose to identify these characteristics via two complexes: post-traumatic growth and love as well as optimism vs pessimism.
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Paul Wong introduced the idea of a second wave of positive psychology, focused on the pursuit of meaning in life, which he contrasted with the pursuit of happiness in life. Ivtzan, Lomas, Hefferon, and Worth have recast positive psychology as being about positive outcome or positive mental health, and have explored the positive outcomes of embracing negative emotions and pessimism. Second Wave Positive Psychology proposes that it is better to accept and transform the meaning of suffering than it is to avoid suffering.In 2016, Lomas and Itzvan proposed that human flourishing (their goal for positive psychology) is about embracing dialectic interplay of positive and negative. That phenomena cannot be determined to be positive or negative independent of context.
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Some of their examples included: The dialectic of optimism and pessimism: Optimism is associated with longevity, but strategic pessimism can lead to more effective planning and decision making. The dialectic of self-esteem and humility: Self-esteem is related to well-being, but pursuit of self-esteem can increase depression. Humility can be either low self-opinion or it can lead to prosocial action. The dialectic of forgiveness and anger: Forgiveness has been associated with well-being, but people who are more forgiving of abuse may suffer prolonged abuse. While anger has been presented as a destructive emotion, it can also be a moral emotion and drawn upon to confront injustices.In 2019, Wong proposed four principles of Second Wave Positive Psychology: Accepting and confronting with courage the reality that life is full of evil and suffering; Sustainable wellbeing can only be achieved through overcoming suffering and the dark side of life; Recognizing that everything in life comes in polarities and the importance of achieving an adaptive balance through dialectics; Learning from indigenous psychology, such as the ancient wisdom of finding deep joy in bad situationsSecond Wave Positive Psychology is sometimes abbreviated as PP 2.0.
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Topical and methodological development expanded the field of positive psychology beyond its core theories and methods. Positive psychology is now a global area of study, with various national indices tracking citizens' happiness ratings.
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Research in positive psychology, well-being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes, and Seligman cover a broad range of topics including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life." A meta-analysis on 49 studies in 2009 showed that Positive Psychology Interventions (PPI) produced improvements in well-being and lower depression levels; the PPIs studied included writing gratitude letters, learning optimistic thinking, replaying positive life experiences and socializing with others. In a later meta-analysis of 39 studies with 6,139 participants in 2012, the outcomes were positive. Three to six months after a PPI the effects for subjective well-being and psychological well-being were still significant.
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However the positive effect was weaker than in the 2009 meta-analysis; the authors concluded that this was because they only used higher quality studies. The PPIs they considered included counting blessings, kindness practices, making personal goals, showing gratitude and focusing on personal strengths. Another review of PPIs published in 2018 found that over 78% of intervention studies were conducted in Western countries.In the textbook Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness, authors Compton and Hoffman give the "Top Down Predictors" of well-being as high self esteem, optimism, self efficacy, a sense of meaning in life, and positive relationships with others.
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The personality traits most associated with well-being are extraversion, agreeability, and low levels of neuroticism. In a study published in 2020, students were enrolled in a positive psychology course that focused on improving happiness and well-being through teaching about positive psychology. The participants answered questions pertaining to the five PERMA categories.
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At the end of the semester those same students reported significantly higher scores in all categories (p<.001) minus engagement which was significant at p<.05. One of the aims of this study was to make it rewarding for positive psychology interventions to stay in the participants lives. The authors stated, “Not only do students learn and get credit, there is also a good chance that many will reap the benefits in what is most important to them - their health, happiness, and well-being.”
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Quantitative methods in positive psychology include p-technique factor analysis, dynamic factor analysis, interindividual differences and structural equation modeling, spectral analysis and item response models, dynamic systems analysis, latent growth analysis, latent-class models, hierarchical linear modeling, measurement invariance, experimental methods, behavior genetics, and integration of quantitative and qualitative approaches.
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A 2012 Journal of Positive Psychology article published by Grant J. Rich explores the use of qualitative methodology to study positive psychology. Rich addresses the popularity of quantitative methods in studying the empirical questions that positive psychology presents. He argues that there is an "overemphasis" on quantitative methods and suggests implementing qualitative methods, such as semi-structured interviews, observations, fieldwork, creative artwork, and focus groups. Rich states that qualitative approaches will further promote the "flourishing of positive psychology" and encourages such practice.
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Changing happiness levels through interventions is a further methodological advancement in the study of positive psychology, and has been the focus of various academic and scientific psychological publications. Happiness-enhancing interventions include expressing kindness, gratitude, optimism, humility, awe, and mindfulness. In 2005, Sonja Lyubomirsky, Kennon M. Sheldon, and David Schkade co-authored a paper in the Review of General Psychology.
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In their research, they created a behavioral experiment using two six-week interventions. One intervention studied was the performance of acts of kindness. The other was focused on gratitude and emphasized the counting of one's blessings.
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The study participants who went through the behavioral interventions reported higher levels of happiness and well-being than those who did not participate in either intervention. The paper provides experimental support for the effect of gratitude and kindness on enhancing subjective well-being and happiness. Further research conducted by Sonja Lyubomirsky, Rene Dickerhoof, Julia K. Boehm, and Kennon M. Sheldon, published in 2011 in Emotion, found that the interventions of expressing optimism and expressing gratitude enhanced subjective well-being in participants who took part in the intervention for eight months.
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The researchers concluded that interventions are "most successful when participants know about, endorse, and commit to the intervention." The article provides support that when individuals enthusiastically take part in behavioral interventions, such as expression of optimism and gratitude, they may increase happiness and subjective well-being. In 2014, Elliott Kruse, Joseph Chancellor, Peter M. Ruberton, and Sonja Lyubomirsky published an article in Social Psychological and Personality Science.
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They studied the interaction effects between gratitude and humility through behavior interventions. The interventions they studied were writing a gratitude letter and writing a 14-day diary. In both interventions, Kruse, et al. found that gratitude and humility are connected and are "mutually reinforcing."
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The article also discusses how gratitude, and its associated humility, may lead to more positive emotional states and subjective well-being. Researchers Melanie Rudd, Kathleen D. Vohs, and Jennifer Aaker conducted a series of experiments that showed a positive effect of awe on subjective well-being, publishing their results in 2012 in Psychological Science. Their research found that individuals who felt awe also reported feeling they had more time, more preference for experiential expenditures than material expenditures, and greater life satisfaction.
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Experiences that heighten awe may lead to higher levels of life satisfaction and, in turn, higher levels of happiness and subjective well-being. Mindfulness interventions may also increase happiness. In a Mindfulness article published in 2011 by Torbjörn Josefsson, Pernilla Larsman, Anders G. Broberg, and Lars-Gunnar Lundh, it was found that meditation improves subjective well-being for individuals who mindfully meditate. The researchers note that being mindful in meditation includes awareness and observation of one's meditation practice, with non-reaction and non-judgmental sentiments during meditation.
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The creation of various national indices of happiness have expanded the field of positive psychology to a global scale. In a January 2000 article in American Psychologist, psychologist Ed Diener argued for the creation of a national happiness index in the United States. Such an index would provide measurements of happiness, or subjective well-being, within the United States and across many other countries in the world. Diener argued that national indices would be helpful markers or indicators of population happiness, providing a sense of current ratings and a tracker of happiness across time.
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Diener proposed that the national index include various sub-measurements of subjective well-being, including "pleasant affect, unpleasant affect, life satisfaction, fulfillment, and more specific states such as stress, affection, trust, and joy." In 2012, the first World Happiness Report was published. The World Happiness Report was initiated by the UN General Assembly in June 2011, which passed the Bhutanese Resolution.
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The Bhutanese Resolution called for nations across the world to "give more importance to happiness and well-being in determining how to achieve and measure social and economic development." The data for the World Happiness Reports is collected in partnership with the Gallup World Poll's life evaluations and annual happiness rankings. The World Happiness Report bases its national rankings on how happy constituents self-report and believe themselves to be.
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The first World Happiness Report, published in 2012, details the state of world happiness, the causes of happiness and misery, policy implications from happiness reports, and three case studies of subjective well-being for 1) Bhutan and its Gross National Happiness index, 2) the U.K. Office for National Statistics Experience, and 3) happiness in the member countries within the OECD. The World Happiness Report published in 2020 is the eighth publication in the series of reports.
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It is the first World Happiness Report to include happiness rankings of cities across the world, in addition to rankings of 156 countries. The city of Helsinki, Finland was reported as the city with the highest subjective well-being ranking, and the country of Finland was reported as the country with the highest subjective well-being ranking for the third year in a row. The 2020 report provides insights on happiness based on environmental conditions, social conditions, urban-rural happiness differentials, and sustainable development. It also provides possible explanations for why Nordic countries have consistently ranked in the top ten happiest countries in the World Happiness Report since 2013, which include Nordic countries' high-quality government benefits and protections to its citizens, including welfare benefits and well-operated democratic institutions, as well as social connections, bonding, and trust.Additional national well-being indices and reported statistics include the Gallup Global Emotions Report, Gallup Sharecare Well-Being Index, Global Happiness Council's Global Happiness and Well-being Policy Report, Happy Planet Index, Indigo Wellness Index, OECD Better Life Index, and UN Human Development Reports.
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Positive psychology influenced other academic fields of study and scholarship, notably organizational behavior, education, and psychiatry.
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Positive Organizational Scholarship (POS), also referred to as Positive Organizational Behavior (POB), began as an application of positive psychology to the field of organizational behavior. One of the first times the term was defined was in 2003, in Positive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New Discipline edited by University of Michigan Ross School of Business professors Kim S. Cameron, Jane E. Dutton, and Robert E. Quinn. In the first chapter, Cameron, Dutton, and Quinn promote "the best of the human condition," such as goodness, compassion, resilience, and positive human potential, as an organizational goal as important as financial success. The goal of POS is to study the factors that create positive work experiences and successful, people-oriented outcomes.
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A collection of POS research is in the 2011 volume The Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship, edited by University of Michigan Ross School of Business Professors Kim S. Cameron and Gretchen M. Spreitzer. This volume covers topics including positive human resource practices, positive organizational practices, and positive leadership and change. It expands upon and applies core concepts of positive psychology to the workplace context, covering areas such as positive individual attributes, positive emotions, strengths and virtues, and positive relationships.
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A further definition of POS, as written by editors Cameron and Spreitzer:Positive organizational scholarship rigorously seeks to understand what represents the best of the human condition based on scholarly research and theory. Just as positive psychology focuses on exploring optimal individual psychological states rather than pathological ones, organizational scholarship focuses attention on the generative dynamics in organizations that lead to the development of human strength, foster resiliency in employees, enable healing and restoration, and cultivate extraordinary individual and organizational performance. POS emphasizes what elevates individuals and organizations (in addition to what challenges them), what goes right in organizations (in addition to what goes wrong), what is life-giving (in addition to what is problematic or life-depleting), what is experienced as good (in addition to what is objectionable), and what is inspiring (in addition to what is difficult or arduous).
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Positive psychology influenced psychiatry and led to more widespread promotion of aides and practices including well-being therapy, positive psychotherapy, and an integration of positive psychology in therapeutic practice.In an 2015 article in Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, Mills and Kreutzer argue for the principles of positive psychology to be implemented to assist those recovering from traumatic brain injury (TBI). They make the case that TBI rehabilitation practices rely on bettering the patient's life through getting them to engage (or re-engage) in normal everyday practices, an idea which is related to tenets of positive psychology. Their proposal to connect positive psychology with TBI vocational rehabilitation also looks at happiness and its correlation with improvements in mental health, including increased confidence and productivity. While the authors point out that empirical evidence for positive psychology is limited, they clarify that positive psychology's focus on small successes, optimism, and prosocial behavior promises to improve the social and emotional well-being of TBI patients.
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Positive psychology is a subject of popular books and films, and influenced the wellness industry.
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Several popular psychology books have been written for a general audience. Ilona Boniwell's Positive Psychology in a Nutshell provided a summary of the research. According to Boniwell, well-being is related to optimism, extraversion, social connections (i.e., close friendships), being married, having engaging work, religion or spirituality, leisure, good sleep and exercise, social class (through lifestyle differences and better coping methods), and subjective health (what you think about your health). Boniwell writes that well-being is not related to age, physical attractiveness, money (once basic needs are met), gender (women are more often depressed but also more often joyful), educational level, having children (although they add meaning to life), moving to a sunnier climate, crime prevention, housing, and objective health (what doctors say).
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Sonja Lyubomirsky's The How of Happiness provides advice and guidance on how to improve happiness. According to this book, individuals should create new habits, seek out new emotions, use variety and timing to prevent hedonic adaptation, and enlist others to motivate and support the creation of those new habits. Lyubomirsky recommends 12 happiness activities, including savoring life, learning to forgive, and living in the present. Stumbling on Happiness by Daniel Gilbert shares positive psychology research suggesting that individuals are often poor at predicting what will make them happy and that individuals are prone to misevaluating the causes of their happiness. He notes that the subjectivity of well-being and happiness often is the most difficult challenge to overcome in predicting future happiness, as our future selves may have different perspectives on life than our current selves.
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The film industry has noticed positive psychology, and films have also spurred new research within positive psychology. Happy is a full-length documentary film covering the fields of positive psychology and neuroscience. It highlights case studies on happiness across diverse cultures and geographies.
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The film features interviews with notable positive psychologists and scholars, including Gilbert, Diener, Lyubomirsky, and Csikszentmihalyi.The Positive Psychology News website includes a section on Positive Psychology Movie Awards that ranks a short list of feature films of 2009, 2014, and annually between 2016 and 2018, that feature messages of positive psychology. The rankings are according to the website's author, Ryan Niemiec, a psychologist, coach, and education director of the VIA Institute on Character. The Awards are in categories including Best Positive Psychology Film, Award for Positive Relationships, Award for Meaning, Award for Achievement, Award for Mindfulness, Award for Happiness, and Signature Strengths Use. The VIA Institute has done other research on positive psychology represented in feature films. Contemporary and popular films that promote or represent character strengths are the basis for various academic articles.
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The growing popularity and attention given to positive psychology research has influenced industry growth, development, and consumption of products and services meant to cater to wellness and well-being. In 2018, the wellness industry represented 5.3% of global economic output.According to the Global Wellness Institute, as of 2020, the global wellness economy is valued at US$4.4 trillion; the key sectors of the industry included Nutrition, Personal Care and Beauty, and Physical activity, while the Mental wellness and Public health sectors made up over $0.5billion. Companies highlight happiness and well-being in their marketing strategies.
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Food and beverage companies such as Coca-Cola and Pocky, whose motto is "Share happiness! ", emphasize happiness in their commercials, branding, and descriptions. CEOs at retail companies such as Zappos have profited by publishing books detailing how they deliver happiness, while Amazon's logo features a dimpled smile.
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Many aspects of positive psychology have been criticized.
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In 1988, psychologists Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathan D. Brown co-authored a Psychological Bulletin article that coined the phrase positive illusions. Positive illusions are the cognitive processes individuals engage in when they self-aggrandize or self-enhance. They are unrealistically positive or self-affirming attitudes that individuals hold about themselves, their position, or their environment. They are attitudes of extreme optimism that endure in the face of facts and real conditions Taylor and Brown suggested that positive illusions protect individuals from negative feedback that they might receive, and this, in turn, preserves their psychological adaptation and subjective well-being.
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However, later research found that positive illusions and related attitudes lead to psychological maladaptive conditions such as poorer social relationships, expressions of narcissism, and negative workplace outcomes, thus reducing the positive effects that positive illusions have on subjective well-being, overall happiness, and life satisfaction. Kirk Schneider, editor of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology, said that positive psychology fails to explain past heinous behaviors such as those perpetrated by the Nazi party, Stalinist marches, and Klan gatherings. He pointed to research showing high positivity correlates with positive illusion, which distorts reality.
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The extent of the downfall of high positivity or flourishing is one could become incapable of psychological growth, unable to self-reflect, and tend to hold racial biases. By contrast, negativity, sometimes evidenced in mild to moderate depression, is correlated with less distortion of reality.
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Therefore, Schneider argues, negativity might play an important role within the dynamics of human flourishing. Engaging in conflict and acknowledging appropriate negativity, including certain negative emotions like guilt, might better promote flourishing. Schneider wrote: "perhaps genuine happiness is not something you aim at, but is... a by-product of a life well lived - and a life well lived does not settle on the programmed or neatly calibrated."
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In 2003, Ian Sample noted that "Positive psychologists also stand accused of burying their heads in the sand and ignoring that depressed, even merely unhappy people, have real problems that need dealing with." He quoted Steven Wolin, a clinical psychiatrist at George Washington University, as saying that the study of positive psychology is just a reiteration of older ways of thinking, and that there is not much scientific research to support the efficacy of this method. Psychological researcher Shelly Gable responds by saying that they are just bringing a balance to a side of psychology that is glaringly understudied. She points to imbalances favoring research into negative psychological well-being in cognitive psychology, health psychology, and social psychology.Psychologist Jack Martin maintained that positive psychology is not unique in its optimistic approach to emotional well-being, stating that other forms of psychology, such as counseling and educational psychology, are also interested in positive human fulfillment.
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He said while positive psychology pushed for schools to be more student-centered and able to foster positive self-images in children, he worried that a lack of focus on self-control may prevent children from making full contributions to society. If positive psychology is not implemented correctly, it can cause more harm than good. This is the case, for example, when interventions in school are coercive (in the sense of being imposed on everyone without regard for the individual child's reason for negativity) and fail to take each student's context into account.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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Barbara S. Held, a professor at Bowdoin College, argued that while positive psychology makes contributions to the field of psychology, it has its faults: negative side effects of positive psychology, negativity within the positive psychology movement, and the division in the field of psychology caused by differing opinions of psychologists on positive psychology. She noted the movement's lack of consistency regarding the role of negativity. She also raised issues with the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology.
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A "one size fits all" approach is arguably not beneficial to the advancement of the field of positive psychology; she suggested a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its application. By teaching young people that being confident and optimistic leads to success, when they are unsuccessful they may believe this is because they are insecure or pessimistic. This could lead them to believe that any negative internal thought or feeling they may experience is damaging to their happiness and should be steered clear of completely.Held preferred the Second Wave Positive Psychology message of embracing the dialectic nature of positive and negative, but then questioned the need to call it 'positive' psychology at all.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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A recent critical response to the field of positive psychology is that around toxic positivity. Toxic positivity is the phenomenon in which individuals do not fully acknowledge, process, or manage the entire spectrum of human emotion, including anger and sadness. This genre of criticism against positive psychology argues that the field places too much importance on "upbeat thinking, while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to the side." Individuals who engage in a constant chase for positive experiences or states of high subjective well-being may inadvertently stigmatize negative emotional conditions such as depression, or may suppress natural emotional responses, such as sadness, regret, or stress. Furthermore, by not allowing negative emotional states to be experienced, or by suppressing and hiding negative emotional responses, individuals may experience harmful physical, cardiovascular, and respiratory consequences. Proponents of combating toxic positivity advocate allowing oneself to accept and fully experience negative emotional states.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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Richard Lazarus, who was well known in psychology for his Cognitive-Motivational-Relational theory of emotions, thoroughly critiqued positive psychology's methodological and philosophical components. He holds that giving more detail and insight into the positive is not bad, but not at the expense of the negative, because the two (positive and negative) are inseparable. The first methodological issue noted is positive psychology's use of correlational and cross-sectional research designs to indicate causality between the movement's ideas and healthy lives; there could be other factors not researched and time differences that account for healthier lives that the researchers do not account for. Secondly, he asserts that emotions cannot be categorized dichotomously into positive and negative; by nature, emotions are subjective and rich in social/relational meaning.
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Additionally, he claims that emotions are fluid, meaning that the context they appear in changes over time. He states that "all emotions have the potential of being either one or the other, or both, on different occasions, and even on the same occasion when an emotion is experienced by different persons" The third issue is the neglect of individual differences in most social science research. Many research designs focus on the statistical significance of the groups while overlooking differences among individuals.
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Lazarus's final methodological complaint is social science researchers' tendency to not adequately define and measure emotions. Most assessments are quick checklists and do not provide adequate debriefing. Many researchers do not differentiate between fluid emotional states and relatively stable personality traits.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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Lazarus holds that positive psychology claims to be new and innovative but the majority of research on stress and coping theory makes much of the same claims as positive psychology. The movement attempts to uplift and reinforce the positive aspects of one's life, but everyone in life experiences stress and hardship. Coping through these events should not be looked at as adapting to failures, but should be regarded as successfully navigating stress, but the movement doesn't hold that perspective. Another critique of positive psychology is that it has been developed from a Eurocentric worldview. Intersectionality has become a methodological concern regarding studies within Positive Psychology.A literature review in 2022 noted several criticisms of the area, including lack of conceptual thinking, problematic measurements, poor replication of results, self-isolation from mainstream psychology, decontextualization and being used for capitalism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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The Comprehensive Soldier Fitness (CSF) program was established in 2008 by then-Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General George W. Casey, Jr., in an effort to address increasing rates of drug abuse, family violence, PTSD, and suicide among soldiers. The Army contracted with Seligman's Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania to supply a program based on the center's Penn Resiliency Program, which was designed for 10- to 14-year-old children. Although Seligman proposed starting with a small-scale pilot-test, General Casey insisted on immediately rolling out the CSF to the entire Army. Interviewed for the journal Monitor on Psychology of the American Psychological Association, Seligman said that "This is the largest study - 1.1 million soldiers - psychology has ever been involved in."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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According to journalist Jesse Singal, "It would become one of the largest mental-health interventions geared at a single population in the history of humanity, and possibly the most expensive. "Some psychologists criticized the CSF for various reasons. Nicholas J.L.
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Brown wrote that, "The idea that techniques that have demonstrated, at best, marginal effects in reducing depressive symptoms in school-age children could also prevent the onset of a condition that is associated with some of the most extreme situations with which humans can be confronted is a remarkable one that does not seem to be backed up by empirical evidence. "Stephen Soldz of the Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis cited Seligman's acknowledgment that the CSF is a gigantic study rather than a program based on proven techniques, and questioned the ethics of requiring soldiers to participate in research without informed consent. Soldz also criticized the CSF training for trying to build up-beat attitudes toward combat: "Might soldiers who have been trained to resiliently view combat as a growth opportunity be more likely to ignore or under-estimate real dangers, thereby placing themselves, their comrades, or civilians at heightened risk of harm?
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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"In 2021 the Chronicle of Higher Education carried a debate between Singal and Seligman about whether, with the CSF well into its second decade, there was any solid evidence of its effectiveness. Singal cited studies that, he said, failed to find any measurable benefits from such positive psychology techniques, and he criticized the Army's own reports as methodologically unsound and lacking peer review. Seligman said that Singal had misinterpreted the studies and ignored the Army's positive feedback from soldiers, one of whom told Seligman that "if I had had this training years ago, it would have saved my marriage."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology
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Iron Man 2020 is a fictional storyline published by Marvel Comics in 2020 which follows the character Arno Stark as he attempts to take over Stark Industries and the mantle of his estranged brother Tony Stark (Iron Man). The crossover⸺characters of two different brands meeting up in one storyline⸺received mixed reviews from critics.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Marvel Comics released the teaser for the event at New York Comic Con in November 2019. It was also alluded to in December 2019's Incoming!In the original checklist released for the event, 2020 Force Works was originally titled Force Works 2020, while 2020 Machine Man was previously named Machine Man 2020, and so on. Additionally, 2020 Wolverine was going to be called Weapon.EXE 2020.The publication of this event was intended to span from January to June 2020, however, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Diamond Comic Distributors suspended the distribution of new print titles between April 1 and May 27, which also caused digital releases by Marvel Entertainment to be postponed. The rescheduling of the postponed issues to new dates pushed the event's conclusion to August, and certain issues, namely 2020 Force Works #3 and 2020 Ironheart #1–2, were released exclusively in a digital format.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Arno Stark wakes up from a nightmare involving the Extinction Entity, which is a ghastly, colossal amalgamation of alien and machine. He dreams that the Extinction Entity is going to come to Earth in a matter of weeks and create an artificial intelligence (A.I.) army to consume humanity. After eating breakfast with the duplicates of Howard Stark and Maria Stark, Arno suits up as Iron Man and saves a construction worker from a hostage situation involving several Nick Fury Life Model Decoys which represent the A.I.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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army trying to liberate construction robots. Over different news outlets, the media wonders about the whereabouts of Tony Stark, who declared himself as nothing more than a simulation of the real, late Tony Stark. At the A.I.
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army's base, Machine Man is commanding the robots' moves when Arno appears, having planned for the A.I. army's leader to show himself. Machine Man activates the bomb, forcing Arno to fly it away so it explodes somewhere safe while he escapes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Machine Man uses the hospital's elevator to reach the Thirteenth Floor, a dimensional-shunted plane of existence made of solid light, and a haven for robotkind that humans can't access or even comprehend. Aaron introduces the bomb disposal robot to the leader of the A.I. army and creator of Thirteenth Floor: Tony Stark -- who is now going by the name Mark One and wears a reconstruction of the Iron Man Armor Mark 1 having embraced his nature as artificial intelligence.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Also in the A.I. army are Albert (the cyborg clone of Wolverine), Awesome Android, some Constructo-Bots, some Dreadnoughts, Egghead II, H.E.R.B.I.E., M-11, Machinesmith, Quasimodo, a Sentinel, and Super-Adaptoid.The A.I.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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army continues its efforts to liberate artificial life forms by raiding places where robots are being subjugated. Iron Man intercepts an attack on a Futura Motors testing site by Quasimodo and H.E.R.B.I.E.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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and manages to recover an Un-Inhibitor allowing him to take control of all A.I.s. On the Thirteenth Floor, Mark One receives a transmission from a mole inside Baintronics -- codenamed Ghost in the Machine --revealing that Arno used the submission code on Jocasta, who received a new body as well, making her entirely compliant. Stark plans to upload the submission code to the internet to instantly infect every single robot online.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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With only three hours before the code is transmitted to Stark Unlimited's satellite network, Mark One devises a heist on the newly built Bain Tower to tamper with the code before its launch. Having discovered the secret behind the Thirteenth Floor, Arno shuts out the A.I. army, uses Jocasta to lure Machine Man away from the tower, infects Machinesmith with the submission code, and confronts Mark One.H.E.R.B.I.E., Awesome Android, and Machinesmith manage to escape from Bain Tower and get out of range of its jamming signal, allowing the latter to call for help to every robot in New York City.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Mark One is left to fight Iron Man and is defeated. Meanwhile, Sunset Bain confronts and fires Andy Bhang under the accusation of being the mole inside Stark Unlimited, and feeding Bethany Cabe information to relay to the A.I. army.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Arno takes Mark One to his living quarters inside Bain Tower to meet the duplicates he created of Howard and Maria Stark and asks Tony to join him, but he refuses and dismisses his rationale as lunacy. The robotic mob assembled by Machine Man reaches Bain Tower, giving Mark a distraction which allows him to fly off and disable the transmission dish from which Arno intends to broadcast the obedience O.S. to subjugate every robot.
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Tony manages to stop the upload and make the antenna unusable. In retaliation, Arno fires all of his armor's firepower at Tony as he falls to the ground.Tony Stark's remaining allies escape with his body as Arno attacks the robot protesters. Tony wakes up inside the Thirteenth Floor where he is greeted by F.R.I.D.A.Y., who had plucked Tony's consciousness from his body during his fall.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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As "Ghost in the Machine," Friday tells them to share the counter-code worldwide. Days later, Machine Man takes Jocasta's head to Andy Bhang, who manages to de-program the submission code. Andy clarifies to Machine Man he isn't the mole inside Stark Unlimited and had only owned up to it to help the real mole.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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In the streets, Arno Stark tracks down the duplicates of his parents (who had escaped from Bain Tower) but they die from an illness inherited from Arno. In the Thirteenth Floor, Friday explains to Tony that when Motherboard tried to kill her, her code became assimilated into the eScape and then into the Thirteenth Floor after Tony reformatted the eScape into it. She tries to convince Tony that he is not an A.I.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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duplicate. When Sunset objects to Arno creating new bodies for his parents and trying to control people, he reveals she is an A.I., a duplicate of the real Sunset Bain whom Arno replaced back when she solicited him to heal a scar on her face. He makes new bodies for Howard and Maria by recreating the Arsenal and Mistress bodies from the eScape.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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After learning of Arno's new plan, Dr. Shapiro (who is the actual mole) sneaks into a computer and warns Friday about it. When Friday relays that only Tony Stark can stop Arno, Tony insists that he isn't the real Tony Stark. but is confronted by holographic manifestations of himself in different points of his life, until they all merge into him and he acknowledges that he has always been Tony Stark.As Arno Stark sets off to the Stark Space Station to install his mind-controlling device to enslave all of humanity, Tony Stark's allies Pepper Potts, Riri Williams, Awesome Android, H.E.R.B.I.E., Machinesmith, Machine Man, and Albert assault the Stark Unlimited HQ, confronting Sunset Bain's duplicate, who goes by the name Madame Menace, and Arno's Iron Legion.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Jocasta uploads a submission code to Madame Menace and they place Tony's body inside a bio-pod that restores his body to normalcy, uploads his consciousness back into his body. Using the Thirteenth Floor's access mechanisms, Tony and his allies reach the Stark Space Station from one of the elevators within. Employing his new Virtual Armor, Tony defeats Arno in combat.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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When Arno prepares to activate his mind-controlling device, the Extinction Entity suddenly appears in front of the station.With the revelation that the Extinction Entity is real, and has arrived, Tony Stark and Arno team up as their allies help to fight the Extinction Entity. Arno ultimately defeats the Extinction Entity by willingly assimilating with it, causing it to explode and disappear due to Arno's paradoxical nature of being a human who is more A.I. at heart.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Following the Extinction Entity's defeat, Arno and Tony are suddenly back at the Stark Space Station. The story then reveals that Tony used the Virtual Armor to submerge Arno in a simulation, and the Extinction Entity that appeared was really an advanced hologram. The actual monster was nothing more than a delusion caused by Arno's relapse into his terminal, congenital disease, of which he would die by the end of 2020.
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Tony explains that he couldn't stop Arno from enslaving all of humanity before convincing him that he was wrong, so he decided to play up to his delusion to give him the happy ending he could not find in reality, and allows the Virtual Armor to take the place of the iron lung he used his entire life. Tony also convinced Mistress and Arsenal to download themselves into Arno's dream to keep him company, and prevent him from learning the truth. Afterwards, Jocasta uses the submission code to force Sunset Bain's duplicate to confess all of Baintronics' crimes, also claiming responsibility for tricking Tony into thinking he was an artificial intelligence and pulling the strings of the A.I.
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Army, putting an end to the robot revolution. Tony then uses a restorative pod to bring back James Rhodes and remove his phobia of suiting up, which had turned out to be caused by minor deviations in his genetic code. Tony Stark gives up Stark Unlimited to Bhang Robotics and he flies off in new armor, reasserting himself as Iron Man.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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Iron Man 2020 (vol. 2) #1–6
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Man_2020_(event)
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