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This person's actions in creating success were made in a high-risk environment, in which an observer might attribute this person's actions to heightened levels internal resolve, determination, and ability. Related attribution tendencies are depicted by the covariation and configuration concepts. The covariation concept posits that when an observer has information about an effect at two points in time, the observer will draw covariation attributions, in which one factor is associated in a certain direction with the other factor.
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The potential causes of the effect involve the person, the entity, and the time of the event. The phenomenology of attribution validity is born from this idea, in which responses to a particular stimulus are categorized by the distinctiveness of the effect in relation to the way other people and entities interact over time. The configuration concept builds on this phenomenon, where an observer uses a single observation to depict a causal inference between two factors, if there are no other plausible causes for the effect salient to the observer.The correspondence bias shows that people tend to assume that behavior is attributed to internal characteristics in the absence of other information. In sum, people tend to believe that behavior reveals internal dispositions.
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In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers found consistent preference among Americans for an individualistic view to explain poverty, which focuses the personal ability and effort-related factors. This individualistic view aligns with tendencies to blame the poor for their condition, since the causes of poverty are perceived to be from personal deficiencies. This stems from the American societal influence of meritocratic values. However, a study in 1996 in southern California found that structuralist views were more popular in explaining the causes of poverty, which displays more recently the influence of systemic and external drivers of poverty.
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The "underdog perspective" indicates that society's most disadvantaged groups, or underdogs, will support views that challenge the merit of the dominant group's privileged status. Studies in England and the United States found support for this perspective by demonstrating that participants who favored egalitarian policy views were more likely to be in minority racial groups (nonwhite), have occupations with relatively lower prestige, be part of families with lower income, and identify as lower and working class. This perspective was reinforced in a study in southern California that assessed beliefs about the causes of poverty as being either individualistic - driven by ability and effort - or situational - caused by external and systemic forces. Black and Latino participants, who are the minority in both southern California and in the U.S.
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at large, were more likely to favor the external determinants for poverty than white participants. Consistent with the underdog perspective, women were more likely to favor the structural determinants of poverty than men. Having lower income increased the likelihood of favoring the structural perspective on causes to poverty than individualistic determinants as well.In a study of Australian adults in 1989, attributions for poverty were associated with respondents' own explanations about their personal background. Individuals who felt that their experiences in life were driven by internal factors, such as their own disposition, efforts, and abilities, were more likely to attribute causes of poverty to internal factors. Individuals who felt that their life experiences were driven by chance or by other external factors outside one's control were associated with the sense that poverty was the result of societal or structural causes.
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There is evidence for associations between political ideology and attributions for poverty. Support for welfare policies, which is associated with more progressive political ideology, was positively associated with situational attributions for poverty and negatively associated with individualistic views. On the other hand, conservative ideology was linked to less favorable opinions, less empathy, and more dislike of the welfare client than people with more liberal views. Individuals with more societal determinations of poverty were less favorable towards politically conservative approaches to addressing poverty.
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In sociological studies, researchers have identified strong relationships between assigning blame on individuals who are poor for their disadvantage and the belief that welfare programs are overfunded. Participants' self reported ratings of conservatism were associated with support for an individualistic perspective on the causes of poverty, as well as the controllability of poverty, the amount of blame associated towards those who were in conditions of poverty, and anger felt towards individuals in poverty. The same investigation revealed that conservatism was negatively correlated with a sense of pity towards people in poverty and a lower tendency to have prosocial intentions to help those in poverty.
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People are motivated to form attributions that are consistent with perceptions of the world. One consistency is based in the just world hypothesis, in which people have a need to believe that the world is an orderly place, where people tend to get what they deserve. This belief affects a person's reaction to the suffering of others, where people tend to devalue those that appear to be suffering, primarily to fulfill this belief that people ultimately get the outcome in life that they deserve. Additional research contributes to these motivated attributions for poverty, identifying that just world beliefs are associated with negative attitudes towards people in poverty.
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American societal values, and the belief in the American Dream, are based in meritocracy, or the belief that people are rewarded for their merit. Evidence from this area of work highlights attributions for poverty among individuals who face poverty or are otherwise marginalized in society. In controlled studies, individuals from disadvantaged groups that considered meritocratic values justified the disadvantage that they faced both in their personal lives and for their groups by noting a decreased perception of discrimination and increase in self and own-group stereotyping.
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There is evidence that attributions for poverty are malleable. There have been experimental manipulations aimed at shifting attributions from dispositional to situational when considering the drivers of poverty. Some successful manipulations include writing exercises where individuals listed reasons why someone may be in poverty but does not deserve to be. Another experimental manipulation that shifted attributions from individual to situational involved simulations of poverty using the online game called SPENT, where participants must make a series of decisions on a very tight budget. In these experiments, participants with greater situational attributions for poverty were more likely to support egalitarian policy and wealth redistribution policy in the United States than participants with more dispositional attributions for poverty.
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Attributions for poverty are associated with tendencies to help those in poverty and to support policies related to addressing poverty. The perception that the cause of a person's need is due to controllable factors leads to neglect, while the perception of uncontrollable causes of need leads to feelings of pity and an increased tendency to offer help. Relatedly, people who were randomly assigned to a condition that induced situational attributions for poverty were more supportive of egalitarian policy positions and of wealth redistribution in the U.S.
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when compared with people who were assigned to a condition that induced individual attributions for poverty. There are individual, societal, and situational factors that inform perceptions about poverty, and these perceptions affect behaviors. == References ==
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Semiotic democracy is a phrase first coined by John Fiske, a media studies professor, in his seminal media studies book Television Culture (1987). Fiske defined the term as the "delegation of the production of meanings and pleasures to viewers. ": 236 Fiske discussed how rather than being passive couch potatoes that absorbed information in an unmediated way, viewers actually gave their own meanings to the shows they watched that often differed substantially from the meaning intended by the show's producer. Subsequently, this term was appropriated by the technical and legal community in the context of any re-working of cultural imagery by someone who is not the original author.
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Examples include fan fiction and slash fiction. Legal scholars are concerned that just as technology eases the process of cheaply making and distributing derivative works imbued with new cultural meanings available to wide public, copyright and right-to-publicity law is clamping down on and limiting these works, thus reducing their promulgation, and limiting semiotic democracy.Prof. Terry Fisher of Harvard Law School has written about semiotic democracy in the context of the crisis facing the entertainment industry and in terms of the ability of people to use the Internet in creative new ways.
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The National Curriculum of Northern Ireland identifies the minimum requirements of skills for each subject and the activities to develop and applied the skills .
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Before 1988 schools had total autonomy and teachers devised the curriculum for their pupils. Margaret Thatcher imposed the first 'common curriculum' for three of the four nations. Teachers opposed this prescriptive move.
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The first curriculum review took place in 1998–1999 in England and 2000–2004 in Northern Ireland, with a further review in Northern Ireland in 2010. The 1988 curriculum was rigidly defined by subject., prescribing both the content and the pedagogy, and had neither teacher input nor testing. It proved over-ambitious and content-laden and was unmanageable. Cross-curriculum working and personal development was not covered. In England the Dearing Report trimmed the content, but did not change the structure; the review in Northern Ireland was more thorough, and addressed the issue phase by phase.
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Language and Literacy Talking and Listening Reading Writing Mathematics and Numeracy Number Measures Shape and Space Sorting Patterns and Relationships The Arts Art and design Music Drama The World Around Us The World Around Us Personal Development and Mutual Understanding Personal Understanding and Health Mutual Understanding in the Local and Wider Community Physical Development and Movement Physical Development and Movement
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Areas of learning Language and Literacy Mathematics and Numeracy Modern Languages The Arts Environment and Society Science and Technology Learning for Life and Work Physical Education Cross-Curricular Skills Communication Using ICT Using Mathematics Other Skills Problem Solving Working with others Self-Management
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Key Stage 3 students are 11-14 year olds (Years 8, 9, and Year 10 in the Northern Ireland system). This is the first post-primary keystage.
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"Every school must offer at least 24 courses at Key Stage 4, and 27 in the post-16 category. In addition, at least one third of the courses offered must be general and one third applied; that is the minimum figure", said Peter Wier. This was subsequently reduced to 21- of which one-third must be general courses, and one third applied courses. All secondary schools in Northern Ireland are in Area Learning Communities (ALC) where they are encouraged to co-operate, and deliver 'shared education'.
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To fulfill the required 21 courses a school is encouraged run a joint course with a neighbouring school and extra funding is available to help them do so.Key Stage 4 students are 14 to 16 year olds (Year 11 and Year 12 in the Northern Ireland system). These students will study for GCSEs or an equivalent. Schools offer GCSE courses that map to the areas of learning- to provide a balanced offer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Curriculum
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Warren Sturgis McCulloch (November 16, 1898 – September 24, 1969) was an American neurophysiologist and cybernetician, known for his work on the foundation for certain brain theories and his contribution to the cybernetics movement. Along with Walter Pitts, McCulloch created computational models based on mathematical algorithms called threshold logic which split the inquiry into two distinct approaches, one approach focused on biological processes in the brain and the other focused on the application of neural networks to artificial intelligence.
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Warren Sturgis McCulloch was born in Orange, New Jersey, in 1898. His brother was a chemical engineer and Warren was originally planning to join the Christian ministry. As a teenager he was associated with the theologians Henry Sloane Coffin, Harry Emerson Fosdick, Herman Karl Wilhelm Kumm and Julian F. Hecker. He was also mentored by the Quaker, Rufus Jones.
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He attended Haverford College and studied philosophy and psychology at Yale University, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1921. He continued to study psychology at Columbia and received a Master of Arts degree in 1923. Receiving his MD in 1927 from the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, he undertook an internship at Bellevue Hospital, New York.
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Then he worked under Eilhard von Domarus at the Rockland State Hospital for the Insane. He returned to academia in 1934. He worked at the Laboratory for Neurophysiology at Yale University from 1934 to 1941.
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In 1941 he moved to Chicago and joined the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Illinois at Chicago, where he was a professor of psychiatry, as well as the director of the Illinois Neuropsychiatric Institute until 1951. From 1952 he worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts with Norbert Wiener. He was a founding member of the American Society for Cybernetics and its second president during 1967–1968.
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He was a mentor to the British operations research pioneer Stafford Beer. McCulloch had a range of interests and talents. In addition to his scientific contributions he wrote poetry (sonnets), and he designed and engineered buildings and a dam at his farm in Old Lyme, Connecticut. McCulloch married Ruth Metzger, known as 'Rook', in 1924 and they had three children. He died in Cambridge in 1969.
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He is remembered for his work with Joannes Gregorius Dusser de Barenne from Yale and later with Walter Pitts from the University of Chicago. He provided the foundation for certain brain theories in a number of classic papers, including "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) and "How We Know Universals: The Perception of Auditory and Visual Forms" (1947), both published in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics. The former is "widely credited with being a seminal contribution to neural network theory, the theory of automata, the theory of computation, and cybernetics".McCulloch was the chair of the set of Macy conferences dedicated to Cybernetics. These, greatly due to the diversity of the background of the participants McCulloch brought in, became the foundation for the field.
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In the 1943 paper McCulloch and Pitts attempted to demonstrate that a Turing machine program could be implemented in a finite network of formal neurons (in the event, the Turing Machine contains their model of the brain, but the converse is not true), that the neuron was the base logic unit of the brain. In the 1947 paper they offered approaches to designing "nervous nets" to recognize visual inputs despite changes in orientation or size. From 1952 McCulloch worked at the Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT, working primarily on neural network modelling. His team examined the visual system of the frog in consideration of McCulloch's 1947 paper, discovering that the eye provides the brain with information that is already, to a degree, organized and interpreted, instead of simply transmitting an image.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch
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McCulloch also posited the concept of "poker chip" reticular formations as to how the brain deals with contradictory information in a democratic, somatotopical neural network. His principle of "Redundancy of Potential Command" was developed by von Foerster and Pask in their study of self-organization and by Pask in his Conversation Theory and Interactions of Actors Theory.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch
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Bird scarers is a blanket term used to describe devices designed for deterring birds by startling, confusing or otherwise repeling them, typically employed in commercial settings by farmers to dissuade birds from consuming and defecating on recently planted arable crops. Numerous bird scarers are also readily available to the public direct to consumer, or by means of purchase from independent retailers. Bird scarers are also often present on airfields to prevent birds from accumulating in proximity to runways and causing a potential hazard to the bird and/or aircraft as well as potentially increasing the frequency an airstrip requires maintenance, and wind turbines.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_scarer
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One of the oldest designs of bird scarer is the scarecrow which is in the shape of a human figure. The scarecrow idea has been built upon numerous times, and not all visual scare devices are shaped like humans. The "Flashman Birdscarer," Iridescent tape, "TerrorEyes" balloons, and other visual deterrents are all built on the idea of visually scaring birds. This method doesn't work so well with all species, considering that some species frequently perch on scarecrows. By analogy, people make monkey scarers to protect their cropland in Ethiopia.
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Many species of bird are also naturally afraid of predators such as birds of prey. "Hawk kites" are designed to fly from poles in the wind and hover above the field to be protected. They are shaped to match the silhouette of a bird of prey.
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The Helikite bird scarer is a lighter-than-air combination of a helium balloon and a kite. Helikites fly up to 200vft in the air with or without wind. Although they do not look like hawks, they fly and hover high in the sky behaving like birds of prey. Helikites successfully exploit bird pests' instinctive fear of hawks and can reliably protect large areas of farmland.
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The use of lasers can be an effective method of bird scaring, although there is some evidence to suggest some birds are "laser-resistant". As the effectiveness of the laser decreases with increasing light levels, it is likely to be most effective at dawn and dusk. Although some lasers prove to be effective during daylight hours. The method relies on birds being startled by the strong contrast between the ambient light and the laser beam.
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During low light conditions this technique is very selective and can be tuned to frequencies and wavelengths that individual bird species don't like, but at night the light beam is visible over a large distance and can cause widespread (non-species specific) disturbance. Lasers use can be limited due to safety concerns of the beam and some nations have laws which prohibit lasers above a certain power from being used.
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Lasers are being looked at as an additional scaring system to add to wildlife management programs.Manually operated laser torches and automated laser bird deterrent robots that move the laser automatically towards the birds are available on the market. Research conducted at Wageningen University shows the potential of laser technology to prevent the spreading of Avian Influenza. When the laser was used at a poultry farm, a 99.7% wild bird reduction rate was recorded.
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The use of model or actual dead birds is used to signal danger to others. Initially, birds often approach the corpse but usually leave when they see the unnatural position of the bird. This approach has been frequently used in attempts to deter gulls from airports. Pheasant feed sacks often have an image of an owl with large eyes so that when empty they can be strung up to scare predators.
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Balloons are an inexpensive deterrent. However, this method relies on the movement of balloons, which is something that birds can become used to. The addition of eye illustrations on the balloons has been shown to increase this method's effectiveness as it combats the birds' ability to adapt. Commercially available "scare-eye" balloons have holographic eyes that follow birds wherever they go. The long-term effectiveness of this method can be increased by periodically moving the placement of the scare devices. In the United Kingdom the use of balloons is subject to approval from the Civil Aviation Authority, especially around airfields.
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Audible bird scarers use noise stimuli that makes birds uncomfortable. However, once birds realize these pose no real threats, they can easily become habituated to sounds that seemed initially frightening. If just being placed in situ and left, audible bird scarers can easily become ineffective bird control solutions, however when managed on an ongoing basis or used as part of a greater bird deterrent system, sound methods can deliver quality results.
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One very old design is the Japanese sōzu, known metonymically as a shishi odoshi (although the term shishi odoshi properly refers to any method of scaring wild animals, including the Western scarecrow). Instead of using a visual method to distract pests, as the scarecrow does, it uses the sound of a heavy pipe repeatedly and rhythmically hitting a rock, using water as a timing device. The sōzu is also used in Japanese popular culture to denote inordinate amounts of wealth, combined with a traditional sensibility: by design, the shishi odoshi uses copious amounts of water, meaning either a very high water bill, or that it is situated on high-value land with a stream or river running through it.
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Propane scare cannons are one of the most common types of bird scarer available in Europe and America. It is a propane-powered gas gun which produces a periodic explosion. The audible bang can reach very loud volumes, in excess of 150 decibels, causing a flight reaction in birds.
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The similarity between a scare cannon and a 12 gauge shotgun is thought to cause a startle/fear reaction, although it is also effective against birds that have not been exposed to hunting pressure.Birds can become habituated to the sound of regular cannon detonations, especially if it does not vary in its magnitude, pitch, or time interval. However, regularly moving the cannon, utilizing on-demand firing options, including radio control, and combining cannons with other methods of deterrents can prevent habituation.Propane scare cannons are very loud and can be disruptive to people living nearby. One study found that restricting cannon use to only hours when birds are active and incorporating better bird damage plans drastically reduced the number of complaints from neighbours.
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Sonic bird repellers are not effective; the birds quickly acclimate to them. Usually consisting of a central unit and several speakers, the system emits digitally recorded distress calls of birds, and, in some cases, calls of predators of the target species. Some emitters randomize pitch, magnitude, time interval, sound sequence and other factors in an attempt to prevent birds from getting used to them. Many of the sounds produced are regarded as annoying to people.
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Ultrasonic devices are static sound-emitting bird deterrents, which, in theory, will annoy birds to keep them away from enclosed or semi-enclosed areas. Ultrasonic scarers are not harmful to birds, however, there is debate around birds' ability to hear these frequencies at loud enough decibels. Birds are believed to have similar hearing to humans, with studies showing birds do not hear on an ultrasonic level, meaning that ultrasonic scarers often have little or no effect in deterring birds.
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Cartridge scarers include a wide variety of noise-producing cartridges usually fired from rockets or rope bangers, or on aerodromes from modified pistols or shotguns, which produce a loud bang and emit flashes of light. They include shellcrackers, screamer shells and whistling projectiles, exploding projectiles, bird bangers and flares. Bird banger cartridges commonly use a low explosive known as flash powder.
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Cartridges are projected from a shotgun with a range of 45–90 metres (148–295 ft), or pistols with a range of approximately 25 metres (82 ft), before exploding. Bird scaring cartridges can produce noise levels of up to 160 dB at varying ranges but in some countries both the cartridges and the gun require a firearms certificate. Pyrotechnics have proved effective in dispersing birds at airports, landfill sites, agricultural crops and aquaculture facilities. At airports in the United Kingdom, shellcrackers fired from a modified pistol are the most common means of dispersing birds, as they allow the bird controller to have some directional control over birds in flight, so they can be steered away from runways. However, as with all similar noises, there is a high risk of birds becoming used to any pyrotechnics or cartridge explosions.
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In 2013, Dr. John Swaddle and Dr. Mark Hinders at the College of William and Mary created a new method of deterring birds using benign sounds projected by conventional and directional (parametric) speakers. The initial objectives of the technology were to displace problematic birds from airfields to reduce bird strike risks, minimize agricultural losses due to pest bird foraging, displace nuisance birds that cause extensive repair and chronic clean-up costs, and reduce bird mortality from flying into man-made structures. The sounds, referred to as a "Sonic Net," do not have to be loud and are a combination of wave forms—collectively called "colored noise"—forming non-constructive and constructive interference with how birds talk to each other. Technically, the Sonic Net technology is not a bird scarer, but discourages birds from flying into or spending time in the target area.
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The impact on the birds is similar to talking in a crowded room, and since they cannot understand each other they go somewhere else. Early tests at an aviary and initial field trials at a landfill and airfield indicate that the technology is effective and that birds do not habituate to the sound. The provisional and full patents were filed in 2013 and 2014 respectively, with further research and commercialization of the technology being ongoing.
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Historically, humans have been employed to scare birds from crops, using a variety of deterrents including throwing stones, flashing with mirrors, or operating noise devices. This is only cost-effective where the cost of labour is sufficiently low relative to agricultural profit margins. In Victorian England, children were employed to do this job. In the Huleh Valley in Northern Israel, rural labourers, primarily Arabs and Druze, use USVs and multiple devices to keep common cranes off high-value crops.
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The control of birds and other wildlife such as deer through harassment by trained border collies has been used at aerodromes, golf courses and agricultural land. The dogs represent an actual threat, and so elicit flight reactions. Habituation is unlikely as they can continually pursue and change their behaviour. Border collies are used as they are working dogs bred to herd animals and to avoid attack, and they respond well to whistle and verbal commands.
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A single border collie and its handler can keep an area of approximately 50 square kilometres (19.3 square miles, 4998.7 hectares, or 12,179.2 acres) free of larger birds and wildlife. However, although they are effective at deterring ground foraging birds such as waders and wildfowl, they are not so useful for species that spend most of their time flying or perching, such as raptors and swallows. In 1999, Southwest Florida International Airport became the first commercial airport in the world to employ a border collie in an airfield wildlife control programme.
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After the use of the collie, numbers and species of birds on the airport declined and most birds that remained congregated in a drainage ditch away from the runway. The number of bird strikes dropped to zero compared to 13 for the same period the previous year. Several other airports and airbases have now started similar programmes. At Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, bird strike damage to aircraft caused by birds has been reduced from an average of US$600,000 per year for the proceeding two years to US$24,000 per year after the initiation of a bird control programme that included the use of border collies.
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Using predators as a natural bird deterrent has become a recommended form of controlling bird infestations. Specially selected species are trained to deal with working in un-natural environments with distractions and dangers they would not usually encounter.The success of this method of bird control is based on the fact that many birds have a natural fear of falcons and hawks as predators, so their presence in the area encourages problem species to disperse. The natural reaction of most prey species is to form a flock and attempt to fly above the falcon. If this fails, they will attempt to fly for cover and leave the area.
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Radio-controlled model aircraft have been used to scare or 'haze' bird pests since the early 1980s, mainly over airfields, but have also been used over agricultural areas, fisheries and landfill sites. This method has been shown to be very effective and birds habituate more slowly to a treatment in which they are being actively hazed. At Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, balsa wood radio-controlled aircraft are one of the primary bird harassment methods used to keep the airfield clear of raptors and other large birds, and they have also proved effective at dispersing the base's redwing blackbird roost.
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Fireworks can also be used as bird scarers, and some jurisdictions issue special licences for agricultural fireworks. This practice has been criticised as a loophole for the sale of consumer fireworks. Again, the loud bangs can also irritate people living on nearby properties.
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These combine multiple deterrents, such as using a pop up scarecrow combined with a gas gun, which in turn activates the distress call of a bird. These combination scarers are often managed by computers and synchronised across an area via the use of radio links. This synchronisation becomes more effective if there is some kind of detection system involved such as bird detecting radar.
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Cryptotype or covert categories of a language is a concept coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf which describes semantic or syntactic features that do not have a morphological implementation, but which are crucial for the construction and understanding of a phrase. The cryptotype is understood in opposition to the phenotype or overt category, namely a category that is overtly marked as such. Covert categories affect words' combinative power.British linguist Michael Halliday argued that Whorf's notion of the "cryptotype" and his conception of "how grammar models reality" will "eventually turn out to be among the major contributions of twentieth century linguistics". Halliday described the concept in the following way: "Whorf (1956) distinguished between overt and covert categories and pointed out that covert categories were often also “cryptotypes” — categories whose meanings were complex and difficult to access.
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Many aspects of clause grammar, and of the grammar of clause complexes, are essentially cryptotypic." Through the use of Halliday, the term has become important in Systemic functional linguistics.
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Whorf introduced the concept in his 1937 paper "Grammatical categories" and based it on his belief that all grammatical categories must be in some way marked in language to be able to contribute to meaning. But Whorf noted that not all categories were marked overtly, and some were only marked overtly in exceptional cases, whereas in most or all cases their marking is covert. As an example he gave the English system of gender, where the gender of nouns only appears when the sentence employs a singular pronoun and has to choose between "he", "she" or "it".
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As long as no pronouns appear, the gender of the nouns is marked only covertly. The fact that a speaker has to know for each word whether the correct pronoun is "he", "she" or "it" shows that the nouns are in fact "marked" for gender — just not overtly so.Another example of a covert category given by Whorf was the Navajo language's system of noun classification by which all nouns were marked for a combination of animacy and shape. Whorf himself used the term "cryptotype" as separate from "covert category" to refer to "a special, highly concealed subdivision of covertness, amounting sometimes to a second degree of covertness". Whorf's point in distinguishing between phenotypes and cryptotypes was to show that it is easier for a speaker of a language to be consciously aware of his use of some categories, whereas other categories are so deeply ingrained in his consciousness that they are difficult, but not impossible, to become aware of.
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In the field of pedagogy, learning by teaching (German: Lernen durch Lehren, short LdL) is a method of teaching in which students are made to learn material and prepare lessons to teach it to the other students. There is a strong emphasis on acquisition of life skills along with the subject matter. This method was originally defined by Jean-Pol Martin in the 1980s.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching
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The method of having students teach other students has been present since antiquity. Most often this was due to lack of resources. For example, the Monitorial System was an education method that became popular on a global scale during the early 19th century. It was developed in parallel by Scotsman Andrew Bell who had worked in Madras and Joseph Lancaster who worked in London; each attempted to educate masses of poor children with scant resources by having older children teach younger children what they had already learned.Systematic research into intentionally improving education, by having students learn by teaching began in the middle of the 20th century.In the early 1980s, Jean-Pol Martin systematically developed the concept of having students teach other in the context of learning French as a foreign language, and he gave it a theoretical background in numerous publications.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching
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The method was originally resisted, as the German educational system generally emphasized discipline and rote learning. However the method became widely used in Germany in secondary education, and in the 1990s it was further formalized and began to be used in universities as well. By 2008 Martin had retired, and although he remained active Joachim Grzega took the lead in developing and promulgating LdL.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching
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After preparation by the teacher, students become responsible for their own learning and teaching. The new material is divided into small units and student groups of not more than three people are formed.Students are then encouraged to experiment to find ways to teach the material to the others. Along with ensuring that students learn the material, another goal of the method, is to teach students life skills like respect for other people, planning, problem solving, taking chances in public, and communication skills. The teacher remains actively involved, stepping in to further explain or provide support if the teaching-students falter or the learning-students do not seem to understand the material.The method is distinct from tutoring in that LdL is done in class, supported by the teacher, and distinct from student teaching, which is a part of teacher education.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching
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A related method is the plastic platypus learning or platypus learning technique. This technique is based on evidence that show that teaching an inanimate object improves understanding and knowledge retention of a subject. The advantage of this technique is that the learner does not need the presence of another person in order to teach the subject. The concept is similar to the software engineering technique of rubber duck debugging, in which a programmer can find bugs in their code without the help of others, simply by explaining what the code does, line by line, to an inanimate object such as a rubber duck. A similar process is the Feynman technique, developed by physicist Richard Feynman, in which a person attempts to write an explanation of some information in a way that a child could understand, developing original analogies where necessary. When the writer reaches an area which they are unable to comfortably explain, they go back and re-read or research the topic until they are able to do so.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching
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Traditional instructor teaching style classes can be mixed with or transformed to flipped teaching. Before and after each (traditional/flipped) lecture, anonymized evaluation items on the Likert scale can be recorded from the students for continuous monitoring/dashboarding. In planned flipped teaching lessons, the teacher hands out lesson teaching material one week before the lesson is scheduled for the students to prepare talks. Small student groups work on the lecture chapters instead of homework, and then give the lecture in front of their peers. The professional lecturer then discusses, complements, and provides feedback at the end of the group talks. Here, the professional lecturer acts as a coach to help students with preparation and live performance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching
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Experience refers to conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, experience involves a subject to which various items are presented. In this sense, seeing a yellow bird on a branch presents the subject with the objects "bird" and "branch", the relation between them and the property "yellow". Unreal items may be included as well, which happens when experiencing hallucinations or dreams.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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When understood in a more restricted sense, only sensory consciousness counts as experience. In this sense, experience is usually identified with perception and contrasted with other types of conscious events, like thinking or imagining. In a slightly different sense, experience refers not to the conscious events themselves but to the practical knowledge and familiarity they produce.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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In this sense, it is important that direct perceptual contact with the external world is the source of knowledge. So an experienced hiker is someone who actually lived through many hikes, not someone who merely read many books about hiking. This is associated both with recurrent past acquaintance and the abilities learned through them.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Many scholarly debates on the nature of experience focus on experience as conscious event, either in the wide or the more restricted sense. One important topic in this field is the question of whether all experiences are intentional, i.e. are directed at objects different from themselves. Another debate focuses on the question of whether there are non-conceptual experiences and, if so, what role they could play in justifying beliefs.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Some theorists claim that experiences are transparent, meaning that what an experience feels like only depends on the contents presented in this experience. Other theorists reject this claim by pointing out that what matters is not just what is presented but also how it is presented. A great variety of types of experiences is discussed in the academic literature.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Perceptual experiences, for example, represent the external world through stimuli registered and transmitted by the senses. The experience of episodic memory, on the other hand, involves reliving a past event one experienced before.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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In imaginative experience, objects are presented without aiming to show how things actually are. The experience of thinking involves mental representations and the processing of information, in which ideas or propositions are entertained, judged or connected. Pleasure refers to experience that feels good.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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It is closely related to emotional experience, which has additionally evaluative, physiological and behavioral components. Moods are similar to emotions, with one key difference being that they lack a specific object found in emotions. Conscious desires involve the experience of wanting something.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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They play a central role in the experience of agency, in which intentions are formed, courses of action are planned, and decisions are taken and realized. Non-ordinary experience refers to rare experiences that significantly differ from the experience in the ordinary waking state, like religious experiences, out-of-body experiences or near-death experiences. Experience is discussed in various disciplines.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Phenomenology is the science of the structure and contents of experience. It uses different methods, like epoché or eidetic variation. Sensory experience is of special interest to epistemology.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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An important traditional discussion in this field concerns whether all knowledge is based on sensory experience, as empiricists claim, or not, as rationalists contend. This is closely related to the role of experience in science, in which experience is said to act as a neutral arbiter between competing theories. In metaphysics, experience is involved in the mind–body problem and the hard problem of consciousness, both of which try to explain the relation between matter and experience. In psychology, some theorists hold that all concepts are learned from experience while others argue that some concepts are innate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the definition of the term, "experience" can be stated as, "a direct observation of or participation in events as a basis of knowledge." The term "experience" is associated with a variety of closely related meanings, which is why various different definitions of it are found in the academic literature. Experience is often understood as a conscious event. This is sometimes restricted to certain types of consciousness, like perception or sensation, through which the subject attains knowledge of the world.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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But in a wider sense, experience includes other types of conscious events besides perception and sensation. This is the case, for example, for the experience of thinking or the experience of dreaming. In a different sense, "experience" refers not to conscious events themselves but to the knowledge and practical familiarity they bring with them. According to this meaning, a person with job experience or an experienced hiker is someone who has a good practical familiarity in the respective field. In this sense, experience refers not to a conscious process but to the result of this process.The word "experience" shares a common Latin root with the word "experimentation".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Experience is often understood as a conscious event in the widest sense. This includes various types of experiences, such as perception, bodily awareness, memory, imagination, emotion, desire, action and thought. It usually refers to the experience a particular individual has, but it can also take the meaning of the experience had by a group of individuals, for example, of a nation, of a social class or during a particular historical epoch. Phenomenology is the discipline that studies the subjective structures of experience, i.e. what it is like from the first-person perspective to experience different conscious events.When someone has an experience, they are presented with various items.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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These items may belong to diverse ontological categories corresponding e.g. to objects, properties, relations or events. Seeing a yellow bird on a branch, for example, presents the subject with the objects "bird" and "branch", the relation between them and the property "yellow". These items can include both familiar and unfamiliar items, which means that it is possible to experience something without fully understanding it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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When understood in its widest sense, the items present in experience can include unreal items. This is the case, for example, when experiencing illusions, hallucinations or dreams. In this sense, one can have the experience of a yellow bird on a branch even though there is no yellow bird on the branch.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Experiences may include only real items, only unreal items, or a mix between the two. Phenomenologists have made various suggestions about what the basic features of experience are. The suggested features include spatial-temporal awareness, the difference in attention between foreground and background, the subject's awareness of itself, the sense of agency and purpose, bodily awareness and awareness of other people.When understood in a more restricted sense, only sensory consciousness counts as experience.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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In this sense, it is possible to experience something without understanding what it is. This would be the case, for example, if someone experienced a robbery without being aware of what exactly was happening. In this case, the sensations caused by the robbery constitute the experience of the robbery.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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This characterization excludes more abstract types of consciousness from experience. In this sense, it is sometimes held that experience and thought are two separate aspects of mental life.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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A similar distinction is sometimes drawn between experience and theory. But these views are not generally accepted. Critics often point out that experience involves various cognitive components that cannot be reduced to sensory consciousness. Another approach is to distinguish between internal and external experience. So while sensory perception belongs to external experience, there may also be other types of experience, like remembering or imagining, which belong to internal experience.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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In another sense, experience refers not to the conscious events themselves but to the knowledge they produce. For this sense, it is important that the knowledge comes about through direct perceptual contact with the external world. That the knowledge is direct means that it was obtained through immediate observation, i.e. without involving any inference. One may obtain all kinds of knowledge indirectly, for example, by reading books or watching movies about the topic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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This type of knowledge does not constitute experience of the topic since the direct contact in question concerns only the books and movies but not the topic itself. The objects of this knowledge are often understood as public objects, which are open to observation by most regular people.The meaning of the term "experience" in everyday language usually sees the knowledge in question not merely as theoretical know-that or descriptive knowledge. Instead, it includes some form of practical know-how, i.e. familiarity with a certain practical matter.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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This familiarity rests on recurrent past acquaintance or performances. It often involves having learned something by heart and being able to skillfully practice it rather than having a mere theoretical understanding. But the knowledge and skills obtained directly this way are normally limited to generalized rules-of-thumb. As such, they lack behind the scientific certainty that comes about through a methodological analysis by scientists that condenses the corresponding insights into laws of nature.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Most experiences, especially the ones of the perceptual kind, aim at representing reality. This is usually expressed by stating that they have intentionality or are about their intentional object. If they are successful or veridical, they represent the world as it actually is. But they may also fail, in which case they give a false representation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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It is traditionally held that all experience is intentional. This thesis is known as "intentionalism". In this context, it is often claimed that all mental states, not just experiences, are intentional.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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But special prominence is usually given to experiences in these debates since they seem to constitute the most fundamental form of intentionality. It is commonly accepted that all experiences have phenomenal features, i.e. that there is something it is like to live through them. Opponents of intentionalism claim that not all experiences have intentional features, i.e. that phenomenal features and intentional features can come apart.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Some alleged counterexamples to intentionalism involve pure sensory experiences, like pain, of which it is claimed that they lack representational components. Defenders of intentionalism have often responded by claiming that these states have intentional aspects after all, for example, that pain represents bodily damage. Mystical states of experience constitute another putative counterexample. In this context, it is claimed that it is possible to have experiences of pure consciousness in which awareness still exists but lacks any object. But evaluating this claim is difficult since such experiences are seen as extremely rare and therefore difficult to investigate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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Another debate concerns the question of whether all experiences have conceptual contents. Concepts are general notions that constitute the fundamental building blocks of thought. Conceptual contents are usually contrasted with sensory contents, like seeing colors or hearing noises. This discussion is especially relevant for perceptual experience, of which some empiricists claim that it is made up only of sense data without any conceptual contents.The view that such a type of experience exists and plays an important role in epistemological issues has been termed the "myth of the given" by its opponents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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The "given" refers to the immediate, uninterpreted sensory contents of such experiences. Underlying this discussion is the distinction between a "bare" or "immediate" experience in contrast to a more developed experience. The idea behind this distinction is that some aspects of experience are directly given to the subject without any interpretation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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These basic aspects are then interpreted in various ways, leading to a more reflective and conceptually rich experience showing various new relations between the basic elements. This distinction could explain, for example, how various faulty perceptions, like perceptual illusions, arise: they are due to false interpretations, inferences or constructions by the subject but are not found on the most basic level. In this sense, it is often remarked that experience is a product both of the world and of the subject.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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The distinction between immediate and interpreted aspects of experience has proven contentious in philosophy, with some critics claiming that there is no immediate given within experience, i.e. that everything is interpreted in some way. One problem with this criticism is that it is difficult to see how any interpretation could get started if there was nothing there to be interpreted to begin with.Among those who accept that there is some form of immediate experience, there are different theories concerning its nature. Sense datum theorists, for example, hold that immediate experience only consists of basic sensations, like colors, shapes or noises.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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This immediate given is by itself a chaotic undifferentiated mass that is then ordered through various mental processes, like association, memory and language, into the normal everyday objects we perceive, like trees, cars or spoons. Direct realists, on the other hand, hold that these material everyday objects themselves are the immediate given. Some philosophers have tried to approach these disagreements by formulating general characteristics possessed by the contents of immediate experience or "the given".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience
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