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Edgewater was a suburb of Chicago, relatively rural until John Lewis Cochran developed land for lakefront homes in 1885. Four years later, the town was annexed by Chicago. Cochran prohibited the construction of apartment buildings along Sheridan Road, and this plan was continued until the 1940s. The two houses in Berger Park were part of Cochran's Second Addition to Edgewater.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berger_Park
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The Downey House, now known as the South Mansion, was built for Joseph Downey. Downey was an Irish immigrant who was a partner in a contracting firm. He became a prominent businessman, serving as the chairman of the Buildings and Grounds Commission, on behalf of the Chicago Board of Education, and as a member of the Chicago Association of Commerce.
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During George Bell Swift's mayorship from 1895 to 1897, Downey was the Commissioner of Buildings and of Public Works. Swift's successor, Carter Harrison, Jr., named him to the Board of Education. He married Lena Kleine in 1885 and the pair commissioned William Carbys Zimmerman to design a house in 1906 for $20,000. Downey retired in 1911, and by 1920, they had left the house.
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The Gunder House, officially the North Lakeside Cultural Center, was built for Samuel Gunder. Gunder was the president of the Pozzinni Pharmaceutical Company. He married Nettie E. Weaver in 1884 and commissioned this building in 1909.
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Myron Henry Church designed the house, which was completed the following year. The Gunders sold the house in 1919 and moved to Los Angeles, California.During the Great Depression, the Chicago Bureau of Parks and Recreation sought to add beachfront land on the north side of the city. Edgewater residents were interested in beach activities, but lived too far from Lincoln Park.
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The bureau acquired the properties and named it Granville Beach and Park after nearby Granville Avenue. Residents still lived in the two houses until the Viatorian Fathers acquired them in the 1940s.The Clerics of St. Viator used the buildings to house student priests.
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In 1945, they converted the two coach houses into additional residences. The order sold the rights to the beachfront land to the Chicago Park District in 1965 and moved out in 1979. The park district built a small playground along Granville Avenue in 1976.
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When the clerics moved out in 1979, developers sought to purchase the houses and demolish them for high-rise apartments, which now dominated the Edgewater lakefront. The Edgewater Community Council opposed this type of sale and convinced the park district to purchase the houses. The clerics agreed on the condition that the buildings be used for non-profit purposes.
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The sale was completed for $2.3 million, far less than the $6 million developers offered.Following the acquisition, the park was renamed Berger park after Albert E. Berger, a proponent of the bureau's plan to acquire beachfront property. In 1982, the park district determined that the Gunder House was dilapidated beyond repair. The district agreed to delay demolition to give local residents to opportunity to raise funds for its rehabilitation. By 1987, enough money had been raised to save the structure, thanks in large part to a $216,000 contribution from the Community Development Block Grant. Ronald Berger, the son of Albert, made a matching donation.The grounds were recognized by the National Park Service with a listing on the National Register of Historic Places on January 12, 2010.
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Faced with an eroding shoreline, the park district commissioned the Army Corps of Engineers to design an embankment along the shoreline. Although this caused the loss of the remaining beach, it preserved the remaining parkland. The small playground was removed and a new 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) playground was built on the north side of the Gunder House. The Downey House is now called the South Mansion and functions as a recreational facility for the park.
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The Gunder house was converted to the North Lakeside Cultural Center, offering workshops and classes. Its coach house is now a café. == References ==
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Airfield Estate is a agritourism site in Dublin, Ireland. Describing itself as "Dublin's only urban working farm and gardens," it incorporates Airfield House, an Anglo-Irish big house, and welcomes visitors to learn about farming and the site's history. As of 2016, it had 75 employees and 280,000 annual visitors.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfield_Estate
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The estate is located in the townland of Drummartin (Irish: Droim Máirtín, "Martin's ridge."). The house was built in circa 1830 by Thomas Mackey Scully, of a wealthy Anglo-Irish family from Naas, and named Bess Mount; in 1836 it became Airfield. Scully was a barrister and supported Daniel O'Connell and Repeal. Around 1830 he had married Elizabeth Walsh, a merchant's daughter from Summerhill, Dublin.The Scullys were one of many landowning families who lost financially in the Great Famine (1845–50); in 1852 Airfield was in the hands of the Encumbered Estates' Court, who sold it to the printer Thomas Cranfield.
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In 1862 he sold it to the artist Francis Reynolds, who sold it to the Jury family of hoteliers in 1864.In 1894 the house was sold to the Overend family; Trevor Overend was from a County Down grain-dealing family, but he became a solicitor and moved to Airfield with his wife Lily. They had three daughters: Letitia (1880–1977), Constance (who died in infancy) and Naomi (1900–1993). Letitia and Naomi were noted for their philanthropic work with the Children's Sunshine Home, St John Ambulance, DSPCA and National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children; breeding of Jersey cattle; their world travelling; and their fondness for classic cars. When Trevor died in 1919 he, unusually for the time, left almost all his money to the women of the house, allowing them financial independence. The two daughters never married and were often regarded as eccentrics, driving their pre-war cars and refusing to sell their land for development, instead maintaining a Victorian-era farm in the midst of a suburbanising region.In 1974 the Overend family left Airfield in trust for the Irish people.In 2012, shortly after Apple Maps launched, the area was mistaken for being an airport simply titled "Airfield".
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The farm raises animals including Jersey cattle; Jacob sheep; Oxford Sandy and Black pigs; Saanen goats; Rhode Island Red chickens; and donkeys. The farm also practises organic farming and soil regeneration.From 2013 Kitty Scully and Colm O’Driscoll led the food and ornamental gardens. With Colm taking over head gardener of the estate from 2017-2022, he has led the eight acres of biodiverse, organically managed gardens. Continually evolving, they make the most of the temperate local climate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfield_Estate
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The ornamental gardens include a walled garden with generous borders and decorative pergola, as well as tropical borders, a shade garden, glasshouses and pollinator-friendly plantings. In the three-acre organic food garden there is always a bounty of seasonal crops to explore. The three cars driven by the Overend women are preserved: Letitia's 1927 Rolls-Royce Twenty Tourer Naomi's 1936 Austin 18 Tickford Lily's 1923 Peugeot "Quadrilette" Type 161
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The house was refurbished in 2014. Its original entrance piers, railings and gates, as well as the house itself, a three-bay, two-storey Victorian structure.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfield_Estate
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Airfield is mentioned in the 2021 Ross O'Carroll-Kelly novel, Normal Sheeple.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfield_Estate
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In transport, tunnels can be connected together to form a tunnel network. These can be used in mining to reach ore below ground, in cities for underground rapid transit systems, in sewer systems, in warfare to avoid enemy detection or attacks, as maintenance access routes beneath sites with high ground-traffic such as airports and amusement parks, or to extend public living areas or commercial access while avoiding outdoor weather.
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Tunnel networks were sometimes developed during siege warfare, even dating back to classical antiquity. Starting with a single tunnel being dug to undermine a wall that might be detected by the defenders and met with counter-tunnels, leading to tunnel warfare. Defenders might first create a series of underground listing posts to preempt such mining attacks.
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Any time the use of trenches becomes extensive, this naturally leads to connecting them with tunnel networks for safe passage both along the trench lines and with rear areas. In World War I, when given enough time and resources, the underground components of the defenses could become more extensive than those above ground. The French Maginot Line, constructed from 1929 to 1939, was a chain of fortresses, bunkers, retractable turrets, outposts, obstacles, and sunken artillery emplacements, all linked by an extensive shell-proof tunnel network. It included underground barracks, shelters, ammo dumps and depots, and even had its own underground narrow gauge railways.
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The tunnels of Củ Chi are an immense network of connecting tunnels located in the Củ Chi District of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon), Vietnam, and are part of a much larger network of tunnels that underlie much of the country. The Củ Chi tunnels were the location of several military campaigns during the Vietnam War, and were the Viet Cong's base of operations for the Tết Offensive in 1968. The tunnels were used by Viet Cong soldiers as hiding spots during combat, as well as serving as communication and supply routes, hospitals, food and weapon caches and living quarters for numerous North Vietnamese fighters. The tunnel systems were of great importance to the Viet Cong in their resistance to American forces, and helped to counter the growing American military effort.
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The Vịnh Mốc tunnels are a tunnel complex in Quảng Trị, Vietnam. During the Vietnam War it was strategically located on the border of North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The tunnels were built to shelter people from the intense bombing of Son Trung and Son Ha communes in Vinh Linh county of Quảng Trị Province in the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone.
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The American forces believed the villagers of Vinh Moc were supplying food and armaments to the North Vietnamese garrison on the island of Con Co which was in turn hindering the American bombers on their way to bomb Hanoi. The idea was to force the villagers of Vinh Moc to leave the area but as is typical in Vietnam there was nowhere else to go. The villagers initially dug the tunnels to move their village 10 metres underground but the American forces designed bombs that burrowed down 10 metres.
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Eventually against these odds, the villagers moved the village to a depth of 30 metres. It was constructed in several stages beginning in 1966 and used until early 1972.
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The complex grew to include wells, kitchens, rooms for each family and spaces for healthcare. Around 60 families lived in the tunnels; as many as 17 children were born inside the tunnels. The tunnels were a success and no villagers lost their lives. The only direct hit was from a bomb that failed to explode; the resulting hole was utilized as a ventilation shaft. Three levels of tunnels were eventually built.
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During the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, the Israeli military uncovered and destroyed 32 cross-border tunnels that went on for miles beneath Gaza and reached into Israeli territory. According to intelligence officials, Israeli engineers are developing a system that could detect and destroy cross-border tunnels for which the Israeli government has reportedly spent more than $250 million since 2004.A network of caves beneath the cities of Mosul and Badana were built by ISIS. The terrorist group avoids battlefield engagements, preferring to hide in such tunnels safe from satellite detection, drone strikes and artillery, managed to maintain supply lines and communication with other areas under their control.
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Mines of Paris, France Erdstall, Europe (mainly Germany and Austria) Underground Great Wall of China, China Houston tunnel system, United States Iranian underground missile bases Chicago Tunnel Company, a disused freight network of tunnels beneath every street of downtown Chicago
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The National Communications Commission (NCC; Chinese: 國家通訊傳播委員會; pinyin: Guójiā Tōngxùn Chuánbò Weǐyuánhuì; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Kok-ka Thong-sìn Thôan-pò͘ Úi-oân-hōe) is an independent statutory agency of Executive Yuan of the Republic of China (Taiwan) responsible for regulating the development of the telecommunication and broadcasting industries, promoting competition and consumer protection, and regulating licensing, radio frequency and spectrum, programming content, communications standards and specifications in Taiwan. The current Chairperson is Chan Ting-I.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Communications_Commission
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The NCC is an independent statutory agency created on 22 February 2006 to regulate the information, communications and broadcasting industry in Taiwan.NCC was tasked with the responsibility to ensure a level playing field in competition in the communications industry, consumer protection, privacy rights, and the development of universal service for remote and rural regions. It also develop new standards for emerging technologies that will improve access, lower cost and deliver services to remote areas.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Communications_Commission
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Department of Planning Department of Telecommunications Administration Department of Television and Radio Administration Department of Resources and Technologies Department of Content Affairs Department of Legal Affairs Northern Regional Regulatory Department Central Regional Regulatory Department Southern Regional Regulatory Department Secretariat Personnel Office Budget, Accounting and Statistics Office Civil Service Ethics Office
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Su Yeong-chin (22 February 2006 - 31 July 2008) Bonnie Peng (1 August 2008 - 31 July 2010) Herng Su (1 August 2010 - 31 July 2012) Howard S.H. Shyr (1 August 2012 - 31 July 2016) Chan Ting-i (1 August 2016 - 3 April 2019) Chen Yaw-shyang (陳耀祥) (4 April 2019 -) (acting)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Communications_Commission
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A suicide note or death note is a message written by a person who intends to die by suicide. A study examining Japanese suicide notes estimated that 25–30% of suicides are accompanied by a note. However, incidence rates may depend on ethnicity and cultural differences, and may reach rates as high as 50% in certain demographics. A suicide message can be in any form or medium, but the most common methods are by a written note, an audio message, or a video.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_note
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Some fields of study, such as sociology, psychiatry and graphology, have investigated the reasons why people who complete or attempt suicide leave a note. The most common reasons that people contemplating suicide choose to write a suicide note include one or more of the following: To ease the pain of those known to the victim by attempting to dissipate guilt. To increase the pain of survivors by attempting to create guilt. To set out the reason(s) for suicide.
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To send a message to the world. To express thoughts and feelings that the person felt unable to express in life. To give instructions for disposal of the remains. Occasionally, to confess acts of murder or some other offence.Sometimes there is also a message in the case of murder-suicide, explaining the reason(s) for the murder(s), see for example, Marc Lépine's suicide statement and videotaped statements of the 7 July 2005 London bombers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_note
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Recognition-primed decision (RPD) is a model of how people make quick, effective decisions when faced with complex situations. In this model, the decision maker is assumed to generate a possible course of action, compare it to the constraints imposed by the situation, and select the first course of action that is not rejected. RPD has been described in diverse groups including trauma nurses, fireground commanders, chess players, and stock market traders. It functions well in conditions of time pressure, and in which information is partial and goals poorly defined. The limitations of RPD include the need for extensive experience among decision-makers (in order to correctly recognize the salient features of a problem and model solutions) and the problem of the failure of recognition and modeling in unusual or misidentified circumstances. It appears, as discussed by Gary A. Klein in Sources of Power, to be a valid model for how human decision-makers make decisions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition-primed_decision
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The RPD model identifies a reasonable reaction as the first one that is immediately considered. RPD combines two ways of developing a decision; the first is recognizing which course of action makes sense, and the second, evaluating the course of action through imagination to see if the actions resulting from that decision make sense. However, the difference of being experienced or inexperienced plays a major factor in the decision-making processes. RPD reveals a critical difference between experts and novices when presented with recurring situations.
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Experienced people will generally be able to come up with a quicker decision because the situation may match a prototypical situation they have encountered before. Novices, lacking this experience, must cycle through different possibilities, and tend to use the first course of action that they believe will work. The inexperienced also have the tendencies of using trial and error through their imagination.
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There are three variations in RPD strategy. In Variation 1, decision makers recognize the situation as typical: a scenario where both the situational detail and the detail of relevant courses of action are known. Variation 1 is therefore essentially an “If… then…” reaction. A given situation will lead to an immediate course of action as a function of the situation's typicality.
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More experienced decision makers are more likely to have the knowledge of both prototypical situations and established courses of action that is required for an RPD strategy to qualify as Variation 1. Variation 2 occurs when the decision maker diagnoses an unknown situation to choose from a known selection of courses of action. Variation 2 takes the form of “If (???)...
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then...,” a phrase which implies the decision maker's specific knowledge of available courses of action but lack of knowledge regarding the parameters of the situation. In order to prevent situational complications and the accrual of misinformation, the decision maker models possible details of the situation carefully and then chooses the most relevant known course of action. Experienced decision makers are more likely to correctly model the situation, and are thus more likely to more quickly choose more appropriate courses of action.
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In Variation 3, the decision maker is knowledgeable of the situation but unaware of the proper course of action. The decision maker therefore implements a mental trial and error simulation to develop the most effective course of action. Variation 3 takes the form of “If... then...
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(??? )” wherein the decision maker models outcomes of new or uncommon courses of action. The decision maker will cycle through different courses of action until a course of action appears appropriate to the goals and priorities of the situation. Due to the time constraint fundamental to the RPD model, the decision maker will choose the first course of action which appears appropriate to the situation. Experienced decision makers are likely to develop a viable course of action more quickly because their expert knowledge can rapidly be used to disqualify inappropriate courses of action.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition-primed_decision
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Recognition-primed decision making is highly relevant to the leaders or officers of organizations that are affiliated with emergency services such as fire fighters, search and rescue units, police, and other emergency services. It is applied to both the experienced and the inexperienced, and how they manage their decision making processes. The Recognition-primed decision making model is developed as samples for organizations on how important decisions can affect important situations which may either save lives or take lives. The model developed can be used as a study for organizations to fill in the gaps and to determine which type of RPD variation is more applicable to the organization.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition-primed_decision
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Pharaoh: A New Era is a city-building video game designed by Triskell Interactive and published by Dotemu. It is a remake of Pharaoh (1999).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh:_A_New_Era
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Players build a city in ancient Egypt. As a remake, the game closely follows the original. The graphics are updated, and players can zoom in to view them up close. Normally, recruiters go house to house looking for unemployed people to assign to jobs. A New Era can optionally bypass recruiters and recruit workers from a global pool, like in Zeus: Master of Olympus. A New Era also tracks the Nile's flood season.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh:_A_New_Era
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After Triskell Interactive pitched a city-building game to Dotemu, Dotemu asked them if they would be interested in remaking another city-building game instead. Triskell chose Pharaoh, and Dotemu licensed it from Activision. Dotemu released Pharaoh: A New Era on February 15, 2023.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh:_A_New_Era
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Pharaoh: A New Era received positive reviews on Metacritic. Rock Paper Shotgun said that although it lacks some of the complexity of modern games, it is "the definitive version of a stone-cold classic". NPR encountered several bugs and thought the new graphics looked too much like a mobile game, but they said it "is still a rewarding city-builder". Gamepressure said the remake is "a splendid opportunity to rediscover this timeless classic", though they found some of the user interface elements to need improvement. Shacknews felt some of the gameplay was archaic but overall called it "an excellent spin on a classic".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh:_A_New_Era
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The Paris Institute of Political Studies (French: Institut d'études politiques de Paris), also known as Sciences Po or Sciences Po Paris, is a public research university located in Paris, France, that holds the status of grande école and grand établissement. The institute has decentralized campuses in Dijon, Le Havre, Menton, Nancy, Poitiers and Reims, each with their own academic program focused on a geopolitical part of the world. Sciences Po historically specialized in political science and history, then it progressively started to expand to other social sciences such as economics, law and sociology.
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The institute was established in 1872 by Émile Boutmy as the École libre des sciences politiques in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War as a private institution to modernize education for French civil servants. It offered instruction in political science, a relatively new field of study at the time. Following World War II, the school was nationalized and re-established as a public institution after growing criticisms towards its faculty led to calls for the school's closure.
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After being reformed in 1985, Sciences Po began to offer courses beyond political science that would lead to careers beyond public service. As of 2021, 80% of Sciences Po graduates are employed in the private sector.Sciences Po Paris is the only one Institute of Political Sciences in France allowed to refer to itself with the epithet "Sciences Po" without indicating the name of the city where their headquarters are located, under a legal agreement with the other institutes. They are allowed to use the term "Sciences Po" to refer to themselves only when followed by the names of the cities where they are located, such as "Sciences Po Lille" or "Sciences Po Grenoble".The institute is a member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA) and CIVICA – The European University of Social Sciences.
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Sciences Po was established in February 1872 as the École libre des sciences politiques (ELSP) by a group of French intellectuals, politicians and businessmen led by Émile Boutmy, and including Hippolyte Taine, Ernest Renan, Albert Sorel and Paul Leroy Beaulieu. The creation of the school was in response to widespread fears that the inadequacy of the French political and diplomatic corps would further diminish the country's international stature, as France grappled with a series of crises, including its defeat in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, the demise of Napoleon III's regime, and the upheaval and massacre resulting from the Paris Commune. The founders of the school sought to reform the training of French politicians by establishing a new "breeding ground where nearly all the major, non-technical state commissioners were trained.". His innovative intellectual axis was to teach contemporary history, whereas political elites had only been taught ancient humanities for centuries, which they could still learn in universities at the same time.ELSP acquired a major role in France's political system.
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From 1901 to 1935, 92.5% of entrants to the Grands corps de l'État, the most powerful and prestigious administrative bodies in the French Civil Service, had studied there (this figure includes people who took civil service examination preparatory classes at Sciences Po but did not earn a degree and, in general, students were taking classes there on top of earning a degree at the University of Paris, in particular the Law Faculty).Other countries created similar schools in the following century. In 1875, the Istituto Cesare Alfieri in Italy (now part of the University of Florence), at the end of the century, the École libre des sciences Politiques et Sociales in Belgium (not existing any more), the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik in Germany, the Columbia School of Political Science (now merged into the Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences), the London School of Economics in the United Kingdom, and, after WW1, for the School of Foreign Service from Georgetown University in the United States and the Geneva Graduate Institute. The connection between Sciences Po and French institutions meant that the school also played a key role in the apparatus of the French Empires.
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In 1886, the university established a colonial school with the goal of training students to take on professions in the colonial administration in a way that "propagates a more scientific and international colonialism". Many professors and members of the ELSP administration, such as Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, chair in colonial affairs at ELSP, Joseph Chailley-Bert, Jules Cambon, Charles Jonnart, Auguste Louis Albéric d’Arenberg and Ernest Roume, were also closely linked to or worked directly with the colonial government. The colonial branch of ELSP closed in 1893 after a state-sponsored colonial school was created in 1889; however positions in the administrations of French colonies and protectorates continued to accept graduates from the ELSP.
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Sciences Po underwent significant reforms in the aftermath World War II in 1945. At France's liberation from Nazi occupation, the public servants were accused of collaborating with the Vichy regime and Nazi Germany. Sciences Po was then directly concerned by the draining goal of the National Council of the Resistance. Communist politicians including Georges Cogniot accused the school to be the "home of collaboration" with Nazi Germany and proposed abolishing the ELSP entirely and founding a new state-run administration college on its premises.
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To fight against this, Roger Seydoux, Jacques Chapsal and André Siegfried, from the school, excluded the most compromised (with Vichy and Nazi Germany) members of the school's staff, defended the school against accusation of collaboration and built up a communication campaign to save the school.The choice would be made by France's Provisional Government, under Charles de Gaulle. Eight of its thirteen ministers were alumni from the school. They made the future of the school escape from the Parliament's control to end up in their own hands.
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Michel Debré, alumnus, Jules Jeanneney, alumnus whose son just came out of the school, and Roger Grégoire, alumnus, decided that the school would be preserved but under a new structure. Two separate legal entities were created: the Institut d'études politiques (IEP) and the Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques (English: National Foundation of Political Science) or FNSP. Both entities were tasked by the French government to ensure "the progress and the spread, both within and outside France, of political science, economics, and sociology".
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FNSP, a private foundation that receives generous subsidies from the government, manages the IEP de Paris, owns its buildings and libraries, and determines its budget. The two entities work together in lockstep, however, as the director of the school is, by tradition, also the administrator of FNSP. This institutional arrangement gives Sciences Po a unique status, as the school draws most of its resources through substantial government subsidies to FNSP, but does not subject it to many government interventions and regulations, giving it a much higher level of autonomy compared to other French universities and schools.
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The epithet Sciences Po is applied to both entities, which inherited the reputation previously vested in ELSP.The public-private nature of Sciences Po, Paris, also distinguishes it from a network of institutes of political studies throughout the country that were inspired by its curriculum, namely in Strasbourg, Lyon, Aix, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Toulouse, Rennes and Lille. They are not to be confused with the seven campuses of Sciences Po in France. The government also established in 1945 the École Nationale d'Administration (ENA), an elite postgraduate school for training government officials. From then on, the Grands Corps de l'Etat were obliged to recruit new entrants from ENA. Sciences Po became the school of choice for those hoping to enter the ENA, and so retained its dominant place in educating high-ranking officials.
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Between 1952 and 1969, 77.5% of the ENA's graduate student intake were Sciences Po alumni.FNSP received a significant donations from the Rockefeller Foundation. FNSP published periodicals such as la Revue française de science politique, le Bulletin analytique de documentation, la Chronologie politique africaine, and the Cahiers de la Fondation as well as its seven research centres and main publishing house, Presses de Sciences Po.
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Sciences Po was substantially reformed from the mid-1990s so as to diversify its focus beyond political science and beyond France, mainly under the influence of Olivier Duhamel, who formally had different roles during until his resignation in 2021. Sciences Po was also hit by a number of crises and controversies during this period.
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After the directorship of Alain Lancelot (1987-1997), the latter choose Olivier Duhamel to sponsor the candidacy of Richard Descoings, who became the director of Sciences Po with Duhamel as special advisor.Under the directorship of Richard Descoings (1997–2012), the school incorporated courses in various branches of the social sciences on top of political science, such as law, economics, history, and sociology. In addition, the school began requiring all its undergraduate students to spend a year abroad, and introduced a multilingual curriculum in French, English, and other languages. Sciences Po also began to expand outside Paris, establishing regional campuses throughout France.
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During this period, Sciences Po also implemented reforms in its admissions process. Previously, Sciences Po recruited its students exclusively on the basis of a competitive examination. This system was seen to favor students from prestigious preparatory high schools, largely attended by the children of the French political elite.
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In 2001, Sciences Po founded the Equal Opportunity Program, widening its admissions policy. This program enables the institution to recruit high-potential students at partner high schools in more disadvantaged parts of France who, due to a social, academic, and financial constraints, would not otherwise have been able to attend Sciences Po.From 2001 to 2011, the proportion of scholarship students at Sciences Po went from 6 to 27 percent with around 30% of all students at Sciences Po currently receiving some form of scholarship.The reforms Descoings spearheaded were at times controversial, however, and his leadership style came under heavy criticism for "reigning as almighty king" and to implement a "management of fear". A further report by the French Court of Audit in 2012 severely criticized Sciences Po under the Descoings leadership for its opaque, and possibly illegal, financial management, notably with regard to management salaries, in particular to himself.
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After the sudden death of Richard Descoing, Frédéric Mion, a graduate of Sciences Po, ENA and École Normale Supérieure and former secretary general of Canal+, was appointed director of Sciences Po on 1 March 2013. It was criticized as a choice of Olivier Duhamel, even though the two other candidates were said to have a much stronger applications than the 9 pages given by Mion in his last minute candidacy with the sponsorship of Duhamel. Louis Vogel, former front-runner candidate who retracted his candidacy to protest against the governance process in Sciences Po, stated that an institution that want to have a place in the academic national and international environment cannot achieve such a thing without having an academic ("universitaire", a researcher and lecturer coming from the universités as opposed to the grandes écoles) at its head.Mion's intention to pursue Sciences Po's development as a "selective university of international standing" is detailed in the policy paper "Sciences Po 2022", published in the spring of 2014. The restructuring of Master's study into graduate schools continued with the creation of the School of Public Affairs and the Urban School in 2015 and the School of Management and Innovation in 2016. In early 2016, Sciences Po updated its governance structure, adopting new statutes for its two constituent bodies: the Fondation nationale des sciences politiques (FNSP) and the Institut d'études politiques de Paris (IEP).In late 2016, Sciences Po acquired a new site, the Hôtel de l'Artillerie in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, which it intends to make it a site of "educational renewal".In April 2018, Sciences Po students blocked the main entrance to the school in protest against Macron's education reforms which gives universités the power to set admission criteria and rank applicants (a power that Sciences Po has).
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In 2021, Sciences Po was hit by the Duhamel scandal, mainly put forward by the best-seller book La Familia Grande and newspaper articles from Le Monde and Nouvel Obs, a sexual violence scandal one and a succession crisis. Olivier Duhamel, director of the National Foundation of Sciences Po, Frédéric Mion, director of Sciences Po, and other members of the board of these institutions resigned. It led to appeals to a reform of the governance of Sciences Po. Instead, Sciences Po faced "ultimate attempts of a generation to maintain control of the designation of a successor for Duhamel".
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This process further tarnished the reputation of Sciences Po. L'Express later published a significant investigation on the transformations of Sciences Po since the 1990s, called "Sciences Po goes off the rails".Bénédicte Durand, interim administrator of Sciences Po, published in L’Express an op-ed stating that Sciences Po is facing "one of the most painful crisis of (the) history" of Sciences Po. She criticized the fact that the school has become the "target" of a "witch hunt" and is held responsible for "all the woes of the society" without "intellectual honesty", and told "hate-mongers" that Sciences Po will survive this crisis in spite of the "threats".
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The institute later published reports on deontology and sexual violence that were called by Nouvel Obs "abundant but shy".On 22 November 2021 Mathias Vicherat, former CEO of Danone, former spokesman of the French National Railways Network and former deputy cabinet director of the Mayor in Paris, assumed office as the new director of Sciences Po. This appointment has been criticized, because Vicherat does not have an academic background and would have been chosen as the former classmate and friend of the president.
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Vicherat pledged to name someone with an academic experience as number 2 to compensate his background. He wants to reinforce the private sector outcomes of the Sciences Po diploma.In 2022, the book "Une jeunesse engagée" was published, describing the evolution of Sciences Po student body over the decades. In 2022, 70% of the students considered themeselves as part of an elite, whereas only 53% did in 2002. 55% of the students voted for left-wing politician Jean-Luc Mélenchon and 71% of the students consider themselves as left-wing, whereas 57% did in 2002. The book also described a place where knowledge and study have little place and where students focus on networking and the dismay of students and lecturers in front of this new reality.Further controversies occurred, including one around the cancellation of two lectures by Peggy Sastre and Leonardo Orlando around the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin and gender studies., with the direct involvement of Vicherat.
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Sciences Po has seven campuses in France, with each specialising in different regions of the globe. Every May, at the end of the academic year, all seven campuses come together for the inter-campus Collegiades de SciencesPo tournament, also known as the MiniCrit. At the tournament, students represent each campus and compete against one another in arts and athletic competitions. Different events include athletic games such as volleyball and football, as well as artistic competitions such as music and dance.
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The Paris campus is spread across several buildings concentrated around the Boulevard Saint-Germain in the 6th and 7th arrondissements. The historic centre of Sciences Po at 27 rue Saint-Guillaume houses the head office and central library since 1879. It is also home to Sciences Po's two largest teaching halls, the Amphitheatres Émile Boutmy and Jacques Chapsal. Other buildings include: The Paris campus enrolls about 3,000 undergraduate students, almost a third of whom are international exchange students.Sciences Po purchased in 2016 the Hôtel de l’Artillerie, a 17th-century former monastery of 14,000 m2 located 200 meters from its campus on rue Saint-Guillaume, from the French Ministry of Defense and refurbished the building for a total cost of around 200 million euros in total (estimation).
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The new facility which opened in 2022, hosts 7 graduate schools including School of Public Affairs, Paris School of International Affairs, Law School, Urban School, School of Management and Impact, School of Journalism and the School of Research. Furthermore, the new Saint Thomas campus is home to the scientific department and the institute of innovation as well as the Sciences Po's Center for Entrepreneurship. It will provide social housing for 50 to 100 students with need-based aid from the State.
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Located in the region of Burgundy in a 19th-century building, the Dijon campus was created in 2001. The regional specialisation is on the European Union, specifically Central and Eastern Europe, and is taught in French. The elective languages offered are Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Russian and Czech.
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Located on the coast of Normandy, Le Havre has hosted the undergraduate Euro-Asian Programme (taught in English) since 2007. The elective languages offered are Chinese, Japanese and Korean, and French as a Foreign Language courses for students without a B1-equivalent level. Students primarily choose to spend their third year abroad in an Asian country.
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Established in the French Riviera city of Menton in 2005, the campus is located in an entirely renovated 19th-century building overlooking the Mediterranean. According to the Sciences Po brochure, the Menton Campus' regional specialisation is on the Middle Eastern and the Mediterranean, and it welcomes 300 students each year. The undergraduate programme is taught through two language tracks (French or English) and several elective languages are offered: Arabic, Turkish, Italian, Spanish, Persian, Hebrew, and French as a Foreign Language for those without a CEFR B1-equivalent level in French. The third mandatory year abroad is spent in the Middle East or elsewhere.
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Established in the region of Lorraine in 2000, the Nancy campus is located in an 18th century heritage site, the Hôtel des Missions Royales. The curriculum is taught in French, English and German, as its regional specialisation focuses on the European Union and French-German relations. The elective languages offered are German, English, French as a foreign language and also Italian, Spanish, Russian, Swedish or Arabic.
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Opened in 2010, the campus is located in the heart of the historic city of Poitiers in the Hôtel Chaboureau, a renovated building dating from the 15th century. The regional specialisation is on Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. The undergraduate programme is conducted mainly in French, with some courses in English and Spanish. The elective languages offered are Spanish and Portuguese.
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The Reims campus opened in September 2010. It is housed in the 17th century College des Jesuits. Despite being the most recent campus, it is the largest of the regional campuses of Sciences Po, with over 1,600 undergraduates. Over half of their students are international.
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The campus offers two regional specialisations, one on North America (taught in English) and the other on Africa (taught in French). Additionally, through a partnership with the University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne (URCA), the Reims Campus offers a dual degree in social sciences & humanities and life sciences entitled "Environment, Society, Sustainability." The elective languages offered are English, Spanish, German, Italian or Arabic, and French as a foreign language for students who do not have a B1 level of French. As of January 10th 2022, Crystal Cordell Paris has served as campus director, taking over from previous director Tilman Turpin.
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Sciences Po operates under a dual governance model composed of two entities: the Fondation nationale des sciences politiques (FNSP), a private non-profit foundation, and the Institut d’études politiques de Paris or Paris Institute of Political Studies, a public higher education institution. These two bodies constitute Sciences Po, which is the official term used to designate them collectively. The FNSP is responsible for the strategic direction and administrative and financial management of Sciences Po. It is administered by a board of directors.The role of the Paris Institute of Political Studies is to ensure teaching, research and library services, like all international research universities.
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Its governing bodies consist of the Board of Directors, the Student Life and Education Committee and the Academic Board.The Executive Committee is the institution’s operational steering committee. It brings together the directors of Sciences Po’s various divisions and offices under the authority of the President of Sciences Po. The Executive Committee implements the strategic direction and makes operational decisions on running and managing the institution.
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Sciences Po's resources have grown threefold over the past 15 years, from €55 million in 2000 to €128 million in 2010 to €197 million in 2018. The French government’s support for the institution, in the form of structural public subsidies, has increased from €36 million in 2000 to €69.3 million in 2018. At the same time, growth in the institution's own resources has led to a gradual decline in the relative share of public funds in Sciences Po's overall budget. This figure has decreased by more than one-third, from 66% in 2000 to approximately 35% in 2018.
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Sciences Po's own resources have grown significantly. They have been multiplied by six: from €18.3 million in 2000 to €127.2 million in 2018. These resources now account for a majority of the budget.The institution took on a debt of €191 million in 2016 in order to fund the acquisition of its new Paris campus and undertake the restoration of the site. This debt is partially guaranteed by the Paris City Council.
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The academic bodies of Sciences Po consist of the Undergraduate College, six professional schools, and the Doctoral School.
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The Sciences Po Undergraduate College offers a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree with a multidisciplinary foundation in the humanities and social sciences with emphasis on civic, linguistic, artistic, and digital training.In the first year, students take foundational courses in six disciplines - economics, history, humanities, law, political science, and sociology. In the second year, students choose a multidisciplinary major – Politics & Government, Economics & Societies, or Political Humanities. The third year is spent abroad on an exchange programme with a partner university.
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In addition, each campus offers a different regional specialisation which anchors students' intellectual objectives, the regions are: Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, Middle East-Mediterranean, and North America.Sciences Po offers dual bachelor's degrees with Columbia University, Keio University, University College London, Freie Universität Berlin, University of British Columbia, the University of Sydney, the National University of Singapore, the University of Hong Kong, and the University of California at Berkeley.The current dean of the Undergraduate College is Stéphanie Balme. In 2021, 15,284 students applied to the Undergraduate College across all three admissions pathways (the exam procedure, the Equal Opportunity Programme, and the international procedure). 1,630 students were accepted, for an admission rate of 7%. Sciences Po has an acceptance rate of around 10% on Parcoursup (the national admissions platform for higher education) in 2021.
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At the graduate level, Sciences Po's seven schools offer one- and two-year Master's programmes and PhD programmes. All graduate programmes are delivered on the Sciences Po campus in Paris. Sciences Po also hosts dual Master's programmes with international partners. Students enrolled in these dual degree programmes spend one year at Sciences Po in Paris and one year at the partner university.
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The Undergraduate College (Collège universitaire) is the home of all undergraduate students. At the graduate level, there are seven professional schools: The Doctoral School offers Master and PhD programmes in law, economics, history, political science, or sociology. The PhD programme contains roughly 600 doctoral candidates.
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Research at Sciences Po covers economics, law, history, sociology and political science, while also taking in interdisciplinary topics such as cities, political ecology, sustainable development, socio-economics and globalization. Sciences Po is home to a research community that includes over 200 researchers and 350 PhD candidates. In 2015, 32% of the school's budget was devoted to research. That year, 65% of its research publications were in French, 32% in English and 3% in other languages.The institute has research centers, seven of which are affiliated with France's National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS).
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Center for Socio-Political Data (CDSP), which provides scientifically validated data for international survey programs. It also supports training in data collection and analysis. Centre for European Studies and Comparative Politics (CEE), which focuses on inter-disciplinary European studies; participation, democracy and government; election analyses; the restructuring of the state and public action.
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Centre for International Studies (CERI), which produces comparative and historical analysis on foreign societies, international relations, and political, social and economic phenomena. Centre for Political Research (CEVIPOF), which investigates political attitudes, behaviour and parties, as well as political thought and the history of ideas. Centre for History (CHSP), whose research focuses on: arts, knowledge and culture; wars, conflicts and violence; states, institutions and societies; the political and cultural history of contemporary France; from local to global; international history and its levels.
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Centre for the Sociology of Organisations (CSO), which conducts research on the sociology of organisations, sociology of public policy, and economic sociology. It also studies issues related to higher education and research, healthcare, sustainable development, the evolution of firms, and the transformation of the state. Center for Studies in Social Change (OSC), which conducts research on topics such as urban, school and gender inequalities, stratification and social mobility, and ethno-racial or social segregation.
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Department of Economics, which investigates areas such as labour markets, international economics, political economy, microeconomics and development. Law School, whose research focuses on globalisation, legal cultures and the economics of law. It has also produced work on the theory and history of law, public and private international law and intellectual property.
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Médialab, which studies the way data generated by new information technologies is produced, circulated and exploited. The Observatoire Français des Conjonctures Économiques (OFCE), which is both a research centre and an independent economic forecasting body. Its stated mission is to "ensure that the fruits of scientific rigour and academic independence serve the public debate about the economy".In addition to these research units, the institute has recently established three major research programs – the LIEPP, DIME-SHS and MaxPo.
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The Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire d'Evaluation des Politiques Publiques (LIEPP) analyzes public policy based on qualitative, comparative, and quantitative methods. The laboratory has been selected by an international scientific jury as a "Laboratoire d'Excellence" (Labex) that will be financed for the next ten years by the French government.
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Données Infrastructures et Méthodes d'Enquête en Sciences Humaines et Sociales (DIME-SHS) aims to collect and disseminate data for use in humanities and social sciences research. The Max Planck Sciences Po Center on Coping with Instability in Market Societies (known as MaxPo), was founded in 2012 in co-operation with the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies (MPIfG). It investigates how individuals, organizations, and nation-states deal with various forms of economic and social instability. It is located at Sciences Po's Paris campus.
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Founded in 1871, the nucleus of the school's research is the Bibliothèque de Sciences Po. The library offers a collection of more than 950,000 titles in the field of social sciences. In 1982, the Ministry of National Education made the Bibliothèque the Centre for Acquisition and Dissemination of Scientific and Technical Information in the field of political science, and since 1994, it has been the antenna associated with the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. The Bibliothèque de Sciences Po is also the main French partner in the International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, which is based at the London School of Economics.Founded in the 1950s, Presses de Sciences Po is the publishing house of Sciences Po. It publishes academic works related to the social sciences.
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Sciences Po organizes public lecture events. Recent guest speakers have included Ban Ki-moon, General David Petraeus, Condoleezza Rice, former President of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Eric Schmidt, Joseph Stiglitz, Sheryl Sandberg, Mario Draghi, UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova and Harvard University professor Michael Sandel.Since 2007 it has organized the Franco-British Dialogue Lecture Series in collaboration with the LSE and the French Embassy in London. The lectures are held every term at the LSE's European Institute.
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In rankings based on English-speaking publications, in 2022, Sciences Po ranks 3nd globally for the study of Politics in the QS World University Subjects Rankings, whereas it is ranked 39th in social sciences by Times Higher Education. In QS Rankings and Times Higher Education, Sciences Po is globally ranked 242 and 401–500.
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Sciences Po has been called France's "leading university in the social sciences". It is considered to be the most prestigious of all of the campuses (instituts d'études politiques – IEPs or Institutes of Political Studies) in France, and is the only one allowed to refer to itself with the epithet "Sciences Po" without indicating the name of the city where it is located, under a legal agreement among the campuses. Other campuses can use the term "Sciences Po" to refer to themselves only when followed by the names of the cities where they are located, such as "Sciences Po Lille" or "Sciences Po Grenoble".Sciences Po is widely regarded to be an elite institution due to its selectivity in admissions and its close connections to powerful networks within French society. It has been described as a "school of power" that has emulated abroad.
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