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During the 19th century, the linguistic purism movement is inextricably connected with the magazine Fjölnir (published from 1835 to 1839 and from 1844 to 1847). The magazine was published in Copenhagen by four young Icelanders: Konráð Gíslason, Jónas Hallgrímsson, Brynjólfur Pétursson and Tómas Sæmundsson. The most important of these four was Jónas Hallgrímsson, who also translated literary work of Heine and Ossian.
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His translation of a textbook on astronomy (Stjörnufræði, 1842) became exemplary for later translations of scientific literature. Many of the neologisms he coined have become an integral part of present-day Icelandic terminology: aðdráttarafl (gravity), hitabelti (tropics), sjónauki (telescope), samhliða (parallel). Konráð Gíslason (1808–91), professor in Old Scandinavian languages at the University of Copenhagen, published the first Danish–Icelandic dictionary in 1851.
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When sovereignty was achieved in 1918, government regulation of language matters began. Initially, as with some other preservation attempts noted above, the focus was on orthography, but regulation of language matters grew steadily and became more formalised. Early in the 20th century, the third element in Icelandic preservation, ordinary speakers, especially those in modernising sectors, also began to contribute to language preservation efforts. For instance, in 1918 the Association of Engineers (Verkfræðingafélagið) began a systematic approach to neologisms.
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In 1951, a Dictionary Committee of the University of Iceland (Orðabókarnefnd Háskólans) began publishing lists of new words, marking the beginning of formal government sponsorship of neologisms. In 1965, a ministerial decree of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (Menntamálaráðuneytið) established the Íslensk málnefnd (Icelandic Language Committee) to "guide government agencies and the general public in matters of language on a scholarly basis". But this group only had three members and simply could not keep up with the task it was given, even after the addition of two more members in 1980.
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To remedy this situation, in 1984 the Althing passed legislation which ratified the five person membership and also established a permanently functioning secretariat, the Íslensk málstöð (Icelandic Language Institute). The Council was enlarged to 15 members in 1990, appointed by and from a number of sectors. Thus, the Council paralleled its counterparts elsewhere in Scandinavia.
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Day-to-day operations are the province of the Institute. Occupying a suite of offices on Neshagi, a street near the University, and previously the site of the American Embassy's cultural center, the Institute today is headed by Ari Páll Kristinsson and has only four employees who give advice on language and usage matters to public authorities and the broadcasting service (Ríkisútvarpið) and answer questions from the general population. In September 2006, the Institute was merged into the Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies.
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The Icelandic language is a basic element of the national identity of the Icelanders. The main focus of linguistic purism in Icelandic is to maintain the structure of the language (for instance as a declined language compared to some other West European Indo-European languages, such as English and French), and to develop its vocabulary, so that the language can be used to speak about any topic—no matter how technical—which, in turn, contributes to keeping the language up-to-date.
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Organisations and individuals in many specialist areas together with the Icelandic Language Institute propose and use new technical lexis, which diversifies the Icelandic lexicon as a whole. When introducing words for new or modern concepts, it is common to revitalise old words that have fallen into disuse but have a similar meaning or are in the same semantic field. For example, the word sími, an old word for "long thread", was brought back with a new meaning: "telephone". Alternatively, new compound words such as veðurfræði ("meteorology") can be formed from old words (in this case veður "weather", and fræði "science").
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Thus speakers of Icelandic can easily deconstruct many words to find their etymologies; indeed compound words are very frequent in the Icelandic language. This system also makes it easier for new words to fit in with existing Icelandic grammatical rules: the gender and declension of the compound word can easily be extracted from its derivatives, as can pronunciation. In recent years, the government has promoted an interest in technology, including efforts to produce Icelandic language software and other computer interfaces. Another new combination used instead of an international foreign word is skriðdreki (literally "crawling dragon" ) for "army tank".
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However intensive the linguistic purification effort, loanwords are still entering the language. Some of these loanwords have been adapted and moulded to fit in with Icelandic grammatical rules, including inflection and pronunciation. For example, the word bíll ("a car") comes from the word "automobile" via the Danish shortened version bil. Sapir and Zuckermann (2008) demonstrate how Icelandic "camouflages" many English words by means of phono-semantic matching.
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For example, the Icelandic-looking word eyðni, meaning "AIDS", is a phonosemantic match of the English acronym AIDS, using the existing Icelandic verb eyða ("to destroy") and the Icelandic nominal suffix -ni. Similarly, the Icelandic word tækni ("technology", "technique") derives from tæki ("tool") combined with the nominal suffix -ni, but is a phonosemantic match of the Danish (or international) teknik with the same meaning. This neologism was coined in 1912 by Dr Björn Bjarnarson from Viðfjörður in the east of Iceland.
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It was little used until the 1940s, but has since become highly common, as a lexeme and as an element in new formations, such as raftækni ("electronics") literally meaning "electrical technics", tæknilegur ("technical") and tæknir ("technician"). Other phonosemantic matches discussed in the article are beygla, bifra – bifrari, brokkál, dapur – dapurleiki – depurð, fjárfesta – fjárfesting, heila, ímynd (image), júgurð, korréttur, Létt og laggott, musl, pallborð – pallborðsumræður, páfagaukur (parrot), ratsjá (radar device), setur, staða, staðall – staðla – stöðlun, toga – togari, uppi and veira (virus). An example of adaptation of a foreign word is "Ísraeli" (same meaning as in English, as a noun), which in Icelandic has the plural Ísraelar, formed analogously to native Icelandic words such as the poetic gumi ("a man") and bogi ("a bow").
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Linguistic purification does not imply limitations to or neglect of foreign language learning. Teaching of foreign languages in Iceland is heavily emphasized, and the learning of English and Danish (or another Scandinavian language) in school is compulsory. Danish was taught because Iceland was a dominion of Denmark until 1918 (with the same king until 1944); this study is still compulsory to maintain ties with Scandinavia. English is learned as the main international language, especially in view of the internationalization of the economy of Iceland with intensive trade and capital flows to and from the outside world.
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Students entering a gymnasium are also usually required to choose a third foreign language. Traditionally that was either German or French, but in recent years Spanish has also been offered in many gymnasia. Other languages are sometimes added as an option but usually as part of a language-heavy course of study at the cost of the natural sciences. Students who have lived in another Nordic country, or for whatever reason have some understanding of another Scandinavian language, can study that language instead of Danish.
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A minor movement started by Jozef Braekmans of Lier, Belgium, around 1992 aimed at removing loan words from the modern Icelandic language and creating new terms for all historical loan words. It was named "High Icelandic" or "Hyper-Icelandic" (Háíslenska or Háfrónska). The movement has not gained traction.
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Mapbender is a graduated project of the Open Source Geospatial Foundation. It was awarded OGC web site of the month in 2008. It is used by PortalU and several federal states to implement the INSPIRE regulation. Many municipalities use Mapbender as City Map Services and it is used as the mapping framework for online cycle route planners.
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Mapbender is a web mapping software implemented in PHP and JavaScript, the configuration resides in a data model stored in a PostgreSQL PostGIS or MySQL database. It is developed as an open-source project and licensed by the GNU GPL as free software. Mapbender is a framework for managing spatial data services that are standardized following the OGC specifications OWS, WMS and WFS and using the formats GeoRSS and GML and Web Map Context. The framework implements user management, authentication and authorization.
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Management interfaces for user, group and service administration are stored as configurations in the database. The software is used to display, overlay, edit and manage distributed Web Map Services. The maps themselves are generated by Server software. From this perspective Mapbender is a client software. The client interfaces are generated dynamically by PHP scripts on the Mapbender Server.
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User interfaces are created using forms of the same web based type. User interfaces contain elements (buttons, maps, legends, links), each has associated HTML attributes, path to PHP modules or JavaScript code which are stored in the database. Basic modules implement: zoom in and out pan map click and query (OGC WMS GetFeatureInfo) turn layers on and off move to coordinate (zoom to) get coordinate (mouse click) digitize (add new points, lines, polygons; this requires transactional WFS) load map services (OGC WMS) reorder and remove map services show legend print search interfaces store current map composition as OGC Web Map Context documentUser interfaces can be started parameterized with a bounding box, set of services and set of activated layers.
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Administration interfaces are user interfaces with administration modules. This makes administration highly flexible and multi client capable (both multiple interfaces and user/group permission). Administration modules include management (add, edit, remove) of: users groups interfaces (GUI) WMS services WFS and transactional WFS services OWS Security Proxy Metadata Log and protocol Service monitor
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Mapbender is designed to manage loosely coupled web services in a service-oriented architecture. Due to some glitches in early GIS history with Coordinate systems, Cartesian coordinate systems and Surveying this can sometimes be somewhat complex. The Mapbender software covers the following topics: Web-GIS Client (OGC WMS, WFS, Catalog Service Client) Geo-CMS (Content Management System) Web-based map digitizing and editing functionality (OGC WFS-T Client) Service Meta Information Broker (ISO 19-hundred Series) Catalog System (ISO 19119 Service Meta Data) Security Management (Authentication, Authorization, SSO Secure Service) Accounting Management (Logging) Spatial Web Services Orchestrating
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Warburg's tincture was a pharmaceutical drug, now obsolete. It was invented in 1834 by Dr. Carl Warburg. Warburg's tincture was well known in the Victorian era as a medicine for fevers, especially tropical fevers, including malaria. It was considered, by some, to be superior to quinine.
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Warburg's Tincture was a secret, proprietary remedy. The formula was not published until 1875. Later, it was included in the first edition of Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia. Warburg's Tincture included an array of ingredients, including quinine.
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List of alternative names by which Warburg's Tincture was known or referred to: 'Warburg Tincture' 'The Warburg Tincture' 'Warburg's Fever Tincture' 'Warburg's Fever Tincture and Tonic Medicine' 'Warburg Fever Tincture and Tonic Medicine' 'Warburg's Vegetable Fever Tincture' 'Dr Warburg's Vegetable Fever Drops' 'Warburg's Vegetable Fever Drops' 'Dr Warburg's Tincture' 'Dr Warburg's Fever Tincture' 'Warburg Drops' 'Warburg's Drops' 'Warburg's Fever Drops' 'Dr Warburg's Fever Drops' 'Dr Warburg's Drops' 'Tinctura Warburgi' 'Tinctura Warburgii' 'Tinctura antifebrilis Warburgi' 'Tinctura antifebrilis Warburgii' 'Tinctura Antiperiodica' 'Antiperiodica Tincture' 'Warburg' (informal)
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As its name implies, Warburg's Tincture was originally available only in liquid form. It was deep brown to golden yellow in colour; its taste was bitter and not very palatable. It was sold in small bottles of unique design, containing about one ounce. The label affixed to each bottle bore the registered trademark, which depicted an image of the bottle accompanied by a facsimile of Carl Warburg's signature. By 1888 the drug was available in tablet form.
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Warburg's Tincture was invented by Dr Carl Warburg in 1834, in British Guiana (now Guyana). It was introduced into Europe in 1839. Warburg's Tincture received medical trials in British Guiana in the 1830s, and then elsewhere around the world in the 1840s and 1850s. In 1846, Warburg's Tincture was extensively trialled in Austria and, the following year, it was adopted as an official medicine by the Austrian Empire, by imperial order.Warburg's Tincture was sold as a secret, proprietary medicine for over forty years, and was marketed and manufactured by Carl Warburg for many decades.
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He wanted the British Government to procure the formula of Warburg's Tincture from him, but such an arrangement never came to fruition. Nevertheless, the British Government was a significant client, procuring Warburg's Tincture for military forces serving overseas in India and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka); in Africa, in Gold Coast (now Ghana), Gambia and Sierra Leone; in the West Indies; and in Cyprus, Corfu, Mauritius and China.
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In 1867, in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, Sir Robert Anstruther, 5th Baronet asked the Secretary of War why Warburg's Tincture was not being supplied in larger quantities to troops in India.Writing in 1870, Carl Warburg lamented that his eponymous drug was "comparatively unknown". The formula was disclosed by him in November 1875 when it was published on his behalf in The Lancet and The Medical Times. In 1855, it retailed at 6s/6d a bottle.
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Famous Victorians who are documented to have used Warburg's Tincture include: Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton - explorer and diplomat General Charles George Gordon of Khartoum - senior army officer and colonial administrator Dr David Livingstone - missionary and explorer Dante Gabriel Rossetti - Pre-Raphaelite artist. Frederic Shields - artist and illustrator.
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Warburg's Tincture was promoted by its inventor, Dr Carl Warburg, as a medicine suitable for treating all types of fevers, but especially tropical fevers, including malaria and yellow fever; and that it could also be used as a tonic in debility and convalescence. He claimed that his eponymous tincture was superior to any other antipyretic, including quinine. "I assert that for perfect safety, for efficacy, rapidity of action, and for economy, my tincture has no rival, nor any approach to it". He also stated that quinine only "relieves", whereas Warburg's Tincture "cures".
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He advocated that Warburg's Tincture could be employed at all stages of fever, as well as a prophylactic. " is an unfailing remedy in all cases of Intermittent, Continued, Continued-Remittment, Nervous and Typhus Fevers; Cholera, Diarrhoea, and Dysentery; Scrofula in all its forms; Incipient Consumption, Chronic Bronchitic Cough, Want of Appetite, Delirium Tremens, Morbid Digestion, arising from excess in the use of spirituous drinks, Scurvy and every disease of a scorbutic character. " Official advertisement, 1855
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In the Victorian era Warburg's Tincture was principally employed in the treatment of tropical fevers, including malaria, yellow fever and typhus. It was therefore an antipyretic, and an antimalarial drug.
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Warburg's Tincture was vaunted as being superior to quinine in the treatment of malaria by many in the Victorian era. Quinine remained the first-line antimalarial drug of choice until the 1940s, when other drugs replaced it. Until recently Chloroquine was the most widely used antimalarial drug.
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Warburg's Tincture was included in Burroughs Wellcome & Company's tabloid medicine cases of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. "There is now no exact equivalent of Warburg's Tincture ....The most similar modern preparation is ammoniated tincture of quinine. This omits aloes and rhubarb, whose function was a laxative to 'purge' the patient's system, an approach to fever treatment now redundant. Ammoniated tincture of quinine last appeared in the British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1963, but still remains an official preparation that could be prepared if necessary....it was popular as an over the counter medicine for colds until c. 1980, but is now rarely used."
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'Warburg's Tincture' was a well-known drug in the Victorian era. It earned itself a well regarded international reputation in certain quarters of the medical profession, many attesting to its efficacy and value.One of the most notable and strongest advocates of Warburg's Tincture was Surgeon-General W. C. Maclean, C.B, (1811–1898), Professor of Military Medicine at the Army Medical School, at Chatham and later at the Royal Victoria Military Hospital, Netley, from 1860 until 1885. Maclean contributed the chapters on malarial fevers and dysentery in A System of Medicine, edited by Sir John Russell Reynolds (the latter being "an eminent and highly influential physician in the Victorian era who held the Presidencies of the Royal College of Physicians of London, and of the British Medical Association"). Maclean considered Warburg's Tincture to be the best drug for the treatment of malaria and, in his lectures and writings on tropical diseases, he strongly recommended its use. "
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I have treated remittent fevers of every degree of severity contracted in the jungles of the Deccan and the Mysore, at the base of the mountain ranges in India, on the Coromandel Coast, in the pestilential highlands of the northern division of the Madras Presidency, on the malarial rivers of China, and in men brought to from the swamps of the Gold Coast, and I affirm that I have never seen quinine, when given alone, act in the characteristic of this tincture....I have never seen a single dose of given alone, to the extent of nine grains and half, suffice to arrest an exacerbation of remittent fever, much less prevent its recurrence, while nothing is more common than to see the same quantity of the alkaloid in Warburg’s tincture bring about both results. " Surgeon-General W. C. Maclean, Professor of Military Medicine at the Army Medical School, Netley - The Lancet, 1875 In addition to Surgeon-General Maclean, Warburg's Tincture was highly praised by many other eminent medical professionals of the Victorian era, including: Sir James Johnson M.D. - physician extraordinary to King William IV.
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Sir James Clark M.D. - royal physician to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Sir William Henry Broadbent, 1st Baronet, M.D.
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- St Mary's Hospital, London and London Fever Hospital, Physician in Ordinary to Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. ("Warburg’s Tincture has long held a high reputation in India, as a remedy of undoubted and indeed unequalled power in the treatment of the malignant malarial fevers of that country and of cholera. Testimony to its efficacy has come from men whose capability and opportunities of forming an opinion could not be disputed", 1877) Dr Thomas Southwood Smith - London Fever Hospital, and recognised expert on the treatment of fevers.
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Dr Benjamin Guy Babington - Guy's Hospital ("I consider it the most potent anti-intermittent medicine I have ever employed", 1851). Dr F. C. Skey - St Bartholomew's Hospital, and Professor of Surgery to Royal College of Surgeons of England.
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Sir James Gibson, M.D., K.C.B. - Director-General, Army Medical Department, Whitehall, London. Sir Andrew Halliday, M.D.
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- Deputy Inspector General of Military Hospitals. Dr Macgrath - Director-General, Army Medical Department, Madras, India. Dr Joseph Johann Knolz - head of the civilian medical department of the Austrian Empire.
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Dr Rieken - Belgium, physician to Leopold I of Belgium. Count E Bylandt M.D. - physician to William II of the Netherlands Dr Salgues - Dijon, France. Dr Uyttrhoven - Brussels, Belgium.
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As a consequence of Warburg's Tincture being sold as a secret, proprietary remedy, many in the medical profession, particularly in England, derided, distrusted and dismissed it as a 'patent medicine' or 'quack medicine', and disliked it and criticised Carl Warburg on grounds of professional ethics.
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Warburg's Tincture was adopted by the Austrian empire as an official medicine in 1847; it was added to the Austrian 'Materia Medica' under the name 'Tinctura Warburgi'. Warburg's Tincture appeared in the first edition of Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia (now known as Martindale: The complete drug reference) in 1883, and was included until the 19th edition of 1928. Warburg's Tincture was included in the National Formulary Section of The Dispensatory for the United States of America in the 20th edition in 1918, listed under the entry for 'Tinctura Antiperiodica'. The Pocket Formulary, and synopsis of the British & Foreign pharmacopoeias: comprising standard and approved formulae for the preparation and compounds employed in medical practice London, by Henry Beasley.
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Included in various editions, e.g. 1851 (fifth edition), 1856, 1877. Jahresbericht der Pharmazie, 1910, Munich, Germany. Warburg's Tincture is now obsolete as a medicinal drug. It last appeared in the Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia in 1928.
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The formula of Warburg's Tincture was disclosed by its inventor in November 1875 when it was published in The Lancet and The Medical Times on his behalf - see below. Ingredients and directions for preparation Take: 4 ounces each of Socotrine aloes, Rhubarb root (East India), Angelica seeds, and Confection Damocratric; 2 ounces each of Helenis root (Elecampane root), Saffron, Fennel seeds, and Prepared chalk; and 1 ounce each of Gentian root, Zedoary root, Cubelis (tailed pepper), Myrrh, Camphor, and boletus laricis (Polyporus officinalis, a fungus). Above ingredients to be digested with 500 ounces of proof spirit in a water-bath for 12 hours; then expressed and ten ounces of Disulphate of Quinine added; the mixture to be replaced in the water-bath till all quinine is dissolved. The liquor, when cool, is to be filtered, and is then fit for use.
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Warburg's Tincture therefore contained quinine in addition to various purgatives, aromatics and carminatives. The ingredient Confection Damocratric is a complex preparation which has not been obtainable for over a century; it contained many different aromatic substances.The prepared chalk was used to correct the otherwise extremely acrid taste of the tincture. Dosage A bottle of Warburg's Tincture contained about one ounce of liquid. The drug was to be administered in two equal doses, a few hours apart.
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Wootton, A. (1910), Chronicles of Pharmacy, pp. 206–208. Poser, Charles M.; Bruyn, G. W.
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(1999), An Illustrated History of Malaria, p. 87. Sparkes, Roland - article, 'Dr Carl Warburg, his Belmont laboratory, and his famous fever drug', 2003/2009,
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An honorary male or honorary man is a woman who is accorded the status of a man without disrupting the patriarchal status quo.
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Queen Hatshepsut was the first female ruler of ancient Egypt after Sobekneferu to act as a full pharaoh. Ruling in the New Kingdom, Hatshepsut depicted and asserted herself as a male ruler. In artwork and sculpture of Hatshepsut, she is represented in the traditional pharaoh headdress, kilt, and false beard—a symbol of kingship; her breasts are reduced and deemphasized, and her shoulders are broad and manly. Hatshepsut executed several building projects and military campaigns and brought Egypt into a period of peace and prosperity. Hatshepsut's actions to improve the status of women during this time are unknown, although women in ancient Egypt could decide their own professions, marry whomever they desired, contract prenuptial agreements that favored them, divorce their husbands, own real estate, enter the clergy, and had access to birth control and abortions. Women in Egypt during this time held higher status than their counterparts in other countries, and more than Egyptian women would be in later centuries after the rise of Christianity in the 4th century AD and later Islam in the 7th century AD.
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Female burials in the La Tène culture in Western Europe between 450 BC and 380 BC indicate the elite status of some women. Indicators of elite status in Central and Southern Germany in this period included objects of power similar to those found in preceding periods. High status graves in the preceding Hallstatt period (750 BC to 450 BC) included gold neck rings, bronze daggers, bronze drinking vessels, and four-wheeled wagons. Grave sites in the Hochdorf, Biberach region, excavated in 1970, found only elite male burial objects before and during the Hallstat Period.
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However, in 480 BC, the number of elite male graves began dropping and were suddenly replaced by elite female graves. Around the same time these high status burials transitioned from majority men to women. War brought forth massive emigration of males, leaving behind women to fill the roles typically held by men.
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Similar shifts in population occurred in the Celtic regions of Europe. As most of Celtic society in the Iron Age centered around agriculture, the landowning class dominated. The ruling class also made up the military elite.
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As Warfare in Medieval Scotland increased, women soon found themselves in roles of land ownership and power. Competitive feasting, large events held by the now landowning women, involved large quantities of alcohol and food. The quality of the feast represented the host's socio-economic status.
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Equipment, dress, and methods for performing these feasts also influenced laws and values. Gold neck rings, symbolizing the highest status of a successful feast host have been found in female graves indicating that women continued the practices traditionally upheld by men.
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Women assuming positions of power in this patriarchal society was made possible by a lower population of men, not an absence. According to Bettina Arnold, author of "‘Honorary males’ or women of substance? Gender, status, and power in Iron-Age Europe", archaeological analysis of burial shows some women were honorary males as they were buried with both socio-economic as well as military symbols of power.
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In "Queen Elizabeth I and the Persistence of Patriarchy", Allison Heisch describes honorary males as women who accept the values and practices of the male society in which they function, and internalize and follow them. She notes that honorary males tend to support rather than subvert patriarchal governance, and cites as an example Queen Elizabeth I, whose reign had little to no impact on the status of women in England. She also cites the example of Gertrude Stein sitting in her salon, smoking cigars and conversing with the men. Stein's participation temporarily modifies the after-dinner ritual in which men smoke cigars and talk amongst themselves, but does not permanently alter it. An exception is made for her because she is seen as different from other women; Ernest Hemingway once wrote in a letter, "Gertrude Stein and me are just like brothers".
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The honorary man, Carolyn Heilbrun writes in the 1988 "Non-Autobiographies of 'Privileged' Women: England and America", must isolate herself from the common run of women to maintain her "privileged" status. In this way, she exchanges one form of confinement (the domestic sphere) for another (the male realm).Comparing male domination of the political sphere in Zambia to that in the United States in 1998, Sara Hlupekile Longwe writes that honorary males are often also queen bees who have been "schooled to believe that women already have equality—because they themselves have reached the top"; she calls this the Thatcher syndrome. Such women, she claims, do not wish to empower other women, but rather to preserve their own exceptional status among the men.Margaret Atwood described the results of a study of book reviews conducted in 1972: We also found that, if a man's book was being praised, it tended to attract excess-of-malehood adjectives; the writer was an ultra-man. If dispraised, the poor guy would be allotted adjectives from the Quiller-Couch "female" slate.
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If female and unsatisfactory, a woman writer would be more female than female; if admired, she would "transcend her sex" (that's a quote) and would be raised to the status of non-woman, or honorary man. "She thinks like a man" was a compliment. Ursula K. Le Guin once said in an interview, "I read the Norton Anthology of Literature by Women from cover to cover.
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It was a bible for me. It taught me that I didn't have to write like an honorary man anymore, that I could write like a woman and feel liberated in doing so.
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"This phenomenon can be seen in academia. Barbara Bagihole, the Director of Studies for MA in Women's Studies at the University of Loughborough, England, conducted a study that revealed that the women she interviewed felt the need to disassociate themselves from their female colleagues in order to succeed in their male dominated field.Women in the military face a similar problem. Recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have allowed women combat roles.
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However, in order for women in the military to be accepted and considered successful, they feel they must become "one of the guys". Otherwise, they would face sexual and gender based ridicule that, in some cases, led to women ending their military careers. Feminist theorist Cynthia Enloe argues that the institution of the military is not comparable to those of education or business because of its inherently violent and hypermasculine characteristics. She states that this environment is so harmful for women that they can never fully assimilate.
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The double bind is essentially the double standard held against women candidates and political leaders. A woman's ability to overcome the double bind enables her to obtain the status of an honorary man. To overcome the double bind women candidates and political leaders must enhance their masculine qualities and reduce their feminine qualities to be perceived as capable for the job. Women must not appear too masculine to the point where they seem "strong" nor too feminine to the point where they seem "weak".
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Dolan, Deckman, and Swers discuss in their book Women and Politics that a woman candidate must successfully overcome the double bind to participate in the masculine political realm.In the 2008 United States presidential election, Hillary Clinton and Sarah Palin faced unique double binds in their races to presidential and vice-presidential office, respectively. Both candidates had to successfully balance their feminine and masculine images as well as other challenges of public opinion. Clinton was able to overcome the double bind through portraying herself as tough and experienced (masculine) and compassionate and likable (feminine).
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The Clinton campaign emphasized her involvement in Washington, D.C. and her knowledge on the issues. Her campaign also tried to portray her as a sincere person who cared about the American people.
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However, Clinton failed to reach the public as a trustworthy individual who can connect and relate to the average person.Palin also skillfully navigated the double bind, showing herself as a tough political outsider and a family woman. Palin criticized Obama and reiterated her image as a regular hockey mom, not a career politician. Palin's emphasis on her position as a political outsider helped her gain the trust of the people and convinced them that she could be a possible agent of political change—a belief Clinton could not seem to convey to many of her opponents. However, Palin's position as a political outsider backfired on her and revealed her actual lack of qualifications for the office.
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As the double bind associated with honorary males is more related to gender than it is to sex, certain cultures have chosen to avoid the double bind by expressing their gender differently. For example, some women in Albania live their lives as men in order to gain access to the privileges men inherit. In other words, this culture involves assigned-female-at-birth individuals performing as the masculine gender for their own benefit. Aline Smithson composed an article featuring anthropologists and photographers who have interacted face to face with the "Sworn Virgins" .
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In her article, she writes, “Sworn Virgin” is the term given to a biological female in the Balkans who has chosen to take on the social identity of a man for life. As a tradition dating back hundreds of years, this was sometimes necessary in a society that lived within tribal clans, followed the Kanun, an archaic code of law, and maintained an oppressive rule over the female gender. Young girls were commonly forced into arranged marriages with much older men in distant villages."
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With this lifestyle, assigned-female-at-birth individuals have much easier access to freedoms naturally granted to men. The freedom to drive, vote, control money, and own property, all functions traditionally allowed for men only, can be accessed through this choice. Honorary males in this society are guaranteed stability as well. As Albania is a patriarchal society, the families who suddenly lost a male figure "would find themselves in jeopardy of losing everything."
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In André Brinks, The Novel, Language and Narrative from Cervantes to Calvino, it is stated that a character's ability to speak is determined by each character's relation to power. From his Chapter, La Princesse de Cleves, "The only women who do speak their minds at times are those in positions of power, (The Queen, The Queen Mother..), because in these positions they function as honorary males." (Brink, 59) Proximity to power occurs in other forms of literature involving other honorary males.
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Kathleen Gregory Klein's 1988 The Woman Detective: Gender and Genre investigates the difficulties of creating a woman character while keeping true to the genre of the standard male detective theme. Klein is mentioned on this very issue in Glenwood Irons Feminism in Women's Detective Fiction, stating, "Certainly a woman’s script did not include setting up professionally in a job which so clearly required acknowledged masculine virtues like physical strength, logical thinking, and worldly experience. Women might be successful amateur detectives so long as they employed the more stereotypically feminine talents of gossip and intuition, but they were barred from detective careers." Many female detective fiction authors choose to include, even center, stories around gendered issues like status and traditionally feminine behaviour.
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The Amelia Butterworth Mysteries by Anna Katharine Green is a detective fiction based on Amelia Buttersworth, a wealthy, single woman with limited family who has the free time to solve mysteries. This character has been referred to as an Honorary Male in Feminism in Women's Detective Fiction by Glenwood Irons, "They work seamlessly in a male world, occasionally adding the frisson of a woman in peril.
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These characters are anomalies...These two women detectives are clearly honorary males." (Irons, pg. 3)
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The Patient Activation Measure (PAM) is a commercial product which assesses an individual's knowledge, skill, and confidence for managing one's health and healthcare. Individuals who measure high on this assessment typically understand the importance of taking a pro-active role in managing their health and have the skills and confidence to do so. The PAM survey measures patients on a 0–100 scale and can segment patients into one of four activation levels along an empirically derived continuum. Each activation level reveals insight into an array of health-related characteristics, including attitudes, motivators, behaviors, and outcomes.
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PAM was developed using qualitative methods, Rasch analysis, and classical test theory psychometric methods. Developed by Judith Hibbard and colleagues at the University of Oregon, the resulting 13-item measure is a uni-dimensional, interval level, Guttman-like scale. The PAM has strong psychometric properties, and has been translated into 22 different languages. The measure is currently used to assess patient activation or engagement by researchers and healthcare organizations around the world. PAM is licensed exclusively through healthcare technology company Phreesia following the acquisition of its original licensor, Insignia Health, in December 2021.There are a number of instruments measuring similar constructs, including My Health Confidence, Patient Health Engagement Scale, Stanford self-efficacy for managing chronic disease 6-item scale, ICECAP-A (the ICEpop CAPability measure for Adults), the Health Literacy Questionnaire and the Health Confidence Score.
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Multiple studies show that PAM scores are predictive of most health behaviors, including preventive behaviors (e.g. obtaining screenings and immunizations); healthy behaviors (e.g. healthy diet and regular exercise); self-management behaviors (e.g. monitoring and medication management); and health information seeking. Higher activated individuals also have better health outcomes and lower rates of costly utilization, such as emergency department use and hospitalizations.Further there is evidence that with support and appropriate interventions it is possible to increase activation levels in patients. In patients with inflammatory arthritis, patient activation has been shown to be associated with self-efficacy, the illness beliefs about treatment, and health literacy. This suggests that these predictors of patient activation could act as targets for intervention in this group of patients. The Patient Activation Measure is being used in a number of ways to improve the delivery of health care, including: a metric to assess the degree to which patients are prepared and able to self-manage to tailor support and education to help patients increase in activation to track the impact of interventions and tailored support on increasing patient activation levels to segment an enrolled patient population, and direct more resources to low activated patients (a more efficient use of resources ) to use in population health management to use in predictive modeling, by using both PAM scores and clinical data, it is possible to identify future high risk/high cost patients more accurately than just using clinical data == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Activation_Measure
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Interlingua (; ISO 639 language codes ia, ina) is an international auxiliary language (IAL) developed between 1937 and 1951 by the American International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). It is a constructed language of the "naturalistic" variety, whose vocabulary, grammar, and other characteristics are derived from natural languages. Interlingua literature maintains that (written) Interlingua is comprehensible to the hundreds of millions of people who speak Romance languages, though it is actively spoken by only a few hundred.Interlingua was developed to combine a simple, mostly regular grammar with a vocabulary common to a wide range of western European languages, making it easy to learn for those whose native languages were sources of Interlingua's vocabulary and grammar.The name Interlingua comes from the Latin words inter, meaning 'between', and lingua, meaning 'tongue' or 'language'. These morphemes are the same in Interlingua; thus, Interlingua would mean 'between language'.
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Interlingua focuses on common vocabulary shared by Western European languages, which are often descended from the Latin language (such as the Romance languages) and Greek language. Interlingua organizers have four "primary control languages" where, by default, a word (or variant thereof) is expected to appear in at least three of them to qualify for inclusion in Interlingua. These are English; French; Italian; and a combination of Spanish and Portuguese which are treated as a single mega-language for Interlingua purposes. Additionally, German and Russian have been dubbed "secondary control languages".
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While the result is often akin to Neo-Latin as the most frequent source of commonality, Interlingua words can have origins in any language, as long as they have drifted into the primary control languages as loanwords. For example, the Japanese words geisha and samurai are used as-is in most Western European languages, and are in Interlingua as well; the same with the likes of Guugu Yimithirr (gangurru) (Interlingua: kanguru, English: kangaroo) or the Finnish (sauna).The maintainers of Interlingua attempt to keep the grammar simple and word formation regular, and use only a small number of roots and affixes. This is intended to make the language quicker to learn, especially.
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The American heiress Alice Vanderbilt Morris (1874–1950) became interested in linguistics and the international auxiliary language movement in the early 1920s. In 1924, Morris and her husband, Dave Hennen Morris, established the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) in New York City. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a more complex and scientific basis. Morris developed the research program of IALA in consultation with Edward Sapir, William Edward Collinson, and Otto Jespersen.Investigations of the auxiliary language problem were in progress at the International Research Council, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the advancement of science, and other groups of specialists. Morris created IALA as a continuation of this work.
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The IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics. Numerous studies by Sapir, Collinson, and Morris Swadesh in the 1930s and 1940s, for example, were funded by IALA. Alice Morris edited several of these studies and provided much of IALA's financial support. For example, Morris herself edited Sapir and Morris Swadesh's 1932 cross-linguistic study of ending-point phenomena, and Collinson's 1937 study of indication.
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IALA also received support from such prestigious groups as the Carnegie Corporation, the Ford Foundation, the Research Corporation, and the Rockefeller Foundation.In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks: finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about languages and interlinguistics; and comparing extant IALs, including Esperanto, Esperanto II, Ido, Peano's Interlingua (Latino sine flexione), Novial, and Interlingue (Occidental). In pursuit of the last goal, it conducted parallel studies of these languages, with comparative studies of national languages.At the Second International Interlanguage Congress, held in Geneva in 1931, IALA began to break new ground; 27 recognized linguists signed a testimonial of support for IALA's research program. An additional eight added their signatures at the third congress, convened in Rome in 1933. That same year, Herbert N. Shenton and Edward Thorndike became influential in IALA's work by authoring studies in the interlinguistic field.The first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were taken in 1937, when a committee of 24 eminent linguists from 19 universities published Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary. However, the outbreak of World War II in 1939 cut short the intended biannual meetings of the committee.
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Originally, the association had not intended to create its own language. Its goal was to identify which auxiliary language already available was best suited for international communication, and how to promote it more effectively. However, after ten years of research, many more members of IALA concluded that none of the existing interlanguages were up to the task. By 1937, the members had made the decision to create a new language, to the surprise of the world's interlanguage community.To that point, much of the debate had been equivocal on the decision to use naturalistic (e.g., Peano's Interlingua, Novial and Occidental) or systematic (e.g., Esperanto and Ido) words.
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During the war years, proponents of a naturalistic interlanguage won out. The first support was Thorndike's paper; the second was a concession by proponents of the systematic languages that thousands of words were already present in many, or even a majority, of the European languages. Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a Procrustean bed, forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when a usable vocabulary was already available.
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IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best.IALA's research activities were based in Liverpool, before relocating to New York due to the outbreak of World War II, where E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Alexander Gode, constructed the methodology for selecting Interlingua vocabulary based on a comparison of control languages.In 1943 Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. IALA began to develop models of the proposed language, the first of which were presented in Morris's General Report in 1945.From 1946 to 1948, French linguist André Martinet was Director of Research.
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During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. In 1946, IALA sent an extensive survey to more than 3,000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.Four models were canvassed: The results of the survey rejected the two more schematic models, C and K. Of the two naturalistic models, M received somewhat more support than P. IALA decided on a compromise between P and M, with certain elements of C.Martinet took up a position at Columbia University in 1948, and Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. The vocabulary and grammar of Interlingua were first presented in 1951, when IALA published the finalized Interlingua Grammar and the 27,000-word Interlingua–English Dictionary (IED).
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In 1954, IALA published an introductory manual entitled Interlingua a Prime Vista ("Interlingua at First Sight"). Interlingua as presented by the IALA is very close to Peano's Interlingua (Latino sine flexione), both in its grammar and especially in its vocabulary. A distinct abbreviation was adopted: IA instead of IL.
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Four models were canvassed: Model P and K, plus two new models similar to Model E of 1945. Model P was unchanged from 1945; Model M was relatively modern in comparison to more classical P. Model K was slightly modified in the direction of Ido. The vote total ended up as follows: P 26.6%, M 37.5%, C 20%, and K 15%.
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The results of the survey were striking. The two more schematic models, C and K, were rejected – K overwhelmingly. Of the two naturalistic models, M attracted somewhat more support than P. Taking national biases into account (for example, the French who were polled disproportionately favored Model M), IALA decided on a compromise between models M and P, with certain elements of C.
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When Martinet took up a position at Columbia University in 1948, Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. His task was to combine elements of Model M and Model P; take the flaws seen in both by the polled community and repair them with elements of Model C as needed; and simultaneously develop a vocabulary. The vocabulary and verb conjugations of Interlingua were first presented in 1951, when IALA published the finalized Interlingua Grammar and the 27,000-word Interlingua–English Dictionary (IED). In 1954, IALA published an introductory manual entitled Interlingua a Prime Vista ("Interlingua at First Sight").
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An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter Spectroscopia Molecular, published from 1952 to 1980. In 1954, Interlingua was used at the Second World Cardiological Congress in Washington, D.C. for both written summaries and oral interpretation.
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Within a few years, it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua. Science Service, the publisher of Science Newsletter at the time, published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early 1950s until Gode's death in 1970.
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In 1967, the International Organization for Standardization, which normalizes terminology, voted almost unanimously to adopt Interlingua as the basis for its dictionaries.The IALA closed its doors in 1953 but was not formally dissolved until 1956 or later. Its role in promoting Interlingua was largely taken on by Science Service, which hired Gode as head of its newly formed Interlingua Division. Hugh E. Blair, Gode's close friend and colleague, became his assistant.
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A successor organization, the Interlingua Institute, was founded in 1970 to promote Interlingua in the US and Canada. The new institute supported the work of other linguistic organizations, made considerable scholarly contributions and produced Interlingua summaries for scholarly and medical publications. One of its largest achievements was two immense volumes on phytopathology produced by the American Phytopathological Society in 1976 and 1977.Interlingua attracted some former adherents of other international-language projects, notably Occidental and Ido.
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The former Occidentalist Ric Berger founded The Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) in 1955, and by the late 1950s, interest in Interlingua in Europe began to overtake that in North America. Media coverage at the time, for example, was apparently heaviest in Northern and Eastern Europe. Frequent European coverage has continued to date, joined by media attention in South America in the early 1990s.Beginning in the 1980s, UMI has held international conferences every two years (typical attendance at the earlier meetings was 50 to 100) and launched a publishing programme that eventually produced over 100 volumes. Other Interlingua-language works were published by university presses in Sweden and Italy, and in the 1990s, Brazil and Switzerland. Several Scandinavian schools undertook projects that used Interlingua as a means of teaching the international scientific and intellectual vocabulary.In 2000, the Interlingua Institute was dissolved amid funding disputes with the UMI; the American Interlingua Society, established the following year, succeeded the institute and responded to new interest emerging in Mexico.
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Interest in Interlingua has expanded from the scientific community to the general public. Individuals, governments, and private companies use Interlingua for learning and instruction, travel, online publishing, and communication across language barriers. Interlingua is promoted internationally by the Union Mundial pro Interlingua. Periodicals and books are produced by many national organizations, such as the Societate American pro Interlingua, the Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua, and the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua.Panorama In Interlingua is the most prominent of several Interlingua periodicals. It is a 28-page magazine published bimonthly that covers current events, science, editorials, and Interlingua.
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It is not certain how many people have an active knowledge of Interlingua. As noted above, Interlingua is claimed to be the most widely spoken naturalistic auxiliary language.Interlingua's greatest advantage is that it is the most widely understood international auxiliary language besides Interlingua (IL) de A.p.I. by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with a Romance language, and educated speakers of English, to read and understand it without prior study.Interlingua has active speakers on all continents, especially in South America and in Eastern and Northern Europe, most notably Scandinavia; also in Russia and Ukraine. There are copious Interlingua web pages, including editions of Wikipedia and Wiktionary, and a number of periodicals, including Panorama in Interlingua from the Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) and magazines of the national societies allied with it.
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Interlingua is taught in many high schools and universities, sometimes as a means of teaching other languages quickly, presenting interlinguistics, or introducing the international vocabulary. The University of Granada in Spain, for example, offers an Interlingua course in collaboration with the Centro de Formación Continua.Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different country. In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden. National organizations such as the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua also organize regular conferences.As of 2019, Google Keyboard supports Interlingua.
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Interlingua has a largely phonemic orthography.
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