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amount of water. High diving. A recently developing section of the sport is" High Diving"( e. g. see 2013 World Aquatics Championships), conducted in open air locations, usually from improvised platforms up to high( as compared with as used in Olympic and World Championship events). Entry to the water is invariably feet- first to avoid the risk of injury that would be involved in head- first entry from that height. The final half- somersault is almost always performed backwards, enabling the diver to spot the entry point and control their rotation. Competitive high diving is run as the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series. In grammar, the dative case( abbreviated, or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in" Maria Jacobo potum dedit", Latin for" Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this example, the dative marks what would be considered the indirect object of a verb in English. Sometimes the dative has functions unrelated to giving. In Scottish Gaelic and Irish, the term" dative case" is used in traditional grammars to refer to the prepositional case- marking of nouns following simple prepositions and the definite article. In Georgian and Hindustani( Hindi- Urdu), the dative case can also mark the subject of a sentence. This is called the dative construction. In Hindi, the dative construction is not limited to only certain verbs or tenses and it can be used with any verb in any tense or mood. The dative was common among early Indo- European languages and has survived to the present in the Balto- Slavic branch and the Germanic branch, among others. It also exists in similar forms in several non- Indo- European languages, such as the Uralic family of languages. In some languages, the dative case has assimilated the functions of other, now extinct cases. In Ancient Greek, the dative has the functions of the Proto- Indo- European locative and instrumental as well as those of the original dative. Under the influence of English, which uses the preposition" to" for( among other uses) both indirect objects(" give to") and directions of movement(" go to"), the term" dative" has sometimes been used to describe cases that in other languages would more appropriately be called lative. Etymology." Dative" comes from Latin" cāsus datīvus"(" case for giving"), a translation of Greek δοτικὴ πτῶσις," dotikē ptôsis"(" inflection for giving"). Dionysius Thrax in his Art of Grammar also refers to it as" epistaltikḗ"" for sending( a letter)", from the verb" epistéllō"" send to", a word from the same root as epistle. English. The Old English language, which continued in use until after the Norman Conquest of 1066, had a dative case; however, the English case system gradually fell into disuse during the Middle English period, when the accusative and dative of pronouns merged into a single oblique case that was also used with all prepositions. This conflation of case in Middle and Modern English has led most modern grammarians to discard the" accusative" and" dative" labels as obsolete | in reference to English, often |
using the term" objective" for oblique. Set expressions. The dative case is rare in modern English usage, but it can be argued that it survives in a few set expressions. One example is the word" methinks", with the meaning" it seems to me". It survives in this fixed form from Old English( having undergone, however, phonetic changes with the rest of the language), in which it was constructed as"[ it]"+" me"( the dative case of the personal pronoun)+" thinks"( i. e.," seems",& lt; Old English þyncan," to seem", a verb closely related to the verb þencan," to think", but distinct from it in Old English; later it merged with" think" and lost this meaning). Relic pronouns. The modern objective case pronoun whom is derived from the dative case in Old English, specifically the Old English dative pronoun" hwām"( as opposed to the modern subjective" who", which descends from Old English" hwā")– though" whom"" also" absorbed the functions of the Old English accusative pronoun" hwone". It is also cognate to the word"" wem"( the dative form of" wer"") in German. The OED defines all classical uses of the word" whom" in situations where the indirect object" is not known"– in effect, indicating the anonymity of the indirect object. Likewise, some of the object forms of personal pronouns are remnants of Old English datives. For example," him" goes back to the Old English dative" him"( accusative was" hine"), and" her" goes back to the dative" hire"( accusative was" hīe"). These pronouns are not pure datives in modern English; they are also used for functions previously indicated by the accusative. Modern English. The indirect object of the verb may be placed between the verb and the direct object of the verb:" he gave me a book" or" he wrote me a poem." The indirect object may also be expressed using a prepositional phrase using" to" or" for":" he gave a book to me" or" he wrote a poem for me." German. In general, the dative( German:" Dativ") is used to mark the indirect object of a German sentence. For example: In English, the first sentence can be rendered as" I sent the book" to the man"" and as" I sent" the man" the book", where the indirect object is identified in English by standing in front of the direct object. The normal word order in German is to put the dative in front of the accusative( as in the example above). However, since the German dative is marked in form, it can also be put" after" the accusative:" Ich schickte das Buch dem Mann( e). The( e)" after" Mann" and" Kind" signifies a now largely archaic- e ending for certain nouns in the dative. It survives today almost exclusively in set phrases such as" zu Hause"( at home," lit." to house)," im Zuge"( in the course of), and" am Tage"( during the day," lit." at the day), as well as in occasional usage in formal prose, poetry, and song lyrics. Some masculine nouns( and one neuter noun," Herz"[ heart]), referred to as" weak nouns" or" | n- nouns", take an- n |
or- en in the dative singular and plural. Many are masculine nouns ending in- e in the nominative( such as" Name"[ name]," Beamte"[ officer], and" Junge"[ boy]), although not all such nouns follow this rule. Many also, whether or not they fall into the former category, refer to people, animals, professions, or titles; exceptions to this include the aforementioned" Herz" and" Name", as well as" Buchstabe"( letter)," Friede"( peace)," Obelisk"( obelisk)," Planet"( planet), and others. Certain German prepositions require the dative:" aus"( from)," außer"( out of)," bei"( at, near)," entgegen"( against)," gegenüber"( opposite)," mit"( with)," nach"( after, to)," seit"( since)," von"( from), and" zu"( at, in, to). Some other prepositions(" an"[ at]," auf"[ on]," entlang"[ along]," hinter"[ behind]," in"[ in, into]," neben"( beside, next to)," über"[ over, across]," unter"[ under, below]," vor"[ in front of], and" zwischen"[ among, between]) may be used with dative( indicating current location), or accusative( indicating direction toward something)." Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch( e)"( dative: The book is lying on the table), but" Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch"( accusative: I put the book onto the table). In addition the four prepositions"[ an] statt"( in place of)," trotz"( in spite of)," während"( during), and" wegen"( because of) which require the genitive in modern formal language, are most commonly used with the dative in colloquial German. For example," because of the weather" is expressed as" wegen dem Wetter" instead of the formally correct" wegen des Wetters". Other prepositions requiring the genitive in formal language, are combined with" von"(" of") in colloquial style, e. g." außerhalb vom Garten" instead of" außerhalb des Gartens"(" outside the garden"). Note that the concept of an indirect object may be rendered by a prepositional phrase. In this case, the noun' s or pronoun' s case is determined by the preposition, NOT by its function in the sentence. Consider this sentence: Here, the subject," Ich", is in the nominative case, the direct object," das Buch", is in the accusative case, and" zum Verleger" is in the dative case, since" zu" always requires the dative(" zum" is a contraction of" zu"+" dem"). However: In this sentence," Freund" is the indirect object, but, because it follows" an"( direction), the accusative is required, not the dative. All of the articles change in the dative case. Some German verbs require the dative for their direct objects. Common examples are" antworten"( to answer)," danken"( to thank)," gefallen"( to please)," folgen"( to follow)," glauben"( to believe)," helfen"( to help), and" raten"( to advise). In each case, the direct object of the verb is rendered in the dative. For example: These verbs cannot be used in normal passive constructions, because German allows these only for verbs with accusative objects. It is therefore ungrammatical to say:*" Ich werde geholfen."" I am helped." Instead a special construction called" impersonal passive" must be used:" Mir wird geholfen", literally:" To me is helped." A colloquial( non- standard) way to form the passive voice for dative verbs is the following:" Ich kriege geholfen", or:" Ich bekomme geholfen", literally:" I get helped". The use of | the verb" to get" here |
reminds us that the dative case has something to do with giving and receiving. In German, help is not something you" perform on" somebody, but rather something you" offer" them. The dative case is also used with reflexive(" sich") verbs when specifying what part of the self the verb is being done to: Cf. the respective" accord" in French:" Les enfants se sont lavés"(" the children have washed themselves") vs." Les enfants se sont lavé"[ uninflected]" les mains"("... their hands"). German can use two datives to make sentences like:" Sei mir meinem Sohn( e) gnädig!"" For my sake, have mercy on my son!" Literally:" Be for me to my son merciful." The first dative" mir"(" for me") expresses the speaker' s commiseration( much like the" dativus ethicus" in Latin, see below). The second dative" meinem Sohn( e)"(" to my son") names the actual object of the plea. Mercy is to be given" to" the son" for" or" on behalf of" his mother/ father. Adjective endings also change in the dative case. There are three inflection possibilities depending on what precedes the adjective. They most commonly use" weak inflection" when preceded by a definite article( the)," mixed inflection" after an indefinite article( a/ an), and" strong inflection" when a quantity is indicated( many green apples). Latin. There are several uses for the dative case(): Greek. Ancient. In addition to its main function as the" dativus", the dative case has other functions in Classical Greek:( The chart below uses the Latin names for the types of dative; the Greek name for the dative is δοτική πτῶσις, like its Latin equivalent, derived from the verb" to give"; in Ancient Greek, δίδωμι.) The articles in the Greek dative areModern. The dative case, strictly speaking, no longer exists in Modern Greek, except in fossilized expressions like δόξα τω Θεώ( from the ecclesiastical τῷ Θεῷ δόξα," Glory to God") or εν τάξει( ἐν τάξει, lit." in order", i. e." all right" or" OK"). Otherwise, most of the functions of the dative have been subsumed in the accusative. Slavic languages. In Russian, the dative case is used for indicating the indirect object of an action( that to which something is given, thrown, read, etc.). In the instance where a person is the goal of motion, dative is used instead of accusative to indicate motion toward. This is usually achieved with the preposition" κ"+ destination in dative case;" К врачу", meaning" to the doctor." Dative is also the necessary case taken by certain prepositions when expressing certain ideas. For instance, when the preposition" по" is used to mean" along," its object is always in dative case, as in" По бокам", meaning" along the sides." Other Slavic languages apply the dative case( and the other cases) more or less the same way as does Russian; some languages may use the dative in other ways. The following examples are from Polish: Some other kinds of dative use as found in the Serbo- Croatian language are:" Dativus finalis"( Titaniku u pomoć" to Titanic' s rescue")," Dativus commodi/ incommodi"( Operi svojoj majci suđe" Wash | the dishes for your mother")," |
Dativus possessivus"( Ovcama je dlaka gusta" Sheep' s hair is thick")," Dativus ethicus"( Šta mi radi Boni?" What is Boni doing?( I am especially interested in what it is)") and Dativus auctoris( Izgleda mi okej" It seems okay to me"). Unusual in other Indo- European branches but common among Slavic languages, endings of nouns and adjectives are different based on grammatical function. Other factors are gender and number. In some cases, the ending may not be obvious, even when those three factors( function, gender, number) are considered. For example, in Polish,' syn'(" son") and' ojciec'(" father") are both masculine singular nouns, yet appear as" syn→ synowi and" ojciec→ ojcu in the dative. Baltic languages. Both Lithuanian and Latvian have a distinct dative case in the system of nominal declensions. Lithuanian nouns preserve Indo- European inflections in the dative case fairly well:( o- stems) vaikas-& gt; sg. vaikui, pl. vaikams;( ā- stems) ranka-& gt; sg. rankai, pl. rankoms;( i- stems) viltis-& gt; sg. vilčiai, pl. viltims;( u- stems) sūnus-& gt; sg. sūnui, pl. sūnums;( consonant stems) vanduo-& gt; sg. vandeniui, pl. vandenims. Adjectives in the dative case receive pronominal endings( this might be the result of a more recent development): tas geras vaikas-& gt; sg. tam geram vaikui, pl. tiems geriems vaikams. The dative case in Latvian underwent further simplifications– the original masculine endings of" both" nouns and adjectives have been replaced with pronominal inflections: tas vīrs-& gt; sg. tam vīram, pl. vīriem. Also, the final" s" in all Dative forms has been dropped. The only exception is personal pronouns in the plural: mums( to us), jums( to you). Note that in colloquial Lithuanian the final" s" in the dative is often omitted, as well: time geriem vaikam. In both Latvian and Lithuanian, the main function of the dative case is to render the indirect object in a sentence:( lt) aš duodu vyrui knygą;( lv) es dodu[ duodu] vīram grāmatu–" I am giving a book to the man". The dative case can also be used with gerundives to indicate an action preceding or simultaneous with the main action in a sentence:( lt) jam įėjus, visi atsistojo–" when he walked in, everybody stood up", lit." to him having walked in, all stood up";( lt) jai miegant, visi dirbo–" while she slept, everybody was working", lit." to her sleeping, all were working". In modern standard Lithuanian, Dative case is not required by prepositions, although in many dialects it is done frequently:( dial.) iki(+ D) šiai dienai,( stand.) iki(+ G) šios dienos–" up until this day". In Latvian, the dative case is taken by several prepositions in the singular and all prepositions in the plural( due to peculiar historical changes): sg. bez(+ G) tevis"( without thee)"~ pl. bez(+ D) jums"( without you)"; sg. pa(+ A) ceļu"( along the road)"~ pl. pa(+ D) ceļiem"( along the roads)". Armenian. In modern Eastern Armenian, the dative is attained by adding any article to the genitive: There is a general tendency to view- ին as the standard dative suffix, but only because that is its most productive( and therefore common) | form. The suffix- ին as |
a dative marker is nothing but the standard, most common, genitive suffix- ի accompanied by the definite article- ն. But the dative case encompasses indefinite objects as well, which will not be marked by- ին: The main function of the dative marking in Armenian is to indicate the receiving end of an action, more commonly the indirect object which in English is preceded by the preposition" to". In the use of" giving" verbs like" give, donate, offer, deliver, sell, bring..." the dative marks the recipient. With communicative verbs like" tell, say, advise, explain, ask, answer..." the dative marks the listener. Other verbs whose indirect objects are marked by the dative case in Armenian are" show, reach, look, approach..." Eastern Armenian also uses the dative case to mark the time of an event, in the same way English uses the preposition" at", as in" Meet me at nine o' clock." Indo- Aryan languages. Hindustani( Hindi- Urdu). Hindustani( Hindi- Urdu) has true dative case for pronouns, but for nouns the dative case has to be constructed using the dative case- marker( postposition) को کو( ko) to the nouns in their oblique case. Pronouns in Hindustani also have an oblique case, so dative pronouns can also be alternatively constructed using the dative case- marker को کو( ko) with the pronouns in their oblique case, hence forming two sets of synonymous dative pronouns. The following table shows the pronouns in their nominative and their dative forms. Hindustani lacks pronouns in the third person and the demonstrative pronouns double as the third person pronouns. The table below shows the oblique cases of Hindustani for the nouns" boy" and" girl" which take in the dative case- marker after them to assign the combination of the oblique case and the case- marker the dative case. The oblique case of Hindustani by itself has no meaning and adding the case- marker को کو( ko) assigns the oblique case the function of the dative case. Dative case in Hindustani can also mark the subject of a sentence. This is called the dative construction or quirky subjects. In the examples below the dative pronoun passes the subjecthood test of subject- oriented anaphora binding. The dative subject मु झे مجھے(" mujhe") binds the anaphora अपने اپنے(" apne"). Sanskrit. The dative case is known as the" fourth case"( chaturthi- vibhakti) in the usual procedure in the declension of nouns. Its use is mainly for the indirect object. Non- Indo- European languages. Hungarian. As with many other languages, the dative case is used in Hungarian to show the indirect object of a verb. For example," Dánielnek adtam ezt a könyvet"( I gave this book to Dániel). It has two suffixes,"- nak" and"- nek"; the correct one is selected by vowel harmony. The personal dative pronouns follow the"- nek" version:" nekem"," neked", etc. This case is also used to express" for" in certain circumstances, such as" I bought a gift for Mother". In possessive constructions the nak/ nek endings are also used but this is not the dative form( rather, the attributive or possessive case) Finnish. | Finnish does not have a |
separate dative case. However, the allative case can fulfill essentially the same role as dative, beyond its primary meaning of directional movement( that is, going somewhere or approaching someone). For example:" He lahjoittivat kaikki rahansa köyhille( They donated all their money to the poor.) Tsez. In the Northeast Caucasian languages, such as Tsez, the dative also takes the functions of the lative case in marking the direction of an action. By some linguists, they are still regarded as two separate cases in those languages, although the suffixes are exactly the same for both cases. Other linguists list them separately only for the purpose of separating syntactic cases from locative cases. An example with the ditransitive verb" show"( literally:" make see") is given below: The dative/ lative is also used to indicate possession, as in the example below, because there is no such verb as" to have". As in the examples above, the dative/ lative case usually occurs in combination with another suffix as poss- lative case; this should not be regarded as a separate case, however, as many of the locative cases in Tsez are constructed analytically; hence, they are, in fact, a combination of two case suffixes. See Tsez language# Locative case suffixes for further details. Verbs of perception or emotion( like" see"," know"," love"," want") also require the logical subject to stand in the dative/ lative case. Note that in this example the" pure" dative/ lative without its POSS- suffix is used. Turkish. The dative case(" yönelme durumu") in Turkish language is formed by adding the"- e" or"- a" suffixes to the end of the noun, in accordance with the effected noun' s vowel harmony. The word that should be in the dative case can be found as an answer to the questions' neye?'( to what?),' kime?'( to whom?) and' nereye?'( to where?) will lead to find a dative case in a sentence. There are many different uses for the dative case. The dative also is for objects, usually indirect objects, but sometimes objects that in English would be considered direct: The dative case tells" whither", that is, the place" to which". Thus it has roughly the meaning of the English prepositions" to" and" into", and also" in" when it can be replaced with" into": In geometry, a dodecahedron( Greek, from" dōdeka"" twelve"+" hédra"" base"," seat" or" face") or duodecahedron is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces. The most familiar dodecahedron is the regular dodecahedron with regular pentagons as faces, which is a Platonic solid. There are also three regular star dodecahedra, which are constructed as stellations of the convex form. All of these have icosahedral symmetry, order 120. Some dodecahedra have the same combinatorial structure as the regular dodecahedron( in terms of the graph formed by its vertices and edges), but their pentagonal faces are not regular: The pyritohedron, a common crystal form in pyrite, has pyritohedral symmetry, while the tetartoid has tetrahedral symmetry. The rhombic dodecahedron can be seen as a limiting case of the pyritohedron, and it has octahedral symmetry. The elongated dodecahedron and trapezo- rhombic dodecahedron | variations, along with the rhombic |
dodecahedra, are space- filling. There are numerous other dodecahedra. While the regular dodecahedron shares many features with other Platonic solids, one unique property of it is that one can start at a corner of the surface and draw an infinite number of straight lines across the figure that return to the original point without crossing over any other corner. Regular dodecahedra. The convex regular dodecahedron is one of the five regular Platonic solids and can be represented by its Schläfli symbol{ 5, 3}. The dual polyhedron is the regular icosahedron{ 3, 5}, having five equilateral triangles around each vertex. The convex regular dodecahedron also has three stellations, all of which are regular star dodecahedra. They form three of the four Kepler– Poinsot polyhedra. They are the small stellated dodecahedron{ 5/ 2, 5}, the great dodecahedron{ 5, 5/ 2}, and the great stellated dodecahedron{ 5/ 2, 3}. The small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are dual to each other; the great stellated dodecahedron is dual to the great icosahedron{ 3, 5/ 2}. All of these regular star dodecahedra have regular pentagonal or pentagrammic faces. The convex regular dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron are different realisations of the same abstract regular polyhedron; the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are different realisations of another abstract regular polyhedron. Other pentagonal dodecahedra. In crystallography, two important dodecahedra can occur as crystal forms in some symmetry classes of the cubic crystal system that are topologically equivalent to the regular dodecahedron but less symmetrical: the pyritohedron with pyritohedral symmetry, and the tetartoid with tetrahedral symmetry: Pyritohedron. A pyritohedron is a dodecahedron with pyritohedral( Th) symmetry. Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices( see figure). However, the pentagons are not constrained to be regular, and the underlying atomic arrangement has no true fivefold symmetry axis. Its 30 edges are divided into two sets– containing 24 and 6 edges of the same length. The only axes of rotational symmetry are three mutually perpendicular twofold axes and four threefold axes. Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the pyritohedron form occurs in the crystals of the mineral pyrite, and it may be an inspiration for the discovery of the regular Platonic solid form. The true regular dodecahedron can occur as a shape for quasicrystals( such as holmium– magnesium– zinc quasicrystal) with icosahedral symmetry, which includes true fivefold rotation axes. Crystal pyrite. The name" crystal pyrite" comes from one of the two common crystal habits shown by pyrite( the other one being the cube). In pyritohedral pyrite, the faces have a Miller index of( 210), which means that the dihedral angle is 2· arctan( 2)≈ 126. 87° and each pentagonal face has one angle of approximately 121. 6° in between two angles of approximately 106. 6° and opposite two angles of approximately 102. 6°. The following formulas show the measurements for the face of a perfect crystal( which is rarely found in nature).formula_1formula_2formula_3Cartesian coordinates. The eight vertices of a cube have the coordinates(± 1,± 1,± 1). The coordinates of | the 12 additional vertices are |
( 0,±( 1+" h"),±( 1−" h" 2)),(±( 1+" h"),±( 1−" h" 2), 0) and(±( 1−" h" 2), 0,±( 1+" h"))." h" is the height of the wedge- shaped" roof" above the faces of that cube with edge length 2. An important case is" h"=( a quarter of the cube edge length) for perfect natural pyrite( also the pyritohedron in the Weaire– Phelan structure). Another one is" h"== 0. 618... for the regular dodecahedron. See section" Geometric freedom" for other cases. Two pyritohedra with swapped nonzero coordinates are in dual positions to each other like the dodecahedra in the compound of two dodecahedra. Geometric freedom. The pyritohedron has a geometric degree of freedom with limiting cases of a cubic convex hull at one limit of collinear edges, and a rhombic dodecahedron as the other limit as 6 edges are degenerated to length zero. The regular dodecahedron represents a special intermediate case where all edges and angles are equal. It is possible to go past these limiting cases, creating concave or nonconvex pyritohedra. The" endo- dodecahedron" is concave and equilateral; it can tessellate space with the convex regular dodecahedron. Continuing from there in that direction, we pass through a degenerate case where twelve vertices coincide in the centre, and on to the regular great stellated dodecahedron where all edges and angles are equal again, and the faces have been distorted into regular pentagrams. On the other side, past the rhombic dodecahedron, we get a nonconvex equilateral dodecahedron with fish- shaped self- intersecting equilateral pentagonal faces. Tetartoid. A tetartoid( also tetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron, pentagon- tritetrahedron, and tetrahedric pentagon dodecahedron) is a dodecahedron with chiral tetrahedral symmetry( T). Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices. However, the pentagons are not regular and the figure has no fivefold symmetry axes. Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the tetartoid form does. The name tetartoid comes from the Greek root for one- fourth because it has one fourth of full octahedral symmetry, and half of pyritohedral symmetry. The mineral cobaltite can have this symmetry form. Abstractions sharing the solid' s topology and symmetry can be created from the cube and the tetrahedron. In the cube each face is bisected by a slanted edge. In the tetrahedron each edge is trisected, and each of the new vertices connected to a face center.( In Conway polyhedron notation this is a gyro tetrahedron.) Cartesian coordinates. The following points are vertices of a tetartoid pentagon under tetrahedral symmetry: under the following conditions: Geometric freedom. The regular dodecahedron is a tetartoid with more than the required symmetry. The triakis tetrahedron is a degenerate case with 12 zero- length edges.( In terms of the colors used above this means, that the white vertices and green edges are absorbed by the green vertices.) Dual of triangular gyrobianticupola. A lower symmetry form of the regular dodecahedron can be constructed as the dual of a polyhedra constructed from two triangular anticupola connected base- to- base, called a" triangular gyrobianticupola." IthasD3d symmetry, order 12. It | has 2 sets of 3 |
identical pentagons on the top and bottom, connected 6 pentagons around the sides which alternate upwards and downwards. This form has a hexagonal cross- section and identical copies can be connected as a partial hexagonal honeycomb, but all vertices will not match. Rhombic dodecahedron. The" rhombic dodecahedron" is a zonohedron with twelve rhombic faces and octahedral symmetry. It is dual to the quasiregular cuboctahedron( an Archimedean solid) and occurs in nature as a crystal form. The rhombic dodecahedron packs together to fill space. The" rhombic dodecahedron" can be seen as a degenerate pyritohedron where the 6 special edges have been reduced to zero length, reducing the pentagons into rhombic faces. The rhombic dodecahedron has several stellations, the first of which is also a parallelohedral spacefiller. Another important rhombic dodecahedron, the Bilinski dodecahedron, has twelve faces congruent to those of the rhombic triacontahedron, i. e. the diagonals are in the ratio of the golden ratio. It is also a zonohedron and was described by Bilinski in 1960. This figure is another spacefiller, and can also occur in non- periodic spacefillings along with the rhombic triacontahedron, the rhombic icosahedron and rhombic hexahedra. Other dodecahedra. There are 6, 384, 634 topologically distinct" convex" dodecahedra, excluding mirror images— the number of vertices ranges from 8 to 20.( Two polyhedra are" topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.) Topologically distinct dodecahedra( excluding pentagonal and rhombic forms) Practical usage. Armand Spitz used a dodecahedron as the" globe" equivalent for his Digital Dome planetarium projector. based upon a suggestion from Albert Einstein. A Wizard of Earthsea is a fantasy novel written by American author Ursula K. Le Guin and first published by the small press Parnassus in 1968. It is regarded as a classic of children' s literature and of fantasy, within which it is widely influential. The story is set in the fictional archipelago of Earthsea and centers on a young mage named Ged, born in a village on the island of Gont. He displays great power while still a boy and joins a school of wizardry, where his prickly nature drives him into conflict with a fellow student. During a magical duel, Ged' s spell goes awry and releases a shadow creature that attacks him. The novel follows Ged' s journey as he seeks to be free of the creature. The book has often been described as a" Bildungsroman," or coming- of- age story, as it explores Ged' s process of learning to cope with power and come to terms with death. The novel also carries Taoist themes about a fundamental balance in the universe of Earthsea, which wizards are supposed to maintain, closely tied to the idea that language and names have power to affect the material world and alter this balance. The structure of the story is similar to that of a traditional epic, although critics have also described it as subverting this genre in | many ways, such as by |
making the protagonist dark- skinned in contrast to more typical white- skinned heroes." A Wizard of Earthsea" received highly positive reviews, initially as a work for children and later among a general audience. It won the Boston Globe– Horn Book Award in 1969 and was one of the final recipients of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1979. Margaret Atwood called it one of the" wellsprings" of fantasy literature. Le Guin wrote five subsequent books that are collectively referred to as the Earthsea Cycle, together with" A Wizard of Earthsea":" The Tombs of Atuan"( 1971)," The Farthest Shore"( 1972)," Tehanu"( 1990)," The Other Wind"( 2001), and" Tales from Earthsea"( 2001). George Slusser described the series as a" work of high style and imagination", while Amanda Craig said that" A Wizard of Earthsea" was" the most thrilling, wise, and beautiful children' s novel ever". Background. Early concepts for the Earthsea setting were developed in two short stories," The Rule of Names"( 1964) and" The Word of Unbinding"( 1964), both published in" Fantastic". The stories were later collected in Le Guin' s anthology" The Wind' s Twelve Quarters"( 1975). Earthsea was also used as the setting for a story Le Guin wrote in 1965 or 1966, which was never published. In 1967, Herman Schein( the publisher of Parnassus Press and the husband of Ruth Robbins, the illustrator of the book) asked Le Guin to try writing a book" for older kids", giving her complete freedom over the subject and the approach. Le Guin had no previous experience specifically with the genre of young adult literature,whichroseinprominenceduringthelate1960s. Drawing from her short stories, Le Guin began work on" A Wizard of Earthsea". Le Guin has said that the book was in part a response to the image of wizards as ancient and wise, and to her wondering where they come from. Le Guin later said that she chose the medium of fantasy, and the theme of coming of age, with her intended adolescent audience in mind. The short stories published in 1964 introduced the world of Earthsea and important concepts in it, such as Le Guin' s treatment of magic." The Rule of Names" also introduced Yevaud, a dragon who features briefly in" A Wizard of Earthsea". Le Guin' s depiction of Earthsea was influenced by her familiarity with Native American legends as well as Norse mythology. Her knowledge of myths and legends, as well as her familial interest in anthropology, have been described by scholar Donna White as allowing her to create" entire cultures" for the islands of Earthsea. The influence of Norse lore in particular can be seen in the characters of the Kargs, who are blonde and blue- eyed, and worship two gods who are brothers. The influence of Taoist thought on Le Guin' s writing is also visible in the idea of a cosmic" balance" in the universe of Earthsea. Book. Setting. Earthsea itself is an archipelago or group of islands. In the fictional history of this world, the islands were raised from the ocean by Segoy, an ancient deity or hero. The | world is inhabited by both |
humans and dragons, and several among the humans are sorcerers or wizards. The world is shown as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. The setting of Earthsea is preindustrial, and has many cultures within the widespread archipelago. Most of the characters of the story are of the Hardic peoples, who are dark- skinned, and who populate most of the islands. Some of the Eastern islands are populated by the white- skinned Kargish people, who see the Hardic folk as evil sorcerers: the Kargish, in turn, are viewed by the Hardic as barbarians. The far western regions of the archipelago are where the dragons live. Plot summary. The novel follows a young boy called Duny, nicknamed" Sparrowhawk", born on the island of Gont. Discovering that the boy has great innate power, his aunt teaches him the little magic she knows. When his village is attacked by Kargish raiders, Duny summons a fog to conceal the village and its inhabitants, enabling the residents to drive off the Kargs. Hearing of this, the powerful mage Ogion takes him as an apprentice, giving him his" true name"— Ged. Ogion tries to teach Ged about the" equilibrium", the concept that magic can upset the natural order of the world if used improperly. In an attempt to impress a girl, however, Ged searches Ogion' s spell books and inadvertently summons a strange shadow, which has to be banished by Ogion. Sensing Ged' s eagerness to act and impatience with his slow teaching methods, Ogion sends him to the renowned school for wizards on the island of Roke. At the school, Ged' s skills inspire admiration even among the teachers. He is befriended by an older student named Vetch, but generally remains aloof from his fellows. Another student, Jasper, acts condescendingly towards Ged and provokes the latter' s proud nature. After Jasper needles Ged during a feast, Ged challenges him to a duel of magic. Ged casts a powerful spell intended to raise the spirit of a legendary dead woman, but the spell goes awry and instead releases a shadow creature, which attacks him and scars his face. The Archmage Nemmerle drives the shadow away, but at the cost of his life. Ged spends many months healing before resuming his studies. The new Archmage, Gensher, describes the shadow as an ancient evil that wishes to possess Ged, and warns him that the creature has no name. Ged eventually receives his wizard' s staff, and takes up residence in the Ninety Isles, providing the poor villagers protection from the dragons that have seized and taken up residence on the nearby island of Pendor, but discovers that he is still being sought by the shadow. Knowing that he cannot guard against both threats at the same time, he sails to Pendor and gambles his life on a guess of the adult dragon' s true name. When he is proved right, the dragon offers to tell him the name of | the shadow, but Ged instead |
extracts a promise that the dragon and his offspring will never threaten the archipelago. Chased by the shadow, Ged flees to Osskil, having heard of the stone of the Terrenon. He is attacked by the shadow, and barely escapes into the Court of Terrenon. Serret, the lady of the castle, shows him the stone, and urges Ged to speak to it, claiming it can give him limitless knowledge and power. Recognizing that the stone harbors one of the Old Powers— ancient, powerful, malevolent beings— Ged refuses. He flees and is pursued by the stone' s minions, but transforms into a swift falcon and escapes. Ged flies back to Ogion on Gont. Unlike Gensher, Ogion insists that all creatures have a name and advises Ged to confront the shadow. Ogion is proved right; when Ged seeks out the shadow, it flees from him. Ged pursues it in a small sailboat, until it lures him into a fog where the boat is wrecked on a reef. Ged recovers with the help of an elderly couple marooned on a small island since they were children; the woman gives Ged part of a broken bracelet as a gift. Ged patches his boat and resumes his pursuit of the creature into the East Reach. On the island of Iffish, he meets his friend Vetch, who insists on joining him. They journey east far beyond the last known lands before they finally come upon the shadow. Naming it with his own name, Ged merges with it and joyfully tells Vetch he is healed and whole. Illustrations. The first edition of the book, published in 1968, was illustrated by Ruth Robbins. The cover illustration was in color, and the interior of the book contained a map of the archipelago of Earthsea. In addition, each chapter had a black- and- white illustration by Robbins, similar to a woodcut image. The images represented topics from each chapter; for instance, the very first image depicted the island of Gont, while the illustration for the chapter" The Dragon of Pendor" pictured a flying dragon. The image shown here depicts Ged sailing in his boat" Lookfar",andwasusedinthe10th chapter," The Open Sea", in which Ged and Vetch travel from Iffish eastward past all known lands to confront the shadow creature. Publication." A Wizard of Earthsea" was first published in 1968 by Parnassus Press in Berkeley, a year before" The Left Hand of Darkness", Le Guin' s watershed work. It was a personal landmark for Le Guin, as it represented her first attempt at writing for children; she had written only a handful of other novels and short stories prior to its publication. The book was also her first attempt at writing fantasy, rather than science- fiction." A Wizard of Earthsea" was the first of Le Guin' s books to receive widespread critical attention, and has been described as her best known work, as part of the Earthsea series. The book has been released in numerous editions, including an illustrated Folio Society edition released in 2015. It was also translated into a number of other languages. An | omnibus edition of all of |
Le Guin'sEarthseaworkswasreleasedonthe50th anniversary of the publication of" A Wizard of Earthsea" in 2018. Le Guin originally intended for" A Wizard of Earthsea" to be a standalone novel, but decided to write a sequel after considering the loose ends in the first book, and" The Tombs of Atuan" was released in 1971." The Farthest Shore" was written as a third volume after further consideration, and was published in 1972." The Tombs of Atuan" tells of the story of Ged' s attempt to make whole the ring of Erreth Akbe, half of which is buried in the tombs of Atuan in the Kargish lands, from where he must steal it. There, he meets the child priestess Tenar, on whom the book focuses. In" The Farthest Shore", Ged, who has become Archmage, tries to combat a dwindling of magic across Earthsea, accompanied by Arren, a young prince. The first three books are together seen as the" original trilogy"; in each of these, Ged is shown as trying to heal some imbalance in the world. They were followed by" Tehanu"( 1990)," Tales from Earthsea"( 2001), and" The Other Wind"( 2001), which are sometimes referred to as the" second trilogy". Reception. As children' s literature. Initial recognition for the book was from children' s- book critics, among whom it garnered acclaim." A Wizard of Earthsea" received an even more positive response in the United Kingdom when it was released there in 1971, which, according to White, reflected the greater admiration of British critics for children' s fantasy. In her 1975 annotated collection" Fantasy for Children", British critic Naomi Lewis described it in the following terms:"[ It is not] the easiest book for casual browsing, but readers who take the step will find themselves in one of the most important works of fantasy of our time." Similarly, literary scholar Margaret Esmonde wrote in 1981 that" Le Guin has... enriched children' s literature with what may be its finest high fantasy", while a review in" The Guardian" by author and journalist Amanda Craig said it was" The most thrilling, wise and beautiful children' s novel ever,[ written] in prose as taut and clean as a ship' s sail." In discussing the book for a gathering of children' s librarians Eleanor Cameron praised the world building in the story, saying" it is as if[ Le Guin] herself has lived on the archipelago." Author David Mitchell called the titular character Ged a" superb creation", and argued that he was a more relatable wizard than those featured in prominent works of fantasy at the time. According to him, characters such as Gandalf were" variants on the archetype of Merlin, a Caucasian scholarly aristocrat amongst sorcerers" with little room to grow, whereas Ged developed as a character through his story. Mitchell also praised the other characters in the story, who he said seemed to have a" fully thought- out inner life" despite being fleeting presences. The 1995" Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" said that the Earthsea books had been considered the finest science fiction books for children in the post- World War II period. | As fantasy. Commentators have noted |
that the Earthsea novels in general received less critical attention because they were considered children' s books. Le Guin herself took exception to this treatment of children' s literature, describing it as" adult chauvinist piggery". In 1976, literary scholar George Slusser criticized the" silly publication classification designating the original series as' children' s literature'". Barbara Bucknall stated that" Le Guin was not writing for young children when she wrote these fantasies, nor yet for adults. She was writing for' older kids.' But in fact she can be read, like Tolkien, by ten- year- olds and by adults. These stories are ageless because they deal with problems that confront us at any age." Only in later years did" A Wizard of Earthsea" receive attention from a more general audience. Literary scholar T. A. Shippey was among the first to treat" A Wizard of Earthsea" as serious literature, assuming in his analysis of the volume that it belonged alongside works by C. S. Lewis and Fyodor Dostoevsky, among others. Margaret Atwood said that she saw the book as" a fantasy book for adults", and added that the book could be categorized as either young adult fiction or as fantasy, but since it dealt with themes such as" life and mortality and who are we as human beings", it could be read and enjoyed by anybody older than twelve. The" Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" echoed this view, saying the series' s appeal went" far beyond" the young adults for whom it was written. It went on to praise the book as" austere but vivid", and said the series was more thoughtful than the" Narnia" books by C. S. Lewis. In his 1980 history of fantasy, Brian Attebery called the Earthsea trilogy" the most challenging and richest American fantasy to date". Slusser described the Earthsea cycle as a" work of high style and imagination", and the original trilogy of books a product of" genuine epic vision". In 1974, critic Robert Scholes compared Le Guin' s work favorably to that of C. S. Lewis, saying," Where C. S. Lewis worked out a specifically Christian set of values, Ursula LeGuin works not with a theology but with an ecology, a cosmology, a reverence for the universe as a self- regulating structure." He added that Le Guin' s three Earthsea novels were themselves a sufficient legacy for anybody to leave. In 2014 David Pringle called it" a beautiful story— poetic, thrilling, and profound". Accolades." A Wizard of Earthsea" won or contributed to several notable awards for Le Guin. It won the Boston Globe– Horn Book Award in 1969, and was one of the last winners of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award ten years later. In 1984 it won the or the" Golden Sepulka" in Poland. In 2000 Le Guin was given the Margaret A. Edwards Award by the American Library Association for young adult literature. The award cited six of her works, including the first four Earthsea volumes," The Left Hand of Darkness", and" The Beginning Place". A 1987 poll in" Locus" ranked" A Wizard of Earthsea" third among" | All- Time Best Fantasy Novels", |
while in 2014 Pringle listed it at number 39 in his list of the 100 best novels in modern fantasy. Influence. The book has been seen as widely influential within the genre of fantasy. Margaret Atwood has called" A Wizard of Earthsea" one of the" wellsprings" of fantasy literature. The book has been compared to major works of high fantasy such as J. R. R. Tolkien' s" The Lord of the Rings" and L. Frank Baum' s" The Wonderful Wizard of Oz". The notion that names can exert power is also present in Hayao Miyazaki' s 2001 film" Spirited Away"; critics have suggested that that idea originated with Le Guin' s Earthsea series. Novelist David Mitchell, author of books such as" Cloud Atlas", described" A Wizard of Earthsea" as having a strong influence on him, and said that he felt a desire to" wield words with the same power as Ursula Le Guin". Modern writers have credited" A Wizard of Earthsea" for introducing the idea of a" wizard school", which would later be made famous by the" Harry Potter" series of books, and with popularizing the trope of a boy wizard, also present in" Harry Potter". Reviewers have also commented that the basic premise of" A Wizard of Earthsea", that of a talented boy going to a wizard' s school and making an enemy with whom he has a close connection, is also the premise of" Harry Potter". Ged also receives a scar from the shadow, which hurts whenever the shadow is near him, just as Harry Potter' s scar from Voldemort. Commenting on the similarity, Le Guin said that she did not feel that J. K. Rowling" ripped her off", but that Rowling' s books received too much praise for supposed originality, and that Rowling" could have been more gracious about her predecessors. My incredulity was at the critics who found the first book wonderfully original. She has many virtues, but originality isn' t one of them. That hurt." Themes. Coming of age." A Wizard of Earthsea" focuses on Ged' s adolescence and coming of age, and along with the other two works of the original Earthsea trilogy forms a part of Le Guin' s dynamic portrayal of the process of growing old. The three novels together follow Ged from youth to old age, and each of them also follow the coming of age of a different character. The novel is frequently described as a" Bildungsroman". Scholar Mike Cadden stated that the book is a convincing tale" to a reader as young and possibly as headstrong as Ged, and therefore sympathetic to him". Ged' s coming of age is also intertwined with the physical journey he undertakes through the novel. Ged is depicted as proud and yet unsure of himself in multiple situations: early in his apprenticeship he believes Ogion to be mocking him, and later, at Roke, feels put upon by Jasper. In both cases, he believes that others do not appreciate his greatness, and Le Guin' s sympathetic narration does not immediately contradict this belief. Cadden writes that Le | Guin allows young readers to |
sympathize with Ged, and only gradually realize that there is a price to be paid for his actions, as he learns to discipline his magical powers. Similarly, as Ged begins his apprenticeship with Ogion, he imagines that he will be taught mysterious aspects of wizardry, and has visions of transforming himself into other creatures, but gradually comes to see that Ogion' s important lessons are those about his own self. The passage at the end of the novel, wherein Ged finally accepts the shadow as a part of himself and is thus released from its terror, has been pointed to by reviewers as a rite of passage. Jeanne Walker, for example, wrote that the rite of passage at the end was an analogue for the entire plot of" A Wizard of Earthsea", and that the plot itself plays the role of a rite of passage for an adolescent reader. Walker goes on to say," The entire action of A Wizard of Earthsea... portrays the hero' s slow realization of what it means to be an individual in society and a self in relation to higher powers. Many readers and critics have commented on similarities between Ged' s process of growing up and ideas in Jungian psychology. The young Ged has a scary encounter with a shadow creature, which he later realizes is the dark side of himself. It is only after he recognizes and merges with the shadow that he becomes a whole person. Le Guin said that she had never read Jung before writing the Earthsea novels. Le Guin described coming of age as the main theme of the book, and wrote in a 1973 essay that she chose that theme since she was writing for an adolescent audience. She stated that" Coming of age... is a process that took me many years; I finished it, so far as I ever will, at about age thirty- one; and so I feel rather deeply about it. So do most adolescents. It' s their main occupation, in fact." She also said that fantasy was best suited as a medium for describing coming of age, because exploring the subconscious was difficult using the language of" rational daily life". The coming of age that Le Guin focused on included not just psychological development, but moral changes as well. Ged needs to recognize the balance between his power and his responsibility to use it well, a recognition which comes as he travels to the stone of Terrenon and sees the temptation that that power represents. Equilibrium and Taoist themes. The world of Earthsea is depicted as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. This includes an equilibrium between land and sea( implicit in the name Earthsea), and between people and their natural environment. In addition to physical equilibrium, there is a larger cosmic equilibrium, which everybody is aware of, and which wizards are tasked with maintaining. Describing this aspect of Earthsea, Elizabeth Cummins wrote," The | principle of balanced powers, the |
recognition that every act affects self, society, world, and cosmos, is both a physical and a moral principle of Le Guin' s fantasy world." The concept of balance is related to the novel' s other major theme of coming of age, as Ged' s knowledge of the consequences of his own actions for good or ill is necessary for him to understand how the balance is maintained. While at the school of Roke, the Master Hand tells him: The influence of Taoism on Le Guin' s writing is evident through much of the book, especially in her depiction of the" balance". At the end of the novel, Ged may be seen to embody the Taoist way of life, as he has learned not to act unless absolutely necessary. He has also learned that seeming opposites, like light and dark or good and evil, are actually interdependent. Light and dark themselves are recurring images within the story. Reviewers have identified this belief as evidence of a conservative ideology within the story, shared with much of fantasy. In emphasizing concerns over balance and equilibrium, scholars have argued, Le Guin essentially justifies the status quo, which wizards strive to maintain. This tendency is in contrast to Le Guin' s science fiction writing, in which change is shown to have value. The nature of human evil forms a significant related theme through" A Wizard of Earthsea" as well as the other Earthsea novels. As with other works by Le Guin, evil is shown as a misunderstanding of the balance of life. Ged is born with great power in him, but the pride that he takes in his power leads to his downfall; he tries to demonstrate his strength by bringing a spirit back from the dead, and in performing this act against the laws of nature, releases the shadow that attacks him. Slusser suggests that although he is provoked into performing dangerous spells first by the girl on Gont and then by Jasper, this provocation exists in Ged' s mind. He is shown as unwilling to look within himself and see the pride that drives him to do what he does. When he accepts the shadow into himself, he also finally accepts responsibility for his own actions, and by accepting his own mortality he is able to free himself. His companion Vetch describes the moment by sayingThus, although there are several dark powers in Earthsea( like the dragon, and the stone of Terrenon) the true evil was not one of these powers, or even death, but Ged' s actions that went against the balance of nature. This is contrary to conventional Western and Christian storytelling, in which light and darkness are often considered opposites, and are seen as symbolizing good and evil, which are constantly in conflict. On two different occasions, Ged is tempted to try to defy death and evil, but eventually learns that neither can be eliminated: instead, he chooses not to serve evil, and stops denying death. True names. In Le Guin' s fictional universe, to know the true name of an object | or a person is to |
have power over it. Each child is given a true name when they reach puberty, a name which they share only with close friends. Several of the dragons in the later Earthsea novels, like Orm Embar and Kalessin, are shown as living openly with their names, which do not give anybody power over them. In" A Wizard of Earthsea", however, Ged is shown to have power over Yevaud. Cadden writes that this is because Yevaud still has attachment to riches and material possessions, and is thus bound by the power of his name. Wizards exert their influence over the equilibrium through the use of names, thus linking this theme to Le Guin' s depiction of a cosmic balance. According to Cummins, this is Le Guin' s way of demonstrating the power of language in shaping reality. Since language is the tool we use for communicating about the environment, she argues that it also allows humans to affect the environment, and the wizards' power to use names symbolizes this. Cummins went on to draw an analogy between the a wizard' s use of names to change things with the creative use of words in fictional writing. Shippey wrote that Earthsea magic seems to work through what he called the" Rumpelstiltskin theory", in which names have power. He argued that this portrayal was part of Le Guin' s effort to emphasize the power of words over objects, which, according to Shippey, was in contrast to the ideology of other fantasy writers, such as James Frazer in" The Golden Bough". Esmonde argued that each of the first three Earthsea books hinged on an act of trust. In" A Wizard of Earthsea", Vetch trusts Ged with his true name when the latter is at his lowest ebb emotionally, thus giving Ged complete power over him. Ged later offers Tenar the same gift in" The Tombs of Atuan", thereby allowing her to learn trust. Style and structure. Language and mood." A Wizard of Earthsea" and other novels of the Earthsea cycle differ notably from Le Guin' s early Hainish cycle works, although they were written at a similar time. George Slusser described the Earthsea works as providing a counterweight to the" excessive pessimism" of the Hainish novels. He saw the former as depicting individual action in a favorable light, in contrast to works such as" Vaster than Empires and More Slow". The" Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" said the book was pervaded by a" grave joyfulness". In discussing the style of her fantasy works, Le Guin herself said that in fantasy it was necessary to be clear and direct with language, because there is no known framework for the reader' s mind to rest upon. The story often appears to assume that readers are familiar with the geography and history of Earthsea, a technique which allowed Le Guin to avoid exposition: a reviewer wrote that this method" gives Le Guin' s world the mysterious depths of Tolkien' s, but without his tiresome back- stories and versifying". In keeping with the notion of an epic, the narration switches from | looking ahead into Ged' s |
future and looking back into the past of Earthsea. At the same time, Slusser described the mood of the novel as" strange and dreamlike", fluctuating between objective reality and the thoughts in Ged' s mind; some of Ged' s adversaries are real, while others are phantoms. This narrative technique, which Cadden characterizes as" free indirect discourse" makes the narrator of the book seem sympathetic to the protagonist, and does not distance his thoughts from the reader. Myth and epic." A Wizard of Earthsea" has strong elements of an epic; for instance, Ged' s place in Earthsea history is described at the very beginning of the book in the following terms:" some say the greatest, and surely the greatest voyager, was the man called Sparrowhawk, who in his day became both dragonlord and Archmage." The story also begins with words from the Earthsea song" The Creation of Éa", which forms a ritualistic beginning to the book. The teller of the story then goes on to say that it is from Ged' s youth, thereby establishing context for the rest of the book. In comparison with the protagonists of many of Le Guin' s other works, Ged is superficially a typical hero, a mage who sets out on a quest. Reviewers have compared" A Wizard of Earthsea" to epics such as" Beowulf". Scholar Virginia White argued that the story followed a structure common to epics in which the protagonist begins an adventure, faces trials along the way, and eventually returns in triumph. White went on to suggest that this structure can be seen in the series as a whole, as well as in the individual volumes. Le Guin subverted many of the tropes typical to such" monomyths"; the protagonists of her story were all dark- skinned, in comparison to the white- skinned heroes more traditionally used; the Kargish antagonists, in contrast, were white- skinned, a switching of race roles that has been remarked upon by multiple critics. Critics have also cited her use of characters from multiple class backgrounds as a choice subversive to conventional Western fantasy. At the same time, reviewers questioned Le Guin' s treatment of gender in" A Wizard of Earthsea", and the original trilogy as a whole. Le Guin, who later became known as a feminist, chose to restrict the use of magic to men and boys in the first volume of Earthsea. Initial critical reactions to" A Wizard of Earthsea" saw Ged' s gender as incidental. In contrast," The Tombs of Atuan" saw Le Guin intentionally tell a female coming- of- age story, which was nonetheless described as perpetuating a male- dominated model of Earthsea." Tehanu"( 1990), published as the fourth volume of" Earthsea" 18 years after the third, has been described both by Le Guin and her commentators as a feminist re- imagining of the series, in which the power and status of the chief characters are reversed, and the patriarchal social structure questioned. Commenting in 1993, Le Guin wrote that she could not continue[ Earthsea after 1972] until she had" wrestled with the angels of the feminist | consciousness". Several critics have argued |
that by combining elements of epic," Bildungsroman", and young adult fiction, Le Guin succeeded in blurring the boundaries of conventional genres. In a 1975 commentary Francis Molson argued that the series should be referred to as" ethical fantasy", a term which acknowledged that the story did not always follow the tropes of heroic fantasy, and the moral questions that it raised. The term did not become popular. A similar argument was made by children' s literature critic Cordelia Sherman in 1985; she argued that" A Wizard of Earthsea" and the rest of the series sought" to teach children by dramatic example what it means to be a good adult". Adaptations. A condensed, illustrated version of the first chapter was printed by World Book in the third volume of" Childcraft" in 1989. Multiple audio versions of the book have been released. BBC Radio produced a radioplay version in 1996 narrated by Judi Dench, and a six- part series adapting the Earthsea novels in 2015, broadcast on Radio 4 Extra. In 2011, the work was produced as an unabridged recording performed by Robert Inglis. Two screen adaptations of the story have also been produced. An original mini- series titled" Legend of Earthsea" was broadcast in 2004 on the Sci Fi Channel. It is based very loosely on" A Wizard of Earthsea" and" The Tombs of Atuan". In an article published in" Salon", Le Guin expressed strong displeasure at the result. She stated that by casting a" petulant white kid" as Ged( who has red- brown skin in the book) the series" whitewashed Earthsea", and had ignored her choice to write the story of a non- white character, a choice she said was central to the book. This sentiment was shared by a review in" The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy", which said that" Legend of Earthsea"" totally missed the point" of Le Guin' s novels," ripping out all the subtlety, nuance and beauty of the books and inserting boring cliches, painful stereotypes and a very unwelcome' epic' war in their place". Studio Ghibli released an adaptation of the series in 2006 titled" Tales from Earthsea". The film very loosely combines elements of the first, third, and fourth books into a new story. Le Guin commented with displeasure on the film- making process, saying that she had acquiesced to the adaptation believing Hayao Miyazaki would be producing the film himself, which was eventually not the case. Le Guin praised the imagery of the film, but disliked the use of violence. She also expressed dissatisfaction with the portrayal of morality, and in particular the use of a villain who could be slain as a means of resolving conflict, which she said was antithetical to the message of the book. The film received generally mixed responses. Aleksandar Živojinović,( born August 27, 1953), known professionally as Alex Lifeson, is a Canadian musician, songwriter, and record producer, best known as the guitarist and backing vocalist of the progressive rock band Rush. In 1968, Lifeson co- founded the band that would later become Rush, with drummer John Rutsey and bassist and | lead vocalist Jeff Jones. Jones |
was replaced by Geddy Lee a month later, and Rutsey was replaced by Neil Peart in 1974. With Rush, Lifeson played electric and acoustic guitars, as well as other string instruments such as mandola, mandolin, and bouzouki. He also performed backing vocals in live performances as well as the studio albums" Rush"( 1974)," Presto"( 1989) and" Roll the Bones"( 1991) and occasionally played keyboards and bass pedal synthesizers. Like the other members of Rush, Lifeson performed real- time on- stage triggering of sampled instruments. Along with his bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart, Lifeson was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on 9 May 1996. The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured as a group. In 2013, he was inducted with Rush into the Rock& amp; Roll Hall of Fame.Lifesonwasranked98th on" Rolling Stone"' s list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time and third( after Eddie Van Halen and Brian May) in a" Guitar World" readers' poll listing the 100 greatest guitarists. The bulk of Lifeson' s work in music has been with Rush, although Lifeson has contributed to a body of work outside the band as well. Aside from music, Lifeson has been a painter, a licensed aircraft pilot, an actor, and the part- owner of a Toronto bar and restaurant called The Orbit Room. Biography. Early life. Lifeson was born Alexandar Živojinović( Serbian: Александар Живојиновић) in Fernie, British Columbia. His parents, Nenad and Melanija Živojinović, were Serb immigrants from Yugoslavia. He was raised in Toronto. His stage name of" Lifeson" is a semi- literal translation of the surname Živojinović, which means" son of life" in Serbian. Lifeson' s first formal music training was on the viola, which he abandoned for the guitar at the age of 12. His first guitar was a Christmas gift from his father, a six- string Kent classical acoustic which was later replaced by an electric Japanese model. During his adolescent years, he was influenced primarily by the likes of Jimi Hendrix, Pete Townshend, Jeff Beck, Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page, Steve Hackett, and Allan Holdsworth; he explained in 2011 that" Clapton' s solos seemed a little easier and more approachable. I remember sitting at my record player and moving the needle back and forth to get the solo in' Spoonful.' But there was nothing I could do with Hendrix." In 1963, Lifeson met future Rush drummer John Rutsey in school. Both interested in music, they decided to form a band. Lifeson was primarily a self- taught guitarist with the only formal instruction coming from a high school friend in 1971 who taught classical guitar lessons. This training lasted for roughly a year and a half. Lifeson recalls what inspired him to play guitar in a 2008 interview: Lifeson' s first girlfriend, Charlene, gave birth to their eldest son, Justin, in October 1970. The couple married in 1975, and their second son, Adrian, was born two years later. Adrian is also involved in music, and performed on two tracks from Lifeson' s 1996 solo project," Victor". Rush. Lifeson' s neighbour | John Rutsey began experimenting on |
a rented drum kit. In 1963, Lifeson and Rutsey formed The Projection, which eventually became Rush in August 1968 following the recruitment of original bassist and vocalist Jeff Jones. Geddy Lee, a high school friend of Lifeson, assumed this role soon after. Instrumentally, Lifeson is renowned for his signature riffing, electronic effects and processing, unorthodox chord structures, and the copious arsenal of equipment he has used over the years. Rush was on hiatus for several years starting in 1997 owing to, and Lifeson had not picked up a guitar for at least a year following those events. However, after some work in his home studio and on various side projects, Lifeson returned to the studio with Rush to begin work on 2002' s" Vapor Trails"." Vapor Trails"isthefirstRushalbumsincethe1970s to lack keyboards— as such, Lifeson used over 50 different guitars in what Shawn Hammond of" Guitar Player" called" his most rabid and experimental playing ever." Geddy Lee was amenable to leaving keyboards off the album due in part to Lifeson' s ongoing concern about their use. Lifeson' s approach to the guitar tracks for the album eschewed traditional riffs and solos in favour of" tonality and harmonic quality." During live performances, he used foot pedals to cue various synthesizer, guitar, and backing vocal effects as he played." Victor". While the bulk of Lifeson' s work in music has been with Rush, his first major outside work was his solo project," Victor", released in 1996." Victor" was attributed as a self- titled work( i. e." Victor" is attributed as the" artist" as well as the" album title"). This was done deliberately as an alternative to issuing the album explicitly under Lifeson' s name. The title track is from the W. H. Auden poem, also entitled" Victor". Both son Adrian and wife Charlene also contributed to the album. Side projects. Lifeson has also contributed to a body of work outside his involvement with the band in the form of instrumental contributions to other musical outfits. He made a guest appearance on the 1985 Platinum Blonde album" Alien Shores" performing guitar solos on the songs" Crying Over You" and" Holy Water". Later, in 1990, he appeared on Lawrence Gowan' s album" Lost Brotherhood" to play guitar. In 1995, he guested on two tracks on Tom Cochrane' s" Ragged Ass Road" album and then in 1996 on I Mother Earth' s" Like a Girl" from the" Scenery and Fish" album. In 1997, he appeared on the" Merry Axemas: A Guitar Christmas" album. Lifeson played" The Little Drummer Boy" which was released as track 9 on the album. In 2006, Lifeson founded the Big Dirty Band, which he created for the purpose of providing original soundtrack material for"". Lifeson jammed regularly with the Dexters( the Orbit Room house band from 1994 to 2004). Lifeson made a guest appearance on the 2007 album" Fear of a Blank Planet" by UK progressive rock band Porcupine Tree, contributing a solo during the song" Anesthetize". He also appeared on the 2008 album" Fly Paper" by Detroit progressive rockers Tiles. He plays on the | track" Sacred and Mundane". Outside |
band related endeavours, Lifeson composed the theme for the first season of the science- fiction TV series" Andromeda". He also produced three songs from the album" Away from the Sun" by 3 Doors Down. He was executive producer and contributor to the 2014 album" Come to Life" by Keram Malicki- Sanchez- playing guitar on the songs" Mary Magdalene"," Moving Dark Circles" and" The Devil Knows Me Well," and later on Keram' s subsequent singles" Artificial Intelligence,"( 2019)," That Light,"( 2020) and" Rukh."( 2021). Alex Lifeson is featured on Marco Minnemann' s 2017 release" Borrego", on which he played guitars on three songs and co- wrote the track" On That Note". In 2018, he played lead guitar on Fu Manchu' s 18- minute mostly instrumental track" Il Mostro Atomico" from the group' s" Clone of the Universe" album. On June 15 2021, Lifeson released two new instrumental songs," Kabul Blues" and" Spy House" on his website alexlifeson. com. The songs were released as a self titled project. Andy Curran played bass on both songs, and drums on" Spy House" were done by David Quinton Steinberg. Envy of None. The first single," Liar", from Envy of None' s debut album was released on January 12, 2022. Envy of None consists of Lifeson, Curran, singer Maiah Wynne, and producer and engineer Alfio Annibalini." Liar" along with" Kabul Blues" and" Spy House" are on Envy of None' s self- titled debut album scheduled to be released on April 8. Television and film appearances. Lifeson made his film debut as himself under his birth name in the 1973 Canadian documentary film" Come on Children". He has appeared in several installments of the Canadian mockumentary franchise" Trailer Park Boys". In 2003, he was featured in an episode titled" Closer to the Heart", playing a partly fictional version of himself. In the episode, he is kidnapped by Ricky and held as punishment for his inability( or refusal) to provide the main characters with free tickets to a Rush concert. In the end of the episode, Alex reconciles with the characters, and performs a duet of" Closer to the Heart" with Bubbles at the trailer park. In 2006, Lifeson appeared in' as a traffic cop in the opening scene and in 2009 he appeared in their follow up movie,', as an undercover vice cop in drag. In 2017, Lifeson appeared in an episode of the spin- off series" Trailer Park Boys: Out of the Park: USA" titled" Memphis." He also voiced Big Chunk in the first season of"". In 2008, Lifeson and the rest of Rush played" Tom Sawyer" at the end of an episode of" The Colbert Report". According to Colbert, this was their first appearance on American television as a band in 33 years. In 2009, he and the rest of the band appeared as themselves in the comedy" I Love You, Man". Lifeson appears as the border guard in the 2009 movie" Suck". Lifeson and bandmate Geddy Lee appear in the series" Chicago Fire", season 4, episode 6, called" 2112", which first aired on November 17, 2015. | The role of Dr. Funtime |
in" The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Funtime Hour" was originally written with Lifeson in mind, but due to scheduling conflicts the role was given to Maury Chaykin instead. Book forewords. Lifeson has penned forewords to four books:" Behind the Stage Door" by Rich Engler in 2013;" Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar( And More)" by Greg Prato in 2017;" Geddy Lee' s Big Beautiful Book of Bass" by Geddy Lee in 2018. and" Domenic Troiano-- His Life and Music" by Mark Doble and Frank Troiano in 2021( Friesen Press) Legal issues. On New Year' s Eve 2003, Lifeson, his son and his daughter- in- law were arrested at the Ritz- Carlton hotel in Naples, Florida. Lifeson, after intervening in an altercation between his son and police, was accused of assaulting a sheriff' s deputy in what was described as a drunken brawl. In addition to suffering a broken nose at the hands of the officers, Lifeson was tased six times. His son was also tased repeatedly. On 21 April 2005, Lifeson and his son agreed to a plea deal with the local prosecutor for the State' s Attorney office to avoid jail time by pleading no contest to a first- degree misdemeanor charge of resisting arrest without violence. As part of the plea agreement, Lifeson and his son were each sentenced to 12 months of probation with the adjudication of that probation suspended. Lifeson acknowledged his subsequent legal action against both the Ritz- Carlton and the Collier County Sheriff' s Office for" their incredibly discourteous, arrogant and aggressive behaviour of which I had never experienced in 30 years of travel". Although both actions were initially dismissed in April 2007, legal claims against the Ritz- Carlton were reinstated upon appeal and they were settled out of court on a confidential basis in August 2008. In his journal- based book" Roadshow", Peart relates the band' s perspective on the events of that New Year' s Eve. Guitar equipment. Early Rush(1970s). In Rush' s early career, Lifeson used a Gibson ES- 335 for the first tour, and in 1976 bought a 1974 Gibson Les Paul;heusedthosetwoguitarsuntilthelate1970s. He had a Fender Stratocaster with a Bill Lawrence humbucker and Floyd Rose vibrato bridge as backup" and for a different sound." For the" A Farewell to Kings" sessions, Lifeson began using a Gibson EDS- 1275 for songs like" Xanadu" and his main guitar became a white Gibson ES- 355. During this period Lifeson used Hiwatt amplifiers. He played a twelve- string Gibson B- 45 on songs like" Closer to the Heart."1980sand1990s. From 1980 to 1986, Lifeson used four identically modified Stratocasters, all of them equipped with the Floyd Rose bridge. As a joke, he called these Hentor Sportscasters– a made- up name inspired by Peter Henderson' s name, who was the producer of" Grace Under Pressure". He would start using them again twenty years later. He also played a Gibson Howard Roberts Fusion and an Ovation Adamas acoustic/ electric guitar. By 1987, Lifeson switched to Signature guitar despite describing them as" awful to play— very uncomfortable--... had | a particular sound I liked." |
Lifeson primarily used PRS guitars in the later- half of the 1990 Presto tour, and again during the recording of" Roll The Bones" in 1990/ 1991. He would continue to play PRS for the next sixteen years through the recording and touring of" Counterparts"," Test for Echo" and" Vapor Trails"aswellastheR30 tour. During this period, he also played several Fender Telecasters.2000s onward: Return to Gibson guitars. In 2011, Lifeson said that for the past few years he"... used Gibson almost exclusively. There' s nothing like having a low- slung Les Paul over my shoulder." Gibson" Alex Lifeson Axcess". In early 2011, Gibson introduced the" Alex Lifeson Axcess", a guitar specially designed for him. These are custom made Les Pauls with Floyd Rose tremolo systems and piezoacoustic pick- ups. He used these two custom Les Pauls on the Time Machine Tour. These guitars are also available through Gibson, in a viceroy Brown or Crimson colour. Lifeson used these two guitars heavily on the tour. For the 2012- 2013 Clockwork Angels tour, Gibson built an Alex Lifeson Axcess model in black which became Lifeson' s primary guitar for much of the show. For all acoustic work, he played one of his Axcess guitars using the piezo pick- ups; no acoustic guitars were used at all in the Clockwork Angels show. Paul Reed Smith acoustic signature guitar.Forthe2015R40 Tour, Lifeson used his signature acoustic guitar model by Paul Reed Smith. The guitar is currently available for private stock order.GibsonR40 Signature Les Paul Axcess.GibsonintroducedanAlexLifesonR40 Les Paul Axcess signature guitar in June 2015. This is a limited edition with 50 guitars signed and played by Lifeson, and another 250 available without the signature. Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi- hollow. At the 2017 Winter NAMM show, Gibson representative Mike Voltz introduced an Antique White Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi- hollow guitar, a hybrid of a Les Paul Custom& amp; an ES 335, with only 200 made. Mike also introduced the Antique White as a new color from Gibson for this Custom( note: Gibson names this color as' Classic White' on their web site which may be an error due to other Gibson reps labeling it as Antique White). Alex played this Custom on the last Rush tour. Amplification. In 2005, Hughes& amp; Kettner introduced an Alex Lifeson signature series amplifier; Lifeson donates his royalties from the sale of these signature models to UNICEF. In 2012, Lifeson abandoned his signature Triamps in favour for custom- built Lerxst Omega Silver Jubilee clones, handmade by Mojotone in Burgaw, NC and Mesa/ Boogie Mark V heads. He still uses the Hughes& amp; Kettner Coreblades. Effects. For effects, Lifeson is known to use chorus, phase shifting, delay and flanging. Throughout his career, he has used well- known pedals such as the Echoplex delay pedal, Electro- Harmonix Electric Mistress flanger, the BOSS CE- 1 chorus and the Dunlop crybaby wah, among others. Lifeson and his guitar technician Scott Appleton have discussed in interviews Lifeson' s use of Fractal Audio' s Axe- FX, Apple Inc.' s MainStage, and Native | Instruments' Guitar Rig. Other instruments |
played. Stringed instruments. In addition to acoustic and electric guitars, Lifeson has also played mandola, mandolin and bouzouki on some Rush studio albums, including" Test for Echo"," Vapor Trails" and" Snakes& amp; Arrows". For his" Victor" project and" Little Drummer Boy" for the" Merry Axemas" album, he also played bass and programmed synthesizers. Electronic instruments. During live Rush performances, Lifeson used MIDI controllers that enabled him to use his free hands and feet to trigger sounds from digital samplers and synthesizers, without taking his hands off his guitar.( Prior to this,LifesonusedMoogTaurusBassPedalsbeforetheywerereplacedbyKorgMIDIpedalsinthe1980s.) Lifeson and his bandmates shared a desire to accurately depict songs from their albums when playing live performances. Toward this goal,beginninginthelate1980s the band equipped their live performances with a capacious rack of samplers. The band members used these samplers in real- time to recreate the sounds of non- traditional instruments, accompaniments, vocal harmonies, and other sound" events" that are familiarly heard on the studio versions of the songs. In live performances, the band members shared duties throughout most songs, with each member triggering certain sounds with his available limbs, while playing his primary instrument( s). Influence. Many guitarists have cited Lifeson as an influence, such as Paul Gilbert of Mr. Big, John Petrucci of Dream Theater, Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree, Jim Martin of Faith No More, Denis" Piggy" D' Amour of Voivod and John Wesley. James Hetfield from Metallica named Lifeson one of the best rhythm guitarists of all time. Marillion guitarist Steve Rothery has expressed his admiration for Lifeson' s" dexterity" as a live performer and described Rush as a" fantastic live band". Jazz guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, after citing him as an influence, praised his" incredible sound and imagination". AZ( or similar) may refer to: ArgoUML is an UML diagramming application written in Java and released under the open source Eclipse Public License. By virtue of being a Java application, it is available on any platform supported by Java SE. History. ArgoUML was originally developed at UC Irvine by Jason E. Robbins, leading to his Ph. D. It was an open source project hosted by Tigris. org and moved in 2019 to GitHub. The ArgoUML project included more than 19, 000 registered users and over 150 developers. In 2003, ArgoUML won the Software Development Magazine' s annual Readers' Choice Award in the“ Design and Analysis Tools” category. ArgoUML development has suffered from lack of manpower. For example," Undo" has been a perpetually requested feature since 2003 but has not been implemented yet. Features. According to the official feature list, ArgoUML is capable of the following: A file archiver is a computer program that combines a number of files together into one archive file, or a series of archive files, for easier transportation or storage. File archivers may employ lossless data compression in their archive formats to reduce the size of the archive. Basic archivers just take a list of files and concatenate their contents sequentially into archives. The archive files need to store metadata, at least the names and lengths of the original files, if proper reconstruction is possible. | More advanced archivers store additional |
metadata, such as the original timestamps, file attributes or access control lists. The process of making an archive file is called" archiving" or" packing". Reconstructing the original files from the archive is termed" unarchiving"," unpacking" or" extracting". History. An early archiver was the Multics command" archive", descended from the CTSS command of the same name, which was a basic archiver and performed no compression. Multics also had a"tape_archiver" command, abbreviated" ta", which was perhaps the forerunner of unix'" tar". Unix archivers. The Unix tools" ar"," tar"," cpio" act as archivers but not compressors. Users of the Unix tools use additional compression tools, such as gzip,bzip2, or xz, to compress the archive file after packing or remove compression before unpacking the archive file. The filename extensions are successively added at each step of this process. For example, archiving a collection of files with" tar" and then compressing the resulting archive file with" gzip"resultsafilewithcodice_1 extension. This approach has two goals: This approach, however, has disadvantages too: Windows archivers. The built- in archiver of Microsoft Windows as well as third- party archiving software, such as WinRAR and 7- zip, often use a graphical user interface. They also offer an optional command- line interface, while Windows itself does not. Windows archivers perform both archiving and compression. Solid compression may or may not be offered, depending on the product: Windows itself does not support it; WinRAR and 7- zip offer it as an option that can be turned on or off. Artemis(; Artemis,) is the Greek goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, the Moon, and chastity. The goddess Diana is her Roman equivalent. Artemis is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She was the patron and protector of young children and women, and was believed to both bring disease upon women and children and relieve them of it. Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia. Much like Athena and Hestia, Artemis preferred to remain a maiden and was sworn never to marry. Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities, and her temple at Ephesus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Artemis' symbols included a bow and arrow, a quiver, and hunting knives, and the deer and the cypress were sacred to her. Diana, her Roman equivalent, was especially worshipped on the Aventine Hill in Rome, near Lake Nemi in the Alban Hills, and in Campania. Etymology. The name" Artemis"(" noun"," feminine") is of unknown or uncertain etymology, although various sources have been proposed. R. S. P. Beekes suggested that the" e"/" i" interchange points to a Pre- Greek origin. Artemis was venerated in Lydia as" Artimus". Georgios Babiniotis, while accepting that the etymology is unknown, also states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of Pre- Greek origin. The name may be possibly related to Greek" árktos"" bear"( from PIE*"h₂ŕ̥ tḱos"), supported by the bear cult the goddess had in Attica( Brauronia) and the Neolithic | remains at the Arkoudiotissa Cave, |
as well as the story of Callisto, which was originally about Artemis( Arcadian epithet" kallisto"); this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo- European cultures( e. g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshipped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested, the earliest attested forms of the name" Artemis" are the Mycenaean Greek," a- te- mi- to"/ Artemitos/( gen.) and," a- ti- mi- te"/ Artimitei/( dat.), written in Linear B at Pylos. According to J. T. Jablonski, the name is also Phrygian and could be" compared with the royal appellation" Artemas" of Xenophon. Charles Anthon argued that the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from*" arta",*" art",*" arte", all meaning" great, excellent, holy", thus Artemis" becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshipped at Ephesus". Anton Goebel" suggests the root στρατ or ῥατ," to shake", and makes Artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter". Ancient Greek writers, by way of folk etymology, and some modern scholars, have linked Artemis( Doric" Artamis") to ἄρταμος," artamos", i. e." butcher" or, like Plato did in" Cratylus", to," artemḗs", i. e." safe"," unharmed"," uninjured"," pure"," the stainless maiden". Mythology. Birth. Various conflicting accounts are given in Classical Greek mythology regarding the birth of Artemis and Apollo, her twin brother. However, in terms of parentage, all accounts agree that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo. In some sources, she is born at the same time as Apollo, in others, earlier or later. According to Callimachus, Hera, angry with her husband Zeus for impregnating Leto, forbade her from giving birth on either" terra firma"( the mainland) or on an island, but the island of Delos disobeyed and allowed Leto to give birth there. According to the Homeric Hymn to Artemis, however, the island where she and her twin were born was Ortygia. In ancient Cretan history Leto was worshipped at Phaistos and, in Cretan mythology, Leto gave birth to Apollo and Artemis on the islands known today as Paximadia. A" scholium" of Servius on" Aeneid" iii. 72 accounts for the island' s archaic name Ortygia by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a quail(" ortux") in order to prevent Hera from finding out about his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form Leto would have given birth with as few birth- pains as a mother quail suffers when it lays an egg. The myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Most stories depict Artemis as firstborn, becoming her mother' s midwife upon the birth of her brother Apollo. Childhood. The childhood of Artemis is not fully related to any surviving myth. A poem by Callimachus to the goddess" who amuses herself on mountains with archery" imagines a few vignettes of a young | Artemis. While sitting on the |
knee of her father, she asks him to grant her ten wishes: Artemis believed she had been chosen by the Fates to be a midwife, particularly as she had assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin brother Apollo. All of her companions remained virgins, and Artemis closely guarded her own chastity. Her symbols included the golden bow and arrow, the hunting dog, the stag, and the moon. Callimachus then tells how Artemis spent her girlhood seeking out the things she would need to be a huntress, and how she obtained her bow and arrows from the isle of Lipara, where Hephaestus and the Cyclopes worked. While Oceanus' daughters were initially fearful, the young Artemis bravely approached and asked for a bow and arrows. He goes on to describe how she visited Pan, god of the forest, who gave her seven female and six male hounds. She then captured six golden- horned deer to pull her chariot. Artemis practiced archery first by shooting at trees and then at wild game. Relations with men. The river god Alpheus was in love with Artemis, but as he realized he could do nothing to win her heart, he decided to capture her. When Artemis and her companions at Letrenoi go to Alpheus, she becomes suspicious of his motives and covers her face with mud so he does not recognize her. In another story, Alphaeus tries to rape Artemis' attendant Arethusa. Artemis pities the girl and saves her, transforming her into a spring in the temple Artemis Alphaea in Letrini, where the goddess and her attendant drink. Bouphagos, son of the Titan Iapetus, sees Artemis and thinks about raping her. Reading his sinful thoughts, Artemis strikes him down at Mount Pholoe. Daphnis was a young boy, a son of Hermes, who was accepted by and became a follower of the goddess Artemis; Daphnis would often accompany her in hunting and entertain her with his singing of pastoral songs and playing of the panpipes. Artemis also herself taught a man, Scamandrius, how to be a great archer, and he excelled in use of bow and arrow with her guidance. In another story, Siproites is a Cretan boy who, because he accidentally sees Artemis bathing while she was hunting, is turned into a girl by the goddess. Actaeon. Multiple versions of the Actaeon myth survive, though many are fragmentary. The details vary but at the core, they involve the great hunter Actaeon whom Artemis turns into a stag for a transgression, and who is then killed by hunting dogs. Usually, the dogs are his own, but no longer recognize their master. Occasionally they are said to be the hounds of Artemis. According to Lamar Ronald Lacey' s" The Myth of Aktaion: Literary and Iconographic Studies", the standard modern text on the work, the most likely original version of the myth portrays Actaeon as the hunting companion of the goddess who, seeing her naked in her sacred spring, attempts to force himself on her. For this hubris, he is turned into a stag and devoured by his own | hounds. However, in some surviving |
versions, Actaeon is a stranger who happens upon Artemis. According to the Latin version of the story told by the Roman Ovid, having accidentally seen Diana on Mount Cithaeron while she was bathing, he was changed by her into a stag, then pursued and killed by his 50 hounds. Various tellings also diverge in terms of the hunter' s transgression: sometimes merely seeing the virgin goddess naked, sometimes boasting he is a better hunter than she, or even merely being a rival of Zeus for the affections of Semele. Adonis. In some versions of the story of Adonis, Artemis sent a wild boar to kill him as punishment for boasting that he was a better hunter than her. In other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis is a favorite of Aphrodite, who was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a hunter of Artemis. Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus' s death. In yet another version, Adonis was not killed by Artemis, but by Ares as punishment for being with Aphrodite. Orion. Orion was Artemis' hunting companion; after giving up on trying to find Oenopion, Orion met Artemis and her mother Leto, and joined the goddess in hunting. A great hunter himself, he bragged that he would kill every beast on earth. Gaia, the earth, was not too pleased to hear that, and sent a giant scorpion to sting him. Artemis then transferred him into the stars as the constellation Orion. In one version Orion died after pushing Leto out of the scorpion' s way. In another version, Orion tries to violate Opis, one of Artemis' followers from Hyperborea, and Artemis kills him. In a version by Aratus, Orion grabs Artemis' robe and she kills him in self- defense. Other writers have Artemis kill him for trying to rape her or one of her attendants. Istrus wrote a version in which Artemis fell in love with Orion, apparently the only person she ever did. She meant to marry him, and no talk from her brother Apollo would change her mind. Apollo then decided to trick Artemis, and while Orion was off swimming in the sea, he pointed at him( barely a spot in the horizon) and wagered that Artemis could not hit that small" dot". Artemis, ever eager to prove she was the better archer, shot Orion, killing him. She then placed him among the stars. In Homer' s" Iliad", Eos seduces Orion, angering the gods, causing Artemis to kill him. The Aloadae. The twin sons of Poseidon and Iphimedeia, Otos and Ephialtes, grew enormously at a young age. They were aggressive and skilled hunters who could not be killed except by each other. The growth of the Aloadae never stopped, and they boasted that as soon as they could reach heaven, they would kidnap Artemis and Hera and take them as wives. The gods were afraid of them, except for Artemis who captured a fine deer which jumped out between them. In another version of the story, she changed herself into a doe jumped | between them. The Aloadae threw |
their spears and so mistakenly killed one another. In another version, Apollo sent the deer into the Aloadae' s midst, causing their accidental killing of each other. In another version, they start pilling up mountains to reach Mount Olympus in order to catch Hera and Artemis, but the gods spot them and attack. When the twins had retreated the gods learn that Ares has been captured. The Aloadae, not sure about what to do with Ares, lock him up in a pot. Artemis then turns into a deer and causes them to kill each other. Callisto. Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia, was one of Artemis' s hunting attendants, and, as companion of Artemis, took a vow of chastity. According to Hesiod in his lost poem" Astronomia", Zeus appeared to Callisto, and seduced her, resulting in her becoming pregnant. Though she was able to hide her pregnancy for a time, she was soon found out while bathing. Enraged, Artemis transformed Callisto into a bear, and in this form she gave birth to her son Arcas. Both of them were then captured by shepherds and given to Lycaon, and Callisto thus lost her child. Some time later, Callisto" thought fit to go into" a forbidden sanctuary of Zeus, and was hunted by the Arcadians, her son among them. When she was about to killed, Zeus saved her by placing her in the heavens as a constellation of a bear. In his" De Astronomica", Hyginus, after recounting the version from Hesiod, presents several other alternative versions. The first, which he attributes to Amphis, says that Zeus seduced Callisto by disguising himself as Artemis during a hunting session, and that when Artemis found out that Callisto was pregnant, she replied saying that it was the goddess' s fault, causing Artemis to transform her into a bear. This version also has both Callisto and Arcas placed in the heavens, as the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. Hyginus then presents another version in which, after Zeus lay with Callisto, it was Hera who transformed her into a bear. Artemis later, while hunting, kills the bear, and" later, on being recognized,[ Callisto] was placed among the stars". Hyginus also gives another version, in which Hera tries to catch Zeus and Callisto in the act, causing Zeus to transform her into a bear. Hera, finding the bear, points it out to Artemis, who is hunting; Zeus, in panic, places Callisto in the heavens as a constellation. Ovid gives a somewhat different version: Zeus seduced Callisto once again disguised as Artemis, but she seems to realise that it is not the real Artemis, and she thus does not blame Artemis when, during bathing, she is found out. Callisto is, rather than being transformed, simply ousted from the company of the huntresses, and she thus gives birth to Arcas as a human. Only later is she transformed into a bear, this time by Hera. When Arcas, fully grown, is out hunting, he nearly kills his mother, who is saved only by Zeus placing her in the heavens. In | the" Bibliotheca", a version is |
presented in which Zeus raped Callisto," having assumed the likeness, as some say, of Artemis, or, as others say, of Apollo". He then turned her into a bear himself so as to hide the event from Hera. Artemis then shot the bear, either upon the persuasion of Hera, or out of anger at Callisto for breaking her virginity. Once Callisto was dead, Zeus made her into a constellation, took the child, named him Arcas, and gave him to Maia, who raised him. Pausanias, in his" Description of Greece", presents another version, in which, after Zeus seduced Callisto, Hera turned her into a bear, which Artemis killed to please Hera. Hermes was then sent by Zeus to take Arcas, and Zeus himself placed Callisto in the heavens. Iphigenia and the Taurian Artemis. Artemis punished Agamemnon after he killed a sacred stag in a sacred grove and boasted that he was a better hunter than the goddess. When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to commence the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchas erroneously advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. In some version of the myth, Artemis then snatched Iphigenia from the altar and substituted a deer; in others, Artemis allowed Iphigenia to be sacrificed. In versions where Iphigenia survived, a number of different myths have been told about what happened after Artemis took her; either she was brought to Tauros and led the priests there, or she became Artemis' immortal companion. Niobe. A queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto, having 14 children( Niobids), seven boys and seven girls, while Leto had only one of each. When Artemis and Apollo heard this impiety, they killed her children using poisoned arrows. Apollo killed Niobe' s sons as they practiced athletics, and Artemis shot her daughters, who died instantly without a sound. According to some versions, two of the Niobids were spared, one boy and one girl. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, killed himself. A devastated Niobe and her remaining children were turned to stone by Artemis as they wept. The gods themselves entombed them. Chione. Chione was a princess of Pokis. She was beloved by two gods, Hermes and Apollo, and boasted that she was more beautiful than Artemis because she had made two gods fall in love with her at once. Artemis was furious and killed Chione with an arrow, or struck her mute by shooting off her tongue. However, some versions of this myth say Apollo and Hermes protected her from Artemis' wrath. Atalanta, Oeneus and the Meleagrids. Artemis saved the infant Atalanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to nurse the baby, who was then raised by hunters. In some stories, Artemis later sent a bear to injure Atalanta because others claimed Atalanta was a superior hunter. Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the Calydonian boar hunt, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon because King | Oeneus had forgotten her at |
the harvest sacrifices. In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood and was awarded the prize of the boar' s hide. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea as a dedication to Artemis. Meleager was a hero of Aetolia. King Oeneus ordered him to gather heroes from all over Greece to hunt the Calydonian boar. After the death of Meleager, Artemis turns his grieving sisters, the Meleagrids, into guineafowl that Artemis favoured. Aura. In Nonnus" Dionysiaca", Aura was the daughter of Lelantos and Periboia. She was a virgin huntress, just like Artemis, and proud of her maidenhood. However, she asserts that Artemis’ body is too womanly and doubts the goddess’ virginity. Artemis asks Nemesis for help to avenge her dignity; she then causes the rape of Aura by Dionysus, after which Aura becomes a deranged killer. When she bore twin sons, she ate one, while the other, Iacchus, was saved by Artemis. Iacchus later became an attendant of Demeter and the leader of Eleusinian Mysteries. Polyphonte. Polyphonte was a young woman who fled home in pursuit of a free, virginal life with Artemis, as opposed to the conventional life of marriage and children favoured by Aphrodite. As a punishment, Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. Her resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the entire family was transformed into birds who became ill portents for mankind. Trojan War. Artemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother Apollo was the patron god of the city, and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical times. In the" Iliad" she comes to blows with Hera when the divine allies of the Greeks and Trojans engage each other in conflict. Hera strikes Artemis on the ears with her own quiver, causing the arrows to fall out. As Artemis flees, crying to Zeus, Leto gathers up the bow and arrows. Artemis plays a significant role in the war. Like Leto and Apollo, Artemis took the side of the Trojans. At the beginning of the Greek' s journey to Troy, Artemis stilled the sea, stopping the journey until an oracle came saying they could win the goddess' heart by sacrificing Iphigenia, Agamemnon' s daughter. Agamemnon once promised the goddess he would sacrifice the dearest thing to him, which was Iphigenia, but broke that promise. Other sources said he boasted about his hunting ability and provoked the goddess' anger. However, Artemis saved Iphigenia because of her bravery. In some versions of the myth, Artemis made Iphigenia her attendant or turned her into Hecate, goddess of night, witchcraft, and the underworld. Aeneas was also helped by Artemis, Leto, and Apollo. Apollo found him wounded by Diomedes and lifted him to heaven. There, the three deities secretly healed him in a great chamber. Worship. Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece. Her best known cults were on the island of Delos( her birthplace), in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia( near Piraeus), and in | Sparta. She was often depicted |
in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows and accompanied by a deer. The ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign. Athenian festivals in honor of Artemis included Elaphebolia, Mounikhia, Kharisteria, and Brauronia. The festival of Artemis Orthia was observed in Sparta. Pre- pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as" arktoi", or little she- bears. A myth explaining this servitude states that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that, over time, the bear became tame. A girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth, it killed her, while, in other versions, it clawed out her eyes. Either way, the girl' s brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls" act the bear" at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear' s death. Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia. Dedications of clothing to her sanctuaries after a successful birth was common in the Classical era. Artemis could be a deity to be feared by pregnant women, as deaths during this time were attributed to her. As childbirth and pregnancy was a very common and important event, there were numerous other deities associated with it, many localized to a particular geographic area, including but not limited to Aphrodite, Hera and Hekate. According to Pseudo- Apollodorus, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin. Older sources, such as Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo( in Line 115), have the arrival of Eileithyia on Delos as the event that allows Leto to give birth to her children. Contradictory is Hesiod' s presentation of the myth in Theogony, where he states that Leto bore her children before Zeus’ marriage to Hera with no commentary on any drama related to their birth. During the Classical period in Athens, she was identified with Hekate. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis( Carya). There was a women' s cult at Cyzicus worshiping Artemis, which was called Dolon( Δόλων). Epithets. As Aeginaea, she was worshipped in Sparta; the name means either huntress of chamois, or the wielder of the javelin(). Also in Sparta, Artemis" Lygodesma" was worshipped. This epithet means" willow- bound" from the Gr." lygos"( λυγός, willow) and" desmos"( δεσμός, bond). The willow tree appears in several ancient Greek myths and rituals. In Athens she was worshipped under the epithet Aristo(" the best"). Also in Athens, she was worshipped as Aristoboule," the best adviser". As Artemis Isora also known as Isoria or Issoria, in the temple at the Issorium near lounge of the Crotani( the body of troops named the Pitanatae) near Pitane, Sparta. Pausanias mentions that although the locals refer to her as Artemis Isora, he says" They surname her also Lady of the Lake, though she is not really | Artemis hut Britomartis of Crete" |
She was worshipped at Naupactus as Aetole; in her temple in that town, there was a statue of white marble representing her throwing a javelin. This" Aetolian Artemis" would not have been introduced at Naupactus, anciently a place of Ozolian Locris, until it was awarded to the Aetolians by Philip II of Macedon. Strabo records another precinct of" Aetolian Artemos" at the head of the Adriatic. As Agoraea she was the protector of the agora. As Artemis Orthia( Greek Ὀρθία) and was common to the four villages originally constituting Sparta: Limnai, in which it is situated, Pitana, Kynosoura, and Mesoa. As Agrotera, she was especially associated as the patron goddess of hunters. In Athens Artemis was often associated with the local Aeginian goddess, Aphaea. As Potnia Theron, she was the patron of wild animals; Homer used this title. As Kourotrophos, she was the nurse of youths. As Locheia, she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives. She was sometimes known as Cynthia, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos, or Amarynthia from a festival in her honor originally held at Amarynthus in Euboea. She was sometimes identified by the name Phoebe, the feminine form of her brother Apollo' s solar epithet Phoebus. Alphaea, Alpheaea, or Alpheiusa( Gr.,, or) was an epithet that Artemis derived from the river god Alpheius, who was said to have been in love with her. It was under this name that she was worshipped at Letrini in Elis, and in Ortygia. Artemis Alphaea was associated with the wearing of masks, largely because of the legend that while fleeing the advances of Alpheius, she and her nymphs escaped him by covering their faces. As Artemis Anaitis, the' Persian Artemis' was identified with Anahita. As Apanchomene, she was worshipped as a hanged goddess. She was also worshiped as Artemis Tauropolos, variously interpreted as" worshipped at Tauris"," pulled by a yoke of bulls", or" hunting bull goddess". A statue of Artemis" Tauropolos" in her temple at Brauron in Attica was supposed to have been brought from the Taurians by Iphigenia. Tauropolia was also a festival of Artemis in Athens. There was a" Tauropolion", a temple in a" temenos" sacred to Artemis Tauropolos, in the north Aegean island of Doliche( now Ikaria). There is a Temple to' Artemis Tauropolos'( as well as a smaller temple to an unknown goddess about south, on the beach) located on the eastern shore of Attica, in the modern town of Artemida( Loutsa). An aspect of the Taurian Artemis was also worshipped as Aricina. At Castabala in Cilicia there was a sanctuary of Artemis Perasia. Strabo wrote that:" some tell us over and over the same story of Orestes and Tauropolos, asserting that she was called Perasian because she was brought from the other side." Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that near Pyrrhichus, there was a sanctuary of Artemis called Astrateias(), with an image of the goddess said to have been dedicated by the Amazons. He also wrote that at Pheneus there was a sanctuary of Artemis, which the legend said that it was | founded by Odysseus when he |
lost his mares and when he traversed Greece in search of them, he found them on this site. For this the goddess was called Heurippa(), meaning" horse finder". One of the epithets of Artemis was Chitone(). Ancient writers believed that the epithet derived from the chiton that the goddess was wearing as a huntress or from the clothes in which newborn infants were dressed being sacred to her or from the Attic village of Chitone. Syracusans had a dance sacred to the Chitone Artemis. At the Miletus there was a sanctuary of Artemis Chitone and was one of the oldest sanctuaries in the city. The epithet Leucophryne( Λευκοφρύνη), derived from the city of Leucophrys. At the Magnesia on the Maeander there was a sanctuary dedicated to her. In addition, the sons of Themistocles dedicated a statue to her at the Acropolis of Athens, because Themistocles had once ruled the Magnesia. Bathycles of Magnesia dedicated a statue of her at Amyclae. Festivals. Artemis was born on the sixth day, which made it sacred for her. Attributes. Virginity. An important aspect of Artemis' persona and worship was her virginity, which may seem contradictory given her role as a goddess associated with childbirth. It is likely that the idea of Artemis as a virgin goddess is related to her primary role as a huntress. Hunters traditionally abstained from sex prior to the hunt as a form of ritual purity and out of a belief that the scent would scare off potential prey. The ancient cultural context in which Artemis' worship emerged also held that virginity was a prerequisite to marriage, and that a married woman became subservient to her husband. In this light, Artemis' virginity is also related to her power and independence. Rather than a form of asexuality, it is an attribute that signals Artemis as her own master, with power equal to that of male gods. It is also possible that her virginity represents a concentration of fertility that can be spread among her followers, in the manner of earlier mother goddess figures. However, some later Greek writers did come to treat Artemis as inherently asexual and as an opposite to Aphrodite. Furthermore, some have described Artemis along with the goddesses Hestia and Athena as being asexual, this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5," To Aphrodite," where Aphrodite is described as having" no power" over the three goddesses. As a mother goddess. Despite her virginity, both modern scholars and ancient commentaries have linked Artemis to the archetype of the mother goddess. Artemis was traditionally linked to fertility and was petitioned to assist women with childbirth. According to Herodotus, the Greek playwright Aeschylus identified Artemis with Persephone as a daughter of Demeter. Her worshipers in Arcadia also traditionally associated her with Demeter and Persephone. In Asia Minor, she was often conflated with local mother goddess figures, such as Cybele, and Anahita in Iran. However, the archetype of the mother goddess was not highly compatible with the Greek pantheon, and though the Greeks had adopted the worship of Cybele | and other Anatolian mother goddesses |
asearlyasthe7th century BCE, she was not directly conflated with any Greek goddesses; instead, bits and pieces of her worship and aspects were absorbed variously by Artemis, Aphrodite, and others as Eastern influence spread. As the Lady of Ephesus. At Ephesus in Ionia, Turkey, her temple became one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was probably the best- known center of her worship except for Delos. There the Lady whom the Ionians associated with Artemis through" interpretatio graeca" was worshipped primarily as a mother goddess, akin to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, in an ancient sanctuary where her cult image depicted the" Lady of Ephesus" adorned with multiple large beads. Excavation at the site of the" Artemision" in 1987– 88 identified a multitude of tear- shaped amber beads that had been hung on the original wooden statue(" xoanon"), and these were probably carried over into later sculpted copies. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul' s preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting" Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!" Of the 121 columns of her temple, only one composite, made up of fragments, still stands as a marker of the temple' s location. Symbols. According to one of the" Homeric Hymns" to Artemis, she had a golden bow and arrows, as her epithet was Khryselakatos(" she of the golden shaft") and Iokheira(" showered by arrows"). The arrows of Artemis could also bring sudden death and disease to girls and women. Artemis got her bow and arrow for the first time from the Cyclopes, as the one she asked from her father. The bow of Artemis also became the witness of Callisto' s oath of her virginity. Artemis' chariot was made of gold and was pulled by four golden horned deer. The bridles of her chariot were also made of gold. Although quite seldom, Artemis is sometimes portrayed with a hunting spear. Her cult in Aetolia, the Artemis Aetolian, showed her with a hunting spear. The description of Artemis' spear can be found in Ovid' s" Metamorphoses", while Artemis with a fishing spear connected with her cult as a patron goddess of fishing. As a goddess of maiden dances and songs, Artemis is often portrayed with a lyre in ancient art. Deer were the only animals held sacred to Artemis herself. On seeing a deer larger than a bull with horns shining, she fell in love with these creatures and held them sacred. Deer were also the first animals she captured. She caught five golden horned deer and harnessed them to her chariot. The third labour of Heracles, commanded by Eurystheus, consisted of catching the Cerynitian Hind alive. Heracles begged Artemis for forgiveness and promised to return it alive. Artemis forgave him but targeted Eurystheus for her wrath. Artemis got her hunting dogs from Pan in the forest of Arcadia. Pan gave Artemis two black- and- white dogs, three reddish ones, and one spotted one– these dogs were able to hunt even lions. Pan also gave Artemis seven bitches of the finest Arcadian race. However, | Artemis only ever brought seven |
dogs hunting with her at any one time. The sacrifice of a bear for Artemis started with the Brauron cult. Every year a girl between five and ten years of age was sent to Artemis' temple at Brauron. The Byzantine writer Suidos relayed the legend in Arktos e Brauroniois. A bear was tamed by Artemis and introduced to the people of Athens. They touched it and played with it until one day a group of girls poked the bear until it attacked them. A brother of one of the girls killed the bear, so Artemis sent a plague in revenge. The Athenians consulted an oracle to understand how to end the plague. The oracle suggested that, in payment for the bear' s blood, no Athenian virgin should be allowed to marry until she had served Artemis in her temple(' played the bear for the goddess'). The boar is one of the favorite animals of the hunters, and also hard to tame. In honor of Artemis' skill, they sacrificed it to her. Oeneus and Adonis were both killed by Artemis' boar. Artemis felt pity for the Meleagrids as they mourned for their lost brother, Meleager, so she transformed them into Guinea Fowl to be her favorite animals. Hawks were the favored birds of many of the gods, Artemis included. In art. The oldest representations of Artemis in Greek Archaic art portray her as Potnia Theron(" Queen of the Beasts"): a winged goddess holding a stag and lioness in her hands, or sometimes a lioness and a lion. This winged Artemis lingered in ex- votos as Artemis Orthia, with a sanctuary close by Sparta. In Greek classical art she is usually portrayed as a maiden huntress, young, tall, and slim, clothed in a girl' s short skirt, with hunting boots, a quiver, a bow and arrows. Often, she is shown in the shooting pose, and is accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. When portrayed as a moon goddess, Artemis wore a long robe and sometimes a veil covered her head. Her darker side is revealed in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death- bringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and women, such as the daughters of Niobe. Artemis was sometimes represented in Classical art with the crown of the crescent moon, such as also found on Luna and others. On June 7, 2007, a Roman- era bronze sculpture of" Artemis and the Stag" was sold at Sotheby' s auction house in New York state by the Albright- Knox Art Gallery for$ 25. 5 million. Legacy. In astronomy. 105 Artemis, the Artemis( crater), the Artemis Chasma, the Artemis Corona, and the Artemis lunar program have all been named after the goddess. Artemis is the acronym for" Architectures de bolometres pour des Telescopes a grand champ de vue dans le domaine sub- Millimetrique au Sol", a large bolometer camera in the submillimeter range that was installed in 2010 at the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment( APEX), located in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. In taxonomy. The taxonomic genus" Artemia", which entirely comprises | the family Artemiidae, derives from |
Artemis." Artemia" are aquatic crustaceans known as brine shrimp, the best- known species of which," Artemia salina", or Sea Monkeys, was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his" Systema Naturae" in 1758." Artemia" live in salt lakes, and although they are almost never found in an open sea, they do appear along the Aegean coast near Ephesus, where the Temple of Artemis once stood. In Modern Spaceflight. The Artemis program is an ongoing crewed spaceflight program carried out by NASA, U. S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as ESA, with the goal of landing" the first woman and the next man" on the lunar south pole region by 2024. NASA is calling this the Artemis program in honor of Apollo' s twin sister in Greek mythology, the goddess of the Moon.() is a German phrase meaning" Work sets you free" or" Work makes one free". The slogan is known for appearing on the entrance of Auschwitz and other Nazi concentration camps. Origin. The expression comes from the title of an 1873 novel by German philologist Lorenz Diefenbach,, in which gamblers and fraudsters find the path to virtue through labour. The phrase was also used in French() by Auguste Forel, a Swiss entomologist, neuroanatomist and psychiatrist, in his()( 1920). In 1922, the of Vienna, an ethnic nationalist" protective" organization of Germans within Austria, printed membership stamps with the phrase. The phrase is also evocative of the medieval German principle of(" urban air makes you free"), according to which serfs were liberated after being a city resident for one year and one day. Use by the Nazis. The slogan was placed at the entrances to a number of Nazi concentration camps. The slogan' s use was implemented by( SS) officer Theodor Eicke at Dachau concentration camp and then copied by Rudolf Höss at Auschwitz. The slogan can still be seen at several sites, including over the entrance to Auschwitz I where the sign was erected by order of commandant Rudolf Höss. The Auschwitz I sign was made by prisoner- labourers including master blacksmith Jan Liwacz, and features an upside- down" B", which has been interpreted as an act of defiance by the prisoners who made it. An example of ridiculing the falsity of the slogan was a popular saying used among Auschwitz prisoners: In 1933 the first political prisoners were being rounded up for an indefinite period without charges. They were held in a number of places in Germany. The slogan was first used over the gate of a" wild camp" in the city of Oranienburg, which was set up in an abandoned brewery in March 1933( it was later rebuilt in 1936 as Sachsenhausen). It can also be seen at the Dachau, Gross- Rosen, and Theresienstadt camps, as well as at Fort Breendonk in Belgium. At the Monowitz camp( also known as Auschwitz III), the slogan was reportedly placed over the entrance gates. However, Primo Levi describes seeing the words illuminated over a doorway( as distinct from a gate). The slogan appeared at the Flossenbürg camp on the left gate post | at the camp entry. The |
original gate posts survive in another part of the camp, but the slogan sign no longer exists. In 1938 the Austrian political cabaret writer Jura Soyfer and the composer Herbert Zipper, while prisoners at Dachau Concentration Camp, wrote the, or" The Dachau Song". They had spent weeks marching in and out of the camp' s gate to daily forced labour, and considered the motto over the gate an insult. The song repeats the phrase cynically as a" lesson" taught by Dachau. In" The Kingdom of Auschwitz", Otto Friedrich wrote about Rudolf Höss, regarding his decision to display the motto so prominently at the Auschwitz entrance: The signs are prominently displayed, and were seen by all prisoners and staff— all of whom knew, suspected, or quickly learned that prisoners confined there would likely only be freed by death. The signs' psychological impact was tremendous. Thefts of signs. The sign over the Auschwitz I gate was stolen in December 2009 and later recovered by authorities in three pieces. Anders Högström, a Swedish neo- Nazi, and two Polish neo- Nazi men were jailed as a result. The original sign is now in storage at the Auschwitz- Birkenau State Museum and a replica was put over the gate in its place. On 2 November 2014, the sign over the Dachau gate was stolen. It was found on 28 November 2016 under a tarpaulin at a parking lot in Ytre Arna, a settlement north of Bergen, Norway' s second- largest city. Axayacatl(;;; meaning" face of water";– 1481) was the sixth of the of Tenochtitlan and Emperor of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Biography. Early life and background. Axayacatl was a son of the princess Atotoztli II and her cousin, prince Tezozomoc. He was a grandson of the Emperors Moctezuma I and Itzcoatl. He was a descendant of the king Cuauhtototzin. He was a successor of Moctezuma and his brothers were Emperors Tizoc and Ahuitzotl and his sister was the Queen Chalchiuhnenetzin. He was an uncle of the Emperor Cuauhtémoc and father of Emperors Moctezuma II and Cuitláhuac. Rise to power. During his youth, his military prowess gained him the favor influential figures such as Nezahualcoyotl and Tlacaelel I, and thus, upon the death of Moctezuma I in 1469, he was chosen to ascend to the throne, much to the displeasure of his two older brothers, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl. It is also important that the Great Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar, was carved under his leadership. In the year 1475 there was a major earthquake that destroyed many homes in Tenochtitlán. Military actions and death. Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, Axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, Moquihuix, and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy. Axayacatl largely dedicated his twelve- year reign to consolidating his militaristic repute: he led successful campaigns against the neighboring of Tlatelolco in 1473( see Battle of Tlatelolco) and the Matlatzinca of the Toluca Valley in 1474, but was finally defeated by the Tarascans | of Michoacán in 1476. Despite |
some subsequent minor triumphs, Axayacatl' s defeat at the hands of the Tarascans irreversibly marred his image, as it constituted the only major defeat suffered by the Aztecs up to that moment. In spite of his young age, he fell gravely ill in 1480, passing away a mere year later, in 1481, whereupon he was succeeded by his brother Tizoc. Axayacatl the poet. Axayacatl wrote two poems. The first," Ycuic Axayayatzin"( English:" Song of Axayacatl") is a defense against his brothers and critics; the second," Huehue cuicatl"( English:" Song of the Ancients") is a lament written after his defeat in Michoacan. Ahuitzotl(,) was the eighth Aztec ruler, the" Huey Tlatoani" of the city of Tenochtitlan, son of princess Atotoztli II. His name literally means" Water Thorny" and was also applied to the otter. He was responsible for much of the expansion of the Mexica domain, and consolidated the empire' s power after emulating his predecessor. He took power as Emperor in the year 7 Rabbit( 1486), after the death of his predecessor and brother, Tizoc. He had two sons, the kings Chimalpilli II and Cuauhtémoc, and one daughter. Biography. Perhaps the greatest known military leader of pre- Columbian Mesoamerica, Ahuizotl began his reign by suppressing a Huastec rebellion, and then swiftly more than doubled the size of lands under Aztec dominance. He conquered the Mixtec, Zapotec, and other peoples from Pacific Coast of Mexico down to the western part of Guatemala. Ahuizotl also supervised a major rebuilding of Tenochtitlan on a grander scale including the expansion of the Great Pyramid or Templo Mayor in the year 8 Reed( 1487). He presided over the introduction of the great- tailed grackle into the Valley of Mexico, the earliest documented case of human- mediated bird introduction in the Western Hemisphere. Ahuizotl died in the year 10 Rabbit( 1502) and was succeeded by his nephew, Moctezuma II. Ahuizotl took his name from the animal ahuizotl, which the Aztecs considered to be a legendary creature in its own right rather than a mere mythical representation of the king. In January 2021 the INAH proposed moving the statues of Ahuizotl and Itzcóatl, known as the" Indios Verdes," from the" Parque del Mestizaje" in Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City to the Paseo de la Reforma.“ The transfer means a reading of the urban space, recovering the historical discourse that gave rise to the formation of a set of monuments and roundabouts on Paseo de la Reforma, conceived at theendofthe19th century, with the idea of honoring the Reformation, a great transformation that it meant for Mexico, but to recover a historical reading that began precisely by underlining the Mexican splendor and the importance of the pre- Hispanic or Mesoamerican antecedents of our country”, Diego Prieto, director of INAH said. In popular culture. Under the name Teomitl, Ahuitzotl is a primary character in the" Obsidian and Blood" series by Aliette de Bodard, which are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc. In the historical fiction novel," Aztec" by Gary | Jennings, Ahuitzotl is a prominent |
character. Set in the time just before the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, it accounts his construction of the many expansions of Tenochtitlan, and wars of conquest, trade, and proclivities. Albinism is a congenital condition characterized in humans by the partial or complete absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus, and amblyopia. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak– Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells leading to increased susceptibility to infection. Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. It is due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper- containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Unlike humans, other animals have multiple pigments and for these, albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin in particular, in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino, an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid. The term is from the Latin" albus"," white". Signs and symptoms. There are two principal types of albinism: oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and hair, and ocular affecting the eyes only. There are different types of oculocutaneous albinism depending on which gene has undergone mutation. With some there is no pigment at all. The other end of the spectrum of albinism is" a form of albinism called rufous oculocutaneous albinism, which usually affects dark- skinned people". According to the National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation," With ocular albinism, the color of the iris of the eye may vary from blue to green or even brown, and sometimes darkens with age. However, when an optometrist or ophthalmologist examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present." Because individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun' s ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure. The human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate" red eye", due to the red of the retina being visible through the iris. Lack of pigment in the eyes also results in problems with vision, both related and unrelated to photosensitivity. Those with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of the population( but see related disorders below), with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality, although the lack of pigment blocking ultraviolet radiation increases the risk of melanomas( skin cancers) and other problems. Visual problems. Development of the optical system is highly dependent on | the presence of melanin. For |
this reason, the reduction or absence of this pigment in people with albinism may lead to: Eye conditions common in albinism include: The improper development of the retinal pigment epithelium( RPE), which in normal eyes absorbs most of the reflected sunlight, further increases glare due to light scattering within the eye. The resulting sensitivity( photophobia) generally leads to discomfort in bright light, but this can be reduced by the use of sunglasses or brimmed hats. Genetics. Oculocutaneous albinism is generally the result of the biological inheritance of genetically recessive alleles( genes)passedfrombothparentsofanindividualsuchasOCA1andOCA2. A mutation in the human TRP- 1 gene may result in the deregulation of melanocyte tyrosinase enzymes, a change that is hypothesized to promote brown versus black melanin synthesis, resulting in a third oculocutaneous albinism( OCA) genotype,"OCA3". Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body. Some of these are associated with increased risk of skin cancer. The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms( including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non- albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes. An exception to this is ocular albinism, which it is passed on to offspring through X- linked inheritance. Thus, ocular albinism occurs more frequently in males as they have a single X and Y chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are characterized by two X chromosomes. There are two different forms of albinism: a partial lack of the melanin is known as hypomelanism, or hypomelanosis, and the total absence of melanin is known as amelanism or amelanosis. Enzyme.TheenzymedefectresponsibleforOCA1- type albinism is tyrosine 3- monooxygenase( tyrosinase), which synthesizes melanin from the amino acid tyrosine. Evolutionary theories. It is suggested that the early genus" Homo"( humans in the broader sense) started to evolve in East Africa around 3 million years ago. The dramatic phenotypic change from the ape- like" Australopithecus" to early" Homo" is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair– except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head– to allow for more efficient thermoregulation in the early hunter- gatherers. The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early proto- humans would have most likely been non- pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives. A positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin– those who first expressed the eumelanin-producingMC1R allele– which protected them from harmful epithelium- damaging ultraviolet rays. Over time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent. The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more | melanin. The cause of a |
selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due to excess vitamin D formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection. When comparing the prevalence of albinism in Africa to its prevalence in other parts of the world, such as Europe and the United States, the potential evolutionary effects of skin cancer as a selective force due to its effect on these populations may not be insignificant. It would follow, then, that there would be stronger selective forces acting on albino individuals in Africa than on albinos in Europe and the US. In two separate studies in Nigeria, very few people with albinism appear to survive to old age. One study found that 89% of people diagnosed with albinism are between 0 and 30 years of age, while the other found that 77% of albinos were under the age of 20. Diagnosis. Genetic testing can confirm albinism and what variety it is, but offers no medical benefits, except in the case of non- OCA disorders. Such disorders cause other medical problems in conjunction with albinism, and may be treatable. Genetic tests are currently available for parents who want to find out if they are carriers of ty- neg albinism. Diagnosis of albinism involves carefully examining a person' s eyes, skin and hairs. Genealogical analysis can also help. Management. Since there is no cure for albinism, it is managed through lifestyle adjustments. People with albinism need to take care not to get sunburnt and should have regular healthy skin checks by a dermatologist. For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery is possible on the extra- ocular muscles to decrease strabismus. Nystagmus- damping surgery can also be performed, to reduce the" shaking" of the eyes back and forth. The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances. Glasses, low vision aids, large- print materials, and bright angled reading lights can help individuals with albinism. Some people with albinism do well using bifocals( with a strong reading lens), prescription reading glasses, hand- held devices such as magnifiers or monoculars or wearable devices like eSightand Brainport. The condition may lead to abnormal development of the optic nerve and sunlight may damage the retina of the eye as the iris cannot filter out excess light due to a lack of pigmentation. Photophobia may be ameliorated by the use of sunglasses which filter out ultraviolet light. Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light- weight lenses. Some US states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles.( See also NOAH bulletin" Low Vision Aids".) There are a number of national support groups across the globe which | come under the umbrella of |
the World Albinism Alliance. Epidemiology. Albinism affects people of all ethnic backgrounds; its frequency worldwide is estimated to be approximately one in 17, 000. Prevalence of the different forms of albinism varies considerably by population, and is highest overall in people of sub- Saharan African descent. Today, the prevalence of albinism in sub- Saharan Africa is around 1 in 5, 000, while in Europe and the US it' s around 1 in 20, 000 of the European derived population. Rates as high as 1 in 1, 000 have been reported for some populations in Zimbabwe and other parts of Southern Africa. Certain ethnic groups and populations in isolated areas exhibit heightened susceptibility to albinism, presumably due to genetic factors. These include notably the Native American Kuna, Zuni and Hopi nations( respectively of Panama, New Mexico and Arizona); Japan, in which one particular form of albinism is unusually common; and Ukerewe Island, the population of which shows a very high incidence of albinism. Society and culture. In physical terms, humans with albinism commonly have visual problems and need sun protection. Persecution of people with albinism. Humans with albinism often face social and cultural challenges( even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence. It is especially socially stigmatised in many African societies. A study conducted in Nigeria on albino children stated that" they experienced alienation, avoided social interactions and were less emotionally stable. Furthermore, affected individuals were less likely to complete schooling, find employment, and find partners". Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism. In African countries such as Tanzania and Burundi, there has been an unprecedented rise in witchcraft- related killings of people with albinism in recent years, because their body parts are used in potions sold by witch doctors.NumerousauthenticatedincidentshaveoccurredinAfricaduringthe21st century. For example, in Tanzania, in September 2009, three men were convicted of killing a 14- year- old albino boy and severing his legs in order to sell them for witchcraft purposes. Again in Tanzania and Burundi in 2010, the murder and dismemberment of a kidnapped albino child was reported from the courts, as part of a continuing problem. The US- based National Geographic Society estimated that in Tanzania a complete set of albino body parts is worth US$ 75, 000. Another harmful and false belief is that sex with an albinistic woman will cure a man of HIV. This has led, for example in Zimbabwe, to rapes( and subsequent HIV infection). Albinism in popular culture. Famous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor- comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston" Yellowman" Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Hermeto Pascoal, Willie" Piano Red" Perryman, Kalash Criminel; actor- rapper Krondon, and fashion models Connie Chiu, Ryan" La Burnt" Byrne and Shaun Ross. Emperor Seinei of Japan is thought to have been an albino because he was said to have been born with white hair. International Albinism Awareness Day. International Albinism Awareness Day was established after a motion was accepted | on 18 December 2014 by |
the United Nations General Assembly, proclaiming that as of 2015, 13 June would be known as International Albinism Awareness Day. This was followed by a mandate created by the United Nations Human Rights Council that appointed Ms. Ikponwosa Ero, who is from Nigeria, as the very first Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism. Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab(,; born on 11 October 1961) is an Egyptian singer, composer, and actor. He has established himself as an acclaimed recording artist and author in most Mediterranean countries. According to a research by Michael Frishkopf, he has created his style termed as" Mediterranean music", a blend of Western and Egyptian rhythms. By 1992, he became the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern artist to start making high- tech music videos. His 2014 album" Shoft El Ayam" peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard World Albums Charts, making him the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern performer to accomplish such a feat. Early life. Amr Diab was born on 11 October 1961 in Port Said to a middle- class Egyptian Muslim family from the Egyptian country side of Menia Elamh, in Sharqia Governorate, Egypt. Diab graduated with a bachelor' s degree in Music from the Cairo Academy of Arts in 1986. Music career. Diab has released his first album entitled" Ya Tareeq" in 1983. Diab' s second album," Ghanny Men Albak"( 1984), which was the first of a series of records he released with Delta Sound; including" Hala Hala"( 1986)," Khalseen"( 1987), and" Mayyal"( 1988), with the title track becoming one of the top 10 songs in the world at the time. His later releases include" Shawa' na"( 1989)," Matkhafesh"( 1990)," Habibi"( 1991)," Ayyamna"( 1992)," Ya Omrena"( 1993)," Weylomony"( 1994), and" Rag' een"( 1995). In 1996, Diab released his first album with Alam El Phan entitled" Nour El Ain", and he won the world music award for the first time which proved an international success and gained Diab recognition beyond the Arabic- speaking world. Diab recorded four more albums with Alam El Phan, including" Amarain"( 1999). Diab also collaborated with Khaled( on the song" Alby") and with Angela Dimitriou( on the song" Bahebak Aktar"). In the summer of 2004, Diab, having left Alam El Phan, released his first album with Rotana Records," Leily Nehary," which he followed up with the hugely successful" Kammel Kalamak"( 2005), and" El Lilady"( 2007)." Wayah" was released for sale on the internet on 27 June 2009; however, the album was leaked online and was downloaded illegally amid complaints of slow download speed on the official site. Diab' s fans initiated a massive boycott of the sites with the illegal copies. On 18 October 2009, Amr Diab won four 2009 African Music Awards in the following categories: best artist, best album, best vocalist and best song for" Wayah"; Amr Diab had been nominated by the Big Apple Music Awards. In February 2011, Amr Diab released his hit single" Masr Allet"(" Egypt spoke"), followed by the release of his album" Banadeek Taala" in September, produced by Rotana. In | 2012, Diab hosted the first |
Google Hangout in the Middle East during his performance in Dubai. In October 2014, Amr Diab released his album" Shoft El Ayam", which topped his last album" El Leila" and again became the best- selling album in Egypt on iTunes. In July 2015, Amr Diab released a music video for his song" Gamalo" from his album" Shoft El Ayam". In March 2016, he released" Ahla w Ahla", his first album since he left Rotana Music. The album was produced by a record label known as" Nay For Media". His new album" Maadi el Nas" was released in July 2017 with" Nay Records". In October 2018, he released a new album called" Kol Hayaty". In 2019, he released a mini- album," Ana Gheir",andinFebruary2020hereleasedhis35th album," Sahran", which included 16 songs. Musical style. Diab is known as the" father of Mediterranean music". David Cooper and Kevin Dawe refer to his music as" the new breed of Mediterranean music". According to author Michael Frishkopf, Diab has produced a new concept of Mediterranean music, especially with his international hit," Nour El Ain". Moreover, Diab is known as a composer, having composed more than 97 of his own songs. Music videos. Diab is one of the first singers to popularize music videos in the whole MENA region and is the first Egyptian singer to appear in music videos. Film career. Diab' s fame in the music industry has led him to experiment with other forms of media, such as film. Amr played himself in his first film," El Afareet", which was released in 1989. It also starred Madiha Kamel. His second film" Ice Cream in Gleam"(" Ays Krim fi Glym"), in which Diab starred in 1992, was chosen as one of the best five Egyptian musical films by the UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television. The film was featured in the UCLA Film and Television Archive' s new program" Music on the Nile: Fifty Years of Egyptian Musical Films" at James Bridges Theater at UCLA on 6, 8 and 10 April 1999. David Chute of the" Los Angeles Weekly" termed it" observant" and" a big leap". His third movie was released in 1993, and was named" Deahk We La' ab"(" Laughter and Fun"). The film premiered in the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. Amr played alongside international Egyptian movie star Omar Sharif(" Lawrence of Arabia"," Doctor Zhivago") and Yousra. Overall, Diab did not experience the same level of success in film that he had with his music career. Since 1993, Diab has focused on his singing career. Amr Diab in movies. Amr Diab' s songs have been used in several films, including: Egyptian Revolution. During the 2011 uprising, some protesters criticized Diab for staying silent, and for fleeing Egypt for London. A few days after former President Hosni Mubarak stepped down, Amr Diab composed and sang a memorial song," Masr A' let"( Egypt Said), and released it in conjunction with a music video showing pictures of the martyrs who died in the uprising. He initiated a charity campaign" Masry Begad"(" Truly Egyptian"). His online radio station Diab | FM often presents talks and |
discussions about what the Diab FM team can offer to the community as well as applying it practically by being present in different sites across Egypt with a new humanitarian project each week. Personal life. Diab has an elder daughter from his first marriage to Egyptian actress Shereen Reda. In 1994, he was married to Saudi businesswoman Zeina Ashour. They have three children. In 2018, he went on to marry another Egyptian actress, Dina El Sherbiny, after his relationship with Ashour ended. It is unknown whether they were separated or divorced. However, Diab and El Sherbiny separated in late 2020. Awards. He has been awarded the World Music Award for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist four times: 1996 for album" Nour El Ain", 2001 for album" Akter Wahed", 2007 for album" El Lillady" and 2013 for" El Leila" album. He has also won( Best Egyptian Artist, Best Male Arab Artist and World' s Best Arab Male Artist Voted Online) at the World Music Awards 2014. Amr Diab is the only Middle Eastern artist to have received 7 World Music Awards. Five of his albums reached the top 10 of" Billboard"' s World Albums chart, with Shoft El Ayam reaching No. 1 in 2014, the first for an Arabic performer. Alongside that accomplishment, two of his albums( 2014' s Shoft El Ayam and 2016' s Ahla W Ahla) both peaked at 29 and 14 respectively on Billboard' s Heatseekers charts. On 28 September 2016, Diab announced that he achieved a Guinness World Records title for" Most World Music Awards for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist". Program" Al- helm". A program produced by Amr Afifi, consisting of 12 parts aired on Rotana Music, Rotana Cinema and Egyptian Channel 1 station. The program detailed the biography of Diab and was scheduled to be launched simultaneously with the release of Amr Diab' s new album, but the album' s release was postponed to a later date. External links. Belgian hip hop music has a few rappers stemming from Africa and Italy. Belgium, like France, controlled African countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo( formerly Zaire), Rwanda,andBurundiuntiltheearly1960s. Like in France, immigrants from these countries started to study and live in Belgium. The Belgian hiphopscenestartedinthelate1980s with a U. S.- based techno/ hip hop group called Technotronic. In the group was an emcee named Ya Kid K from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who later led the group into international fame with hits like" Pump up the Jam" and" Shake That Body". In 1990, she also joined the group Hi- Tek 3 who were heard on"". However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was Benny B, who had a very mainstream and commercial sound. According to the European Music Office' s report on" Music in Europe", this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene. Also in thelate1980s in the Walloon south of the country, French speaking/ rapping Starflam was the biggest name in hip hop. In the Flemish north Dutch speaking/ rapping | groups like' t Hof van |
Commerce, Krapoel In Axe, St Andries MC' s, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional dialects. Today, the Belgian hip hop scene is growing. Rappers like Coely, Roméo Elvis and Damso are achieving commercial success in their country and abroad. Other contemporary rappers/ formations are Stikstof, Woodie Smalls, L' Or Du Commun and Isha. To find out more about today' s Belgian hip hop scene, check out The Belgian Hip Hop Channel. Dutch hip hop or Nederhop(" Netherhop"), is hip hop/ rap music created by Dutch speaking musicians in the Netherlands and Flanders( Belgium). Although the first Dutch speaking rappers in Europe typically worked in English, this began to change after 1986, at first in an underground scene. The Osdorp Posse were the first to record and release Dutch language hip hop singles, from around 1990, but it took until 1995 for a Dutch language rap single to achieve a main chart top ten hit:" Spraakwater" by Extince. After rapper Def Rhymz achieved the first Dutch main chart top- 1 hits with" Doekoe"( Sranan Tongo for' money'; 1999), and" Schudden"(" Shake( it)"/" Shaking"; 2001), Dutchlanguage hip hop has grown intoastapleofmainstreampopmusicintheNetherlandsandFlandersinthe21st century. In 2021, Netherlands music streaming charts are dominated by Dutch rap music artists like Boef, Broederliefde, Frenna, Snelle, and Sevn Alias. History.1980s. Between 1980 and 1985 a few Dutch Hip Hop records had already been released, but in 1986 Dutch rap duo MC Miker G& amp; DJ Sven had a top 10 hit in at least ten countries, across Europe with their" Holiday Rap", which sampled Madonna' s" Holiday", and caused notable financial disputes, four years ahead of Vanilla Ice' s similar sampling troubles with Ice Ice Baby. That same year Dutch rapper Extince released his first record:" Rap Around The Clock"; in 1987 he scored a modest hit with" The Milkshake Rap". However,inthelate1980s Nederhop(" Netherhop") emerged, as artists began to rap in Dutch, such as Def Rhymz, Blonnie B, Alex and the CityCrew, Dynamic Rockers, and the Osdorp Posse. Though there is disagreement about who were the first, the pioneers' work was at first only experimental, except for the Osdorp Posse, a group from Osdorp, a" hood" in Amsterdam, who were first to" release" tracks in Dutch, for instance the single" Moordenaar"(" Murderer") in 1989, marking a beginning milestone of Nederhop. After their frontman, rapper Def P, began by literally translating English raps into Dutch, he started writing original work that still contained peculiar idioms that resulted from his earlier literal rewordings. The result was described by rapper Ali B as highly visual and captivating. Once Extince switched to Dutch in 1994, having rapped in English since 1984, both he and Osdorp Posse became highly influential inNederhopinthe1990s and beyond. Notable inthelate1980s were All Star Fresh of King Bee topping charts with:" Back by Dope Demand" in early 1990 and Rudeboy of Urban Dance Squad who, at the time, were arguably more widely known in New York City than in the Netherlands. DJ and Producer All Star Fresh turned professional as early as 1979. After winning the Dutch Mixing Championships( | DMC) in 1988, he was |
invited for The World Mix Championships in the London Royal Hall and won third place among strong competition. He was invited by Dave Funkenklein to enter the lion' s den in New York. He made history in the Big Apple of Hiphop by being the first non- American to fly into the finals of The World Supremacy Battle of DJs. He gained the highly respected second place of this prestigious DJ contest). The impression that he made that year, resulted in many invitations to perform with world known artists like Public Enemy, Stetsasonic, Ice T and Ultra Magnetic MCs. All Star Fresh. As performer and producer he is better known as KING BEE. With his second floor filler Back By Dope Demand he achieved one of his biggest hiphop hits. In the Netherlands it resulted in a Top 3 position, and best Dance Product by The Edison Awards in the Netherlands.( The Edison Awards is an award by the Dutch Music Industry.) This also meant that with this title, he was the first black artist to win this award in the Netherlands. After that he appeared as supporting act for Madonnas show in the Netherlands. All Star Fresh kept entering the dance floors. The last titles mentioned were also popular worldwide, selling over 2. 4 million copies. He didn' t only work within projects like King Bee or Capella, but also was featuring well known production teams like Snap( I Got the Power). This teamwork resulted in the single Lets Get Busy( Clubland Quarts feat Snap King Bee). This record ended up No. 1 in the Billboard Dance Charts( United States). Other productions in this line were Deepzone" It' s Gonna Be All right", Kellee- my love, Ty Holden- you' re my Inspiration and His Royal Freshness- They don' t understand.1990s. Urban Dance Squad was a Dutch rap rock band formed after a jam- session at a festival in Utrecht in 1986, including rapper/ vocalist Rudeboy Remington and DJ DNA( DoNotAsk). The band' s music is described as a blend of genres, including hard rock, funk, soul, hip hop, reggae, jazz and ska and is compared with Living Colour, Red Hot Chili Peppers and Fishbone. They are still known for their hit single" Deeper Shade of Soul", which charted at number 21 in the United States on Billboard Hot 100. In 1992, Osdorp Posse released their debut album" Osdorp Stijl", making the first- ever Dutch language hip hop album. They started out translating N. W. A songs to Dutch, though later wrote their own rhymes in Dutch. Their beats, created by producer Seda on Amiga 500 with Protracker, have a familiar heavy sound and are similar to U. S. old- school hip hop. Frontman Def- P describes it as hardcore rap. After the Osdorp Posse' s first demo cassette, they toured around the Netherlands. In Deventer they found their first following, and the first Dutch language hip hop scene. The first hip hop groups after Osdorp Posse were Zuid- Oost Posse and Maasstraat Mannen. These groups performed all across the Netherlands. Maasstraat | became famous as the first |
group combining reggae with Dutch lyrics, inspiring acts like Postmen, for example. Rapper Extince, in 1995, took Dutch- language Nederhop to a new commercial level and audience. With two of his singles:" Spraakwater" and" Kaal of Kammen" becoming major hits in the mid-1990s, Extince was the first Dutch- language rapper to make the mainstream pop charts in the country." Spraakwater" marked nothing short of a watershed, being not only the first Dutch rap to break in to the main Dutch Top 40" at all", but also making it into the top- 10– for mainstream radio listeners practically out of nowhere. There were then two styles dominating the Dutch hip hop landscape: Extince combined easy flows and funky tunes into catchy songs full of references and metaphoric imagery, while hardcore performers like Westklan and Osdorp Posse marked their niche with more angry rhymes and harsh beats. A mix of these two styles gave birth to the Spookrijders, a three- man hip- hop group founded in 1996. With MCs Stefan and Clyde rapping about their personal lives and life in Amsterdam as a black man, the Spookrijders even gained respect from non- hip- hop musicians and fans. Most people admired the work of producer/ DJ Cliff' the Jazz' Nille after releasing Spookrijders debut album" De Echte Shit"(" The Real Shit"). In 1999, Spookrijders hit the charts twice with the hits" Klokkenluiders" and" Ik ben de man." Both these songs appeared on the second album," Klokkenluiders van Amsterdam". After some personal arguments among the three crewmembers, Spookrijders split up in 2003, after releasing a third and final album" Hey... Spookies!!" In 1999 The Postmen released their rap/ reggae mix" De Bom"(" The Bom"), a top three hit- single. They were active across Europe from 1998– 2003.2000s. From 2000 onward, Dutch language hiphop grew considerably, both in number of artists, as well as in popularity, both underground and mainstream.Intheearly2000s the MC fronted band Relax got much airplay, mainly impressing with their albums. Since 2002, they released four albums, the first three of which made the Dutch album top 40. Def Rhymz, Spookrijders& amp; Brainpower helped develop the art. Def Rhymz& amp; Brainpower dropped multiple hit records. Described by Ali B. as".. a white library boy with glasses..", Brainpower made Dutch rapping accessible to a much greater demographic. With at least eight Top 100 album/ EP projects Brainpower is one of the most successful Dutch MC' s ever and remains a prolific bilingual lyricist( in Dutch& amp; in English) to this day.Fromthelate1990s, a flourishing underground scene in provincial town Zwolle included rappers Blaxtar, Jawat!, and Kubus, and centered around the group Opgezwolle. Formed in 1998 by rappers Sticky Steez and Phreaco Rico, together with DJ Delic, the band Opgezwolle( punning their town' s name into" Swollen"), was a group making raw hiphop. They released three successful albums, in 2001, 2003, and 2006." Eigen Wereld"(" Own World"), from 2006, achieved the highest notation of any Dutch- language rap album until then in the Dutch Album Top 100, reaching top 4. In the same year, rapper Typhoon, also from | Zwolle, and inspired by aforementioned |
peer Blaxtar, released his philosophical debut album" Tussen Licht en Lucht"(" Between Light and Air"). The successes of the Zwolle rappers crop boosted other Dutch artists' confidence and inspired them to be proud of their origins– whether local, foreign, or mixed. Rapper Typhoon pointed out, that band names of trailblazers like' Osdorp Posse' and' Opgezwolle' refer to their origins( Amsterdam Osdorp and Zwolle) for an important reason, and tied this to the shift from rapping in English to Dutch, making it more relatable and resonant with the audience. Instead of hard and angry,some2000s releases stood out fragile and sensitive, for instance the single" Je moest waarschijnlijk gaan"(" I Guess You Had to Go"; 2001) by Brainpower, mourned the loss of his best friend; and the raps of Typhoon are called some of the most poetic. Opgezwolle split up in 2007, but members Rico& amp; Sticks formed a new group: Fakkelbrigade, with Typhoon,Mick2dope Murray, MC James and beatmaker A. R. T. In 2009, they released the critically acclaimed album" Colucci Era". From 2003 through 2006, Lange Frans& amp; Baas B had four top- three hits in the Dutch Top 40, beside three more listings." Zinloos", a sad commentary on senseless violence(" Zinloos Geweld"), and their patriotic yet introspective" Het Land van.."(" The Land of..") gave the duo two number- 1 hits, in 2004 and 2005 respectively. In the mid-2000s Cilvaringz, Ali B. and Raymzter were also commercially successful. Ali B featured on other artists' tracks, most significantly with Marco Borsato on the song" Wat zou je doen?" for the charity War Child. He first achieved solo success with" Ik ben je zat", featuring Brace, in 2003. Together with music artist Akon, and Ali' s cousin Yes- R, Ali B made an internationally successful remix of Akon' s track" Ghetto", including additional Dutch lyrics. Yes- R had six Dutch Top 40 hits from 2006– 2012, including his debut single. Ali B. has sofar had fourteen Top 40 hit singles since 2003, including several top three listings. In 2005, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig(" Kids These Days") were successful with" Watskeburt?!"(" Wuzhappenin?!"). Rapper Jawat won the" Grote Prijs van Nederland" 2006. Another Dutch hip- hop duo are Pete Philly and Perquisite who are already well known in the Netherlands, Germany, and in Japan. A famous Dutch rapper outside the Netherlands is Salah Edin. His album Nederlands Grootste Nachtmerrie( Biggest Nightmare of the Netherlands) won Best Album Award in 2007 and was fully produced by Dr. Dre' s right- hand man Focus... He also shot three of the most expensive music videos in the history of Dutch Hip Hop, and through a management deal with Cilvaringz, performed in 34 countries worldwide.2010s. The year 2010 is considered an important year for Dutch hip- hop, with many albums and mixtapes released from the biggest Dutch rappers. Nederhop is growing fast, and so are recent Nederhop blogs like Nederhopofficial. nl and Puna. nl. Also Mc Battles are having a large amount of popularity. Social acceptance of rap/ hip hop in the Netherlands was perhaps epitomized, when artist Typhoon performed for | the Dutch royal family twice– |
both in 2013 and in 2016. In 2015, a self- titled" New Wave" generation of' social media'( em) powered artists broke through with their eponymous" New Wave" album, as a temporary collaboration, including,,, Lil' Kleine, Ronnie Flex, and. Since 2014, rappers Broederliefde released no less than seven albums, with the" worst one" topping at 13 in the charts— their debut reached nr. 3, and their last five albums were consecutive top-2s, with three of them topping the chart. Their third album," Hard Work Pays Off( II)"( 2016), broke an all- time record by staying at nr. 1 for 14 weeks, beating a 2003 12- week record, held by Dutch A- list singer Frans Bauer. Nine of their singles also charted in the singles Top 40. In 2016, album" WOP!" by Lil' Kleine was the first hip- hop album to reach number 1 on the Album Top 100. In the same year, Ali B' s third album," Een klein beetje geluk"(" ALittle Bit of Happiness"), proved his best yet, reaching number 7. Starting 2016, rapper Sevn Alias released five consecutive top- 10 albums, with his second reaching nr. 1, and the last three consistently reaching top- 2 positions. He is highly productive, and is also enjoying extensive success with singles, collaborations, and other track releases. Conflicts. The Dutch hip- hop scene also saw many conflicts between rappers, followed by diss tracks. The following were among the biggest Dutch feuds in hip- hop: Osdorp Posse vs. Extince, BrainPower vs. Extince, T. H. C vs. Negativ, Kempi vs. Nino, Yukkie B vs. Negativ, T. H. C. vs. Lexxxus, Baas B vs. Kimo, Kempi vs. Mini, Kempi vs. Bloedserieus, Heist Rockah vs. Negativ, and Regga vs. Lexxxus. The feud between T. H. C. and Lexxxus resulted in a fistfight on a hip- hop event, when T. H. C. frontman Rocks got into an argument with Lexxxus and then started the fistfight. Genres in Dutch hip hop. Gangsta. Dutch gangsta hip hop is currently a large scene together with underground hip- hop. Among the most notable groups are THC, Heinek' n, Keizer, Kempi, Steen, Hef, Crooks, Adonis and Negativ. The rhythms are influenced by the American rap scene, and the lyrics are often about crime, drugs, money, women and other criminal things. Often coming from Dutch ghettos, lyrics often include themes occurring in these areas. Dutch gangsta hip hop mostly comes from the five largest cities: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Eindhoven. Commercial success. The commercial success of Dutch hip hop is largely made by Brainpower, Yes- R, Ali B, Lange Frans& amp; Baas B and Extince. For a large part of the Dutch hip hop community Yes- R, Ali B and Lange Frans& amp; Baas B are sometimes considered fake because they do a lot of work for children TV stations. Brainpower and Extince however both enjoy a great respect for bringing up hip hop in their native Dutch. Other commercial rappers are De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, and one of the more popular artists in the Netherlands, Partysquad or The Partysquad. They are a 2- | man group, having had success |
with hits such as" Stuk"( Broken), and" Dat is Die Shit"( That' s the shit), with other popular songs in the background such as" Non Stop" ft. Brainpower," We Gaan Los"( we' re going crazy{ because of highness or drunkenness}) with Kempi, and" Wat Wil Je Doen"( What do you want to do?). Dutch oldskool. The Dutch oldskool exists out of three primary artists, LTH, Osdorp Posse, Extince, Sugacane and Duvelduvel. Osdorp Posse make to what they themselves call hardcore rap and use beats that have much in common with N. W. A. Their lyrics are about racism, prostitution( not always negatively), police and other social subjects. Extince uses very different, more funky kind of beats than Osdorp Posse and uses a completely different rapstyle. Duvelduvel is known as a conceptual hip hop group. Notable artists. Notable Dutch hip hop artists, listed by locality include: Angela Anaïs Juana Antolina Rosa Edelmira Nin y Culmell( February 21, 1903– January 14, 1977)(,), was a French- Cuban- American diarist, essayist, novelist and writer of short stories and erotica. Born to Cuban parents in France, Nin was the daughter of the composer Joaquín Nin and the classically trained singer Rosa Culmell. Nin spent her early years in Spain and Cuba, about sixteen years in Paris( 1924– 1940), and the remaining half of her life in the United States, where she became an established author. Nin wrote journals prolifically from age eleven until her death. Her journals, many of which were published during her lifetime, detail her private thoughts and personal relationships. Her journals also describe her marriages to Hugh Parker Guiler and Rupert Pole, in addition to her numerous affairs, including those with psychoanalyst Otto Rank and writer Henry Miller, both of whom profoundly influenced Nin and her writing. In addition to her journals, Nin wrote several novels, critical studies, essays, short stories, and volumes of erotica. Much of her work, including the collections of erotica" Delta of Venus" and" Little Birds", was published posthumously amid renewed critical interest in her life and work. Nin spent her later life in Los Angeles, California, where she died of cervical cancer in 1977. Early life. Anaïs Nin was born in Neuilly, France, to Joaquín Nin, a Cuban pianist and composer of Catalan descent, and Rosa Culmell, a classically trained Cuban singer of French descent. Her father' s grandfather had fled France during the Revolution, going first to Saint- Domingue, then New Orleans, and finally to Cuba where he helped build that country' s first railway. Nin was raised a Roman Catholic but left the church when she was 16 years old. She spent her childhood and early life in Europe. Her parents separated when she was two; her mother then moved Anaïs and her two brothers, Thorvald Nin and Joaquín Nin- Culmell, to Barcelona, and then to New York City, where she attended high school. Nin would drop out of high school in 1919 at age sixteen, and according to her diaries," Volume One, 1931– 1934", later began working as an artist' s model. After being in the | United States for several years, |
Nin had forgotten how to speak Spanish, but retained her French and became fluent in English. On March 3, 1923, in Havana, Cuba, Nin married her first husband, Hugh Parker Guiler( 1898– 1985), a banker and artist, later known as" Ian Hugo"whenhebecameamakerofexperimentalfilmsinthelate1940s. The couple moved to Paris the following year, where Guiler pursued his banking career and Nin began to pursue her interest in writing; in her diaries she also mentions having trained as a flamenco dancer in Paris in the mid- to-late1920s with Francisco Miralles Arnau. Her first published work was a critical 1932 evaluation of D. H. Lawrence called"", which she wrote in sixteen days. Nin became profoundly interested in psychoanalysis and would study it extensively, first with René Allendy in 1932 and then with Otto Rank. Both men eventually became her lovers, as she recounts in her" Journal". On her second visit to Rank, Nin reflects on her desire to be reborn as a woman and artist. Rank, she observes, helped her move back and forth between what she could verbalize in her journals and what remained unarticulated. She discovered the quality and depth of her feelings in the wordless transitions between what she could say and what she could not say." As he talked, I thought of my difficulties with writing, my struggles to articulate feelings not easily expressed. Of my struggles to find a language for intuition, feeling, instincts which are, in themselves, elusive, subtle, and wordless." In the late summer of 1939, when residents from overseas were urged to leave France due to the approaching war, Nin left Paris and returned to New York City with her husband( Guiler, who was, according to his own wishes, edited out of the diaries published during Nin' s lifetime; his role in her life is therefore difficult to gauge). During the war, Nin sent her books to Frances Steloff of the Gotham Book Mart in New York for safekeeping. In New York, Anaïs rejoined Otto Rank, who had previously moved there, and moved into his apartment. She actually began to act as a psychoanalyst herself, seeing patients in the room next to Rank' s. She quit after several months, however, stating:" I found that I wasn' t good because I wasn' t objective. I was haunted by my patients. I wanted to intercede." It was in New York that she met the Japanese- American modernist photographer Soichi Sunami, who went on to photograph her for many of her books. Literary career. Journals. Nin' s most studied works are her diaries or journals, which she began writing in her adolescence. The published journals, which span several decades from 1933 onward, provide a deeply explorative insight into her personal life and relationships. Nin was acquainted, often quite intimately, with a number of prominent authors, artists, psychoanalysts, and other figures, and wrote of them often, especially Otto Rank. Moreover, as a female author describing a primarily masculine constellation of celebrities, Nin' s journals have acquired importance as a counterbalancing perspective. In the third volume of her unexpurgated journal," Incest", she wrote about | her father candidly and graphically( |
207– 15), detailing her adult sexual relationship with him. Previously unpublished works are coming to light in" A Café in Space, the Anaïs Nin Literary Journal", which includes" Anaïs Nin and Joaquín Nin y Castellanos: Prelude to a Symphony— Letters between a father and daughter". So far sixteen volumes of her journals have been published. All but the last five of her adult journals are in expurgated form. Erotic writings. Nin is hailed by many critics as one of the finest writers of female erotica. She was one of the first women known to explore fully the realm of erotic writing, and certainly the first prominent woman in the modern West known to write erotica. Before her, erotica acknowledged to be written by women was rare, with a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Kate Chopin. Nin often cited authors Djuna Barnes and D. H. Lawrence as inspirations, and she states in" Volume One" of her diaries that she drew inspiration from Marcel Proust, André Gide, Jean Cocteau, Paul Valéry, and Arthur Rimbaud. According to" Volume One" of her diaries," 1931– 1934", published in 1966, Nin first came across erotica when she returned to Paris with her husband, mother and two brothers in her late teens. They rented the apartment of an American man who was away for the summer, and Nin came across a number of French paperbacks:" One by one, I read these books, which were completely new to me. I had never read erotic literature in America... They overwhelmed me. I was innocent before I read them, but by the time I had read them all, there was nothing I did not know about sexual exploits... I had my degree in erotic lore." Faced with a desperate need for money, Nin, HenryMillerandsomeoftheirfriendsbeganinthe1940s to write erotic and pornographic narratives for an anonymous" collector" for a dollar a page, somewhat as a joke.( It is not clear whether Miller actually wrote these stories or merely allowed his name to be used.) Nin considered the characters in her erotica to be extreme caricatures and never intended the work to be published,butchangedhermindintheearly1970s and allowed them to be published as" Delta of Venus" and" Little Birds". In 2016, a previously- undiscovered collection of erotica," Auletris", was published for the first time. Nin was a friend, and in some cases lover, of many literary figures, including Miller, John Steinbeck, Antonin Artaud, Edmund Wilson, Gore Vidal, James Agee, James Leo Herlihy, and Lawrence Durrell. Her passionate love affair and friendship with Miller strongly influenced her both sexually and as an author. Claims that Nin was bisexual were given added circulation by the 1990 Philip Kaufman film" Henry& amp; June" about Miller and his second wife June Miller. The first unexpurgated portion of Nin' s journal to be published," Henry and June", makes it clear that Nin was stirred by June to the point of saying( paraphrasing)," I have become June," though it is unclear whether she consummated her feelings for her sexually. To both Anaïs and Henry, June was a femme fatale— irresistible, cunning, | erotic. Nin gave June money, |
jewelry, clothes, often leaving herself without money. Novels and other publications. In addition to her journals and collections of erotica, Nin wrote several novels, which were frequently associated by critics with surrealism. Her first book of fiction," House of Incest"( 1936), contains heavily veiled allusions to a brief sexual relationship Nin had with her father in 1933: While visiting her estranged father in France, the then- thirty- year- old Nin had a brief incestuous sexual relationship with him. In 1944, she published a collection of short stories titled" Under a Glass Bell", which were reviewed by Edmund Wilson. Nin was also the author of several works of non- fiction: Her first publication, written during her years studying psychoanalysis, was""( 1932), an assessment of the works of D. H. Lawrence. In 1968, she published" The Novel of the Future", which elaborated on her approach to writing and the writing process. Personal life. According to her diaries," Vol. 1, 1931– 1934", Nin shared a bohemian lifestyle with Henry Miller during her time in Paris.HerhusbandGuilerisnotmentionedanywhereinthepublishededitionofthe1930s parts of her diary( Vol. 1– 2) although the opening of Vol. 1 makes it clear that she is married, and the introduction suggests her husband refused to be included in the published diaries. The diaries edited by her second husband, after her death, tell that her union with Miller was very passionate and physical, and that she believed that it was a pregnancy by him that she aborted in 1934. In 1947, at the age of 44, she met former actor Rupert Pole in a Manhattan elevator on her way to a party. The two ended up dating and traveled to California together; Pole was sixteen years her junior. On March 17, 1955, while still married to Guiler, she married Pole at Quartzsite, Arizona, returning with him to live in California. Guiler remained in New York City and was unaware of Nin' s second marriage until after her death in 1977, though biographer Deirdre Bair alleges that Guiler knew what was happening while Nin was in California, but consciously" chose not to know". Nin referred to her simultaneous marriages as her" bicoastal trapeze". According to Deidre Bair: In 1966, Nin had her marriage with Pole annulled, due to the legal issues arising from both Guiler and Pole trying to claim her as a dependent on their federal tax returns. Though the marriage was annulled, Nin and Pole continued to live together as if they were married, up until her death in 1977. According to Barbara Kraft, prior to her death Anaïs had written to Hugh Guiler asking for his forgiveness. He responded by writing how meaningful his life had been because of her. After Guiler' s death in 1985, the unexpurgated versions of her journals were commissioned by Pole. Six volumes have appeared(" Henry and June",','," Nearer the Moon",', and'). Pole arranged for Guiler' s ashes to be scattered in the same area where Anaïs' s ashes were scattered, a place called Mermaid Cove off the Pacific coast. Pole died in July 2006. Nin once worked at Lawrence R. | Maxwell Books, located at 45 |
Christopher Street in New York City. In addition to her work as a writer, Nin appeared in the Kenneth Anger film" Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome"( 1954) as Astarte; in the Maya Deren film" Ritual in Transfigured Time"( 1946); and in" Bells of Atlantis"( 1952), a film directed by Guiler under the name" Ian Hugo" with a soundtrack of electronic music by Louis and Bebe Barron. In her later life, Nin worked as a tutor at the International College in Los Angeles. Death. Nin was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1974. She battled the cancer for several years as it metastasized, and underwent numerous surgeries, radiation, and chemotherapy. Nin died of the cancer at Cedars- Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California on January 14, 1977. Her body was cremated, and her ashes were scattered over Santa Monica Bay in Mermaid Cove. Her first husband, Hugh Guiler, died in 1985, and his ashes were scattered in the cove as well. Rupert Pole was named Nin' s literary executor, and he arranged to have new, unexpurgated editions of Nin' s books and diaries published between 1985 and his death in 2006. Large portions of the diaries are still available only in the expurgated form. The originals are located in the UCLA Library. Legacy.Theexplosionofthefeministmovementinthe1960s gave feminist perspectives on Nin' s writings of the past twenty years, which made Nin a popular lecturer at various universities; contrarily, Nin disassociated herself from the political activism of the movement. In 1973, prior to her death, Nin received an honorary doctorate from the Philadelphia College of Art. She was also elected to the United States National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1974, and in 1976 was presented with a" Los Angeles Times" Woman of the Year award. Philip Kaufman directed the 1990 film" Henry& amp; June" based on Nin' s diaries published as" Henry and June: From the Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin". She was portrayed in the film by actress Maria de Medeiros. Nin' s work directly inspired Madonna when writing the text of her iconic photo book" Sex" in 1992. In February 2008, poet Steven Reigns organized" Anaïs Nin at 105" at the Hammer Museum in Westwood, Los Angeles. Reigns said:" Nin bonded and formed very deep friendships with women and men decades younger than her. Some of them are still living in Los Angeles and I thought it' d be wonderful to have them share their experiences with[ Nin]." Bebe Barron, electronic music pioneer and longtime friend of Nin, made her last public appearance at this event. Reigns also published an essay refuting Bern Porter' s claims of a sexual relationship with Nininthe1930s. Cuban- American writer Daína Chaviano paid homage to Anaïs Nin and Henry Miller in her novel" Gata encerrada"( 2001), where both characters are portraited as disembodied spirits whose previous lives they shared with Melisa, the main character— and presumably Chaviano' s alter ego--, a young Cuban obsessed with Anaïs Nin. The Cuban poet and novelist Wendy Guerra, long fascinated with Nin' s life and works, published a fictional diary in Nin' | s voice," Posar desnuda en |
la Habana"(" Posing Nude in Havana") in 2012. She explained that"[ Nin' s] Cuban Diary has very few pages and my delirium was always to write an apocryphal novel; literary conjecture about what might have happened". On September 27, 2013, screenwriter and author Kim Krizan published an article in" The Huffington Post" revealing she had found a previously unpublished love letter written by Gore Vidal to Nin. This letter contradicts Gore Vidal' s previous characterization of his relationship with Nin, showing that Vidal did have feelings for Nin that he later heavily disavowed in his autobiography," Palimpsest". Krizan did this research in the run up to the release of the fifth volume of Anaïs Nin' s uncensored diary," Mirages", for which Krizan provided the foreword. In 2019, Kim Krizan published" Spy in the House of Anaïs Nin", an examination of long- buried letters, papers, and original manuscripts Krizan found while doing archival work in Nin' s Los Angeles home. AIM( AOL Instant Messenger) was an instant messaging and presence computer program created by AOL, which used the proprietary OSCAR instant messaging protocol and the TOC protocol to allow registered users to communicate in real time.AIMwaspopularbythelate1990s, in North America, and was the leading instant messaging application in that region into the following decade. Teens and college students were known to use the messenger' s away message feature to keep in touch with friends, often frequently changing their away message throughout a day or leaving a message up with one' s computer left on to inform buddies of their ongoings, location, parties, thoughts, or jokes. AIM'spopularitydeclinedasAOLsubscribersstarteddecreasingandsteeplytowardsthe2010s, as Gmail' s Google Talk, SMS, and Internet social networks, like Facebook gained popularity. Its fall has often been compared with other once- popular Internet services, such as Myspace. In June 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications. In June 2017, Verizon combined AOL and Yahoo into its subsidiary Oath Inc.( now called Yahoo). The company discontinued AIM as a service on December 15, 2017. History. In May 1997, AIM was released unceremoniously as a stand- alone download for Microsoft Windows. AIM was an outgrowth of" online messages" in the original platform written in PL/ 1 on a Stratus computer by Dave Brown. At one time, the software had the largest share of the instant messaging market in North America, especially in the United States( with 52% of the total reported). This does not include other instant messaging software related to or developed by AOL, such as ICQ and iChat. During its heyday, its main competitors were ICQ( although AOL acquired ICQ in 1998), Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger. AOL particularly had a rivalry or" chat war" with PowWow and Microsoft, starting in 1999. There were several attempts from Microsoft to simultaneously log into their own and AIM' s protocol servers. AOL was not happy about this and started blocking MSN Messenger from being able to access AIM. This led to efforts by many companies to challenge the AOL and Time Warner merger on the grounds of antitrust behaviour, leading to the formation of the OpenNet Coalition. Official | mobile versions of AIM appeared |
as early as 2001 on Palm OS through the AOL application. Third- party applications allowed it to be used in 2002 for the Sidekick. A version for Symbian OS was announced in 2003 and others for BlackBerry and Windows MobileAfter 2012, stand- alone official AIM client software includes advertisements and was available for Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Classic Mac OS, macOS, Android, iOS, BlackBerry OS. Usage decline and product sunset. Around 2011, AIM started to lose popularity rapidly, partly due to the quick rise of Gmail and its built- in real- time Google Chat instant messenger integration in 2011 and because many people migrated to SMS or iMessages text messaging and later, social networking websites and apps for instant messaging, in particular, Facebook Messenger, which was released as a standalone application the same year. AOL made a partnership to integrate AIM messaging in Google Talk, and had a feature for AIM users to send SMS messages directly from AIM to any number, as well as for SMS users to send an IM to any AIM user. As of June 2011, one source reported AOL Instant Messenger market share had collapsed to 0. 73%. However, this number only reflected installed IM applications, and not active users. The engineers responsible for AIM claimed that they were unable to convince AOL management that free was the future. On March 3, 2012, AOL ended employment of AIM' s development staff while leaving it active and with help support still provided. On October 6, 2017, it was announced that the AIM service would be discontinued on December 15; however, a non- profit development team known as Wildman Productions started up a server for older versions of AOL Instant Messenger, known as AIM Phoenix. The" AIM Man". The AIM mascot was designed by JoRoan Lazaro and was implemented in the first release in 1997. This was a yellow stickman- like figure, often called the" Running Man". The mascot appeared on all AIM logos and most wordmarks, and always appeared at the top of the buddy list. AIM'spopularityinthelate1990sandthe2000s led to the" Running Man" becoming a familiar brand on the Internet. After over 14 years, the iconic logo disappeared as part of the AIM rebranding in 2011. However, in August 2013, the" Running Man" returned. In 2014, a" Complex" editor called it a" symbol of America". In April 2015, the Running Man was officially featured in the Virgin London Marathon, dressed by a person for the AOL- partnered Free The Children charity. Protocol. The standard protocol that AIM clients used to communicate is called Open System for CommunicAtion in Realtime( OSCAR). Most AOL- produced versions of AIM and popular third party AIM clients use this protocol. However, AOL also created a simpler protocol called TOC that lacks many of OSCAR' s features, but was sometimes used for clients that only require basic chat functionality. The TOC/TOC2 protocol specifications were made available by AOL, while OSCAR is a closed protocol that third parties had to reverse- engineer. In January 2008, AOL introduced experimental Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol( XMPP) support for | AIM, allowing AIM users to |
communicate using the standardized, open- source XMPP. However, in March 2008, this service was discontinued. In May 2011, AOL started offering limited XMPP support. On March 1, 2017, AOL announced( via XMPP- login- time messages) that the AOL XMPP gateway would be desupported, effective March 28, 2017. Privacy. For privacy regulations, AIM had strict age restrictions. AIM accounts are available only for people over the age of 13; children younger than that were not permitted access to AIM. Under the AIM Privacy Policy, AOL had no rights to read or monitor any private communications between users. The profile of the user had no privacy. In November 2002, AOL targeted the corporate industry with Enterprise AIM Services( EAS), a higher security version of AIM. If public content was accessed, it could be used for online, print or broadcast advertising, etc. This was outlined in the policy and terms of service:"... you grant AOL, its parent, affiliates, subsidiaries, assigns, agents and licensees the irrevocable, perpetual, worldwide right to reproduce, display, perform, distribute, adapt and promote this Content in any medium". This allowed anything users posted to be used without a separate request for permission. AIM' s security was called into question. AOL stated that it had taken great pains to ensure that personal information will not be accessed by unauthorized members, but that it cannot guarantee that it will not happen. AIM was different from other clients, such as Yahoo! Messenger, in that it did not require approval from users to be added to other users' buddy lists. As a result, it was possible for users to keep other unsuspecting users on their buddy list to see when they were online, read their status and away messages, and read their profiles. There was also a Web API to display one' s status and away message as a widget on one' s webpage. Though one could block a user from communicating with them and seeing their status, this did not prevent that user from creating a new account that would not automatically be blocked and therefore able to track their status. A more conservative privacy option was to select a menu feature that only allowed communication with users on one' s buddy list; however, this option also created the side- effect of blocking all users who were not on one' s buddy list. Chat robots. AOL and various other companies supplied robots( bots) on AIM that could receive messages and send a response based on the bot' s purpose. For example, bots could help with studying, like StudyBuddy. Some were made to relate to children and teenagers, like Spleak. Others gave advice. The more useful chat bots had features like the ability to play games, get sport scores, weather forecasts or financial stock information. Users were able to talk to automated chat bots that could respond to natural human language. They were primarily put into place as a marketing strategy and for unique advertising options. It was used by advertisers to market products or build better consumer relations. Before the inclusions of such bots, the | other bots DoorManBot and AIMOffline |
provided features that were provided by AOL for those who needed it. ZolaOnAOL and ZoeOnAOL were short- lived bots that ultimately retired their features in favor of SmarterChild. URI scheme. AOL Instant Messenger' s installation process automatically installed an extra URI scheme(" protocol") handler into some Web browsers, so URIs beginning"codice_1" could open a new AIM window with specified parameters.Thiswassimilarinfunctiontothecodice_2 URI scheme, which created a new e- mail message using the system' s default mail program. For instance, a webpage might have included a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the AIM user" notarealuser":& lt; a href=" aim: goim? screenname= notarealuser"& gt; Send Message& lt;/ a& gt; To specify a message body,thecodice_3 parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this: aim: goim? screenname= notarealuser& amp; message= This+ is+ my+ messageTo specify an away message, the message parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this: aim: goaway? message= Hello,+ my+ name+ is+ BillWhen placing this inside a URL link, an AIM user could click on the URL link and the away message" Hello, my name is Bill" would instantly become their away message. To add a buddy, the addbuddy message was used, with the" screenname" parameteraim: addbuddy? screenname= notarealuserThis type of link was commonly found on forum profiles to easily add contacts. Vulnerabilities. AIM had security weaknesses that have enabled exploits to be created that used third- party software to perform malicious acts on users' computers. Although most were relatively harmless, such as being kicked off the AIM service, others performed potentially dangerous actions, such as sending viruses. Some of these exploits relied on social engineering to spread by automatically sending instant messages that contained a Uniform Resource Locator( URL) accompanied by text suggesting the receiving user click on it, an action which leads to infection," i. e.", a trojan horse. These messages could easily be mistaken as coming from a friend and contain a link to a Web address that installed software on the user' s computer to restart the cycle. Users also have reported sudden additions of toolbars and advertisements from third parties in the newer version of AIM. Multiple complaints about the lack of control of third party involvement have caused many users to stop using the service. Extra features. iPhone application. On March 6, 2008, during Apple Inc.' s iPhone SDK event, AOL announced that they would be releasing an AIM application for iPhone and iPod Touch users. The application was available for free from the App Store, but the company also provides a paid version, which displays no advertisements. Both were available from the App Store. The AIM client for iPhone and iPod Touch supported standard AIM accounts, as well as MobileMe accounts. There was also an express version of AIM accessible through the Safari browser on the iPhone and iPod Touch. In 2011, AOL launched an overhaul of their Instant Messaging service. Included in the update was a brand new iOS application for iPhone and iPod Touch that | incorporated all the latest features. |
A brand new icon was used for the application, featuring the new cursive logo for AIM. The user- interface was entirely redone for the features including: a new buddy list, group messaging, in- line photos and videos, as well as improved file- sharing. Version 5. 0. 5, updated in March 2012, it supported more social stream features, much like Facebook and Twitter, as well as the ability to send voice messages up to 60 seconds long. iPad application. On April 3, 2010, Apple released the first generation iPad. Along with this newly released device AOL released the AIM application for iPad. It was built entirely from scratch for the new version iOS with a specialized user- interface for the device. It supports geo location, Facebook status updates and chat, Myspace, Twitter, YouTube, Foursquare and many social networking platforms. AIM Express. AIM Express ran in a pop- up browser window. It was intended for use by people who are unwilling or unable to install a standalone application or those at computers that lack the AIM application. AIM Express supported many of the standard features included in the stand- alone client, but did not provide advanced features like file transfer, audio chat, video conferencing, or buddy info. It was implemented in Adobe Flash. It was an upgrade to the prior AOL Quick Buddy, which was later available for older systems that cannot handle Express before being discontinued. Express and Quick Buddy were similar to MSN Web Messenger and Yahoo! Web Messenger. This web version evolved into AIM. com' s web- based messenger. AIM Pages. AIM Pages was a free website released in May 2006 by AOL in replacement of AIMSpace. Anyone who had an AIM user name and was at least 16 years of age could create their own web page( to display an online, dynamic profile) and share it with buddies from their AIM Buddy list. Layout. AIM Pages included links to the email and Instant Message of the owner, along with a section listing the owners" buddies", which included AIM user names. It was possible to create modules in a Module T microformat. Video hosting sites like Netflix and YouTube could be added to ones AIM Page, as well as other sites like Amazon. com. It was also possible to insert HTML code. The main focus of AIM Pages was the integration of external modules, like those listed above, into the AOL Instant Messenger experience. Discontinuation. By late 2007, AIM Pages had been discontinued. After AIM Pages shutdown, links to AIM Pages were redirected to AOL Lifestream, AOL' s new site aimed at collecting external modules in one place, independent of AIM buddies. AOL Lifestream was shut down February 24, 2017. AIM for Mac. AOL released an all- new AIM for the Macintosh on September 29, 2008 and the final build on December 15, 2008. The redesigned AIM for Mac is a full universal binary Cocoa API application that supports both Tiger and Leopard— Mac OS X 10. 4. 8( and above) or Mac OS X 10. 5. 3( and above). On | October 1, 2009, AOL released |
AIM 2. 0 for Mac. AIM real- time IM. This feature is available for AIM 7 and allows for a user to see what the other is typing as it is being done. It was developed and built with assistance from Trace Research and Development Centre at University of Wisconsin– Madison and Gallaudet University. The application provides visually impaired users the ability to convert messages from text( words) to speech. For the application to work users must have AIM 6. 8 or higher, as it is not compatible with older versions of AIM software, AIM for Mac or iChat. AIM to mobile( messaging to phone numbers). This feature allows text messaging to a phone number( text messaging is less functional than instant messaging). Discontinued features. AIM Phoneline. AIM Phoneline was a Voice over IP PC- PC, PC- Phone and Phone- to- PC service provided via the AIM application. It was also known to work with Apple' s iChat Client. The service was officially closed to its customers on January 13, 2009. The closing of the free service caused the number associated with the service to be disabled and not transferable for a different service. AIM Phoneline website was recommending users switch to a new service named AIM Call Out, also discontinued now. Launched on May 16, 2006, AIM Phoneline provided users the ability to have several local numbers, allowing AIM users to receive free incoming calls. The service allowed users to make calls to landlines and mobile devices through the use of a computer. The service, however, was only free for receiving and AOL charged users$ 14. 95 a month for an unlimited calling plan. In order to use AIM Phoneline users had to install the latest free version of AIM Triton software and needed a good set of headphones with a boom microphone. It could take several days after a user signed up before it started working. AIM Call Out. AIM Call Out is a discontinued Voice over IP PC- PC, PC- Phone and Phone- to- PC service provided by AOL via its AIM application that replaced the defunct AIM Phoneline service in November 2007. It did not depend on the AIM client and could be used with only an AIM screenname via the WebConnect feature or a dedicated SIP device. The AIM Call Out service was shut down on March 25, 2009. Security. On November 4, 2014, AIM scored one out of seven points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation' s secure messaging scorecard. AIM received a point for encryption during transit, but lost points because communications are not encrypted with a key to which the provider has no access," i. e.", the communications are not end- to- end encrypted, users can' t verify contacts' identities, past messages are not secure if the encryption keys are stolen,(" i. e.", the service does not provide forward secrecy), the code is not open to independent review," i. e.", the code is not open- source), the security design is not properly documented, and there has not been a recent independent security audit. BlackBerry Messenger, | Ebuddy XMS, Hushmail, Kik Messenger, |
Skype, Viber, and Yahoo! Messenger also scored one out of seven points. In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest- discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive. After Ackermann' s publication of his function( which had three nonnegative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today" the Ackermann function" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version, the two- argument Ackermann- Péter function is defined as follows for nonnegative integers" m" and" n": Its value grows rapidly, even for small inputs. For example, is an integer of 19, 729 decimal digits( equivalent to 265536− 3, or 22222− 3). History.Inthelate1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited with discovering total computable functions( termed simply" recursive" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser- known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928,Ackermannpublishedhisfunctionformula_2( the Greek letter" phi"). Ackermann' s three- argument function,formula_3,isdefinedsuchthatforformula_4, it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation asand for" p"& gt; 2 it extends these basic operations in a way that can be compared to the hyperoperations: In" On the Infinite", David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert' s personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper" On Hilbert' s Construction of the Real Numbers". Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson later developed a two- variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by almost all authors. The generalized hyperoperation sequence, e. g.formula_7, is a version of Ackermann function as well. In 1963 R. C. Buck based an intuitive two-variablevariantformula_8 on the hyperoperation sequence: Compared to most other versions Buck' s function has no unessential offsets: Many other versions of Ackermann function have been investigated. Definition. Definition: as m- ary function. Ackermann' s original three-argumentfunctionformula_3isdefinedrecursivelyasfollowsfornonnegativeintegersformula_12andformula_13: Of the various two- argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson( called" the" Ackermann function by most authors)isdefinedfornonnegativeintegersformula_15andformula_16 as follows: The Ackermann function has also been expressed in relation to the hyperoperation sequence: Definition: as iterated 1- ary function.Defineformula_22 as the" n"-thiterateofformula_23: Iteration is the process of composing a function with itself a certain number of times. Function composition is an associative operation,soformula_25. Conceiving the Ackermann function as a sequence of unary functions,onecansetformula_26.Thefunctionthenbecomesasequenceformula_27 of unary functions, defined from iteration: As function composition is associative, the last line can as well beComputation. The recursive definition of the Ackermann function can naturally be transposed to a term rewriting system( TRS). TRS, based on 2- ary function. The definition of the 2- aryAckermannfunctionleadstotheobviousreductionrulesExampleComputeformula_31ThereductionsequenceisTocomputeformula_32 one can use a stack,whichinitiallycontainstheelementsformula_33. Then repeatedly the two top elements are replaced according to the rulesSchematically,startingfromformula_33: WHILE stackLength& lt;& gt;1POP 2 elements; PUSH 1 or 2 or 3 elements, | applying therulesr1,r2,r3The pseudocode is published |
in. For example,oninputformula_36, RemarksTRS, based on iterated 1- ary function. The definition of the iterated 1- ary Ackermann functions leads to different reduction rulesAs function composition is associative,insteadofruler6onecandefineLikeintheprevioussectionthecomputationofformula_48 can be implemented with a stack.Initiallythestackcontainsthethreeelementsformula_49. Then repeatedly the three top elements are replaced according to the rulesSchematically,startingfromformula_51: WHILE stackLength& lt;& gt;1POP 3 elements; PUSH 1 or 3 or 5 elements,applyingtherulesr4,r5,r6;ExampleOninputformula_52thesuccessivestackconfigurationsareThecorrespondingequalitiesareWhenreductionruler7isusedinsteadofruler6, the replacements in the stack will followThe successive stack configurations will then beThe corresponding equalities areRemarksTRS, based on hyperoperators. As— or— showed explicitly, the Ackermann function can be expressed in terms of the hyperoperation sequence: or, after removal of the constant 2 from the parameter list, in terms of Buck' s functionBuck'sfunctionformula_65, a variant of Ackermann function by itself, can be computed with the following reduction rules:Insteadofruleb6 one can define the ruleTo compute the Ackermann function it suffices to add three reduction rulesThese rules take care of the base case A( 0, n), the alignment( n+ 3) and the fudge(- 3).ExampleComputeformula_69The matching equalities areRemarksHuge numbers.Todemonstratehowthecomputationofformula_85 results in many steps and in a large number: Table of values. Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. First, place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left. Then use that number to look up the required number in the column given by that number and one row up. If there is no number to its left, simply look at the column headed" 1" in the previous row. Here is a small upper- left portion of the table:!" n" This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint- set data structure and Chazelle' s algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann' s original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the− 3 and similar terms. A two- parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows,whereformula_104 is the floor function: This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint- set data structure," m" represents the number of operations while" n" represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm," m" represents the number of edges while" n" represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of exist; for example, is sometimes replaced by" n", and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling. Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row. The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive. Use as benchmark. The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler' s ability to optimize recursion. The first published use of Ackermann' s function in this way was in 1970 by Dragoș Vaida and, almost simultaneously, in 1971, by Yngve Sundblad. Sundblad' | s seminal paper was taken |
up by Brian Wichmann( co- author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982. The Antarctic( or, US English also or; commonly) is a polar region around Earth' s South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau and other island territories located on the Antarctic Plate or south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Antarctic region includes the ice shelves, waters, and all the island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence, a zone approximately wide varying in latitude seasonally. The region covers some 20 percent of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5. 5 percent(14millionkm2) is the surface area of the Antarctica continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60° S latitude are administered under the Antarctic Treaty System. Biogeographically, the Antarctic realm is one of eight biogeographic realms of Earth' s land surface. Geography. As defined by the Antarctic Treaty System, the Antarctic region is everything south of the 60° S latitude. The Treaty area covers Antarctica and the archipelagos of the Balleny Islands, Peter I Island, Scott Island, the South Orkney Islands, and the South Shetland Islands. However, this area does not include the Antarctic Convergence, a transition zone where the cold waters of the Southern Ocean collide with the warmer waters of the north, forming a natural border to the region. Because the Convergence changes seasonally, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources( CCAMLR) approximates the Convergence line by joining specified points along parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. The implementation of the convention is managed through an international Commission headquartered in Hobart, Australia, by an efficient system of annual fishing quotas, licenses and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as satellite surveillanceThe islands situated between 60° S latitude parallel to the south and the Antarctic Convergence to the north, and their respective exclusive economic zones fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands( United Kingdom), Bouvet Island( Norway), and Heard and McDonald Islands( Australia). Kerguelen Islands( France; also an EU Overseas territory) are situated in the Antarctic Convergence area, while the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands, Isla de los Estados, Hornos Island with Cape Horn, Diego Ramírez Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island, Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands, Crozet Islands, Prince Edward Islands, and Gough Island and Tristan da Cunha group remain north of the Convergence and thus outside the Antarctic region. Ecology. Antarctica. A variety of animals live in Antarctica for at least some of the year, including: Most of the Antarctica continent is permanently covered by ice and snow, leaving less than 1 percent of the land exposed. There are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi. Sub- Antarctic Islands. Biodiversity among terrestrial flora and fauna is low on the islands: studies have theorized that the harsh climate was | a major contributor towards species |
richness, but multiple correlations have been found with area, temperature, remoteness of islands, and food chain stability. For example, herbivorous insects are poor in number due to low plant richness, and likewise, indigenous bird numbers are related to insects, which are a major food source. Conservation. The Antarctic hosts the world' s largest protected area comprising 1.07millionkm2, the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area created in 2012. The latter exceeds the surface area of another vast protected territory, the Greenland National Park’ s 972,000km2.( While the Ross Sea Marine Protection Area established in 2016 is still larger at 1.55millionkm2, its protection is set to expire in 35 years.) To protect the area, all Antarctic ships over 500 tonnes are subject to mandatory regulations under the Polar Code, adopted by the International Maritime Organization( in force since 1 January 2017). Society. People. The first recorded sighting of Antarctica is credited to the Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who reported seeing distant southern snow- capped mountains in 1603. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, visited by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. Although myths and speculation about a" Terra Australis"(" Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent of Antarctica is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on" Vostok" and" Mirny". The Australian James Kerguelen Robinson( 1859– 1914) was the first human born in the Antarctic, on board the sealing ship" Offley" in Gulf of Morbihan( Royal Sound then), Kerguelen Island on 11 March 1859. The first human born on an Antarctic island was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. Emilio Marcos Palma( born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first documented person born on the continent of Antarctica at the Esperanza Base. His father, Captain Jorge Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base. While ten people have been born in Antarctica since, Palma' s birthplace remains the southernmost. In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to Esperanza Base, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. The airlift was a part of the Argentine solutions to the sovereignty dispute over territory in Antarctica. Emilio was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the government since his parents were both Argentine citizens, and he was born in the claimed Argentine Antarctica. Palma can be considered to be the first native Antarctican. The Antarctic region had no indigenous population when first discovered, and its present inhabitants comprise a few thousand transient scientific and other personnel working on tours of duty at the several dozen research stations maintained by various countries. However, the region is visited by more than 40, 000 tourists annually, the most popular destinations being the Antarctic Peninsula area( especially the South Shetland Islands) and South Georgia Island. In December 2009, the growth of tourism, with consequences for both the ecology and the | safety of the travellers in |
its great and remote wilderness, was noted at a conference in New Zealand by experts from signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. The definitive results of the conference was presented at the Antarctic Treaty states' meeting in Uruguay in May 2010. Time zones. Because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are usually based on territorial claims or the time zone of a station' s owner country or supply base. The Albanians(;) are an ethnic group native to the Balkan Peninsula who share a common Albanian ancestry, culture, history and language. They primarily live in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia as well as in Croatia, Greece, Italy and Turkey. They also constitute a large diaspora with several communities established across Europe, the Americas and Oceania. Diaspora based Albanians may self identify as Albanian, use hybrid identification or identify with their nationality, often creating an obstacle in establishing a total figure of the population. The ethnogenesis of the Albanians and their language is a matter of debate among historians and ethnologists.ThefirstcertainreferencetoAlbaniansasanethnicgroupcomesfrom11th century chronicler Michael Attaleiates who describes them as living in the theme of Dyrrhacium. The Albanian diaspora has its roots in migration from the Middle Ages initially across Southern Europe and eventually across wider Europe and the New World.Betweenthe13thand18th centuries, sizeable numbers migrated to escape various social, economic or political difficulties. One population, the Arvanites,settledSouthernGreecebetweenthe13thand16th centuries assimilating into and now self- identifying as Greeks. Another population, the Arbëreshë,settledacrossSicilyandSouthernItalybetweenthe11thand16th centuries. Smaller populations such astheArbanasisettledSouthernCroatiaandpocketsofSouthernUkraineinthe18th century. The Shkumbin River roughly demarcates the Albanian language between Gheg and Tosk dialects. Christianity in Albania wasunderthejurisdictionoftheBishopofRomeuntilthe8th century AD. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054, after the Great Schism, the north gradually became identified with Roman Catholicism and the south with Eastern Orthodoxy. Inhabiting the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of the Shkumbin River, the Albanians established the Principality of Arbanon in 1190 with the capital in Krujë.Bythe15th century, the expanding Ottoman Empire overpowered the Balkan Peninsula, but faced successful rebellion and resistance led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg.Bythe17thand18th centuries, a substantial number of Albanians converted to Islam, which offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. Thereafter, Albanians attained significant positions and culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world. Innumerable officials and soldiers of the Ottoman State were of Albanian origin, including more than 40 Grand Viziers, and under the Köprülü, in particular, the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest territorial extension. Between the second halfofthe18th century and the first halfofthe19th century Albanian Pashaliks were established by Kara Mahmud pasha of Scutari, Ali pasha of Yanina, and Ahmet Kurt pasha of Berat, while the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middleofthe20th century, a period in which Albanians formed a substantial community in Egypt. Duringthe19th century, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. Between the Russo- Turkish War and the Balkan Wars, they were partitioned between | Independent Albania, Greece, Montenegro and |
Serbia. After the Second World War up until the Revolutions of 1991, Albania was governed by a communist government under Enver Hoxha where Albania became largely isolated from the rest of Europe. In neighbouring Yugoslavia, Albanians underwent periods of discrimination that concluded with the Breakup of Yugoslavia and eventually the Independence of Kosovo. Ethnonym. The Albanians() and their country Albania() have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is" Shqiptar", plural" Shqiptarë"; the name" Albanians"( Byzantine Greek:" Albanoi/ Arbanitai/ Arbanites"; Latin:" Albanenses/ Arbanenses") was used in medieval documents and gradually entered European Languages from which other similar derivative names emerged, many of which were or still are in use, such as English" Albanians"; Italian" Albanesi"; German" Albaner"; Greek" Arvanites"," Alvanitis"( Αλβανίτης) plural:" Alvanites"( Αλβανίτες)," Alvanos"( Αλβανός) plural:" Alvanoi"( Αλβανοί); Turkish" Arnaut"," Arnavut"; South Slavic languages" Arbanasi"( Арбанаси)," Albanci"( Албанци); Aromanian" Arbineş" and so on. The term" Albanoi"( Αλβανοί) is first encountered twice in the works of Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, and the term" Arvanitai"( Αρβανίται) is used once by the same author. He referred to the" Albanoi" as having taken part in a revolt against the Byzantine Empire in 1043, and to the" Arbanitai" as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium( modern Durrës). These references have been disputed as to whether they refer to the people of Albania. Historian E. Vranoussi believes that these" Albanoi" were Normans from Sicily. She also notes that the same term( as" Albani") in medieval Latin meant" foreigners". The reference to" Arvanitai" from Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed. In later Byzantine usage, the terms" Arbanitai" and" Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians. The firstreferencetotheAlbanianlanguagedatestothelatter13th century( around 1285). The ethnonym" Albanian" has been hypothesized to be connected to and stem from the" Albanoi", an Illyrian tribe mentioned by Ptolemy with their centre at the city of Albanopolis. Linguists believe that the" alb" part in the root word originates from an Indo- European term for a type of mountainous topography, from which other words such as" alps" are derived. Through the root word" alban" and its rhotacized equivalents" arban"," albar", and" arbar", the term in Albanian became rendered as" Arbëneshë/ Arbëreshë" for the people and" Arbënia/ Arbëria" for the country. The Albanian language was referred to as" Arbnisht" and" Arbërisht". While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does have connotations to Classical Antiquity, the Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves as" Shqip( ë) tarë" and to their country as" Shqipëria". Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym: one, derived from the etymology from the Albanian word for eagle( shqipe, var., shqiponjë). In Albanian folk etymology, this word denotes a bird totem, dating from the times of Skanderbeg as displayed on the Albanian flag. The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb' to speak'(" me shqiptue") from the Latin" excipere". In this instance the Albanian endonym like" Slav" | and others would originally have |
been a term connoting" those who speak[ intelligibly, the same language]". The words" Shqipëri" and" Shqiptar"areattestedfrom14th century onward,butitwasonlyattheendof17thandbeginningoftheearly18th centuries that the placename" Shqipëria" and the ethnic demonym" Shqiptarë" gradually replaced" Arbëria" and" Arbëreshë" amongst Albanian speakers. That era brought about religious and other sociopolitical changes. As such a new and generalised response by Albanians based on ethnic and linguistic consciousness to this new and different Ottoman world emerging around them was a change in ethnonym. Historical records.LittleisknownabouttheAlbanianpeoplepriortothe11th century,thoughatextcompiledaroundthebeginningofthe11th century in the Bulgarian language contains a possible reference to them. It is preserved in a manuscript written in the Serbo-CroatianLanguagetracedbacktothe17thcenturybutpublishedinthe20th century by Radoslav Grujic. It is a fragment of a once longer text that endeavours to explain the origins of peoples and languages in a question- and- answer form similar to a catechism. The fragmented manuscript differentiated the world into 72 languages and three religious categories including Christians, half- believers and non- believers.Grujicdatedittotheearly11th century and, if this and the identification of the" Arbanasi" as Albanians are correct, it would be the earliest written document referring to the Balkan Albanians as a people or language group. It can be seen that there are various languages on earth. Of them, there are five Orthodox languages: Bulgarian, Greek, Syrian, Iberian( Georgian) and Russian. Three of these have Orthodox alphabets: Greek, Bulgarian and Iberian( Georgian). There are twelve languages of half- believers: Alamanians, Franks, Magyars( Hungarians), Indians, Jacobites, Armenians, Saxons, Lechs( Poles), Arbanasi( Albanians), Croatians, Hizi and Germans. The first undisputed mention of Albanians in the historical record is attested in Byzantine source for the first time in 1079– 1080, in a work titled" History" by Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, who referred to the" Albanoi" as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the" Arbanitai" as subjects of the duke of Dyrrachium. It is disputed, however, whether the" Albanoi" of the events of 1043 refers to Albanians in an ethnic sense or whether" Albanoi" is a reference to Normans from Sicily under an archaic name( there was also a tribe in Italy by the name of" Albanoi"). However a later reference to Albanians from the same Attaleiates, regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078, is undisputed. At this point, they are already fully Christianized, although Albanian mythology and folklore are part of the Paleo- Balkan pagan mythology, in particular showing Greek influence. Language. The majority of the Albanian people speak the Albanian language which is an independent branch within the Indo- European family of languages. It is a language isolate to any other known living language in Europe and indeed no other language in the world has been conclusively associated to its branch. Its origin remains conclusively unknown but it is believed it has descended from an ancient Paleo- Balkan language. The Albanian language is spoken by approximately 5 million people throughout the Balkan Peninsula as well as by a more substantial number by communities around the Americas, Europe and Oceania. Numerous variants and dialects of Albanian are used as an official language in Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia. | The language is also spoken |
in other countries whence it is officially recognised as a minority language in such countries as Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia. There are two principal dialects of the Albanian language traditionally represented by Gheg and Tosk. The ethnogeographical dividing line is traditionally considered to be the Shkumbin with Gheg spoken in the north of it and Tosk in the south. Dialects spoken in Croatia( Arbanasi and Istrian), Kosovo, Montenegro and Northwestern North Macedonia are Gheg dialects, while those dialects spoken in Greece( Arvanites and Çam), Southwestern North Macedonia and Italy( Arbëreshë) are Tosk dialects. The Arbëreshë and Arvanitika languages represent varieties of the Albanian language spoken by the Arbëreshës and Arvanites in Southern Italy and Southern Greece respectively. They retain elements of medieval Albanian vocabulary and pronunciation that are no longer used in modern Albanian language however both varieties are classified as endangered languages in the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages. Most of the Albanians in Albania and the Former Yugoslavia are polyglot and have the ability to understand, speak, read, or write a foreign language. As defined by the Institute of Statistics of Albania, 39. 9% of the 25 to 64 years old Albanians in Albania are able to use at least one foreign language including English( 40%), Italian( 27. 8%) and Greek( 22. 9%). The origin of the Albanian language remains a contentious subject that has given rise to numerous hypotheses. The hypothesis of Albanian being one of the descendant of the Illyrian languages( Messapic language) is based on geography where the languages were spoken however not enough archaeological evidence is left behind to come therefore to a definite conclusion. Another hypothesis associates the Albanian language with the Thracian language. This theory takes exception to the territory, since the language was spoken in an area distinct from Albania, and no significant population movements have been recorded in the period when the shift from one language to the other is supposed to have occurred. History. Komani- Kruja culture. The Komani- Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of North Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the Lezhë( Praevalitana)- Dardania and Via Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley. Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani- Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani- Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between the classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical recordsinthe11th century. Winnifrith( 2020) recently described this population as the survival of a" Latin- Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and Vlachs. In Winnifrith' s narrative, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the | Albanian language in hilly and |
mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys. Middle Ages. The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in the Southeast of Europe at the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west. The issue surrounding the origin of the Albanian people has long been debated by historians and linguists for centuries. Many scholars consider the Albanians, in terms of linguistic evidences, the descendants of ancient populations of the Balkan Peninsula, either the Illyrians, Thracians or another Paleo- Balkan group. There are insufficient evidences to derive an accurate conclusion and therefore Albanian origins still remain a mystery. The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work of Michael Attaleiates( 1022- 1080). Attaleiates mentions the term" Albanoi" twice and the term" Arbanitai" once. The term" Albanoi" is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038- 40. The second use of the term" Albanoi" is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The term" Arvanitai" is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians( Boulgaroi) and" Arbanitai" in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078- 79. It is generally accepted that" Arbanitai" refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. The use of the term" Albanoi" in 1038- 49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the" Ducellier- Vrannousi" debate, Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vrannousi counter- suggested that the first use referred to Normans, while the second didn' t have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as" foreigners"( aubain) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed. The debate has never been resolved. A newer synthesis about the second use of the term" Albanoi" by Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the term" Albanoi" may have referred to Albanians of the specific district of Arbanon, while" Arbanitai" to Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited. The name reflects the Albanian endonym Arbër/ n+ esh which itself derives from the same root as the name of the AlbanoiHistorically known as the" Arbër" or" Arbën"bythe11th century and onwards, they traditionally inhabited the mountainous area to the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of the River Shkumbin. Though it was in 1190 when they established their first independent entity, the Principality of Arbër( Arbanon), with its seat based in Krujë. Immediately after the decline of the Progon dynasty in 1216, the principality came under Gregorios Kamonas and next his son- in- law Golem. Finally, the Principality was dissolved in ca. 1255 by the Empire of Nicea followed by an unsuccessful rebellion between 1257 and 1259 supported by the Despotate of Epirus. In the meantime Manfred, King of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by | Philippe Chinard, captured Durrës, Berat, |
Vlorë, Spinarizza, their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to Butrint. In 1266 after defeating Manfred' s forces and killing him, the Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with Charles I, King of Sicily acquiring rights on Manfred' s dominions in Albania. Local noblemen such as Andrea Vrana refused to surrender Manfred' s former domains, and in 1271 negotiations were initiated. In 1272 the Kingdom of Albania was created after a delegation of Albanian noblemen from Durrës signed a treaty declaring union with the Kingdom of Sicily under Charles. Charles soon imposed military rule, new taxes, took sons of Albanian noblemen hostage to ensure loyalty, and confiscated lands for Angevin nobles. This led to discontent among Albanian noblemen, several of whom turned to Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII. In late 1274, Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen capture Berat and Butrint. Charles' attempt to advance towards Constantinople failed at the Siege of Berat( 1280– 1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The Sicilian Vespers rebellion further weakened the position of Charles, who died in 1285.Bytheendofthe13th century, most of Albania was under Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos. In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin captured Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as dowry. In 1302, Philip I, Prince of Taranto, grandson of Charles, claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred him over the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of Pope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, the Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by the locals who submitted themselves to Angevin rule. Prominent Albanian leaders during this time were the Thopia family, ruling in an area between the Mat and Shkumbin rivers, and the Muzaka family in the territory between the Shkumbin and Vlorë. In 1279, Gjon I Muzaka, who remained loyal to the Byzantines and resisted Angevin conquest of Albania, was captured by the forces of Charles but later released following pressure from Albanian nobles. The Muzaka family continued to remain loyal to the Byzantines and resisted the expansion of the Serbian Kingdom. In 1335 the head of the family, Andrea II Muzaka, gained the title of Despot and other Muzakas pursued careers in the Byzantine government in Constantinople. Andrea II soon endorsed an anti- Byzantine revolt in his domains between 1335– 1341 and formed an alliance with Robert, Prince of Taranto in 1336. In 1336, Serbian king Stefan Dušan captured Durrës, including the territory under the control of the Muzaka family. Although Angevins managed to recapture Durazzo, Dušan continued his expansion, and in the period of 1337— 45 he had captured Kanina and Valona in southern Albania. Around 1340 forces of Andrea II defeated the Serbian army at the Pelister mountain. After the death of Stefan Dušan in 1355 the Serbian Empire disintegrated, and Karl Thopia captured Durrës while the Muzaka family of Berat regained control over parts of southeastern | Albania and over Kastoria that |
Andrea II captured from Prince Marko after the Battle of Marica in 1371. The kingdom reinforced the influence of Catholicism and the conversion to its rite, not only in the region of Durrës but in other parts of the country. A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, papal missionaries and a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country. Those who were not Catholic in central and northern Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions. Around 1230 the two main centers of Albanian settlements were around Devoll river in what is now central Albania and the other around the region known as Arbanon. Albanian presence in Croatia can be traced back to the beginning of the Late Middle Ages. In this period, there was a significant Albanian community in Ragusa with a number of families of Albanian origin inclusively the Sorgo family who came from the Cape of Rodon in central Albania, across Kotor in eastern Montenegro, to Dalmatia.Bythe13th century, Albanian merchants were trading directly with the peoples of the Republic of Ragusa in Dalmatia which increased familiarity between Albanians and Ragusans. The upcoming invasion of Albania by the Ottoman Empire and the death of Skanderbeg caused many Christian Albanians to flee to Dalmatia and surrounding countries.Inthe14th century a number of Albanian principalities were created. These included Principality of Kastrioti, Principality of Dukagjini, Princedom of Albania, and Principality of Gjirokastër.Atthebeginningofthe15th century these principalities became stronger, especially because of the fall of the Serbian Empire. Some of these principalities were united in 1444 under the anti- Ottoman military alliance called League of Lezha. Albanians were recruited all over Europe as a light cavalry known as" stratioti". The stratiotiwerepioneersoflightcavalrytacticsduringthe15th century.Intheearly16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units( Schwarzreitern). Ottoman Empire. Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania, the political situation of the Albanian people was characterised by a fragmented conglomeration of scattered kingdoms and principalities such as the Principalities of Arbanon, Kastrioti and Thopia. Before and after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into the Southeast Europe. As a consequence thousands of Albanians from Albania, Epirus and Peloponnese escaped to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania. Under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, a former governor of the Ottoman Sanjak of Dibra, a prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted with the formation of the League of Lezhë in 1444 up until the Siege of Shkodër ending in 1479, multiple times defeating the mightiest power of the time led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non- conquered territories and proclaiming himself the Lord of Albania(" Dominus Albaniae" in Latin). Skanderbeg consistently | pursued the aim relentlessly but |
rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe and financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa. The Albanians, then predominantly Christian, were initially considered as an inferior class of people and as such were subjected to heavy taxes such as the" Devshirme" system that allowed the state to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from the Balkans and elsewhere to compose the Janissary. Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. They were therefore to be found within the imperial services as vital military and administrative retainers from Egypt to Algeria and the rest of the Maghreb.Inthelate18th century, Ali Pasha Tepelena created the autonomous region of the Pashalik of Yanina within the Ottoman Empire which was never recognised as such by the High Porte. The territory he properly governed incorporated most of southern Albania, Epirus, Thessaly and southwestern Macedonia. During his rule, the town of Janina blossomed into a cultural, political and economic hub for both Albanians and Greeks. The ultimate goal of Ali Pasha Tepelena seems to have been the establishment of an independent rule in Albania and Epirus. Thus, he obtained control of Arta and took control over the ports of Butrint, Preveza and Vonitsa. He also gained control of the pashaliks of Elbasan, Delvina, Berat and Vlorë. His relations with the High Porte were always tense though he developed and maintained relations with the British, French and Russians and formed alliances with them at various times.Inthe19th century, the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruledoverEgyptandSudanuntilthemiddleofthe20th century. After a brief French invasion led by Napoleon Bonaparte and the Ottomans and Mameluks competing for power there, he managed collectively with his Albanian troops to become the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt. As he revolutionised the military and economic spheres of Egypt, his empire attracted Albanian people contributing to the emergence of the Albanian diaspora in Egypt initially formed by Albanian soldiers and mercenaries. Islam arrived in the lands of the Albanian people graduallyandgrewwidespreadbetweenatleastthe17thand18th centuries. The new religion brought many transformations into Albanian society and henceforth offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. With the advent of increasing suppression on Catholicism, the Ottomans initially focused their conversions on the Catholic Albaniansofthenorthinthe17th centuryandfollowedsuitinthe18th century on the Orthodox Albanians of the south. At this point, the urban centers of central and southern Albania had largely adopted the religion of the growing Muslim Albanian elite. Many mosques and tekkes were constructed throughout those urban centers and cities such as Berat, Gjirokastër, Korçë and Shkodër started to flourish. In the far north, the spread of Islam was slower due to Catholic Albanian resistance and the inaccessible and rather remote mountainous terrain. The motives for conversion to Islam are subject to differing interpretations according to scholars depending on the context though the lack of sources does not help when investigating such issues. Reasons included the incentive to escape high taxes levied on non- | Muslims subjects, ecclesiastical decay, coercion |
by Ottoman authorities in times of war, and the privileged legal and social position Muslims within the Ottoman administrative and political machinery had over that of non- Muslims. As Muslims, the Albanians attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration including over three dozen Grand Viziers of Albanian origin, among them Zagan Pasha, Bayezid Pasha and members of the Köprülü family, and regional rulers such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. The Ottoman sultans Bayezid II and Mehmed III were both Albanian on their maternal side. Areas such as Albania, western Macedonia, southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro in Ottoman sources were referred to as" Arnavudluk" or Albania. Albanian Renaissance. The Albanian Renaissance characterised a period wherein the Albanian people gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength to establish their rights for an independent political and social life, culture and education.Bythelate18thcenturyandtheearly19th century, its foundation arose within the Albanian communities in Italy and Romania and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles. Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of unity or national conscience by the Albanian people. A number of thoroughly intellectual Albanians, among them Naum Veqilharxhi, Girolamo de Rada, Dora d' Istria, Thimi Mitko, Naim and Sami Frashëri, made a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people by working to develop Albanian literature that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future. The Albanians had poor or often no schools or other institutions in place to protect and preserve their cultural heritage. The need for schools was preached initially by the increasing number of Albanians educated abroad. The Albanian communities in Italy and elsewhere were particularly active in promoting the Albanian cause, especially in education which finally resulted with the foundation of the Mësonjëtorja in Korçë, the first secular school in the Albanian language. The Turkish yoke had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the people in the Balkans, and their march toward independence quickened. Due to the more substantial of Islamic influence, the Albanians internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian territories to the emerging neighbouring states, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, were among the last peoples in the Balkans to desire division from the Ottoman Empire. The national awakening as a coherent political movement emerged after the Treaty of San Stefano, according to which Albanian- inhabited territories were to be ceded to the neighbouring states, and focused on preventing that partition. It was the impetus for the nation- building movement, which was based more on fear of partition than national identity. Even after the declaration of independence, national identity was fragmented and possibly non- existent in much of the newly proposed country. The state of disunity and fragmentation would remain until the communist period following Second World War, when the communist nation- building project would achieve greater success in nation- building and reach more people than | any previous regime, thus creating |
Albanian national communist identity. Communism in Albania. Enver Hoxha of the Communist Party of Labour took power in Albania in 1946. Albania established an alliance with the Eastern Bloc which provided Albania with many advantages in the form of economic assistance and military protection from the Western Bloc during the Cold War. The Albanians experienced a period of several beneficial political and economic changes. The government defended the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Albania, diversified the economy through a programme of industrialisation which led to a higher standard of living and followed improvements in areas such as health, education and infrastructure. It subsequently followed a period wherein the Albanians lived within an extreme isolation from the rest of the world for the next four decades. By 1967, the established government had officially proclaimed Albania to be the first atheistic state in the world as they beforehand confiscated churches, monasteries and mosques, and any religious expression instantly became grounds for imprisonment. Protests coinciding with the emerging revolutions of 1989 began to break out in various cities throughout Albania including Shkodër and Tirana which eventually lead to the fall of communism. Significant internal and external migration waves of Albanians to such countries as Greece and Italy followed. The bunkerisation is arguably the most visible and memorable legacy of the communism in Albania. Nearly 175. 000 reinforced concrete bunkers were built on strategic locations across Albania' s territory including near borders, within towns, on the seashores or mountains. These bunkers were never used for their intended purpose or for sheltered the population from attacks or an invasion by a neighbor. However, they were abandoned after the breakup of communism and have been sometimes reused for a variety of purposes. Independence of Kosovo. Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, after years of strained relations between the Serb and predominantly Albanian population of Kosovo. It has been officially recognised by Australia, Canada, the United States and major European Union countries, while Serbia and its ally Russia refuse to recognise Kosovo' s sovereignty. The overwhelming majority of Kosovo' s population is ethnically Albanian with nearly 1. 7 million people. Their presence as well as in the adjacent regions of Toplica and Morava is recorded since the Middle Ages. As the Serbs expelled many Albanians from the wider Toplica and Morava regions in Southern Serbia, which the 1878 Congress of Berlin had given to the Principality of Serbia, many of them settled in Kosovo. After being an integral section of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Kosovo including its Albanian population went through a period of discrimination, economic and political persecution. Rights to use the Albanian language were guaranteed by the constitution of the later formed Socialist Yugoslavia and was widely used in Macedonia and Montenegro prior to the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In 1989, Kosovo lost its status as a federal entity of Yugoslavia with rights similar to those of the six other republics and eventually became part of Serbia and Montenegro. In 1998, tensions between the Albanian and Serb population of Kosovo simmered and erupted into major | violence and discrimination culminating into |
the humanitarian tragedy of the Kosovo War. The conflict led to the displacement of hundred thousands of Albanians to the neighboring countries and Europe. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the government of Serbia claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists. The NATO launched a 78- day air campaign in 1999 to halt the humanitarian catastrophe that was then unfolding in Kosovo and finally concluded the ended the war. Distribution. Balkans. Approximately 5 million Albanians are geographically distributed across the Balkan Peninsula with about half this number living in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Montenegro as well as to a more lesser extent in Croatia and Serbia. There are also significant Albanian populations in Greece. Approximately 1. 8 million Albanians are concentrated in the partially recognised Republic of Kosovo. They are geographically distributed south of the municipality of North Mitrovica and constitute the overall majority ethnic group of the territory. In Montenegro, the Albanian population is currently estimated to be around 30, 000 forming one of the constituent ethnic minority groups of the country. They predominantly live in the coastal region of Montenegro around the municipalities of Ulcinj and Bar but also Tuz and around Plav in the northern region as well as in the capital city of Podgorica in the central region. In North Macedonia, there are more than approximately 500, 000 Albanians constituting the largest ethnic minority group in the country. The vast majority of the Albanians are chiefly concentrated around the municipalities of Tetovo and Gostivar in the northwestern region, Struga and Debar in the southwestern region as well as around the capital of Skopje in the central region. In Croatia, the number of Albanians stands at approximately 17. 500 mostly concentrated in the counties of Istria, Split- Dalmatia and most notably in the capital city of Zagreb. The Arbanasi people who historically migrated to Bulgaria, Croatia and Ukraine live in scattered communities across Bulgaria, Croatia and Southern Ukraine. In Serbia, the Albanians are an officially recognised ethnic minority group with a population of around 70, 000. They are significantly concentrated in the municipalities of Bujanovac and Preševo in the Pčinja District. In Romania, the number of Albanians is unofficially estimated from 500 to 10, 000 mainly distributed in Bucharest. They are recognised as an ethnic minority group and are respectively represented in Parliament of Romania. Italy. The Italian Peninsula across the Adriatic Sea has attracted Albanian people for more than half a millennium often due to its immediate proximity. Albanians in Italy later became important in establishing the fundamentals of the Albanian Renaissance and maintaining the Albanian culture. The Arbëreshë people came sporadically in several small and large cycles initially as" Stratioti" mercenaries in service of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and the Republic of Venice. Larger migration waves occurred after the death of Skanderbeg and the capture of Krujë and Shkodër by the Ottomans to escape the forthcoming political and religious changes. Today, Albanians in Italy constitute one of the largest ethnolinguistic minority groups and their status is protected | by law. The total number |
of Arbëreshës is approximately 260, 000 scattered across Sicily, Calabria and Apulia. There are Italian Albanians in the Americas especially in such countries as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Canada and the United States. Centuries later,attheendofthe20th century occurred another and the largest migration cycle of Albanians to Italy surpassing the earlier migration of the Arbëreshë. Their migration stemmed from decades of severe social and political oppression and isolation from the outside world under the communist regime led by Enver Hoxha. Between 2015 and 2016, the number of Albanians regularly residing in Italy was numbered to be around 480, 000 and 500, 000. Tuscany, Lombardy and Emilia- Romagna represent the regions with the strongest presence of the modern Albanian population in Italy. In 2012, 41. 5% of the Albanian population were counted as Muslim, 38. 9% as Christian including 27. 7% as Roman Catholic and 11% as Eastern Orthodox and 17. 8% as Irreligious. Greece. The Arvanites and AlbaniansofWesternThraceareagroupdescendedfromToskswhomigratedtosouthernandcentralGreecebetweenthe13thand16th centuries. They are Greek Orthodox Christians, and though they traditionally speak a dialect of Tosk Albanian known as Arvanitika, they have fully assimilated into the Greek nation and do not identify as Albanians. Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scaleinternalmigrationtothecitiesandsubsequentinterminglingofthepopulationduringthe20th century. The Cham Albanians were a group that formerly inhabited a region of Epirus known as Chameria, nowadays Thesprotia in northwestern Greece. Many Cham Albanians converted to Islam during the Ottoman era. Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece during World War II, by an anti- communist resistance group( EDES), as a result of some participating in a communist resistance group( EAM- ELAS) and others collaborating with the Axis occupation. Orthodox Chams have largely assimilated into the Greek nation. Large- scale migration from Albania to Greece occurred after 1991. By 2005, around 600, 000 Albanians lived in Greece, forming the largest immigrant community in the country. They are economic migrants whose migration began in 1991, following the collapse of the Socialist People' s Republic of Albania. About 200, 000 had acquired a status of" homogeneis"( co- ethnics) in Greece. Contempoary statistics on Albanians in Greece vary. There was a drop in the number of registered Albanian immigrants in 2012, suggesting that approximately 130, 000 Albanian migrants have lost their stay permits and thereby making 29% of the Albanian immigrant population in Greece irregular. After 1991, at least 500, 000 Albanians have migrated and relocated to Greece. Despite the a lack of exact statistics, it is estimated that at least 700, 000 Albanians have moved to Greece during the last 25 years. The Albanian government estimates 500, 000 Albanians in Greece at the very least, and that is excluding their children. A 2011 census indicated that Albanians consisted the biggest group of foreigners in Greece, with roughly 480, 000, but taking into consideration the current population of Greece( 11 million) and the fact that the census failed to account for illegal foreigners, it was estimated that Albanians consist of 5% of the population( at least 550, 000). Albanians in Greece have a long history of Hellenisation, assimilation and integration. Many | ethnic Albanians have been naturalised |
as Greek nationals, others have self- declared as Greek since arrival and a considerable number live and work across both countries seasonally hence the number of Albanians in the country has often fluctuated. Diaspora. Europe.Duringtheendofthe20thandthebeginningofthe21st centuries, the conflicts in the Balkans and the Kosovo War set in motion large population movements of Albanians to Central, Western and Northern Europe. The gradual collapse of communism in Albania triggered as well a new wave of migration and contributed to the emergence of a new diaspora, mainly in Southern Europe, in such countries as Greece and Italy. In Central Europe, there are approximately 200, 000 Albanians in Switzerland with the particular concentration in the cantons of Zürich, Basel, Lucerne, Bern and St. Gallen. The neighbouring Germany is home to around 250, 000 to 300, 000 Albanians while in Austria there are around 40, 000 to 80, 000 Albanians concentrated in the states of Vienna, Styria, Salzburg, Lower and Upper Austria. In Western Europe, the Albanian population of approximately 10, 000 people living in the Benelux countries is in comparison to other regions relatively limited. There are more than 6, 000 Albanian people living in Belgium and 2, 800 in the nearby Netherlands. The most lesser number of Albanian people in the Benelux region is to be found in Luxembourg with a population of 2, 100. Within Northern Europe, Sweden possesses the most sizeable population of Albanians in Scandinavia however there is no exact answer to their number in the country. The populations also tend to be lower in Norway, Finland and Denmark with more than 18, 000, 10, 000 and 8, 000 Albanians respectively. The population of Albanians in the United Kingdom is officially estimated to be around 39. 000 whiles in Ireland there are less than 2, 500 Albanians. Asia and Africa. The Albanian diaspora in Africa and Asia, in such countries as Egypt, Syria or Turkey, was predominantly formed during the Ottoman period through economic migration and early years of the Republic of Turkey through migration due to sociopolitical discrimination and violence experienced by Albanians in Balkans. In Turkey, the exact numbers of the Albanian population of the country are difficult to correctly estimate. According to a 2008 report, there were approximately 1. 300, 000 people of Albanian descent living in Turkey. As of that report, more than 500, 000 Albanian descendants still recognise their ancestry and or their language, culture and traditions. There are also other estimates that range from being 3 to 4 million people up to a total of 5 million in number, although most of these are Turkish citizens of either full or partial Albanian ancestry being no longer fluent in Albanian, comparable to the German Americans. This was due to various degrees of either linguistic and or cultural assimilation occurring amongst the Albanian diaspora in Turkey. Albanians are active in the civic life of Turkey. In Egypt there are 18, 000 Albanians, mostly Tosk speakers. Many are descendants of the Janissaries of Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian who became Wāli, and self- declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. | In addition to the dynasty |
that he established, a large part of the former Egyptian and Sudanese aristocracy was of Albanian origin. Albanian Sunnis, Bektashis and Orthodox Christians were all represented in this diaspora, whose members at some point included major Renaissance figures(" Rilindasit"), including Thimi Mitko, Spiro Dine, Andon Zako Çajupi, Milo Duçi, Fan Noli and others who lived in Egypt for a time. With the ascension of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt and rise of Arab nationalism, the last remnants of Albanian community there were forced to leave. Albanians have been present in Arab countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, and for about five centuries as a legacy of Ottoman Turkish rule. Americas and Oceania.ThefirstAlbanianmigrationtoNorthAmericabeganinthe19thand20th centuries not long after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However the Arbëreshë people from Southern Italy were the first Albanian people to arrive in the New World, many of them migrating after the wars that accompanied the Risorgimento.SincethenseveralAlbanianmigrationwaveshaveoccurredthroughoutthe20th century as for instance after the Second World War with Albanians mostly from Yugoslavia rather than from Communist Albania, then after the Breakup of Communist Albania in 1990 and finally following the Kosovo War in 1998. The most sizeable Albanian population in the Americas is predominantly to be found in the United States. As of 2017, there are approximately 205. 000 Albanians in the country with the main concentration in the states of New York, Michigan, Massachusetts and Illinois. The number could be higher counting the Arbëreshë people as well; they are often distinguishable from other Albanian Americans with regard to their Italianized names, nationality and a common religion. In Canada, there are approximately 39, 000 Albanians in the country, including 36, 185 Albanians from Albania and 2, 870 Albanians from Kosovo, predominantly distributed in a multitude of provinces such as Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia. Canada' s largest cities such as Toronto, Montreal and Edmonton were besides the United States a major centre of Albanian migration to North America.AlbanianimmigrationtoAustraliabeganinthelate19thcenturyandmosttookplaceduringthe20th century. People who planned to immigrate chose Australia after the US introduced immigration quotas on southern Europeans. Most were from southern Albania, of Muslim and Orthodox backgrounds and tended to live in Victoria and Queensland, with smaller numbers in Western and Northern Australia. Italy' s annexation of Albania marked a difficult time for Albanian Australians as many were thought by Australian authorities to pose a fascist threat. Post- war, the numbers of Albanian immigrants slowed due to immigration restrictions placed by the communist government in Albania. Albanians from southwestern Yugoslavia( modern North Macedonia) arrived andsettledinMelbourneinthe1960s-1970s. Other Albanian immigrants from Yugoslavia came from Montenegro and Serbia. The immigrants were mostly Muslims, but also Catholics among them including the relatives of the renowned Albanian nun and missionary Mother Teresa. Albanian refugees from Kosovo settled in Australia following the aftermath of the Kosovo conflict. In the early twenty first century, Victoria has the highest concentration of Albanians and smaller Albanian communities exist in Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory. In 2016, approximately 4, 041 persons resident in Australia identified themselves as having been born in Albania | and Kosovo, while 15, 901 |
persons identified themselves as having Albanian ancestry, either alone or in combination with another ancestry. Albanian migration to New Zealand occurred mid twentieth century following the Second World War. A small group of Albanian refugees originating mainly from Albania and the rest from Yugoslavian Kosovo and Macedonia settled in Auckland. During the Kosovo crisis( 1999), up to 400 Kosovo Albanian refugees settled in New Zealand. In the twenty first century, Albanian New Zealanders number 400- 500 people and are mainly concentrated in Auckland. Culture. Culinary arts. The traditional cuisine of the Albanians is diverse and has been greatly influenced by traditions and their varied environment in the Balkans and turbulent history throughout the course of the centuries. There is a considerable diversity between the Mediterranean and Balkan- influenced cuisines of Albanians in the Western Balkan nations and the Italian and Greek- influenced cuisines of the Arbëreshës and Chams. The enjoyment of food has a high priority in the lives of Albanian peoples especially when celebrating religious festivals such as Ramadan, Eid, Christmas, Easter, Hanukkah or NovruzIngredients include many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs and olives, herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary and thyme and vegetables such as garlic, onion, peppers, potatoes and tomatoes. Albanian peoples who live closer to the Mediterranean Sea, Prespa Lake and Ohrid Lake are able to complement their diet with fish, shellfish and other seafood. Otherwise, lamb is often considered the traditional meat for different religious festivals. Poultry, beef and pork are also in plentiful supply. Tavë Kosi is a national dish in Albania consisting of garlic lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yogurt. Fërgesë is another national dish and is made with peppers, tomatoes and cottage cheese. Pite is a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë or mish. Desserts include Flia, consisting of multiple crepe- like layers brushed with crea; petulla, a traditionally fried dough, and Krofne, similar to Berliner. Visual arts. Painting. The earliest preserved relics of visual arts of the Albanian people are sacred in nature and represented by numerous frescoes, murals and icons which has been created with an admirable use of color and gold. They reveal a wealth of various influences and traditions that converged in the historical lands of the Albanian people throughout the course of the centuries. The rise of the Byzantines and Ottomans during the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art often apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout Albania. The Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and arts whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism. Onufri, founder of the Berat School, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. Albanians in Italy and Croatia have been also active among others the Renaissance influenced artists such as Marco Basaiti, Viktor Karpaçi and Andrea Nikollë Aleksi. In Greece, | Eleni Boukouras is noted as |
being the first great female painter of post independence Greece. In 1856, Pjetër Marubi arrived in Shkodër and established the first photography museum in Albania and probably the entire Balkans, the Marubi Museum. The collection of 150, 000 photographs, captured by the Albanian- Italian Marubi dynasty, offers an ensemble of photographs depicting social rituals, traditional costumes, portraits of Albanian history. The Kulla, a traditional Albanian dwelling constructed completely from natural materials, is a cultural relic from the medieval period particularly widespread in the southwestern region of Kosovo and northern region of Albania. The rectangular shape of a Kulla is produced with irregular stone ashlars, river pebbles and chestnut woods, however, the size and number of floors depends on the size of the family and their financial resources. Literature. The roots of literature of the Albanian people can be traced to the Middle Ages with surviving works about history, theology and philosophy dating from the Renaissance. The earliest known use of written Albanian is a baptismal formula( 1462) written by the Archbishop of Durrës Paulus Angelus. In 1555, a Catholic clergyman Gjon Buzuku from the Shestan region published the earliest known book written in Albanian titled" Meshari"( The Missal) regarding Catholic prayers and rites containing archaic medieval language, lexemes and expressions obsolete in contemporary Albanian. Other Christian clergy such as Luca Matranga in the Arbëresh diaspora published( 1592) in the Tosk dialect while other notable authors were from northern Albanian lands and included Pjetër Budi, Frang Bardhi, and Pjetër Bogdani.Inthe17th century and onwards, important contributions were made by the Arbëreshë people of Southern Italy who played an influential role in encouraging the Albanian Renaissance. Notable among them was figures such as Demetrio Camarda, Gabriele Dara, Girolamo de Rada, Giulio Variboba and Giuseppe Serembe who produced inspiring nationalist literature and worked to systematise the Albanian language.TheBejtexhinjinthe18th century emerged as the result of the influences of Islam and particularly Sufism orders moving towards Orientalism. Individuals such as Nezim Frakulla, Hasan Zyko Kamberi, Shahin and Dalip Frashëri compiled literature infused with expressions, language and themes on the circumstances of the time, the insecurities of the future and their discontent at the conditions of the feudal system.TheAlbanianRenaissanceinthe19th century is remarkable both for its valuable poetic achievement and for its variety within the Albanian literature. It drew on the ideas of Romanticism and Enlightenment characterised by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as the interaction between nature and mankind. Dora d' Istria, Girolamo de Rada, Naim Frashëri, Naum Veqilharxhi, Sami Frashëri and Pashko Vasa maintained this movement and are remembered today for composing series of prominent works.The20th century was centred on the principles of Modernism and Realism and characterised by the development to a more distinctive and expressive form of Albanian literature. Pioneers of the time include Asdreni, Faik Konica, Fan Noli, Lasgush Poradeci, Migjeni who chose to portray themes of contemporary life and most notably Gjergj Fishta who created the epic masterpiece Lahuta e Malcís. After World War II, Albania emerged as a communist state and Socialist realism became part of the literary scene. Authors | and poets emerged such as |
Sejfulla Malëshova, Dritero Agolli and Ismail Kadare who has become an internationally acclaimed novelist and others who challenged the regime through various sociopolitical and historic themes in their works. Martin Camaj wrote in the diaspora while in neighbouring Yugoslavia, the emergence of Albanian cultural expression resulted in sociopolitical and poetic literature by notable authors like Adem Demaçi, Rexhep Qosja, Jusuf Buxhovi.Theliterarysceneofthe21st century remains vibrant producing new novelists, authors, poets and other writers. Performing arts. Apparel. The Albanian people have incorporated various natural materials from their local agriculture and livestock as a source of attire, clothing and fabrics. Their traditional apparel was primarily influenced by nature, the lifestyle and has continuously changed since ancient times. Different regions possesses their own exceptional clothing traditions and peculiarities varied occasionally in colour, material and shape. The traditional costume of Albanian men includes a white skirt called Fustanella, a white shirt with wide sleeves, and a thin black jacket or vest such as the Xhamadan or Xhurdia. In winter, they add a warm woolen or fur coat known as Flokata or Dollama made from sheepskin or goat fur. Another authentic piece is called Tirq which is a tight pair of felt trousers mostly white, sometimes dark brown or black. The Albanian women' s costumes are much more elaborate, colorful and richer in ornamentation. In all the Albanian regions the women' s clothing often has been decorated with filigree ironwork, colorful embroidery, a lot of symbols and vivid accessories. A unique and ancient dress is called Xhubleta, a bell shaped skirt reaching down to the calves and worn from the shoulders with two shoulder straps at the upper part. Different traditional handmade shoes and socks were worn by the Albanian people. Opinga, leather shoes made from rough animal skin, were worn with Çorape, knitted woolen or cotton socks. Headdresses remain a contrasting and recognisable feature of Albanian traditional clothing. Albanian men wore hats of various designs, shape and size. A common headgear is a Plis and Qylafë, in contrast, Albanian women wore a Kapica adorned with jewels or embroidery on the forehead, and a Lëvere or Kryqe which usually covers the head, shoulders and neck. Wealthy Albanian women wore headdresses embellished with gems, gold or silver. Music. For the Albanian people, music is a vital component to their culture and characterised by its own peculiar features and diverse melodic pattern reflecting the history, language and way of life. It rather varies from region to another with two essential stylistic differences between the music of the Ghegs and Tosks. Hence, their geographic position in Southeast Europe in combination with cultural, political and social issues is frequently expressed through music along with the accompanying instruments and dances. Albanian folk music is contrasted by the heroic tone of the Ghegs and the relaxed sounds of the Tosks. Traditional iso- polyphony perhaps represents the most noble and essential genre of the Tosks which was proclaimed a Masterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Ghegs in contrast have a reputation for a distinctive variety of sung epic poetry often about the | tumultuous history of the Albanian |
people. There are a number of internationally acclaimed singers of ethnic Albanian origin such as Ava Max, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, Era Istrefi, Rita Ora, and rappers such as Action Bronson, Dardan, Gashi and Loredana Zefi. Notable singers of Albanian origin from the former Yugoslavia include Selma Bajrami and Zana Nimani. In international competitions, Albania participated in the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time in 2004. Albanians have also represented other countries in the contest: Anna Oxa for Italy in 1989, Adrian Gaxha for North Macedonia in 2008, Ermal Meta for Italy in 2018, Eleni Foureira for Cyprus in 2018, as well as Gjon Muharremaj for Switzerland in 2020 and 2021. Kosovo has never participated, but is currently applying to become a member of the EBU and therefore debut in the contest. Religion. Many different spiritual traditions, religious faiths and beliefs are practised by the Albanian people who historically have succeeded to coexist peacefully over the centuries in Southeast Europe. They are traditionally both Christians and Muslims— Catholics and Orthodox, Sunnis and Bektashis and— but also to a lesser extant Evangelicals, other Protestants and Jews, constituting one of the most religiously diverse peoples of Europe.ChristianityinAlbaniawasunderthejurisdictionoftheBishopofRomeuntilthe8th century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with the Roman Catholic Church. Since that time all churches north of the Shkumbin river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope. Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with theLatinriteandCatholicmissionsincentralAlbaniainthe12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states. After the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, Christianity began to be overtaken by Islam, and Catholicism and Orthodoxy continued to be practiced with less frequency. During the modern era, the monarchy and communism in Albania as well as the socialism in Kosovo, historically part of Yugoslavia, followed a systematic secularisation of its people. This policy was chiefly applied within the borders of both territories and produced a secular majority of its population. All forms of Christianity, Islam and other religious practices were prohibited except for old non- institutional pagan practices in the rural areas, which were seen as identifying with the national culture. The current Albanian state has revived some pagan festivals, such as the Spring festival() held yearly on 14 March in the city of Elbasan. It is a national holiday. The communist regime which ruled Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions, and entirely banned religion to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world' s first atheist state. Religious freedom returned to Albania following the regime' s change in 1992. Albanian Sunni Muslims are found throughout the country, Albanian Orthodox Christians as well as Bektashis are concentrated in the south, while Roman Catholics are found primarily in the north of the country. According to the 2011 Census, which has been recognised as unreliable by the Council of Europe, in Albania, 58. 79% of | the population adheres to Islam, |
making it the largest religion in the country. Christianity is practiced by 16. 99% of the population, making it the second largest religion in the country. The remaining population is either irreligious or belongs to other religious groups. Before World War II, there was given a distribution of 70% Muslims, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholics. Today, Gallup Global Reports 2010 shows that religion plays a role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians, and ranks Albania the thirteenth least religious country in the world. For part of its history, Albania has also had a Jewish community. Members of the Jewish community were saved by a group of Albanians during the Nazi occupation. Many left for Israel c. 1990– 1992 when the borders were opened after the fall of the communist regime, but about 200 Jews still live in Albania. The Association for Computing Machinery( ACM) is a US- based international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the world' s largest scientific and educational computing society. The ACM is a non- profit professional membership group, claiming nearly 100, 000 student and professional members. Its headquarters are in New York City. The ACM is an umbrella organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science( informatics). Its motto is" Advancing Computing as a Science& amp; Profession". History. The ACM was founded in 1947 under the name" Eastern Association for Computing Machinery", which was changed the following year to the Association for Computing Machinery. Activities. ACM is organized into over 171 local chapters and 37 Special Interest Groups( SIGs), through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 500 college and university chapters. The first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the University of Louisiana at LafayetteMany of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH, SIGDA, SIGPLAN, SIGCSE and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences, which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting innovations in certain fields. The groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters. ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest( ICPC), and has sponsored some other events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the IBM Deep Blue computer. Services. Publications. ACM publishes over 50 journals including the prestigious" Journal of the ACM", and two general magazines for computer professionals," Communications of the ACM"( also known as" Communications" or" CACM") and" Queue". Other publications of the ACM include: Although" Communications" no longer publishes primary research, and is not considered a prestigious venue, many of the great debates and results in computing history have been published in its pages. ACM has made almost all of its publications available to paid subscribers online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature. Individual members additionally have access to SafariBooksOnlineandBooks24x7. ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members. In 1997, ACM Press published" Wizards and Their Wonders: Portraits in Computing"(), written by Christopher Morgan, with new photographs by Louis Fabian Bachrach. The | book is a collection of |
historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry. Portal and Digital Library. The ACM Portal is an online service of the ACM. Its core are two main sections: ACM Digital Library and the ACM Guide to Computing Literature. The ACM Digital Library is the full- text collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines and conference proceedings. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries.TheACMDigitalLibrarycontainsacomprehensivearchivestartinginthe1950s of the organization' s journals, magazines, newsletters and conference proceedings. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest. There is an extensive underlying bibliographic database containing key works of all genres from all major publishers of computing literature. This secondary database is a rich discovery service known as The ACM Guide to Computing Literature. ACM adopted a hybrid Open Access( OA) publishing model in 2013. Authors who do not choose to pay the OA fee must grant ACM publishing rights by either a copyright transfer agreement or a publishing license agreement. ACM was a" green" publisher before the term was invented. Authors may post documents on their own websites and in their institutional repositories with a link back to the ACM Digital Library' s permanently maintained Version of Record. All metadata in the Digital Library is open to the world, including abstracts, linked references and citing works, citation and usage statistics, as well as all functionality and services. Other than the free articles, the full- texts are accessed by subscription. There is also a mounting challenge to the ACM' s publication practices coming from the open access movement. Some authors see a subscription business model as less relevant and publish on their home pages or on unreviewed sites like arXiv. Other organizations have sprung up which do their peer review entirely free and online, such as" Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research"," Journal of Machine Learning Research" and the" Journal of Research and Practice in Information Technology". Membership grades. In addition to student and regular members, ACM has several advanced membership grades to recognize those with multiple years of membership and" demonstrated performance that sets them apart from their peers". The number of Fellows, Distinguished Members, and Senior Members cannot exceed 1%, 10%, and 25% of the total number of professional members, respectively. Fellows. The ACM Fellows Program was established by Council of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1993" to recognize and honor outstanding ACM members for their achievements in computer science and information technology and for their significant contributions to the mission of the ACM." There are 1310 Fellows out of about 100, 000 members. Distinguished Members. In 2006, ACM began recognizing two additional membership grades, one which was called Distinguished Members. Distinguished Members( Distinguished Engineers, Distinguished Scientists, and Distinguished Educators) have at least 15 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous ACM membership and" have made a significant impact on the computing field". Note that in 2006 when the Distinguished Members first came out, one of the three levels was called" Distinguished Member" and was changed about two years | later to" Distinguished Educator". Those |
who already had the Distinguished Member title had their titles changed to one of the other three titles. List of Distinguished Members of the Association for Computing MachinerySenior Members. Also in 2006, ACM began recognizing Senior Members. According to the ACM," The Senior Members Grade recognizes those ACM members with at least 10 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous Professional Membership who have demonstrated performance through technical leadership, and technical or professional contributions". Senior membership also requires 3 letters of referenceDistinguished Speakers. While not technically a membership grade, the ACM recognizes distinguished speakers on topics in computer science. A distinguished speaker is appointed for a three- year period. There are usually about 125 current distinguished speakers. The ACM website describes these people as' Renowned International Thought Leaders'. The distinguished speakers program( DSP) has been in existence for over 20 years and serves as an outreach program that brings renowned experts from Academia, Industry and Government to present on the topic of their expertise. The DSP is overseen by a committeeChapters. ACM has three kinds of chapters: Special Interest Groups, Professional Chapters, and Student Chapters., ACM has professional& amp; SIG Chapters in 56 countries., there exist ACM student chapters in 41 different countries. Conferences. ACM and its Special Interest Groups( SIGs) sponsors numerous conferences with 170 hosted worldwide in 2017. ACM Conferences page has an up- to- date complete list while a partial list is shown below. Most of the SIGs also have an annual conference. ACM conferences are often very popular publishing venues and are therefore very competitive. For example, the 2007 SIGGRAPH conference attracted about 30000 visitors, and CIKM only accepted 15% of the long papers that were submitted in 2005. The ACM is a co– presenter and founding partner of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing( GHC) with the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology. Some conferences are hosted by ACM student branches; this includes Reflections Projections, which is hosted by UIUC ACM.. In addition, ACM sponsors regional conferences. Regional conferences facilitate increased opportunities for collaboration between nearby institutions and they are well attended. For additional non- ACM conferences, see this list of computer science conferences. Awards. The ACM presents or co– presents a number of awards for outstanding technical and professional achievements and contributions in computer science and information technology. Over 30 of ACM' s Special Interest Groups also award individuals for their contributions with a few listed below. Leadership. The President of ACM for 2020– 2022 is Gabriele Kotsis, Professor at the Johannes Kepler University Linz. She is successor of Cherri M. Pancake( 2018– 2020), Professor Emeritus at Oregon State University and Director of the Northwest Alliance for Computational Science and Engineering( NACSE); Vicki L. Hanson( 2016– 2018), Distinguished Professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology and Visiting Professor at the University of Dundee; Alexander L. Wolf( 2014– 2016), Dean of the Jack Baskin School of Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz; Vint Cerf( 2012– 2014), an American computer scientist who is recognized as one of" the fathers of the | Internet"; Alain Chesnais( 2010– 2012), |
a French citizen living in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where he runs his company named Visual Transitions; and Dame Wendy Hall of the University of Southampton, UK( 2008– 2010). ACM is led by a Council consisting of the President, Vice- President, Treasurer, Past President, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members– At– Large. This institution is often referred to simply as" Council" in" Communications of the ACM". Infrastructure. ACM has five" Boards" that make up various committees and subgroups, to help Headquarters staff maintain quality services and products. These boards are as follows: ACM Council on Women in Computing. ACM- W, the ACM council on women in computing, supports, celebrates, and advocates internationally for the full engagement of women in computing. ACM– W' s main programs are regional celebrations of women in computing, ACM- W chapters, and scholarships for women CS students to attend research conferences. In India and Europe these activities are overseen by ACM- W India and ACM- W Europe respectively. ACM- W collaborates with organizations such as the Anita Borg Institute, the National Center for Women& amp; Information Technology( NCWIT), and. Athena Lectures. The ACM- W gives an annual Athena Lecturer Award to honor outstanding women researchers who have made fundamental contributions to computer science. This program began in 2006. Speakers are nominated by SIG officers. Cooperation. ACM' s primary partner has been the IEEE Computer Society( IEEE- CS), which is the largest subgroup of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers( IEEE). The IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues than theoretical computer science, but there is considerable overlap with ACM' s agenda. They have many joint activities including conferences, publications and awards. ACM and its SIGs co- sponsor about 20 conferences each year with IEEE- CS and other parts of IEEE. Eckert- Mauchly Award and Ken Kennedy Award, both major awards in computer science, are given jointly by ACM and the IEEE- CS. They occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computing curricula. ACM has also jointly sponsored on events with other professional organizations like the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics( SIAM). Criticism. In December 2019, the ACM signed a letter to President Trump opposing open access. A petition against this was formed and collected over a thousand signatures. In reaction to this, ACM clarified its position. The SoCG conference, while originally an ACM conference, parted ways with ACM in 2014 because of problems when organizing conferences abroad. Anabaptism( from Neo- Latin, from the Greek:" re-" and" baptism",, earlier also) is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation. Among the Anabaptist groups still present are mainly the Amish, Brethren, Hutterites and Mennonites.Inthe21st century, there are large cultural differences between assimilated Anabaptists, who do not differ much from evangelicals, and traditional groups like the Amish, the Old Colony Mennonites, the Old Order Mennonites, Old Order River Brethren, the Hutterites and the Old German Baptist Brethren. The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in a confession of faith called the Schleitheim Confession. In 1527, Michael Sattler | presided over a meeting at |
Schleitheim( in Schaffhausen canton, on the Swiss- German border), where Anabaptist leaders drew up the Schleitheim Confession of Faith( doc. 29). Sattler was arrested and executed soon afterwards. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. This believer' s baptism is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized.AnabaptistsarethosewhoareinatraditionallinewiththeearlyAnabaptistsofthe16th century. Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer' s baptism, such as Baptists, but these groups are not Anabaptist. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists. The name Anabaptist means" one who baptizes again". Their persecutors named them this, referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ even if they had been baptized as infants, and many prefer to call themselves" Radical Reformers." Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self- confessed believers was their first true baptism: Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches, both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics,beginninginthe16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture, which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5– 7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his. Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside true Biblical Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524: Origins. Medieval forerunners. Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformationinthe16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to the interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický,a15th- century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, | the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, and |
some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists. Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations: Zwickau prophets and the German Peasants' War. On December 27, 1521, three" prophets" appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau who were influenced by( and, in turn, influencing) Thomas Müntzer— Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression. Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists( that is, they did not practise" rebaptism"); nevertheless, the prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of subsequent sectarians to have taken part in the peasant uprising. Views on origins. Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden, and Thomas Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over- correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements. The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of( The History of the Münster Uprising) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman( 1852– 1933), who Harold S. Bender said occupied" first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his" A History of Anti- Pedobaptism"( 1897). Three main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following: Monogenesis. A number of scholars( e. g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider the Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement of Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, et al. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich, and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first" re- baptisms" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. Polygenesis. James M. Stayer, Werner O. | Packull, and Klaus Deppermann disputed |
the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled" From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession. The authors of the essay noted the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing the date for a single starting point:" Hillerbrand and Bender( like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism..., which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony." After criticizing the standard polygenetic history, the authors found six groups in early Anabaptism which could be collapsed into three originating" points of departure":" South German Anabaptism, the Swiss Brethren, and the Melchiorites". According to their polygenesis theory, South German– Austrian Anabaptism" was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism", Swiss Anabaptism" arose out of Reformed congregationalism", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by" Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman". As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than the Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how Pilgram Marpeck' s of 1542 was deeply influenced by the of 1533 by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann. Melchior Hoffman influenced the Hutterites when they used his commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. Others who have written in support of polygenesis include Grete Mecenseffy and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Thomas Müntzer and Hans Hut. In another work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull showed the influence of Thomas Müntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Similarly, author Steven Ozment linked Hans Denck and Hans Hut with Thomas Müntzer, Sebastian Franck, and others. Author Calvin Pater showed how Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism. Several historians, including Thor Hall, Kenneth Davis, and Robert Kreider, have also noted the influence of Humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions ofEuropeintheearly16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Conrad Grebel in Switzerland, Thomas Müntzer in central Germany, Pilgram Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia. Apostolic succession. Baptist successionists have, at times,pointedto16th- century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches(" church perpetuity") from the time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and a number of" true church" movements. The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non- Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had | no connection with one another |
and had origins that were separate both in time and in place. A different strain of successionism is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, H. C. Vedder, Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght( author of Martyrs Mirror) all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin. History. Switzerland. Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli. As early as 1522 it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes, the mass, and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform- minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and the scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked" what should be done about the mass?" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Höngg, answered saying," The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God." This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city Council allowed them. To the radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children. Seeking fellowship with other reform- minded people, the radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt' s writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism" until the matter could be resolved". Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Felix Manz petitioned the council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525. The Council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Conrad Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the Council decision was extremely personal to | him and others who had |
not baptized their children. Thus, when sixteen of the radicals met on Saturday evening, January 21, 1525, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event: Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re- baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus, technically, Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day. Tyrol. Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through the labors of George Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gaismair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was squashed. Although little hard evidence exists of a direct connection between Gaismair' s uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of the peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. While a connection between a violent social revolution and non- resistant Anabaptism may be hard to imagine, the common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants. Before Anabaptism proper was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. As well, the population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. George Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529. Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol, and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of the fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I. In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was beginning to die out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution. Low Countries and northern Germany. Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530 he was" re- baptized" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman' s apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to | the Münster Rebellion, even though |
he was" of a different spirit". Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs, but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons, the latter from whom the Mennonites received their name. David Joris and Menno Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on" spirit and prophecy", while Menno emphasized the authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the" inner" and" spiritual" permitted compromise to" escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the" dead letter of the Scripture". Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. There they formed the Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from Northern Germany.Inthelate18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine( which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so- called Russian Mennonites. Beginning in 1874, many of them emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada.Inthe1920s, the conservative faction of the Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay.Beginninginthe1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize.Sincethe1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. In 2015, some Mennonites from Bolivia settled in Peru. In 2018, there are more than 200, 000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America. Moravia, Bohemia and Silesia. Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to the area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions. Soon, one- eyed Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg, and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the( sword- bearing) and the( staff- bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods. With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz. Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Jacob Hutter was instrumental in organizing these into what became known as the Hutterites. But others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all | the other versions of Anabaptism |
would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania, then to the Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874. South and central Germany, Austria and Alsace. South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism. Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther, is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been" rebaptized", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German Mystical background( in connection with Thomas Müntzer) both accepted" rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hans Hut is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together. However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism( at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of the Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart( partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck' s inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists. Persecutions and migrations. Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Felix Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning( called the" third baptism")" the best antidote to Anabaptism". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs( Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability. The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists, and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism." Martyrs Mirror", by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites. Unlike Calvinists, Anabaptists failed to gain recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and as a result, they continued to be persecuted in Europe long after that treaty was signed. Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, | in the fact that during |
thereforminthe16thand17th centuries, 30 to 40 percent of martyrs were women. Types. Different types exist among the Anabaptists, although the categorizations tend to vary with the scholar' s viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must" distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists". He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Müntzer, Storch, et al. as inspirationists, and anti- trinitarians such as Michael Servetus, Juan de Valdés, Sebastian Castellio, and Faustus Socinus as rationalists. Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying," The Anabaptists were one of several branches of' Radical' reformers( i. e. reformers that went further than the mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti- Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus." Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use" Anabaptist" to define the larger movement, and include the inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term" Anabaptist" for those who" rebaptized" persons already" baptized" in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define" Anabaptists" that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann. Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren( Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism( Menno Simons, Dirk Philips), and South German Anabaptism( Hübmaier, Marpeck). Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a New Jerusalem, and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites, who occupied and held the German city of Münster in 1534– 1535, and the Batenburgers,whopersistedinvariousguisesaslateasthe1570s. Spirituality. Charismatic manifestations. Within the inspirationist wing of the Anabaptist movement, it was not unusual for charismatic manifestations to appear, such as dancing, falling under the power of the Holy Spirit," prophetic processions"( at Zurich in 1525, at Munster in 1534 and at Amsterdam in 1535), and speaking in tongues. In Germany some Anabaptists," excited by mass hypnosis, experienced healings, glossolalia, contortions and other manifestations of a camp- meeting revival". The Anabaptist congregations that later developed into the Mennonite and Hutterite churches tended not to promote these manifestations, but did not totally reject the miraculous. Pilgram Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles:" Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion... God has a free hand even in these last days." Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote:" Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard- of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God( Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in | other ways. Even today, they |
are found alive and we can hear their own testimony... Cannot everyone who sees, even the blind, say with a good conscience that such things are a powerful, unusual, and miraculous act of God? Those who would deny it must be hardened men." The Hutterite Chronicle and the" Martyrs Mirror" record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531:" this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter". Just" a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished". Holy Spirit leadership. The Anabaptists insisted upon the" free course" of the Holy Spirit in worship, yet still maintained it all must be judged according to the Scriptures. The Swiss Anabaptist document titled" Answer of Some Who Are Called( Ana-) Baptists– Why They Do Not Attend the Churches". One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to" the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14"." When such believers come together,' Everyone of you( note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above- mentioned order of speaking and prophesying." Today. Anabaptists. Among the Anabaptist groups still present are mainly the Amish, certain Brethren churches, Hutterites and Mennonites.SchwarzenauBrethrenandRiverBrethrenemergedinthe18th century under Anabaptist influence and adopted many Anabaptist practices and lifestyles. According to Rod Dreher, the same is true fortheBruderhofCommunitiesthatemergedintheearly20th century. Sometimes the Apostolic Christian Church is seen as(" Neo- Anabaptist"). Some historical connections have been demonstrated for all of these spiritual descendants, though perhaps not as clearly as the earliest institutionally lineal descendants. Although many see the more well- known Anabaptist groups( Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, only the Amish and the Hutterites today are composed mainly of descendants of the European Anabaptists, while among the Mennonites there are Ethnic Mennonites and others who are not. Brethren groups have mostly lost their ethnic distinctiveness. In 2018, there would be 2, 13 million baptized Anabaptists in 86 countries. The Bruderhof Communities were founded in Germany by Eberhard Arnold in 1920, establishing and organisationally joining the Hutterites in 1930. The group moved to England after the Gestapo confiscated their property in 1933, and they subsequently moved to Paraguay in order to avoid military conscription, and after World War II, they moved to the United States. Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the16th- century Anabaptists, are usually considered Anabaptist because their doctrine | and practice are almost identical |
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