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to the doctrine and practice of Anabaptism. The modern- day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and Radical Pietism. Similar groups. The relationship between Baptists and Anabaptists was originally strained. In 1624, the then five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists. Puritans of England and their Baptist branch arose independently, and although they may have been informed by Anabaptist theology, they clearly differentiate themselves from Anabaptists as seen in the London Baptist Confession of Faith A. D. 1644," Of those Churches which are commonly( though falsely) called ANABAPTISTS". Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share" some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists". German Baptists are not related to the English Baptist movement and were inspired by central European Anabaptists. Upon moving to the United States, they associated with Mennonites and Quakers. Anabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably Chaplain Tappman in Joseph Heller' s novel" Catch- 22", James( Jacques) in Voltaire' s novella" Candide", Giacomo Meyerbeer' s opera( 1849), and the central character in the novel" Q", by the collective known as" Luther Blissett". Neo- Anabaptists. Neo- Anabaptism is a late twentieth and early twenty- first century theological movement within American evangelical Christianity which draws inspiration from theologians who are located within the Anabaptist tradition but are ecclesiastically outside it. Neo- Anabaptists have been noted for their" low church, counter- cultural, prophetic- stance- against- empire ethos" as well as for their focus on pacifism, social justice and poverty. The works of Mennonite theologians Ron Sider and John Howard Yoder are frequently cited as having a strong influence on the movement. Beliefs. Anabaptists, who view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity. Legacy.CommonAnabaptistbeliefsandpracticesofthe16th century continue to influence modern Christianity and Western society. The Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion( sometimes associated with separation of church and state).WhenitwasintroducedbytheAnabaptistsinthe15thand16th centuries, religious freedom which was independent from the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities. According to Estep: Ans may refer to: Primarily as an acronym, ANS or Ans may also refer to: Southeast Alaska, colloquially referred to as the Alaska Panhandle or Alaskan Panhandle, is the southeastern portion of the U. S. state of Alaska, bordered to the east by the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The majority of Southeast Alaska' s area is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains( see Alaska boundary dispute). The region is noted for its scenery and mild, rainy climate. The largest cities in the region are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. This region is also home to the easternmost town in Alaska, Hyder. | Geography. Southeast Alaska has a |
land area of, comprising much of the Alexander Archipelago. The largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of Southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait. The archipelago is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian Native peoples, as well as gold- rush era steamships. In modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships. Demographics. Southeast Alaska is composed of seven entire boroughs and two census areas, in addition to the portion of the Yakutat Borough lying east of 141° West longitude. Although it has only 6. 14 percent of Alaska' s land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, and almost as large as the state of Indiana. The Southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada. The 2010 census population of Southeast Alaska was 71, 616 inhabitants, representing approximately 10% of the state' s total population. About 45% of residents in the Southeast Alaska region were concentrated in the city of Juneau, the state capital. As of 2018, the number of settlements in Southeast Alaska that have a population of at least 1, 000 people has grown to nine. Major cities and towns. Populations are based on 2018 estimates, except for Haines and Metlakatla which are based on the 2010 Census. National parks and monuments. Southeast Alaska includes the Tongass National Forest( which manages Admiralty Island National Monument and Misty Fjords National Monument), Glacier Bay National Park, Sitka National Historical Park, Alaska' s Inside Passage, and myriad large and small islands. It is the sixth largest national park in the United States. On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region. Climate. The climate of Southeast Alaska is dominated by a mid- latitude oceanic climate( Köppen" Cfb") in the south, an oceanic, marine sub- polar climate( Köppen" Cfc") in the central region around Juneau, and a subarctic climate( Köppen" Dfc") to the far northwest and the interior highlands of the archipelago. Southeast Alaska is also the only region in Alaska where the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months, except for in the southern parts of the Aleutian islands such as Unalaska. Ecology. Southeast Alaska is a temperate rain forest within the Pacific temperate rain forest zone, as classified by the World Wildlife Fund' s ecoregion system, which extends from northern California to Prince William Sound. The most common tree species are sitka spruce and western hemlock. Wildlife includes brown bears, black bears, endemic Alexander Archipelago wolf packs, Sitka black- tailed deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin | ducks, scoters, and marbled murrelets. |
The Ecological Atlas of Southeast Alaska, published by Audubon Alaska in 2016, offers an overview of the region' s landscape, birds, wildlife, human uses, climate change, and more, synthesizing data from agencies and a variety of other sources. Culture. This area is the traditional homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is closely connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally. Industry. Major industries in Southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism( primarily the cruise ship industry). Logging. Logging has been an important industry in the past, but has been steadily declining with competition from other areas and the closure of the region' s major pulp mills; the Alaska Forest Association described the situation as" desperate" in 2011. Its members include Alcan Forest Products( owned by Canadian Transpac Group, one of the top 5 log exporters in North America) and Viking Lumber, which is based in Craig, Alaska. Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon. Mining. Mining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the early history of the region.Inthe2010s, mines increasingly began to be explored and eventually completed in neighboring British Columbia, upstream of important rivers such as the Unuk and the Stikine, which became known as the transboundary mining issue. In 2014, the dam breach at the Mount Polley mine focused attention on the issue, and an agreement between Canada and Alaska was drafted in 2015. The proposed Kerr Sulphurets Mitchell exploration is upstream of the Unuk. Mines upstream of the Stikine include the Red Chris, which is owned by the same company( Imperial Metals) as the Mount Polley mine. History. The border between Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia was the subject of the Alaska boundary dispute, where the United States and the United Kingdom claimed different borderlines at the Alaskan panhandle. While the British foreign affairs were in favor of support of the Canadian argument, the event resulted in what was thought of as a betrayal, leading to alienation of the British from the new nation of Canada. Transportation. Due to the extremely rugged, mountainous nature of Southeastern Alaska, almost all communities( with the exception of Hyder, Skagway, and Haines) have no road connections outside of their locale, so aircraft and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through this region. Air transportation. Alaska Airlines is by far the largest air carrier in the region, with Juneau' s Juneau International Airport serving as the aerial hub for all of Southeast and Ketchikan' s Ketchikan International Airport serving as a secondary hub for southern Southeast Alaska. Alaska' s bush airlines and air taxis serve many of the smaller and more isolated communities and villages in the regions. Many communities are accessible by air only by floatplane, as proper runways are often difficult | to construct on the steep |
island slopes. Marine transportation. Southeast Alaska is primarily served by the state- run Alaska Marine Highway, which links Skagway, Haines, Hoonah, Juneau, Sitka, Petersburg, Wrangell, Ketchikan and other outlying communities with Prince Rupert, BC and Bellingham, Washington; and secondarily by the Prince of Wales Island- based Inter- Island Ferry Authority, which provides the only scheduled passenger and auto ferry service to the island. A new Authority, the Rainforest Islands Ferry Authority, was created and in 2014 may possibly operate the North End route. The Authority would connect Coffman Cove with Wrangell and Petersburg. Small companies like Sitka- based Allen Marine and other independent operators in the Lynn Canal occasionally also offer marine passenger service. Ship traffic in the area is seasonally busy with cruise ships. The Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad is an independent student magazine for the Radboud University Nijmegen. Founded in 1985 by members of the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia. Interior Alaska is the central region of Alaska' s territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska' s second- largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113, 154. Climate. Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average− 12° F(− 24° C) and summer temperatures average+ 62° F(+ 17° C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as− 65° F(− 54° C) in mid- winter, and as high as+ 99° F(+ 37° C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100° F( 38° C) in Fort Yukon and− 80° F(− 64° C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects. Summers can be as wet for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over burned. The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11. 3 inches( 28. 7 cm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range. On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen dancing in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during | the night hours. The months |
of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter. The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached. Alaska Natives. While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan Indians, large Yup' ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks. The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska:" And did those feet in ancient time" is a poem by William Blake from the preface to his epic', one of a collection of writings known as the Prophetic Books. The date of 1804 on the title page is probably when the plates were begun, but the poem was printed. Today it is best known as the hymn" Jerusalem"'", with music written by Sir Hubert Parry in 1916. The famous orchestration was written by Sir Edward Elgar. It is not to be confused with another poem, much longer and larger in scope and also by Blake, called" Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion". The poem was supposedly inspired by the apocryphal story that a young Jesus, accompanied by Joseph of Arimathea, a tin merchant, travelled to what is now England and visited Glastonbury during his unknown years. Most scholars reject the historical authenticity of this story out of hand, and according to British folklore scholar A. W. Smith," there was little reason to believe that an oral tradition concerning a visit made by Jesus to Britain existed before the early part of the twentieth century". The poem' s theme is linked to the Book of Revelation( and 21: 2) describing a Second Coming, wherein Jesus establishes a New Jerusalem. Churches in general, and the Church of England in particular, have long used Jerusalem as a metaphor for Heaven, a place of universal love and peace. In the most common interpretation of the poem, Blake asks whether a visit by Jesus briefly created heaven in England, in contrast to the" dark Satanic Mills" of the Industrial Revolution. Blake' s poem asks four questions rather than asserting the historical truth of Christ' s visit. The second verse is interpreted as an exhortation to create an ideal society in England, whether or not there was a divine visit. Text. The original text is found in the preface Blake wrote for inclusion with" Milton, a Poem", following the lines beginning" The Stolen and Perverted Writings of Homer& amp; Ovid: of Plato& amp; Cicero, which all Men ought to contemn:..." Blake' s poemBeneath the poem Blake inscribed a quotation from the Bible:" Dark Satanic Mills".[[ File: Albion Flour Mills Bankside. jpg| thumb| Albion Flour Mills,[[ Bankside]], London]] The phrase" dark Satanic Mills", which entered the English language from this poem, is often interpreted as referring to the early[[ Industrial Revolution]] and its destruction of nature and human relationships. This view has been linked to the fate of the[[ Albion Mills, Southwark| Albion | Flour Mills]] in[[ Southwark]], the |
first major factory in London. This rotary steam- powered flour mill by[[ Matthew Boulton]] and[[ James Watt]] could produce 6, 000[[ bushel]] s of flour per week. The factory could have driven independent traditional millers out of business, but it was destroyed in 1791 by fire, perhaps[[ Luddite| deliberately]]. London' s independent millers celebrated with placards reading," Success to the mills of[[ Albion]] but no Albion Mills." Opponents referred to the factory as[[ satan]] ic, and accused its owners of adulterating flour and using cheap imports at the expense of British producers. A contemporary illustration of the fire shows a[[ devil]] squatting on the building. The mills were a short distance from Blake' s home. Blake' s phrase resonates with a broader theme in his works, what he envisioned as a physically and spiritually[[ Political repression| repressive]] ideology based on a quantified reality. Blake saw the[[ cotton mill]] s and[[ collieries]] of the period as a mechanism for the enslavement of millions, but the concepts underpinning the works had a wider application:[[ File: Milton a Poem, copy C, object 4( Bentley 4, Erdman 6, Keynes 4) detail- a. jpg| thumb|400px| The first reference to Satan' s" mills", next to images of megaliths([[ Milton: A Poem in Two Books]], copy C, object 4)]] Another interpretation, amongst[[ Nonconformist( Protestantism)| Nonconformist]] s, is that the phrase refers to the established[[ Church of England]]. This church preached a doctrine of conformity to the established social order and class system, in contrast to Blake. In 2007 the new[[ Bishop of Durham]],[[ N. T. Wright]], explicitly recognised this element of English subculture when he acknowledged this alternative view that the" dark satanic mills" refer to the" great churches". In similar vein, the critic[[ F. W. Bateson]] noted how" the adoption by the Churches and women' s organizations of this anti- clerical paean of free love is amusing evidence of the carelessness with which poetry is read".[[ Stonehenge]] and other megaliths are featured in" Milton", suggesting they may relate to the oppressive power of priestcraft in general; as[[ Peter Porter( poet)| Peter Porter]] observed, many scholars argue that the"[ mills] are churches and not the factories of the Industrial Revolution everyone else takes them for". An alternative theory is that Blake is referring to a mystical concept within his own mythology related to the ancient history of England. Satan' s" mills" are referred to repeatedly in the main poem, and are first described in words which suggest neither industrialism nor ancient megaliths, but rather something more abstract:" the starry Mills of Satan/ Are built beneath the earth and waters of the Mundane Shell... To Mortals thy Mills seem everything, and the Harrow of[[ El Shaddai| Shaddai]]/ A scheme of human conduct invisible and incomprehensible"." Chariots of fire". The line from the poem" Bring me my Chariot of fire!" draws on the story of[[ wikisource: Bible( King James)/ 2 Kings# 2: 11| 2 Kings 2: 11]], where the[[ Old Testament]] prophet[[ Elijah]] is taken directly to heaven:" And it came to pass, as they still went on, and talked, that, | behold, there appeared a chariot |
of fire, and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven." The phrase has become a byword for divine energy, and inspired the title of the 1981 film"[[ Chariots of Fire]]", in which the hymn Jerusalem is sung during the final scenes. The plural phrase" chariots of fire" refers to[[ wikisource: Bible( King James)/ 2 Kings# 6: 17| 2 Kings 6: 17]]." Green and pleasant land". Blake lived in London for most of his life, but wrote much of" Milton" while living in a cottage, now[[ Blake’ s Cottage]], in the village of[[ Felpham]] in Sussex. Amanda Gilroy argues that the poem is informed by Blake' s" evident pleasure" in the Felpham countryside. However, locals allege that records from Lavant, near Chichester, state that Blake wrote the poem in an east- facing alcove of the Earl of March public house. The phrase" green and pleasant land" has become a common term for an identifiably English landscape or society. It appears as a headline, title or sub- title in numerous articles and books. Sometimes it refers, whether with appreciation, nostalgia or critical analysis, to idyllic or enigmatic aspects of the English countryside. In other contexts it can suggest the perceived habits and aspirations of rural middle- class life. Sometimes it is used ironically, e. g. in the[[ Dire Straits]] song"[[ Iron Hand( song)| Iron Hand]]". Revolution. Several of Blake' s poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity:" As all men are alike( tho' infinitely various)". He retained an active interest in social and political events for all his life, but was often forced to resort to cloaking social idealism and political statements in Protestant mystical[[ allegory]]. Even though the poem was written during the[[ Napoleonic Wars]], Blake was an outspoken supporter of the[[ French Revolution]], and[[ Napoleon]] claimed to be continuing this revolution. The poem expressed his desire for radical change without overt sedition. In 1803 Blake was charged at[[ Chichester]] with high treason for having" uttered seditious and treasonable expressions", but was acquitted. The poem is followed in the preface by a quotation from"[[ Book of Numbers| Numbers]]" ch. 11, v. 29:" Would to God that all the Lords people were prophets."[[ Christopher Rowland( theologian)| Christopher Rowland]] has argued that this includeseveryone in the task of speaking out about what they saw. Prophecy for Blake, however, was not a prediction of the end of the world, but telling the truth as best a person can about what he or she sees, fortified by insight and an" honest persuasion" that with personal struggle, things could be improved. A human being observes, is indignant and speaks out: it' s a basic political maxim which is necessary for any age. Blake wanted to stir people from their intellectual slumbers, and the daily grind of their toil, to see that they were captivated in the grip of a culture which kept them thinking in ways which served the interests of the powerful." The words of the poem" stress the importance of people taking responsibility for | change and building a better |
society' in Englands green and pleasant land.'" Popularisation. The poem, which was little known during the century which followed its writing, was included in the patriotic anthology of verse" The Spirit of Man," edited by the[[ Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom]],[[ Robert Bridges]], and published in 1916, at a time when morale had begun to decline because of the high number of casualties in World War I and the perception that there was no end in sight. Under these circumstances, Bridges, finding the poem an appropriate hymn text to" brace the spirit of the nation[ to] accept with cheerfulness all the sacrifices necessary," asked[[ Hubert Parry| Sir Hubert Parry]] to put it to music for a[[ Fight for Right Movement| Fight for Right campaign]] meeting in London' s[[ Queen' s Hall]]. Bridges asked Parry to supply" suitable, simple music to Blake' s stanzas– music that an audience could take up and join in", and added that, if Parry could not do it himself, he might delegate the task to[[ George Butterworth]]. The poem' s idealistic[[ Theme( literature)| theme]] or[[ subtext]] accounts for its popularity across much of the political spectrum. It was used as a campaign slogan by the[[ Labour Party( UK)| Labour Party]] in the[[ 1945 United Kingdom general election| 1945 general election]];[[ Clement Attlee]] said they would build" a new Jerusalem". It has been sung at conferences of the[[ Conservative Party( UK)| Conservative Party]], at the[[ Glee Club( British politics)| Glee Club]] of the British[[ Liberal Assembly]], the[[ Labour Party( UK)| Labour Party]] and by the[[ Liberal Democrats( UK)| Liberal Democrats]]. Parry' s setting of" Jerusalem". In adapting Blake' s poem as a[[ unison]] song, Parry deployed a two-[[ stanza]] format, each taking up eight lines of Blake' s original poem. He added a four- bar musical introduction to each verse and a[[ coda( music)| coda]], echoing melodic[[ motif( music)| motif]] s of the song. The word" those" was substituted for" these" before" dark satanic mills". The piece was to be conducted by Parry' s former student[[ Walford Davies]], but Parry was initially reluctant to set the words, as he had doubts about the ultra- patriotism of Fight for Right, but not wanting to disappoint either Robert Bridges or Davies he agreed, writing it on 10 March 1916, and handing the manuscript to Davies with the comment," Here' s a tune for you, old chap. Do what you like with it." Davies later recalled, Davies arranged for the vocal score to be published by[[ Curwen Press| Curwen]] in time for the concert at the[[ Queen' s Hall]] on 28 March and began rehearsing it. It was a success and was taken up generally. But Parry began to have misgivings again about Fight for Right and eventually wrote to Sir[[ Francis Younghusband]] withdrawing his support entirely in May 1917. There was even concern that the composer might withdraw the song, but the situation was saved by[[ Millicent Fawcett]] of the[[ National Union of Women' s Suffrage Societies]]( NUWSS). The song had been taken up by the Suffragists in 1917 and | Fawcett asked Parry if it |
might be used at a Suffrage Demonstration Concert on 13 March 1918. Parry was delighted and orchestrated the piece for the concert( it had originally been for voices and organ). After the concert, Fawcett asked the composer if it might become the Women Voters' Hymn. Parry wrote back," I wish indeed it might become the Women Voters' hymn, as you suggest. People seem to enjoy singing it. And having the vote ought to diffuse a good deal of joy too. So they would combine happily". Accordingly, he assigned the copyright to the NUWSS. When that organisation was wound up in 1928, Parry' s executors reassigned the copyright to the[[ Women' s Institutes]], where it remained until it entered the public domain in 1968. The song was first called" And Did Those Feet in Ancient Time" and the early published scores have this title. The change to" Jerusalem" seems to have been made about the time of the 1918 Suffrage Demonstration Concert, perhaps when the orchestral score was published( Parry' s manuscript of the orchestral score has the old title crossed out and" Jerusalem" inserted in a different hand). However, Parry always referred to it by its first title. He had originally intended the first verse to be sung by a solo female voice( this is marked in the score), but this is rare in contemporary performances. Sir[[ Edward Elgar]] re- scored the work for very large orchestra in 1922 for use at the[[ Leeds Festival( classical music)| Leeds Festival]]. Elgar' s orchestration has overshadowed Parry' s own, primarily because it is the version usually used now for the[[ Last Night of the Proms]]( though Sir[[ Malcolm Sargent]],whointroducedittothateventinthe1950s, always used Parry' s version). Use as a hymn. Although Parry composed the music as a unison song, many churches have adopted" Jerusalem" as a four- part hymn; a number of English entities, including the BBC, the Crown, cathedrals, churches, and chapels regularly use it as an office or recessional hymn on[[ Saint George' s Day]]. However, some clergy in the Church of England, according to the[[ BBC TV]] programme" Jerusalem: An Anthem for England", have said that the song is not technically a[[ hymn]] as it is not a prayer to God( which they claim hymns always are, though many counter- examples appear in any hymnal). Consequently, it is not sung in some churches in England. Despite this, it was sung as a hymn during the[[ wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton]] in[[ Westminster Abbey]]. Many schools use the song, especially[[ Public school( UK)| public school]] s in Great Britain( it was used as the title music for the[[ BBC]]' s 1979 series" Public School" about[[ Radley College]]), and several private schools in Australia, New Zealand, New England and Canada. In Hong Kong, diverted version of" Jerusalem" is also used as the school hymn of St. Catherine' s School for Girls, Kwun Tong and Bishop Hall Jubilee School." Jerusalem" was chosen as the opening hymn for the[[ London Olympics 2012]], although"[[ God Save the Queen]]" was the anthem sung during the raising of | the flag in salute to |
the Queen. Some attempts have also been made to increase its use elsewhere with other words; examples include the State Funeral of President Ronald Reagan in Washington National Cathedral on 11 June 2004 and the State Memorial Service for Australian Prime Minister[[ Gough Whitlam]] on 5 November 2014. It has been featuring on BBC Songs Of Praise for many years and in a countrywide poll to find the UK' s favourite hymn in 2019, it was voted in at Number 1, knocking previous How Great Thou Art into second place. Use as a national anthem. Upon hearing the orchestral version for the first time,[[ George V of the United Kingdom| King George V]] said that he preferred" Jerusalem" over the British national anthem"[[ God Save the King]]"." Jerusalem" is considered to be England' s most popular patriotic song;"[[ The New York Times]]" said it was" fast becoming an alternative national anthem," and there have even been calls to give it official status. England has no official anthem and uses the British national anthem"[[ God Save the Queen]]", also unofficial, for some national occasions, such as before English international football matches. However, some sports, including[[ rugby league]], use" Jerusalem" as the English anthem." Jerusalem" is the official hymn of the[[ England and Wales Cricket Board]], although" God Save the Queen" has been sung before England' s games on several occasions, including the[[2010ICCWorldTwenty20]], the[[ 2010– 11 Ashes series]] and the[[ 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup]]. Questions in[[ British Parliament| Parliament]] have not clarified the situation, as answers from the relevant minister say that since there is no official national anthem, each sport must make its own decision. As Parliament has not clarified the situation, Team England, the English Commonwealth team, held a public poll in 2010 to decide which anthem should be played at medal ceremonies to celebrate an English win at the Commonwealth Games." Jerusalem" was selected by 52% of voters over"[[ Land of Hope and Glory]]"( used since 1930) and" God Save the Queen". In 2005[[ BBC Four]] produced" Jerusalem: An Anthem For England" highlighting the usages of the song/ poem and a case was made for its adoption as the[[ national anthem of England]]. Varied contributions come from[[ Howard Goodall]],[[ Billy Bragg]],[[ Garry Bushell]],[[ Lord Hattersley]],[[ Ann Widdecombe]] and[[ David Mellor]],[[ Militarism| war proponents]],[[ pacifism| war opponents]],[[ suffragettes]],[[ trade unionists]],[[ Independent school( United Kingdom)| public schoolboys]], the[[ Conservative Party( UK)| Conservatives]], the[[ The Labour Party( UK)| Labour Party]],[[ Football Supporters' Federation| football supporters]], the[[ British National Party]], the[[ Women' s Institute#.22Jerusalem. 22| Women' s Institute]],[[ London Gay Men' s Chorus| a gay choir]],[[ London Community Gospel Choir| a gospel choir]],[[ Fat Les]] and[[ Naturists# United Kingdom| naturists]]. Emerson, Lake and Palmer version. In 1973, for their"[[ Brain Salad Surgery]]" album, British progressive rock band[[ Emerson, Lake& amp; Palmer]] recorded a version of the song titled" Jerusalem". The track features the debut of the prototype[[ Moog Apollo]], the first[[ polyphonic synthesizer| polyphonic music synthesizer]]. The subject matter of this song indicates a nod to ELP' s unabashed Englishness and simultaneously lent an | air of timeless tradition and |
ceremony to the music. Though a single was released of the song, it failed to chart, and it was banned from radio play in England. The BBC would not accept it as a serious piece of music, the band claims. A live rendition was recorded during their subsequent" Someone Get Me a Ladder" tour, and was included on the live album of the band' s 1974 tour"[[ Welcome Back My Friends to the Show That Never Ends– Ladies and Gentlemen| Welcome Back My Friends to the Show That Never Ends– Ladies and Gentlemen... Emerson, Lake& amp; Palmer]]". Performances. The popularity of Parry' s setting has resulted in many hundreds of recordings being made, too numerous to list, of both traditional choral performances and new interpretations by popular music artists. Consequently, only its most notable performances are listed below. Use in film, television and theatre." Bring me my Chariot of fire" inspired the title of the film"[[ Chariots of Fire]]". A church congregation sings" Jerusalem" at the close of the film and a performance appears on the"[[ Chariots of Fire( album)| Chariots of Fire soundtrack]]" performed by the[[ Ambrosian Singers]] overlaid partly by a composition by[[ Vangelis]]. One unexpected touch is that" Jerusalem" is sung in four- part harmony, as if it were truly a hymn. This is not authentic: Parry' s composition was a unison song( that is, all voices sing the tune– perhaps one of the things that make it so" singable" by massed crowds) and he never provided any harmonisation other than the accompaniment for organ( or orchestra). Neither does it appear in any standard hymn book in a guise other than Parry' s own, so it may have been harmonised specially for the film. The film' s working title was" Running" until[[ Colin Welland]] saw a television programme,"[[ Songs of Praise]]", featuring the hymn and decided to change the title. The hymn has featured in many other films and television programmes including"[[ Four Weddings and a Funeral]]","[[ How to Get Ahead in Advertising]]","[[ The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner( film)| The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner]]","[[ Saint Jack( film)| Saint Jack]]","[[ Calendar Girls]]", Season 3: Episode 22 of"[[ Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]","[[ Goodnight Mister Tom( 1998 film)| Goodnight Mr. Tom]]","[[ Women in Love]]","[[ The Man Who Fell to Earth]]","[[ Shameless( UK TV series)| Shameless]]","[[ Jackboots on Whitehall]]","[[ Quatermass and the Pit]]", and"[[ Monty Python' s Flying Circus]]". An extract was heard in the 2013"[[ Doctor Who]]" episode"[[ The Crimson Horror]]" although that story was set in 1893, i. e., before Parry' s arrangement. A punk version is heard in[[ Derek Jarman]]' s 1977 film"[[ Jubilee( 1978 film)| Jubilee]]". In an episode of"[[ Peep Show( British TV series)| Peep Show]]", Jez([[ Robert Webb]]) records a track titled" This Is Outrageous" which uses the first and a version of the second line in a verse. A modified version of the hymn, replacing the word" England" with" Neo", is used in"[[ Neo Yokio]]" as the national anthem of the eponymous city state. In the theatre it appears in"[[ Jerusalem( | play)| Jerusalem]]","[[ Calendar Girls]]" and |
in"[[ Time and the Conways]]". Eddie Izzard discusses the hymn in his 2000"[[ Circle( Eddie Izzard)| Circle]]" stand- up tour. Punk band[[ Bad Religion]] have borrowed the opening line of Blake' s poem in their" God Song", from the 1990 album"[[ Against the Grain( Bad Religion album)| Against the Grain]]". Other composers. Blake' s lyrics have also been set to music by other composers without reference to Parry' s melody.[[ Tim Blake]]( synthesiser player of[[ Gong( band)| Gong]]) produced a solo album in 1978 called"[[ Blake' s New Jerusalem]]", including a 20- minute track with lyrics from Blake' s poem.[[ Mark E. Smith]] of[[ The Fall( band)| The Fall]] interpolated the verses with a deadpan rant against his native land in the track" Dog is life/ Jerusalem" from the 1988 ballet score"[[ I Am Kurious Oranj]]". The words, with some variations, are used in the track" Jerusalem" on[[ Bruce Dickinson]]' s album"[[ The Chemical Wedding( Bruce Dickinson album)| The Chemical Wedding]]", which also includes lines from book two of" Milton".[[ Finn Coren]] also created a different musical setting for the poem on his album"[[ The Blake Project: Spring]]".[[ The Verve]] also referenced the song in their 2008 song"[[ Love Is Noise]]" from the album[[ Forth( album)| Forth.]] Lead singer and writer[[ Richard Ashcroft]] said that Blake had influenced the lyric"' Will those feet in modern times"' from the song. This is not the first Verve song influenced by Blake, as their previous single"[[ History( The Verve song)| History]]" also featured the lyrics" I wandered lonely streets/ Behind where the old Thames does flow/ And in every face I meet", referencing Blake' s"[[ London( William Blake poem)| London]]". External links.[[ Category: 1804 poems]][[ Category: 1916 songs]][[ Category: English Christian hymns]][[ Category: English patriotic songs]][[ Category: National symbols of England]][[ Category: Poetry by William Blake]][[ Category: Adaptations of works by William Blake]][[ Category: British Israelism]][[ Category: Culture of Jerusalem]][[ Category: Musical settings of poems by William Blake]][[ Category: British anthems]] In Alaska, the Bush typically refers to any region of the state that is not connected to the North American road network or does not have ready access to the state' s ferry system. A large proportion of Alaska Native populations live in the Bush, often depending on subsistence hunting and fishing. Geographically, the Bush comprises the Alaska North Slope; Northwest Arctic; West, including the Baldwin and Seward Peninsulas; the Yukon- Kuskokwim Delta; Southwest Alaska; Bristol Bay; Alaska Peninsula; and remote areas of the Alaska Panhandle and Interior. Some of the hub communities in the bush, which typically can be reached by larger, commercial airplanes, include Bethel, Dillingham, King Salmon, Nome, Utqiagvik, Kodiak Island, Kotzebue, and Unalaska- Dutch Harbor. Most parts of Alaska that are off the road or ferry system can be reached by small bush airplanes. Travel between smaller communities or to and from hub communities is typically accomplished by snowmobiles, boats, or ATVs. A Little Night Music is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Hugh Wheeler. Inspired by the 1955 Ingmar Bergman film" Smiles of | a Summer Night", it involves |
the romantic lives of several couples. Its title is a literal English translation of the German name for Mozart' s Serenade No. 13, K. 525," Eine kleine Nachtmusik". The musical includes the popular song" Send In the Clowns". Since its original 1973 Broadway production, the musical has enjoyed professional productions in the West End, by opera companies, in a 2009 Broadway revival, and elsewhere, and it is a popular choice for regional groups. It was adapted for film in 1977, with Harold Prince directing and Elizabeth Taylor, Len Cariou, Lesley- Anne Down, and Diana Rigg starring. Synopsis. Act One. The setting is Sweden, around the year 1900. One by one, the Quintet– five singers who comment like a Greek chorus throughout the show– enter, tuning up. Gradually, their vocalizing becomes an overture blending fragments of" Remember"," Soon" and" The Glamorous Life", leading into the first" Night Waltz". The other characters enter waltzing, each uncomfortable with her partner. After they drift back off, the aging and sardonic Madame Armfeldt and her solemn granddaughter, Fredrika, enter. Madame Armfeldt tells the child that the summer night" smiles" three times: first on the young, second on fools, and third on the old. Fredrika vows to watch the smiles occur. Middle- aged successful lawyer Fredrik Egerman has recently married an 18- year- old trophy wife, Anne, a naive girl who loves Fredrik, but isn' t attracted to him. The two have been married for eleven months, and Anne still protects her virginity. Fredrik plots how he might seduce his wife(" Now"). Meanwhile, his son Henrik, a seminary student a year older than his stepmother, is frustrated and ignored(" Later"). Anne promises her husband that shortly she will consent to have sex even though she can' t help recoiling at his touch(" Soon"), which leads into all three of them lamenting at once. Anne' s maidservant Petra, an experienced and forthright girl, slightly older than the teen herself, offers her worldly but crass advice. Desiree Armfeldt is a prominent and glamorous actress who is now reduced to touring in small towns. Madam Armfeldt, Desiree' s mother, has taken over the care of Desiree' s daughter Fredrika. Fredrika misses her mother, but Desiree continually delays going to see her, preferring, somewhat ironically," The Glamorous Life". She is performing near Fredrik' s home, and Fredrik brings Anne to see the play. While there, Desiree notices Fredrik in the audience; the two had been lovers years earlier. Anne, suspicious and annoyed at Desiree' s amorous glances, demands that Fredrik take her home immediately. Meanwhile, Petra tries to seduce a nervous and petulant Henrik. That night, as Fredrik remembers his past with Desiree, he sneaks out to see her; the two have a happy but strained reunion as they" Remember". They reflect on their new lives, and Fredrik tries to explain how much he loves Anne(" You Must Meet My Wife"). Desiree sarcastically boasts of her own adultery, as she has been seeing the married dragoon, Count Carl- Magnus Malcolm. Upon learning that Fredrik has gone for eleven months without sex, she | agrees to accommodate him as |
a favor for an old friend. Madam Armfeldt offers advice to young Fredrika. The elderly woman reflects poignantly on her own checkered past, and wonders what happened to her refined" Liaisons". Back in Desiree' s apartment, Count Carl- Magnus Malcolm proclaims his unannounced arrival in his usual booming tones. Fredrik and Desiree fob off the Count with an innocent explanation for their disheveled appearance, but he is still suspicious. He instantly dislikes Fredrik and returns to his wife, Countess Charlotte. Charlotte knows of her husband' s infidelity, but Carl- Magnus is too absorbed in his suspicions of Desiree to talk to her(" In Praise of Women"). When she persuades him to blurt out the whole story, a twist is revealed— Charlotte' s little sister is a schoolfriend of Anne' s. Charlotte visits Anne and describes Fredrik' s tryst with Desiree. Anne is shocked and saddened, but Charlotte explains that such is the lot of a wife, and love brings pain(" Every Day a Little Death"). Meanwhile, Desiree asks Madam Armfeldt to host a party for Fredrik, Anne and Henrik. Madam Armfeldt reluctantly agrees, and sends out a personal invitation; its receipt sends Anne into a frenzy, imagining" A Weekend in the Country" with the Armfeldts. Anne does not want to accept the invitation, but Charlotte convinces her to do so to heighten the contrast between the older woman and the young and beautiful teenager. Charlotte relates this to the Count, who( much to her chagrin) decides to visit the Armfeldts uninvited. Carl- Magnus plans to challenge Fredrik to a duel, while Charlotte hopes to seduce the lawyer to make her husband jealous and end his philandering. The act ends as all characters head to Madam Armfeldt' s estate. Act Two. Madam Armfeldt' s country estate is bathed in the golden glow of perpetual summer sunset at this high latitude(" Night Waltz One and Two"). Everyone arrives, each with their own amorous purposes and desires— even Petra, who catches the eye of Armfeldt' s fetching manservant, Frid. The women begin to quarrel with one another. Fredrik is astonished to learn the name of Desiree' s daughter. Henrik meets Fredrika, and confesses to her he deeply loves Anne. Meanwhile, in the garden, Fredrik and Carl- Magnus reflect on the difficulty of being annoyed with Desiree, agreeing" It Would Have Been Wonderful" had she not been quite so wonderful. Dinner is served, and the characters'" Perpetual Anticipation" enlivens the meal. At dinner, Charlotte attempts to flirt with Fredrik, and trades insults with Desiree. Soon, everyone is shouting and scolding everyone else, except for Henrik, who finally speaks up. He accuses the whole company of being amoral, and flees the scene. Stunned, everyone reflects on the situation and wanders away. Fredrika tells Anne of Henrik' s secret love, and the two dash off searching for him. Meanwhile, Desiree meets Fredrik and asks if he still wants to be" rescued" from his life. Fredrik answers honestly that he loves Desiree, but cannot bring himself to part with Anne. Hurt and bitter, Desiree can only reflect on the | nature of her life and |
relationship to Fredrik(" Send In the Clowns"). Anne finds Henrik, who is attempting to commit suicide. The clumsy boy cannot complete the task, and Anne tells him that she loves him, too. The pair begins to kiss, which leads to Anne' s first sexual encounter. Meanwhile, not far away, Frid sleeps in Petra' s lap. The maid imagines advantageous marriages, but concludes that in the meantime," a girl ought to celebrate what passes by"(" The Miller' s Son"). Charlotte confesses her plan to Fredrik, and both watch Henrik and Anne, happy together, run away to start their new life. The two commiserate on a bench. Carl- Magnus, preparing to romance Desiree, sees this and challenges Fredrik to Russian Roulette; Fredrik nervously misfires and simply grazes his own ear. Victorious, Carl- Magnus begins romancing Charlotte, finally granting her wish. After the Count and Countess leave, Fredrika and Madam Armfeldt discuss the recent chaotic turns- of- events. The elderly woman then asks Fredrika a surprising question:" What is it all for?" Fredrika thinks about this, and decides that love, for all of its frustrations," must be worth it". Madam Armfeldt is surprised, ruefully noting that she rejected love for material wealth at Fredrika' s age. She praises her granddaughter and remembers true love' s fleeting nature. Fredrik finally confesses his love for Desiree, acknowledging that Fredrika is his daughter, and the two promise to start a new life together(" Send in the Clowns"( Reprise)). Madam Armfeldt sits alone with Fredrika, who tells her grandmother that she has watched carefully, but still has not seen the night smile. Madam Armfeldt laughs and points out that the night has indeed smiled twice: first on Henrik and Anne, the young, and second on Desiree and Fredrik, the fools. As the two wait for the" third smile... on the old", it occurs: Madam Armfeldt closes her eyes, and dies peacefully with Fredrika beside her. Musical numbers. Stage: Screen: Productions. Original Broadway production." A Little Night Music" opened on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre on February 25, 1973. It played there until September 15, 1973, then moved to the Majestic Theatre, on September 17, and closed there on August 3, 1974, after 601 performances and 12 previews. It was directed by Harold Prince with choreography by Patricia Birch and design by Boris Aronson. The cast included Glynis Johns( Desiree Armfeldt), Len Cariou( Fredrik Egerman), Hermione Gingold( Madame Armfeldt), Victoria Mallory( Anne Egerman), Judith Kahan( Fredrika Armfeldt), Mark Lambert( Henrik Egerman), Laurence Guittard( Carl- Magnus Malcolm), Patricia Elliott( Charlotte Malcolm), George Lee Andrews( Frid), and D’ Jamin Bartlett( Petra). It won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and the Tony Award for Best Musical. Australian premiere. The first international production opened at Her Majesty' s Theatre in Sydney, Australia in November 1973, with a cast including Taina Elg, Bruce Barry, Jill Perryman, Doris Fitton, Anna Russell and Geraldine Turner. Australian revivals have been presented by the Sydney Theatre Company( featuring Geraldine Turner and a young Toni Collette) in 1990, Melbourne Theatre Company( featuring Helen Morse and John O' May) | in 1997, Opera Australia( featuring |
Sigrid Thornton and Anthony Warlow) in 2009, and Victorian Opera( featuring Ali McGregor, Simon Gleeson and Verity Hunt- Ballard) in 2019. United States tour. A US national tour began on February 26, 1974, at the Forrest Theatre, Philadelphia, and ended on February 13, 1975, at the Shubert Theatre, Boston. Jean Simmons as Desiree Armfeldt, George Lee Andrews as Fredrik Egerman and Margaret Hamilton as Madame Armfeldt headed the cast. West End premiere. The musical premiered in the West End at the Adelphi Theatre on April 15, 1975, and starred Jean Simmons, Joss Ackland, David Kernan, Liz Robertson, and Diane Langton, with Hermione Gingold reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt. It ran for 406 performances. During the run, Angela Baddeley replaced Gingold, and Virginia McKenna replaced Simmons. 1989 West End revival. A revival opened in the West End on October 6, 1989, at the Piccadilly Theatre, directed by Ian Judge, designed by Mark Thompson, and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast. It starred Lila Kedrova as Madame Armfeldt, Dorothy Tutin as Desiree Armfeldt, Peter McEnery as Fredrick, and Susan Hampshire. The production ran for 144 performances, closing on February 17, 1990. 1995 London revival. A revival by the Royal National Theatre opened at the Olivier Theatre on September 26, 1995. It was directed by Sean Mathias, with set design by Stephen Brimson Lewis, costumes by Nicky Gillibrand, lighting by Mark Henderson and choreography by Wayne McGregor. It starred Judi Dench( Desiree), Siân Phillips( Madame Armfeldt), Joanna Riding( Anne Egerman), Laurence Guittard( Fredrik Egerman), Patricia Hodge( Countess Charlotte) and Issy van Randwyck( Petra). The production closed on August 31, 1996. Dench received the Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical. 2008 London revival. The third London revival ran at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 22, 2008, until March 8, 2009. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn, with musical supervision by Caroline Humphris, choreography by Lynne Page, sets and costumes by David Farley and new orchestrations by Jason Carr. The cast included Hannah Waddingham as Desiree, Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Jessie Buckley( Anne), Maureen Lipman( Madame Armfeldt), Alistair Robins( the Count), Gabriel Vick( Henrik), Grace Link( Fredrika) and Kasia Hammarlund( Petra). This critically acclaimed production transferred to the Garrick Theatre in the West End for a limited season, opening on March 28, 2009 and running until July 25, 2009. The production then transferred to Broadway with a new cast. 2009 Broadway revival. The 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production opened on Broadway at the Walter Kerr Theatre in previews on November 24, 2009, and officially on December 13, 2009, with the same creative team. The cast starred Angela Lansbury as Madame Armfeldt and, in her Broadway debut, Catherine Zeta- Jones as Desiree. Also featured were Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Ramona Mallory( the daughter of original Broadway cast members Victoria Mallory and Mark Lambert) as Anne, Hunter Ryan Herdlicka as Henrik, Leigh Ann Larkin as Petra, Erin Davie as the Countess, Aaron Lazar as the Count, and Bradley Dean as Frid. Zeta- Jones received the award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical atthe64th Tony | Awards. Originally, Katherine Doherty and |
Keaton Whittaker played Fredrika in alternating performances, beginning with the November 2009 previews. The official show album, which was recorded in January 2010, features both Doherty and Whittaker as Fredrika( on different songs). However, Katherine McNamara replaced Doherty in February 2010. McNamara and Whittaker stayed with the production until it ended in January 2011. When the contracts of Zeta- Jones and Lansbury ended, the production temporarily closed on June 20, 2010 and resumed on July 13, with new stars Bernadette Peters as Desiree Armfeldt and Elaine Stritch as Madame Armfeldt. In an interview, Peters said that Sondheim had" proposed the idea to her this spring and urged the producers of the revival to cast her." Trevor Nunn directed rehearsals with the two new stars, and the rest of the original cast remained. Peters and Stritch extended their contracts until January 9, 2011, when the production closed with 20 previews and 425 regular performances. Before the production closed, it recouped its initial investment. Europe. Zarah Leander played Madame Armfeldt in the original Austrian staging( in 1975) as well as in the original Swedish staging in Stockholm in 1978( here with Jan Malmsjö as Fredrik Egerman). The successful Stockholm staging was directed by Stig Olin. In 2010 the musical was scheduled to return to Stockholm and the Stockholm Stadsteater. The cast included Pia Johansson, Dan Ekborg, Yvonne Lombard and Thérese Andersson. The Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris production ran from February 15, 2010, through February 20, 2010. Lee Blakeley directed and Andrew George was the choreographer. Italian- born actress Greta Scacchi played Désirée, and Leslie Caron played Madame Armfeldt. The Turku City Theatre staged the musical in 2011 with in the role as Désirée. directed and Jussi Vahvaselkä was musical director. Opera companies. The musical has also become part of the repertoire of a few opera companies. Michigan Opera Theatre was the first major American opera company to present the work in 1983, and again in November 2009. Light Opera Works( Evanston, Illinois) produced the work in August 1983. New York City Opera staged it in 1990, 1991 and 2003, the Houston Grand Opera in 1999, the Los Angeles Opera in 2004, and Hartford Opera Theater in 2014. New York City Opera' s production in August 1990 and July 1991( a total of 18 performances) won the 1990 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival and was telecast on the PBS show" Live at Lincoln Center" on November 7, 1990. The cast included both stage performers: Sally Ann Howes and George Lee Andrews as Desiree and Frederick and opera regular Regina Resnik as Madame Armfeldt( in 1991). The 2003 production featured a young Anna Kendrick as Fredrika Armfeldt, alongside Jeremy Irons as Frederick, Juliet Stevenson as Desiree, Claire Bloom as Madame Armfeldt, Danny Gurwin as Henrik, Michele Pawk as Charlotte, and Marc Kudisch as Carl- Magnus. Opera Australia presented the piece in Melbourne in May 2009, starring Sigrid Thornton as Desiree Armfeldt and Nancye Hayes as Madame Armfeldt. The production returned in 2010 at the Sydney Opera House with Anthony Warlow taking on the role of | Fredrik Egerman. The production was |
directed by Stuart Maunder, designed by Roger Kirk, and conducted by Andrew Greene. Opera Theatre of Saint Louis performed the musical in June 2010. Designer Isaac Mizrahi directed and designed the production, with a cast that starred Amy Irving, Siân Phillips and Ron Raines. The piece has also become a popular choice for amateur musical theatre and light opera companies. In 2017, the musical was performed by students at The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Film adaptation. A film version of" A Little Night Music" was released in 1977, starring Elizabeth Taylor, Lesley- Anne Down and Diana Rigg, with Len Cariou, Hermione Gingold and Laurence Guittard reprising their Broadway roles. The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria. Stephen Sondheim wrote lyrics for the" Night Waltz" theme(" Love Takes Time") and wrote an entirely new version of" The Glamorous Life", which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. However, other songs, including" In Praise of Women"," The Miller' s Son" and" Liaisons", were cut and remain heard only as background orchestrations. The film marked Broadway director Hal Prince' s second time as a motion picture director. Critical reaction to the film was mostly negative, with much being made of Taylor' s wildly fluctuating weight from scene to scene. Some critics talked more positively of the film, with" Variety" calling it" an elegant looking, period romantic charade". There was praise for Diana Rigg' s performance, and orchestrator Jonathan Tunick received an Oscar for his work on the score. A soundtrack recording was released on LP, and a DVD release was issued in June 2007. Music analysis. The score for" A Little Night Music" presents performance challenges more often seen in operetta or light opera pieces than in standard musical comedy. The demands made on the singing cast are considerable; although the vocal demands of the role of Desiree are rather small, most of the other singing roles require strong, legitimately- trained voices with fairly wide ranges. Sondheim' s liberal use of counterpoint extends to the vocal parts, including a free- structured round( the trio" Perpetual Anticipation") as well as songs in which characters engage in interior monologues or even overt dialogue simultaneously(" Now/ Later/ Soon"," A Weekend in the Country"). Critic Rex Reed noted that" The score of' Night Music'... contains patter songs, contrapuntal duets and trios, a quartet, and even a dramatic double quintet to puzzle through. All this has been gorgeously orchestrated by Jonathan Tunick; there is no rhythm section, only strings and woodwinds to carry the melodies and harmonies aloft." Sondheim' s engagement with threes extends to his lyrics. He organizes trios with the singers separated, while his duets are sung together, about a third person. The work is performed as an operetta in many professional opera companies. For example, it was added to the New York City Opera Company repertoire in 1990. time. Virtually all of the music in the show is written in waltz meter( time). Some parts adopt compound meter, with a time signature such as. Passages in" Overture"," Glamorous | Life"," Liaisons", and" The Miller' |
s Son" are in duple meter. Counterpoint and polyphony. At several points, Sondheim has multiple performers each sing a different song simultaneously. This use of counterpoint maintains coherence even as it extends the notion of a round, familiar in songs such as the traditional" Frère Jacques", into something more complex. Sondheim said:" As for the three songs... going together well, I might as well confess. In those days I was just getting into contrapuntal and choral writing... and I wanted to develop my technique by writing a trio. What I didn' t want to do is the quodlibet method... wouldn' t it be nice to have three songs you don' t think are going to go together, and they do go together... The trick was the little vamp on" Soon" which has five- and six- note chords." Steve Swayne comments that the" contrapuntal episodes in the extended ensembles... stand as testament to his interest in Counterpoint."" Send In The Clowns". The show' s best- known and Sondheim' s biggest hit song was almost an afterthought, written several days before the start of out- of- town tryouts. Sondheim initially conceived Desiree as a role for a more or less non- singing actress. When he discovered that the original Desiree, Glynis Johns, was able to sing( she had a" small, silvery voice") but could not" sustain a phrase", he devised the song" Send in the Clowns" for her in a way that would work around her vocal weakness, e. g., by ending lines with consonants that made for a short cut- off." It is written in short phrases in order to be acted rather than sung... tailor- made for Glynis Johns, who lacks the vocal power to sustain long phrases." In analyzing the text of the song, Max Cryer wrote that it" is not intended to be sung by the young in love, but by a mature performer who has seen it all before. The song remains an anthem to regret for unwise decisions in the past and recognition that there' s no need to send in the clowns– they' re already here." Graham Wolfe has argued," What Desirée is referring to in the famous song is a conventional device to cover over a moment when something has gone wrong on stage. Midway through the second Act she has deviated from her usual script by suggesting to Fredrik the possibility of being together seriously and permanently, and, having been rejected, she falters" as" a show- person, finds herself bereft of the capacity to improvise and wittily cover. If Desirée could perform at this moment– revert to the innuendos, one- liners and blithe self- referential humour that constitutes her normal character– all would be well. She cannot, and what follows is an exemplary manifestation of Sondheim’ s musico- dramatic complexity, his inclination to write music that performs drama. That is, what needs to be covered over( by the clowns sung about in the song) is the very intensity, ragged emotion and utter vulnerability that comes forward through the music and singing itself, a display protracted | to six minutes, wrought with |
exposed silences, a shocked Fredrik sitting so uncomfortably before Desirée while something much too real emerges in a realm where he– and his audience– felt assured of performance." Influences. There is a Mozart reference in the title—" A Little Night Music" is an occasionally- used translation of" Eine kleine Nachtmusik", the nickname of Mozart' s Serenade No. 13, K. 525. The elegant, harmonically- advanced music in this musical pays indirect homage to the compositions of Maurice Ravel, especially his" Valses nobles et sentimentales"( whose opening chord is borrowed for the opening chord of the song" Liaisons"); part of this effect stems from the style of orchestration that Jonathan Tunick used. There is also a direct quotation in' A Weekend in the Country'( just as it moves to A major) of Octavian' s theme from Strauss'' Der Rosenkavalier', another comedy of manners with partner- swapping at its heart. Cast recordings. In addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack( no longer available), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 Royal National Theatre revival( starring Judi Dench), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in Catalan. In 1997 an all- jazz version of the score was recorded by Terry Trotter. The 2009 Broadway revival with Catherine Zeta- Jones and Angela Lansbury recorded a cast album on January 4, 2010, which was released on April 6. Critical response. In his review of the original 1973 Broadway production, Clive Barnes in" The New York Times" called the musical" heady, civilized, sophisticated and enchanting." He noted that" the real triumph belongs to Stephen Sondheim... the music is a celebration of 3/ 4 time, an orgy of plaintively memorable waltzes, all talking of past loves and lost worlds... There is a peasant touch here." He commented that the lyrics are" breathtaking". In its review of the 1989 London revival, the reviewer for" The Guardian" wrote that the" production also strikes me as infinitely superior to Harold Prince' s 1975 version at the Adelphi. Mr Judge' s great innovation is to transform the Liebeslieder Singers from the evening- dressed, after- dinner line-upinto18th century ghosts weaving in and out of the action... But Mr Judge' s other great realisation is that, in Sondheim, the lyrics are not an adornment to a song but their very essence: understand them and the show will flow. Thus Dorothy Tutin as Desiree, the touring thesp eventually reunited with her quondam lover, is not the melting romantic of previous productions but a working mother with the sharpness of a hat- pin." The" Independent" review of the 1995 National Theatre revival praised the production, writing" For three hours of gloriously barbed bliss and bewitchment, Sean Mathias' s production establishes the show as a minor miracle of astringent worldly wisdom and one that is haunted by less earthy intimations." The review went on to state that" The heart of the production, in both senses, is Judi Dench' s superb Desiree Armfeldt... Her husky- voiced rendering of" Send in the Clowns" is the most moving I' ve ever heard." | In reviewing the 2008 Menier |
Chocolate Factory production, the" Telegraph" reviewer wrote that" Sondheim' s lyrics are often superbly witty, his music here, mostly in haunting waltz- time, far more accessible than is sometimes the case. The score positively throbs with love, regret and desire." But of the specific production, the reviewer went on to note:" But Nunn' s production, on one of those hermetic sets largely consisting of doors and tarnished mirrors that have become such a cliché in recent years, never penetrates the work' s subtly erotic heart. And as is often the case with this director' s work, the pace is so slow and the mood so reverent, that initial enchantment gives way to bored fidgeting." In his" New York Times" review of the 2009 Broadway production, Ben Brantley noted that" the expression that hovers over Trevor Nunn' s revival... feels dangerously close to a smirk... It is a smirk shrouded in shadows. An elegiac darkness infuses this production." The production is" sparing on furniture and heavy on shadows", with" a scaled- down orchestra at lugubriously slowed- down tempos..." He goes on to write that" this somber, less- is- more approach could be effective were the ensemble plugged into the same rueful sensibility. But there is only one moment in this production when all its elements cohere perfectly. That moment, halfway through the first act, belongs to Ms. Lansbury, who has hitherto been perfectly entertaining, playing Madame Armfeldt with the overripe aristocratic condescension of a Lady Bracknell. Then comes her one solo," Liaisons", in which her character thinks back on the art of love as a profession in a gilded age, when sex' was but a pleasurable means to a measurable end.' Her face, with its glamour- gorgon makeup, softens, as Madame Armfeldt seems to melt into memory itself, and the wan stage light briefly appears to borrow radiance from her. It' s a lovely example of the past reaching out to the present..." Steven Suskin, reviewing the new Broadway cast for" Variety", wrote" What a difference a diva makes. Bernadette Peters steps into the six- month- old revival of" A Little Night Music" with a transfixing performance, playing it as if she realizes her character' s onstage billing--" the one and only Desiree Armfeldt"— is clichéd hyperbole. By figuratively rolling her eyes at the hype, Peters gives us a rich, warm and comedically human Desiree, which reaches full impact when she pierces the façade with a nakedly honest, tears- on- cheek' Send in the Clowns.'" References. SourcesDual wielding is the technique of using two weapons, one in each hand for training or combat. It is not a common combat practice. Although historical records of dual wielding in war are limited, there are numerous weapon- based martial arts that involve the use of a pair of weapons. The use of a companion weapon is sometimes employed in European martial arts and fencing, such as a parrying dagger. Miyamoto Musashi, a Japanese swordsman and" ronin", was said to have conceived of the idea of a particular style of swordsmanship involving the use of two swords. | In terms of firearms, especially |
handguns, dual wielding is generally denounced by firearm enthusiasts due to its impracticality. Though using two handguns at the same time confers an advantage by allowing more ready ammunition, it is rarely done due to other aspects of weapons handling. Dual wielding, both with melee and ranged weapons, has been popularized by fictional works( film, television, and video games). History. Dual wielding has not been used or mentioned much in military history, though it appears in weapon- based martial arts and fencing practices. Dimachaerus were a type of Roman gladiator that fought with two swords. The name is the Latin- language borrowing of the Greek word meaning" bearing two knives"(" dual"+" knife") Thus, an inscription from Lyon, France, mentions such a type of gladiator, here spelled" dymacherus". The dimachaeri were equipped for close- combat fighting. A dimachaerus used a pair of siccae( curved scimitar) or gladius and used a fighting style adapted to both attack and defend with his weapons rather than a shield, as he was not equipped with one. The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. North American Indian tribes of the Atlantic northeast used a form involving a tomahawk in the primary hand and a knife in the secondary. It is practiced today as part of the modern Cree martial art Okichitaw. All the above- mentioned examples, involve either one long and one short weapon, or two short weapons. An example of a dual wield of two sabres is the Ukrainian cossack dance hopak. Asia.DuringthecampaignMuslimconquestin6thto7th AD, a Rashidun caliphate general named Khalid ibn Walid was reported to favor wielding two broad swords, with one in each hand, during combat. Traditional schools of Japanese martial arts include dual wield techniques, particularly a style conceived by Miyamoto Musashi involving the katana and wakizashi, two- sword kenjutsu techniques he called" Niten Ichi- ryū". Eskrima, the traditional martial arts of the Philippines teaches" Doble Baston" techniques involving the basic use of a pair of rattan sticks and also Espada y daga or Sword/ Stick and Dagger. Okinawan martial arts have a method that uses a pair of" sai". Chinese martial arts involve the use of a pair of butterfly swords and hook swords. Dian Wei, a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Famed for his enormous strength, Dian Wei excelled at wielding a pair of" ji" s( a halberd- like weapon), each of which was said to weigh 40" jin". During Wei– Jie war, Ran Min, emperor of short- lived Ran Wei empire of China, wielded two weapons, one in each hand, and fought fiercely, inflicting many casualties on the Xianbei soldiers mounting famous horse Zhu Long(" Red Dragon") Gatka, a weapon- based martial art from the Punjab region, is known to use two sticks at a time. The Thailand weapon- based martial art | Krabi Krabong involves the use |
of a separate" Krabi" in each hand. Kalaripayattu teaches advanced students to use either two sticks( of various sizes) or two daggers or two swords, simultaneously. Modern. The use of a gun in each hand is often associated with the American Old West, mainly due to media portrayals. It was common for people in the era to carry two guns, but not to use them at the same time, as shown in movies. The other pistol was used as a back- up weapon. However, there were several examples of gunmen in the West who actually used two pistols at the same time in their gunfights: Dual wielding two handguns has been popularized by film and television. Effectiveness." MythBusters" compared many firing stances, including having a gun in each hand and found that, compared to the two- handed single- gun stance as a benchmark, only the one- handed shoulder- level stance with a single gun was comparable in terms of accuracy and speed. The ability to look down the sights of the gun was given as the main reason for this. In an episode the following year, they compared holding two guns and firing simultaneously— rather than alternating left and right shots— with holding one gun in the two- handed stance, and found that the results were in favor of using two guns and firing simultaneously. Ariel Sharon(;;; also known by his diminutive Arik,, born Ariel Scheinermann,; 26 February 1928– 11 January 2014)wasanIsraeligeneralandpoliticianwhoservedasthe11th Prime Minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. Sharon was a commander in the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948. As a soldier and then an officer, he participated prominently in the 1948 Palestine war, becoming a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade and taking part in many battles, including Operation Bin Nun Alef. He was an instrumental figure in the creation of Unit 101 and the reprisal operations, as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Six- Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition, and the Yom- Kippur War of 1973. Yitzhak Rabin called Sharon" the greatest field commander in our history". Upon retirement from the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud party, and served in a number of ministerial posts in Likud- led governments in 1977– 92 and 1996– 99. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War. An official enquiry found that he bore" personal responsibility" for the Sabra and Shatila massacre and recommended that he be removed as Defense Minister. His perceived complicity in the massacre led to him being known as the" Butcher of Beirut" among Arabs.Fromthe1970sthroughtothe1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. He became the leader of the Likud in 2000, and was elected Prime Minister of Israel after defeating Ehud Barak in the 2001 prime ministerial election. He served as Israel' s prime minister from 2001 to 2006, during the Al- Aqsa Intifada. As Prime Minister, Sharon orchestrated Israel' s unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2004– 05. Facing stiff opposition to this policy within the Likud, | in November 2005 he left |
Likud to form a new party, Kadima. He had been expected to win the next election and was widely interpreted as planning on" clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. After suffering a stroke on 4 January 2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in January 2014. Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure in Middle East history. Israelis almost universally revere Sharon as a war hero and statesman who played a vital role in defining the country' s borders, while Palestinians revile Sharon as an impenitent war criminal who vigorously suppressed their aspirations for nationhood. Early life and education. Sharon was born on 26 February 1928 in Kfar Malal, an agricultural moshav, then in Mandatory Palestine, to Shmuel Scheinerman( 1896– 1956) of Brest- Litovsk and Vera( née Schneirov) Scheinerman( 1900– 1988) of Mogilev. His parents met while at university in Tiflis( now Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia), where Sharon' s father was studying agronomy and his mother was studying medicine. They immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1922 in the wake of the Russian Communist government' s growing persecution of Jews in the region. In Palestine, Vera Scheinerman went by the name Dvora. The family arrived with the Third Aliyah and settled in Kfar Malal, a socialist, secular community.( Ariel Sharon himself would remain proudly secular throughout his life.) Although his parents were Mapai supporters, they did not always accept communal consensus:" The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement' s anti- Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevik- style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health- fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative' s truck wouldn' t make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce." Sharon spoke both Hebrew and Russian. Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Yehudit( Dita). Ariel was born two years later. At age 10, he joined the youth movement HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed. As a teenager, he began to take part in the armed night- patrols of his moshav. In 1942 at the age of 14, Sharon joined the Gadna, a paramilitary youth battalion, and later the Haganah, the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military precursor to the Israel Defense Forces( IDF). Military career. Battle for Jerusalem and 1948 War. Sharon' s unit of the Haganah became engaged in serious and continuous combat from the autumn of 1947, with the onset of the Battle for Jerusalem. Without the manpower to hold the roads, his unit took to making offensive hit- and- run raids on Arab forces in the vicinity of Kfar Malal. In units of thirty men, they would hit constantly at Arab villages, bridges and bases, as well as ambush the traffic between Arab villages and bases. Sharon wrote in his autobiography:" We had become skilled at finding our way in the darkest nights and gradually we built up the strength and endurance these kind | of operations required. Under the |
stress of constant combat we drew closer to one another and began to operate not just as a military unit but almost as a family....[ W] e were in combat almost every day. Ambushes and battles followed each other until they all seemed to run together." For his role in a night- raid on Iraqi forces at Bir Adas, Sharon was made a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade. Following the Israeli Declaration of Independence and the onset of the War of Independence, his platoon fended off the Iraqi advance at Kalkiya. Sharon was regarded as a hardened and aggressive soldier, swiftly moving up the ranks during the war. He was shot in the groin, stomach and foot by the Jordanian Arab Legion in the First Battle of Latrun, an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the besieged Jewish community of Jerusalem. Sharon wrote of the casualties in the" horrible battle," and his brigade suffered 139 deaths. Jordanian field marshal Habis Al-MajaliclaimedthatSharonwasamong6IsraelisoldierscapturedbytheJordanian4th battalion during the battle, and that Habis took them to a camp in Mafraq and the 6 were later traded back. Sharon denied the claims, but Habes was adamant." Sharon is like a grizzly bear," he grumbled." I captured him, I healed his wounds." In 1994 and during the peace treaty signing ceremony with Jordan, Sharon wanted to get in touch with his former captor, but the latter determinedly refused to discuss the incident publicly. After recovering from the wounds received at Latrun, he resumed command of his patrol unit. On 28 December 1948, his platoon attempted to break through an Egyptian stronghold in Iraq- El- Manshia. At about this time, Israeli founding father David Ben- Gurion gave him the Hebraized name" Sharon". In September 1949, Sharon was promoted to company commander( of the Golani Brigade' s reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to intelligence officer for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies in history and Middle Eastern culture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Sharon' s subsequent military career would be characterized by insubordination, aggression and disobedience, but also brilliance as a commander. Unit 101. A year and a half later, on the direct orders of the Prime Minister, Sharon returned to active service in the rank of major, as the founder and commander of the new Unit 101, a special forces unit tasked with reprisal operations in response to Palestinian fedayeen attacks. The first Israeli commando unit, Unit 101 specialized in offensive guerrilla warfare in enemy countries. The unit consisted of 50 men, mostly former paratroopers and Unit 30 personnel. They were armed with non- standard weapons and tasked with carrying out special reprisals across the state' s borders— mainly establishing small unit maneuvers, activation and insertion tactics. Training included engaging enemy forces across Israel' s borders. Israeli historian Benny Morris describes Unit 101: Unit 101 undertook a series of raids against Jordan, which then held the West Bank. The raids also helped bolster Israeli morale and convince Arab states that the fledgling nation was capable of long- range military action. Known for raids against Arab civilians and | military targets, the unit is |
held responsible for the widely condemned Qibya massacre in the fall of 1953. After a group of Palestinians used Qibya as a staging point for a fedayeen attack in Yehud that killed a Jewish woman and her two children in Israel, Unit 101 retaliated on the village. By various accounts of the ensuing attack, 65 to 70 Palestinian civilians, half of them women and children, were killed when Sharon' s troops dynamited 45 houses and a school. Facing international condemnation for the attack, Ben- Gurion denied that the Israeli military was involved. In his memoir, Sharon wrote that the unit had checked all the houses before detonating the explosives and that he thought the houses were empty. Although he admitted the results were tragic, Sharon defended the attack, however:" Now people could feel that the terrorist gangs would think twice before striking, now that they knew for sure they would be hit back. Kibbya also put the Jordanian and Egyptian governments on notice that if Israel was vulnerable, so were they." A few months after its founding, Unit 101 was merged with the 890 Paratroopers Battalion to create the Paratroopers Brigade, of which Sharon would also later become commander. Like Unit 101, it continued raids into Arab territory, culminating with the attack on the Qalqilyah police station in the autumn of 1956. Leading up to the Suez War, the missions Sharon took part in included: During a payback operation in the Deir al- Balah refugee camp in the Gaza Strip, Sharon was again wounded by gunfire, this time in the leg. Incidents such as those involving Meir Har- Zion, along with many others, contributed to the tension between Prime Minister Moshe Sharett, who often opposed Sharon' s raids, and Moshe Dayan, who had become increasingly ambivalent in his feelings towards Sharon. Later in the year, Sharon was investigated and tried by the Military Police for disciplining one of his subordinates. However, the charges were dismissed before the onset of the Suez War. 1956 Suez War. Sharon commanded Unit 202( the Paratroopers Brigade) during the 1956 Suez War( the British" Operation Musketeer"), leading the troop to take the ground east of the Sinai' s Mitla Pass and eventually the pass itself against the advice of superiors, suffering heavy Israeli casualties in the process. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission( joining a battalion parachuted near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon' s unit was deployed near the pass. Neither reconnaissance aircraft nor scouts reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear. Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times, but his requests were denied, though he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force, | which was met with heavy |
fire and became bogged down due to vehicle malfunction in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack in order to aid their comrades. Sharon was criticized by his superiors and was damaged by allegations several years later made by several former subordinates, who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the Egyptians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. Sharon had assaulted Themed in a dawn attack, and had stormed the town with his armor through the Themed Gap. Sharon routed the Sudanese police company, and captured the settlement. On his way to the Nakla, Sharon' s men came under attack from Egyptian MIG-15s.Onthe30th, Sharon linked up with Eytan near Nakla. Dayan had no more plans for further advances beyond the passes, but Sharon nonetheless decided to attack the Egyptian positions at Jebel Heitan. Sharon sent his lightly armed paratroopers against dug- in Egyptians supported by aircraft, tanks and heavy artillery. Sharon'sactionswereinresponsetoreportsofthearrivalofthe1stand2ndBrigadesofthe4th Egyptian Armored Division in the area, which Sharon believed would annihilate his forces if he did not seize the high ground. Sharon sent two infantry companies, a mortar battery and some AMX- 13 tanks under the command of Mordechai Gur into the Heitan Defile on the afternoon of 31 October 1956. The Egyptian forces occupied strong defensive positions and brought down heavy anti- tank, mortar and machine gun fire on the IDF force. Gur' s men were forced to retreat into the" Saucer", where they were surrounded and came under heavy fire. Hearing of this, Sharon sent in another task force while Gur' s men used the cover of night to scale the walls of the Heitan Defile. During the ensuing action, the Egyptians were defeated and forced to retreat. A total of 260 Egyptian and 38 Israeli soldiers were killed during the battle at Mitla. Due to these deaths, Sharon' s actions at Mitla were surrounded in controversy, with many within the IDF viewing the deaths as the result of unnecessary and unauthorized aggression. Six- Day War, War of Attrition and Yom Kippur War. The Mitla incident hindered Sharon' s military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a law degree from Tel Aviv University. However, when Yitzhak Rabin became Chief of Staff in 1964, Sharon again began to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of Aluf( Major General). In the Six- Day War, Sharon, in command of an armored division on the Sinai front, drew up his own complex offensive strategy that combined infantry troops, tanks and paratroopers from planes and helicopters to destroy the Egyptian forces Sharon's38th Division faced when it broke through to the Kusseima- Abu- Ageila fortified area. Sharon' s victories and offensive strategy in the Battle of Abu- Ageila led to international commendation by military strategists; he was judged to have inaugurated a new paradigm in operational command. Researchers at the United States Army | Training and Doctrine Command studied |
Sharon' s operational planning, concluding that it involved a number of unique innovations. It was a simultaneous attack by a multiplicity of small forces, each with a specific aim, attacking a particular unit in a synergistic Egyptian defense network. As a result, instead of supporting and covering each other as they were designed to do, each Egyptian unit was left fighting for its own life. According to Sapir Handelman, after Sharon' s assault of the Sinai in the Six- Day War and his encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army in the Yom Kippur War, the Israeli public nicknamed him" The King of Israel". Sharon played a key role in the War of Attrition. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF' s Southern Command. As leader of the southern command, on 29 July Israeli frogmen stormed and destroyed Green Island, a fortress at the northern end of the Gulf of Suez whose radar and antiaircraft installations controlled that sector' s airspace. On 9 September Sharon' s forces carried out Operation Raviv, a large- scale raid along the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. Landing craft ferried across Russian- made tanks and armored personnel carriers that Israel had captured in 1967, and the small column harried the Egyptians for ten hours. Following his appointment to the southern command, Sharon had no further promotions, and considered retiring. Sharon discussed the issue with Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who strongly advised him to remain at his post. Sharon remained in the military for another three years, before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he helped found the Likud(" Unity") political party. At the start of the Yom Kippur War on 6 October 1973, Sharon was called back to active duty along with his assigned reserve armored division. On his farm, before he left for the front line, the Reserve Commander, Zeev Amit, said to him," How are we going to get out of this?" Sharon replied," You don' t know? We will cross the Suez Canal and the war will end over there." Sharon arrived at the front, to participate in his fourth war, in a civilian car. His forces did not engage the Egyptian Army immediately, despite his requests. Under cover of darkness, Sharon' s forces moved to a point on the Suez Canal that had been prepared before the war. In a move that again thwarted the commands of his superiors, Sharon' s division crossed the Suez, effectively winning the war for Israel. He then headed north towards Ismailia, intent on cutting the Egyptian second army' s supply lines, but his division was halted south of the Fresh Water Canal. Abraham Adan' s division passed over the bridgehead into Africa, advancing to within 101 kilometers of Cairo. His division managed to encircle Suez, cutting off and encircling the Third Army. Tensions between the two generals followed Sharon' s decision, but a military tribunal later found his action was militarily effective. Sharon' s complex ground maneuver is regarded as a decisive move in the Yom Kippur War, undermining the Egyptian Second Army and | encircling the Egyptian Third Army. |
This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is widely viewed as the hero of the Yom Kippur War, responsible for Israel' s ground victory in the Sinai in 1973. A photo of Sharon wearing a head bandage on the Suez Canal became a famous symbol of Israeli military prowess. Sharon' s political positions were controversial, and he was relieved of duty in February 1974. Bar Lev Line. Following Israel' s victory in the six- day war, the war of attrition at the Suez Canal began. The Egyptians began firing in provocation against the Israeli forces posted on the eastern part of the canal. Haim Bar Lev, Israel' s chief of staff, suggested that Israel construct a border line to protect its southern border. A wall of sand and earth raised along almost the entire length of the Suez Canal would both allow observation of Egyptian forces and conceal the movements of Israeli troops on the eastern side. This line, named after the chief of staff Haim Bar Lev, became known as the Bar Lev Line. It included at least thirty strong points stretching over almost 200 kilometers. Bar Lev suggested that such a line would defend against any major Egyptian assault across the canal, and was expected to function as a" graveyard for Egyptian troops". Moshe Dayan described it as" one of the best anti- tank ditches in the world." Sharon, and Israel Tal on the other hand, vigorously opposed the line. Sharon said that it would pin down large military formations that would be sitting ducks for deadly artillery attacks, and cited the opinion of Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who explained him" the great military disaster such a line could bring." Notwithstanding, it was completed in spring 1970. During the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian forces successfully breached the Bar Lev Line in less than two hours at a cost of more than a thousand dead and some 5, 000 wounded. Sharon would later recall that what Schneerson had told him was a tragedy," but unfortunately, that happened." Early political career, 1974– 2001. Beginnings of political career.Inthe1940sand1950s, Sharon seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of Mapai, the predecessor of the modern Labor Party. However, after retiring from military service, he joined the Liberal Party and was instrumental in establishing Likud in July 1973 by a merger of Herut, the Liberal Party and independent elements. Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for that year' s elections, which were scheduled for November. Two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the Yom Kippur War erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service. On the heels of being hailed as a war hero for crossing the Suez in the 1973 war, Sharon won a seat to the Knesset in the elections that year, but resigned a year later. From June 1975 to March 1976, Sharon was a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. He planned his return to politics for the 1977 elections; | first, he tried to return |
to the Likud and replace Menachem Begin at the head of the party. He suggested to Simha Erlich, who headed the Liberal Party bloc in the Likud, that he was more able than Begin to win an election victory; he was rejected, however. He then tried to join the Labor Party and the centrist Democratic Movement for Change, but was rejected by those parties too. Only then did he form his own list, Shlomtzion, which won two Knesset seats in the subsequent elections. Immediately after the elections, he merged Shlomtzion with the Likud and became Minister of Agriculture. When Sharon joined Begin' s government, he had relatively little political experience. During this period, Sharon supported the Gush Emunim settlements movement and was viewed as the patron of the settlers' movement. He used his position to encourage the establishment of a network of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to prevent the possibility of Palestinian Arabs' return to these territories. Sharon doubled the number of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and Gaza Strip during his tenure. After the 1981 elections, Begin rewarded Sharon for his important contribution to Likud' s narrow win, by appointing him Minister of Defense. Under Sharon, Israel continued to build upon the unprecedented coordination between the Israel Defense Forces and the South African Defence Force, with Israeli and South African generals giving each other unfettered access to each other' s battlefields and military tactics, and Israel sharing with South Africa highly classified information about its missions, such as Operation Opera, which had previously only been reserved for the United States. In 1981, after visiting South African forces fighting in Namibia for 10 days, Sharon argued that South Africa needed more weapons to fight Soviet infiltration in the region. Sharon promised that the relationship between Israel and South Africa would continue to deepen as they work to" ensure the National Defense of both our countries". The collaboration in carrying out joint- nuclear tests, in planning counter- insurgency strategies in Namibia and in designing security fences helped to make Israel, South Africa' s closest ally in this period. 1982 Lebanon War and Sabra and Shatila massacre. As Defense Minister, Sharon launched an invasion of Lebanon called Operation Peace for Galilee, later known as the 1982 Lebanon War, following the shooting of Israel' s ambassador in London, Shlomo Argov. Although this attempted assassination was in fact perpetrated by the Abu Nidal Organization, possibly with Syrian or Iraqi involvement, the Israeli government justified the invasion by citing 270 terrorist attacks by the Palestinian Liberation Organization( PLO) in Israel, the occupied territories, and the Jordanian and Lebanese border( in addition to 20 attacks on Israeli interests abroad). Sharon intended the operation to eradicate the PLO from its state within a state inside Lebanon, but the war is primarily remembered for the Sabra and Shatila massacre. In a three- day massacre between 16 and 18 September, between 460 and 3, 500 civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites, in the Sabra neighborhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp were killed by the Phalanges— Lebanese Maronite | Christian militias. Shatila had previously |
been one of the PLO' s three main training camps for foreign terrorists and the main training camp for European terrorists; the Israelis maintained that 2, 000 to 3, 000 terrorists remained in the camps, but were unwilling to risk the lives of more of their soldiers after the Lebanese army repeatedly refused to" clear them out." The killings followed years of sectarian civil war in Lebanon that left 95, 000 dead. The Lebanese army' s chief prosecutor investigated the killings and counted 460 dead, Israeli intelligence estimated 700– 800 dead, and the Palestinian Red Crescent claimed 2, 000 dead. 1, 200 death certificates were issued to anyone who produced three witnesses claiming a family member disappeared during the time of the massacre. Nearly all of the victims were men. The Phalange militia went into the camps to clear out PLO fighters while Israeli forces surrounded the camps, blocking camp exits and providing logistical support. The killings led some to label Sharon" the Butcher of Beirut". An Associated Press report on 15 September 1982 stated," Defence Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing of the Phalangist leader Bachir Gemayel to the PLO, saying' it symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters'." Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Robert Maroun Hatem, Hobeika' s bodyguard, stated in his book" From Israel to Damascus" that Phalangist commander Elie Hobeika ordered the massacre of civilians in defiance of Israeli instructions to behave like a" dignified" army. Hatem claimed" Sharon had given strict orders to Hobeika... to guard against any desperate move" and that Hobeika perpetrated the massacre" to tarnish Israel' s reputation worldwide" for the benefit of Syria. Hobeika subsequently joined the Syrian occupation government and lived as a prosperous businessman under Syrian protection; further massacres in Sabra and Shatilla occurred with Syrian support in 1985. The massacre followed intense Israeli bombings of Beirut that had seen heavy civilian casualties, testing Israel' s relationship with the United States in the process. America sent troops to help negotiate the PLO' s exit from Lebanon, withdrawing them after negotiating a ceasefire that ostensibly protected Palestinian civilians. Legal findings. After 400, 000 Peace Now protesters rallied in Tel Aviv to demand an official government inquiry into the massacres, the official Israeli government investigation into the massacre at Sabra and Shatila, the Kahan Commission( 1982), was conducted. The inquiry found that the Israeli Defense Forces were indirectly responsible for the massacre since IDF troops held the area. The commission determined that the killings were carried out by a Phalangist unit acting on its own, but its entry was known to Israel and approved by Sharon. Prime Minister Begin was also found responsible for not exercising greater involvement and awareness in the matter of introducing the Phalangists into the camps. The commission also concluded that Sharon bore personal responsibility" for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge[ and] not taking appropriate measures to prevent bloodshed". It said Sharon' | s negligence in protecting the |
civilian population of Beirut, which had come under Israeli control, amounted to a dereliction of duty of the minister. In early 1983, the commission recommended the removal of Sharon from his post as defense minister and stated: We have found... that the Minister of Defense[ Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office— and if necessary, that the Prime Minister consider whether he should exercise his authority... to... remove[ him] from office." Sharon initially refused to resign as defense minister, and Begin refused to fire him. After a grenade was thrown into a dispersing crowd at an Israeli Peace Now march, killing Emil Grunzweig and injuring 10 others, a compromise was reached: Sharon agreed to forfeit the post of defense minister but stayed in the cabinet as a minister without portfolio. Sharon' s resignation as defense minister is listed as one of the important events of the Tenth Knesset. In its 21 February 1983 issue," Time" published an article implying that Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres. Sharon sued" Time" for libel in American and Israeli courts. Although the jury concluded that the" Time" article included false allegations, they found that the magazine had not acted with actual malice and so was not guilty of libel. On 18 June 2001, relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in Belgium to have Sharon indicted on alleged war crimes charges. Elie Hobeika, the leader of the Phalange militia who carried out the massacres, was assassinated in January 2002, several months before he was scheduled to testify trial. Prior to his assassination, he had" specifically stated that he did not plan to identify Sharon as being responsible for Sabra and Shatila." Political downturn and recovery. After his dismissal from the Defense Ministry post, Sharon remained in successive governments as a minister without portfolio( 1983– 1984), Minister for Trade and Industry( 1984– 1990), and Minister of Housing Construction( 1990– 1992). In the Knesset, he was member of the Foreign Affairs and Defense committee( 1990– 1992) and Chairman of the committee overseeing Jewish immigration from the Soviet Union. During this period he was a rival to then prime minister Yitzhak Shamir, but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of Likud. Their rivalry reached a head in February 1990, when Sharon grabbed the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed:" Who' s for wiping out terrorism?" The incident was widely viewed as an apparent coup attempt against Shamir' s leadership of the party. In Benjamin Netanyahu' s 1996– 1999 government, Sharon was Minister of National Infrastructure( 1996– 98), and Foreign Minister( 1998– 99). Upon the election of the Barak Labor government, Sharon became leader of the Likud party. Opposition to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Ariel Sharon criticised the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 as an act of" brutal interventionism". Sharon | said both Serbia and Kosovo |
have been victims of violence. He said prior to the current Yugoslav campaign against Kosovo Albanians, Serbians were the targets of attacks in the Kosovo province." Israel has a clear policy. We are against aggressive actions. We are against hurting innocent people. I hope that the sides will return to the negotiating table as soon as possible." During the crisis, Elyakim Haetzni said the Serbs should be the first to receive Israeli aid." There are our traditional friends," he told Israel Radio." It was suggested that Sharon may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population' s history of saving Jews during the holocaust. On Sharon' s death, Serbian minister Aleksandar Vulin stated: The Serbian people will remember Sharon for opposing the 1999 NATO bombing campaign against the former Yugoslavia and advocating respect for sovereignty of other nations and a policy of not interfering with their internal affairs. Campaign for Prime Minister, 2000– 2001. On 28 September 2000, Sharon and an escort of over 1, 000 Israeli police officers visited the Temple Mount complex, site of the Dome of the Rock and al- Aqsa Mosque, the holiest place in the world to Jews and the third holiest site in Islam. Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks. On the following day, a large number of Palestinian demonstrators and an Israeli police contingent confronted each other at the site. According to the U. S. State Department," Palestinians held large demonstrations and threw stones at police in the vicinity of the Western Wall. Police used rubber- coated metal bullets and live ammunition to disperse the demonstrators, killing 4 persons and injuring about 200." According to the government of Israel, 14 policemen were injured. Sharon' s visit, a few months before his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities. Sharon' s supporters claim that Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian National Authority planned the Second Intifada months prior to Sharon' s visit. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P. A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon' s visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon' s visit, stating the intifada" was carefully planned since the return of( Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from Camp David negotiations rejecting the U. S. conditions". According to the Mitchell Report, the government of Israel asserted that the immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on 25 July 2000 and the" widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse." In this view, Palestinian violence was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at" provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining | the diplomatic initiative." The Mitchell |
Report found thatthe Sharon visit did not cause the Al- Aqsa Intifada. But it was poorly timed and the provocative effect should have been foreseen; indeed, it was foreseen by those who urged that the visit be prohibited. More significant were the events that followed: The decision of the Israeli police on 29 September to use lethal means against the Palestinian demonstrators. In addition, the report stated, Accordingly, we have no basis on which to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the PA[ Palestinian Authority] to initiate a campaign of violence at the first opportunity; or to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the GOI[ Government of Israel] to respond with lethal force. The Or Commission, an Israeli panel of inquiry appointed to investigate the October 2000 events, criticised the Israeli police for being unprepared for the riots and possibly using excessive force to disperse the mobs, resulting in the deaths of 12 Arab Israeli, one Jewish and one Palestinian citizens. Prime Minister( 2001– 2006). After the collapse of Barak' s government, Sharon was elected Prime Minister on 6 February 2001, defeating Barak 62 percent to 38 percent. Sharon' s senior adviser was Raanan Gissin. In his first act as prime minister, Sharon invited the Labor Party to join in a coalition with Likud. After Israel was struck by a wave of suicide bombings in 2002, Sharon decided to launch Operation Defensive Shield and began the construction of a barrier around the West Bank. A survey conducted by Tel Aviv University' s Jaffe Center in May 2004 found that 80% of Jewish Israelis believed that the Israel Defense Forces had succeeded in militarily countering the Al- Aqsa Intifada. The election of the more pro- Russian Sharon, as well as the more pro- Israel Vladimir Putin, led to an improvement in Israel– Russia relations. In September 2003, Sharon became the first prime minister of Israel to visit India, saying that Israel regarded India as one of the most important countries in the world. Some analysts speculated on the development of a three- way military axis of New Delhi, Washington, D. C., and Jerusalem. On 20 July 2004, Sharon called on French Jews to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in antisemitism in France( 94 antisemitic assaults were reported in the first six months of 2004, compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third- largest Jewish population in the world( about 600, 000 people). Sharon observed that an" unfettered anti- Semitism" reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as" unacceptable", as did the French representative Jewish organization CRIF, which denied Sharon' s claim of intense anti- Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and French President Jacques Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them. Unilateral disengagement. In September 2001, Sharon stated for the first time that Palestinians should have the right to establish their own | land west of the Jordan |
River. In May 2003, Sharon endorsed the Road Map for Peace put forth by the United States, the European Union and Russia, which opened a dialogue with Mahmud Abbas, and stated his commitment to the creation of a Palestinian state in the future. He embarked on a course of unilateral withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, while maintaining control of its coastline and airspace. Sharon' s plan was welcomed by both the Palestinian Authority and Israel' s left wing as a step towards a final peace settlement. However, it was greeted with opposition from within his own Likud party and from other right wing Israelis, on national security, military, and religious grounds. Disengagement from Gaza. On 1 December 2004, Sharon dismissed five ministers from the Shinui party for voting against the government' s 2005 budget. In January 2005, Sharon formed a national unity government that included representatives of Likud, Labor, and Meimad and Degel HaTorah as" out- of- government" supporters without any seats in the government( United Torah Judaism parties usually reject having ministerial offices as a policy). Between 16 and 30 August 2005, Sharon controversially expelled 9, 480 Jewish settlers from 21 settlements in Gaza and four settlements in the northern West Bank. Once it became clear that the evictions were definitely going ahead, a group of conservative Rabbis, led by Yosef Dayan, placed an ancient curse on Sharon known as the Pulsa diNura, calling on the Angel of Death to intervene and kill him. After Israeli soldiers bulldozed every settlement structure except for several former synagogues, Israeli soldiers formally left Gaza on 11 September 2005 and closed the border fence at Kissufim. While his decision to withdraw from Gaza sparked bitter protests from members of the Likud party and the settler movement, opinion polls showed that it was a popular move among most of the Israeli electorate, with more than 80 percent of Israelis backing the plans. On 27 September 2005, Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52– 48 percent vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by Sharon' s main rival, Benjamin Netanyahu, who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon' s withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party' s leader. Founding of Kadima. On 21 November 2005, Sharon resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centrist party called Kadima(" Forward"). November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership. On 20 December 2005, Sharon' s longtime rival Netanyahu was elected his successor as leader of Likud. Following Sharon' s incapacitation, Ehud Olmert replaced Sharon as Kadima' s leader, for the nearing general elections. Likud, along with the Labor Party, were" Kadima" s chief rivals in the March 2006 elections. Sharon' s stroke occurred a few months before he had been expected to win a new election and was widely interpreted as planning on" clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series | of unilateral withdrawals. In the |
elections, which saw Israel' s lowest- ever voter turnout of 64 percent( the number usually averages on the high 70%), Kadima, headed by Olmert, received the most Knesset seats, followed by Labor. The new governing coalition installed in May 2006 included Kadima, with Olmert as Prime Minister, Labor( including Amir Peretz as Defense Minister), the Pensioners' Party( Gil), the Shas religious party, and Israel Beytenu. Alleged fundraising irregularities and Greek island affair. During the latter part of his career, Sharon was investigated for alleged involvement in a number of financial scandals, in particular, the Greek island affair and irregularities of fundraising during the 1999 election campaign. In the Greek island affair, Sharon was accused of promising( during his term as Foreign Minister) to help Israeli businessman David Appel in his development project on a Greek island in exchange for large consultancy payments to Sharon' s son Gilad. The charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence. In the 1999 election fundraising scandal, Sharon was not charged with any wrongdoing, but his son Omri, a Knesset member at the time, was charged and sentenced in 2006 to nine months in prison. To avoid a potential conflict of interest in relation to these investigations, Sharon was not involved in the confirmation of the appointment of a new attorney general, Menahem Mazuz, in 2005. On 10 December 2005, Israeli police raided Martin Schlaff' s apartment in Jerusalem. Another suspect in the case was Robert Nowikovsky, an Austrian involved in Russian state- owned company Gazprom' s business activities in Europe. According to" Haaretz"," The$ 3 million that parachuted into Gilad and Omri Sharon' s bank account toward the end of 2002 was transferred there in the context of a consultancy contract for development of kolkhozes( collective farms) in Russia. Gilad Sharon was brought into the campaign to make the wilderness bloom in Russia by Getex, a large Russian- based exporter of seeds( peas, millet, wheat) from Eastern Europe. Getex also has ties with Israeli firms involved in exporting wheat from Ukraine, for example. The company owns farms in Eastern Europe and is considered large and prominent in its field. It has its Vienna offices in the same building as Jurimex, which was behind the$ 1- million guarantee to the Yisrael Beiteinu party." On 17 December, police found evidence of a$ 3 million bribe paid to Sharon' s sons. Shortly afterwards, Sharon suffered a stroke. Illness, incapacitation and death( 2006– 14).Sharonhadbeenobesesincethe1980s, and also had suspected chronic high blood pressure and high cholesterol– at tall, he was reputed to weigh. Stories of Sharon' s appetite and obesity were legendary in Israel. He would often joke about his love of food and expansive girth. His staff car would reportedly be stocked with snacks, vodka, and caviar. In October 2004 when asked why he did not wear a bulletproof vest despite frequent death threats, Sharon smiled and replied," There is none that fits my size". He was a daily consumer of cigars and luxury foods. Numerous attempts by doctors, friends, and staff to impose a balanced diet on Sharon | were unsuccessful. Sharon was hospitalized |
on 18 December 2005, after suffering a minor ischemic stroke. During his hospital stay, doctors discovered a heart defect requiring surgery and ordered bed rest pending a cardiac catheterization scheduled for 5 January 2006. Instead, Sharon immediately returned to work and suffered a hemorrhagic stroke on 4 January. He was rushed to Hadassah Medical Center in Jerusalem. After two surgeries lasting 7 and 14 hours, doctors stopped the bleeding in Sharon' s brain, but were unable to prevent him from entering into a coma. Subsequent media reports indicated that Sharon had been diagnosed with cerebral amyloid angiopathy( CAA) during his December hospitalisation. Hadassah Hospital Director Shlomo Mor- Yosef declined to respond to comments that the combination of CAA and blood thinners after Sharon' s December stroke might have caused his more serious subsequent stroke. Ehud Olmert became Acting Prime Minister the night of Sharon' s second stroke, while Sharon officially remained in office. Knesset elections followed in March, with Olmert and Sharon' s Kadima party winning a plurality. The next month, the Israeli Cabinet declared Sharon permanently incapacitated and Olmert became Interim Prime Minister on 14 April 2006 and Prime Minister in his own right on 4 May. Sharon underwent a series of subsequent surgeries related to his state. In May 2006, he was transferred to a long- term care facility in Sheba Medical Center. In July of that year, he was briefly taken to the hospital' s intensive care unit to be treated for bacteria in his blood, before returning to the long- term care facility on 6 November 2006. Sharon would remain at Sheba Medical Center until his death. Medical experts indicated that his cognitive abilities had likely been destroyed by the stroke. His condition worsened from late 2013, and Sharon suffered from renal failure on 1 January 2014. After spending eight years in a coma, Sharon died at 14: 00 local time( 12: 00 UTC) on 11 January 2014. Sharon' s state funeral was held on 13 January in accordance with Jewish burial customs, which require that interment take place as soon after death as possible. His body lay in state in the Knesset Plaza from 12 January until the official ceremony, followed by a funeral held at the family' s ranch in the Negev Desert. Sharon was buried beside his wife, Lily. Personal life. Sharon was married twice, to two sisters, Margalit and Lily Zimmerman, who were from Romania. Sharon met Margalit in 1947 when she was 16, while she was tending a vegetable field, and married her in 1953, shortly after becoming a military instructor. Margalit was a supervisory psychiatric nurse. They had one son, Gur. Margalit died in a car accident in May 1962 and Gur died in October 1967, aged 11, after a friend accidentally shot him while the two children were playing with a rifle at the Sharon family home. After Margalit' s death, Sharon married her younger sister, Lily. They had two sons, Omri and Gilad, and six grandchildren. Lily Sharon died of lung cancer in 2000. Sharon' s sister, Yehudit( Dita) married | Dr. Shmuel Mandel. In the1950s, |
the couple permanently left Israel and emigrated to the United States. This caused a permanent rift in the family. Shmuel and Vera Scheinerman were greatly hurt by their daughter' s choice to leave Israel. As a result, Vera Scheinerman willed only a small part of her estate to Dita, an act which enraged her. At one point, Dita decided to return to Israel, but after Vera was informed by the Israel Lands Administration that it would not be legally possible to split the family property between Ariel and Dita, and informed her that she would not be able to build a home there, Dita, believing she was being lied to, permanently cut her family in Israel off, and refused to attend the funerals of her mother and sister- in- law. She reestablished contact after Sharon' s stroke. Sharon' s sister has rarely been mentioned in biographies of him: he himself rarely acknowledged her and only mentioned her twice in his autobiography. Recognition. The Ariel Sharon Park, an environmental park near Tel Aviv, is named for him. In the Negev desert, the IDF is currently building its city of training bases, Camp Ariel Sharon. In total, a NIS 50 billion project, the city of bases is named after Ariel Sharon, the largest active construction project in Israel, it is to become the largest IDF base in Israel. Romantic orientation, also called affectional orientation, indicates the sex or gender with which a person is most likely to have a romantic relationship or fall in love. It is used both alternatively and side by side with the term" sexual orientation", and is based on the perspective that sexual attraction is only a single component of a larger dynamic. For example, although a pansexual person may feel sexually attracted to people regardless of gender, the person may experience romantic attraction and intimacy with women only. For asexual people, romantic orientation is often considered a more useful measure of attraction than sexual orientation. The relationship between sexual attraction and romantic attraction is still under debate and is not fully understood. Sexual and romantic attractions are often studied in conjunction. Even though studies of sexual and romantic spectrums are shedding light onto this underresearched subject, much is still not fully understood. Romantic identities. People may or may not engage in purely emotional romantic relationships. The main identities relating to this are: Relationship with sexual orientation and asexuality. The implications of the distinction between romantic and sexual orientations have not been fully recognized, nor have they been studied extensively. It is common for sources to describe sexual orientation as including components of both sexual and romantic( or romantic equivalent) attractions. Publications investigating the relationship between sexual orientation and romantic orientation are limited. Challenges in collecting information result from survey participants having difficulty identifying or distinguishing between sexual and romantic attractions. Asexual individuals experience little to no sexual attraction( see gray asexuality); however, they may still experience romantic attraction. Lisa M. Diamond states that a person' s romantic orientation can differ from whom the person is sexually attracted to. While | there is limited research on |
the discordance between sexual attraction and romantic attraction in individuals, also known as cross orientation, the possibility of fluidity and diversity in attractions have been progressively recognized. Researchers Bulmer and Izuma found that people who identify as aromantic often have more negative attitudes in relation to romance. While roughly 1% of the population identifies as asexual, 74% of those people reported having some form of romantic attraction. Aromanticism. One of the attributes of aromantic people is that, despite feeling no romantic attraction, they may still enjoy sex. Aromantic people are not incapable of feeling love; for example, they can still feel familial love, or the type of platonic love that is expressed between friends. Individuals who identify as aromantic may have trouble distinguishing the affection of family and friends from that of a romantic partner. Many aromantic people are asexual, but the term" aromantic" can be used in relation to various sexual identities, such as aromantic bisexual, aromantic heterosexual, aromantic lesbian, aromantic gay man or aromantic asexual. This is because aromanticism primarily deals with romantic attraction rather than with sexuality or libido. Some publications have argued that there is an underrepresentation of asexual and aromantic people in media and in research, and that they are often misunderstood. Aromantic people often face stigma and are stereotyped with labels such as being afraid of intimacy, heartless, or deluded. Amatonormativity, a concept that elevates romantic relationships over non- romantic relationships, has been said to be damaging to aromantics. The antonym of aromanticism is alloromanticism, the state of experiencing romantic love or romantic attraction to others, while such a person is called an alloromantic. An informal term for an aromantic person is" aro". In the expanded LGBT initialism" LGBTQIA+", the letter" A" stands for asexual, aromantic and agender. Panromanticism. Panromantic is described as having romantic attraction to people of all genders or regardless of gender. Panromantic people are seen to have romantic attraction for people both inside and outside the general gender binary. They are capable of love regardless of the gender of the person the love is aimed towards. Sexual and romantic attractions are not necessarily always the same and hence being panromantic does not necessarily mean being pansexual. Panromantic asexuality describes people who do not feel sexual attraction to those of any gender but have panromantic attraction. Biromanticism. Biromantic is defined as having romantic attraction to two or more genders. This could mean different things for different people. For example, one could be attracted to both men and women, or attracted to men and non- binary people etc. Anoa, also known as dwarf buffalo and sapiutan, is a subgenus of" Bubalus" comprising two species endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia: the mountain anoa(" Bubalus quarlesi") and the lowland anoa(" Bubalus depressicornis"). Both live in undisturbed rainforest and are similar in appearance to miniature water buffaloes, weighing. Both species of anoa have been classified as endangeredsincethe1960s and the populations continue to decrease. Fewer than 5, 000 animals of each species likely remain. Reasons for their decline include hunting for hides, horns and meat | by the local peoples and |
loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, hunting is the more serious factor in most areas. Anoa are most closely allied to the larger Asian buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on their backs. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes and there may be white markings on the legs and back; the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct Asian buffaloes, the remains of which have been found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. Both are found on the island of Sulawesi and the nearby island of Buton in Indonesia. They apparently live singly or in pairs, rather than in herds like most cattle, except when the cows are about to give birth. Little is known about their life history as well. However, in captive individuals they have a life expectancy of 20– 30 years. The anoa take two to three years before they reach sexual maturity and have one calf a year and have very rarely been seen to have more. Skulls of anoa cannot be accurately identified as to species, and there is likely hybridizing and interbreeding between the two in the zoo population. It is questioned as to whether the two species were actually different due to them occurring together in many different areas, as well as some interbreeding. A study of the mtDNA of ten specimens from different localities found a high mitochondrial genetic diversity between individuals identified as one or the other species, indicating support for recognition as two species. Distribution. Both the lowland anoa(" Bubalus depressicornis") and the mountain anoa(" Bubalus quarlesi") are endemic to the islands of Sulawesi in Indonesia. Both species appear to occur in exactly the same areas. Sulawesi is a unique area due to the fact that roughly 61% of the species found there are endemic species, including both anoa species. Habitat. Traditionally, a key difference between the two species is the altitude at which they occur. The mountain anoa would be found at higher elevations than its lowland counterpart and is found in the forests. The lowland anoa was said to spend its time in the lower elevation areas and is also found in forests. Since 2005, however, these differences do not seem to be accurate, both species occur in the same areas in the same habitats. Morphology. The anoa have many physical characteristics of bovine relatives and are considered to be most closely related to the water buffalo, which was confirmed through DNA analysis. The physical characteristics of the two species are similar. The anoa is the smallest of the wild cattle species. When anoa are born, they have a set of thick, woolly fur that comes in many color variations ranging from yellow to brown. In adults, the fur is typically | brown or black and males |
tend to have darker variations. Hair thickness varies slightly between the two species based on elevation and distribution. In both species of anoa, horns are present on both males and females and are typically straight protuberances. Another defining characteristic of the anoa is an extremely thick hide underneath the thick fur. Conservation. Both anoa species are endemic to the island of Sulawesi and are currently experiencing large declines in their populations. Knowledge of their decline has only recently been documented, however, and the villages and villagers lack the knowledge of how to help maintain or increase populations. The leading cause of their population decline is hunting by local villagers for meat, with habitat loss also being significant. One benefit of the lack of knowledge about the legal status of what they are doing is that villagers are open to communication with researchers on their harvests and hunting practices; where awareness of conservation issues has penetrated, villagers will lie about their activities. Logging is a large issue due to the fact that both species prefer core forested habitat that is far away from humans and the influences that come with them. By logging, humans create much more fragmented habitat and, therefore, a decrease in the area where the anoa can breed and live. This habitat fragmentation also alters the natural mixing of populations of the anoa. This may lead to a loss in genetic diversity between the two species and, over time, could also lead to their decline. External links. DIET COMPOSITION OF ANOA(" Bubalus" sp.) STUDIED USING DIRECT OBSERVATION AND DUNG ANALYSIS METHOD IN THEIR HABITAT from https:// ejournal. undip. ac. id/ index. php/ jitaa/ article/ view/ 7608/6259Pujaningsih, R. i., et al.“ DIET COMPOSITION OF ANOA(" Bubalus" sp.) STUDIED USING DIRECT OBSERVATION AND DUNG ANALYSIS METHOD IN THEIR HABITAT.”" Journal of the Indonesian Tropical Animal Agriculture", vol. 34, no. 3, 2009, doi: 10. 14710/ jitaa. 34. 3. 223- 228. Agner Krarup Erlang( 1 January 1878– 3 February 1929) was a Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer, who invented the fields of traffic engineering and queueing theory. By the time of his relatively early death at the age of 51, Erlang had created the field of telephone networks analysis. His early work in scrutinizing the use of local, exchange and trunk telephone line usage in a small community to understand the theoretical requirements of an efficient network led to the creation of the Erlang formula, which became a foundational element of modern telecommunication network studies. Life. Erlang was born at Lønborg, near Tarm, in Jutland. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and a descendant of Thomas Fincke on his mother' s side. At age 14, he passed the Preliminary Examination of the University of Copenhagen with distinction, after receiving dispensation to take it because he was younger than the usual minimum age. For the next two years he taught alongside his father. A distant relative provided free board and lodging, and Erlang prepared for and took the University of Copenhagen entrance examination in 1896, and passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to | the University and majored in |
mathematics, and also studied astronomy, physics and chemistry. He graduated in 1901 with an MA and over the next 7 years taught at several schools. He maintained his interest in mathematics, and received an award for a paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen. He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association( DMF) and through this met amateur mathematician Johan Jensen, the Chief Engineer of the Copenhagen Telephone Company( KTAS in Danish), an offshoot of the International Bell Telephone Company. Erlang worked for the CTC( KTAS) from 1908 for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation. He was an associate of the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. Contributions. While working for the CTC, Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. His thinking went further by finding how many telephone operators were needed to handle a given volume of calls. Most telephone exchanges then used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs. Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands- on researcher. He would conduct measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so. He was also an expert in the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly logarithms. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of tables. He developed his theory of telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include: These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. One Bell Telephone Laboratories researcher is said to have learned Danish to study them. The British Post Office accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities. In 1946, the CCITT named the international unit of telephone traffic the" erlang". A statistical distribution and programming language listed below have also been named in his honour. Anyone Can Whistle is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. Described by theater historian Ken Mandelbaum as" a satire on conformity and the insanity of the so- called sane," the show tells a story of an economically depressed town whose corrupt mayor decides to create a fake miracle in order to attract tourists. This draws the attention of Fay Apple, an emotionally inhibited nurse, a crowd of inmates from a local asylum called The Cookie Jar, and a doctor with secrets of his own. Following a tryout period in Philadelphia," Anyone" opened at the Majestic Theater on Broadway on April 4, 1964. The show received widely varied reviews( including negative notices from the" New York Times" and the" New York Herald Tribune"), and closed after a run of 12 previews and 9 performances. In the decades since its closing," Anyone" has not been produced on the scale of other Sondheim musicals; notable productions include a 1995 concert version at Carnegie Hall, a pair of stagings in London and | Los Angeles in 2003 that |
incorporated revisions, and a 2010 concert staging for the Encores! program at New York City Center. However, its score has become acclaimed as a part of Sondheim' s canon, and songs such as the title tune," Everybody Says Don' t", and" There Won' t Be Trumpets" have been widely performed. The show marked the stage musical debut of Angela Lansbury. Background. The show was first announced in" The New York Times" on October 5, 1961:" For the winter of 1962,[ Arthur Laurents] is nurturing another musical project," The Natives Are Restless". The narrative and staging will be Mr. Laurent' s handiwork; music and lyrics that of Stephen Sondheim. A meager description was furnished by Mr. Laurents, who refused to elaborate. Although the title might indicate otherwise, it is indigenous in content and contemporary in scope. No producer yet." No news of the show appeared until July 14, 1963, in an article in" The New York Times" about Kermit Bloomgarden, where it discussed the four shows he was producing for the coming season; two were maybes, two were definite. One of the latter was a Sondheim- Laurents musical( now named" Side Show"). In a letter to Bloomgarden, Laurents wrote," I beg you not to mention the money problems or any difficulties to Steve anymore. It depresses him terribly and makes it terribly difficult for him to work... It is damn hard to concentrate... when all the atmosphere is filled with gloom and forebodings about will the show get the money to go on?... Spare him the gory details." This behavior is considered unusual for Laurents, which runs contrary to his current reputation. Sondheim discovered that Laurents hated doing backers' auditions and he took over that responsibility, playing and singing more than 30. They found 115 investors to back the$ 350, 000 production, including Richard Rodgers and Sondheim' s father. Eager to work with both Laurents and Sondheim, Angela Lansbury accepted the lead role as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, despite her strong misgivings about the script and her ability to handle the score. Also signed were Lee Remick as Nurse Fay Apple and Harry Guardino as Hapgood. Laurents had wanted Barbra Streisand for the role of Fay, but she turned it down to star in" Funny Girl". Following rehearsals in New York City, the company started pre- Broadway tryouts in Philadelphia from March 2 to 21, 1964. Laurents, ignoring criticism about the show' s message being trite and its absurdist style difficult to comprehend, poured his energies into restaging rather than dealing with the crux of the problem. The show suffered further setbacks when supporting actor Henry Lascoe, who played Comptroller Schubb, suffered a heart attack during the show' s out- of- town tryout, and was replaced by Gabriel Dell. According to Sondheim," Lansbury was so insecure onstage, and unhappy with her performance, that we considered replacing her. Ironically, it soon became apparent that it had been Lascoe, an old pro... who had made her feel like an amateur. The minute his much less confident understudy took over, she felt free to blossom, which | she spectacularly did." Sondheim called |
the reviews" humiliating" and the audiences" hostile." Productions. After multiple revisions, the show opened on Broadway on April 4, 1964, at the Majestic Theatre, where it closed after 9 performances and 12 previews, unable to overcome negative notices from major papers such as the" New York Times" and the" New York Herald Tribune". Scenic design was by William and Jean Eckart, costume design by Theoni V. Aldredge, and lighting design by Jules Fisher. Choreographer Herbert Ross received the show' s sole Tony Award nomination. The show became a cult favorite, and a truncated original cast recording released by Columbia Records sold well among Sondheim fans and musical theatre buffs." There Won' t Be Trumpets," a song cut during previews, has become a favorite of cabaret performers. On April 8, 1995, a staged concert was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City as a benefit for the Gay Men' s Health Crisis. The concert was recorded by Columbia Records, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the original Broadway cast recording. For example, the cut song" There' s Always A Woman" was included at this concert. Lansbury served as narrator, with Madeline Kahn as Cora, Bernadette Peters as Fay, and Scott Bakula as Hapgood. Additional cast included Chip Zien, Ken Page, and Harvey Evans, the only original cast member to reprise his original role. In 2003, Sony reissued the original Broadway cast recording on compact disc. Two revivals were staged that year, one in London, at the Bridewell Theatre, and one in Los Angeles, at the Matrix Theatre. The Ravinia Festival, Highland Park, Illinois, presented a staged concert on August 26 and 27, 2005, with Audra McDonald( Fay), Michael Cerveris( Hapgood) and Patti LuPone( Cora). On January 11, 2008, Talk Is Free Theatre presented the Canadian professional premiere( in concert) at the Gryphon Theatre in Barrie, Ontario, with a fundraiser performance on January 13 at the Diesel Playhouse in Toronto, Ontario. It starred Adam Brazier as Hapgood, Kate Hennig as Cora, Blythe Wilson as Fay, and Richard Ouzounian as Narrator, who also served as director. Choreography was by Sam Strasfeld. Additional cast included Juan Chioran as Comptroller Shub, Jonathan Monro as Treasurer Cooley, and Mark Harapiak as Chief Magruder. Musical direction was provided by Wayne Gwillim. New York City Center Encores! presented a staged concert from April 8 through April 11, 2010, with Sutton Foster as Nurse Fay Apple, Donna Murphy as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, and Raul Esparza as Hapgood, with direction and choreography by Casey Nicholaw. The production was the second most attended in" Encores!" history, and Stephen Sondheim was present at the post- matinee talkback on April 10. A London production of" Anyone can Whistle" opened at the Jermyn Street Studio Theatre, London, in association with Primavera Productions, running from March 10, 2010, to April 17, 2010. The director is Tom Littler, with Musical Director Tom Attwood, and a cast that includes Issy van Randwyck( Mayoress), Rosalie Craig( Nurse Fay Apple) and David Ricardo- Pearce( Hapgood). Porchlight Music Theatre of Chicago presented" Anyone Can | Whistle" in 2013 as a |
part of" Porchlight Revisits" series, in which they stage three forgotten musicals per year. It was directed by Christopher Pazdernik and music directed by Aaron Benham. A new production directed by Phil Willmott opened at the Union Theatre in London, running from February 8 through March 11, 2017. Plot. Act 1. The story is set in an imaginary American town that has gone bankrupt.( Its former major industry was the production of an unidentified product that never wore out. Everyone has one now, and no one needs a replacement.) The only place in town doing good business is the local Sanatorium, known as“ The Cookie Jar,” whose inmates look much healthier than the disgruntled townspeople.(" I' m Like the Bluebird") All the money is in the hands of Cora Hoover Hooper, the stylish, ruthless mayoress and her cronies- Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief Magruder. Cora appears carried in a litter by her backup singers, and admits that she can accept anything except unpopularity(“ Me and My Town”). The scheming Comptroller Schub tells her that he has a plan to save her administration, and the town, promising“ It' s highly unethical.” He tells her to meet him at the rock on the edge of town. At the rock, a local mother, Mrs. Schroeder, tries to tell her child, Baby Joan, to come down from the rock, when Baby Joan licks it- and a spring of water begins flowing from it. The town instantly proclaims a miracle, and Cora and her council eagerly anticipate tourist dollars as they boast of the water' s curative powers.(" Miracle Song") It is soon revealed to Cora that the miracle is a fake, controlled by a pump inside the rock. The only person in town who doubts the miracle is Fay Apple, an eternally skeptical young nurse from the Cookie Jar who refuses to believe in miracles. She appears at the rock with all forty- nine of the inmates, or“ Cookies” in tow, intending to let them take some of the water. Schub realizes that if they drink the water and do not change, people will discover the fraud. As he tries to stop Fay, the inmates mingle with the townspeople, until no one can guess who is who. Fay disappears, and hiding from the police, admits that she hopes for one miracle- for a hero who can come and deliver the town from the madness(“ There Won' t Be Trumpets”). Cora arrives on the scene with the Cookie Jar' s manager, Dr. Detmold, but he says that Fay has taken the records to identify the inmates. He tells Cora that he is expecting a new assistant who might help them. At that moment a mysterious stranger, J. Bowden Hapgood, arrives asking for directions to the Cookie Jar. He is instantly taken for the new assistant. Asked to identify the missing Cookies, Hapgood begins questioning random people and sorting them into two groups, group A, and group one, but refuses to divulge which group is which. The town council becomes suspicious of this and tries to | force the truth out, but |
Hapgood questions them until they begin to doubt their own sanity. Cora is too caught up with his logic to care.(“ Simple”) As the extended musical sequence ends, the lights black out except for a spotlight on Hapgood, who announces to the audience,“ You are all mad!” Seconds later, the stage lights are restored. The stage set has vanished, and the cast is revealed in theater seats, holding programs, applauding the audience, as the act ends. Act 2. As act two opens, the two groups are now in a bitter rivalry over who is the normal group(“ A- 1 March”) Another stranger, a French woman in a feathered coat appears. It is really Fay Apple in disguise. She introduces herself as the Lady from Lourdes, a professional Miracle Inspector, come to investigate the miracle. As Schub runs off to warn Cora, Fay seeks out Hapgood in his hotel, and the two seduce each other in the style of a French romantic film.(“ Come Play Wiz Me”) Fay tries to get Hapgood' s help in exposing the miracle. Hapgood, however, sees through her disguise and wants to question her first. Fay refuses to take her wig off and confesses to him that this disguise, leftover from a college play, is the only way she can break out of her rigid and cynical persona. She begins to hope, however, that Hapgood may be the one who can help her learn to be free.(“ Anyone Can Whistle”) Meanwhile, the two groups continue to march, and Cora, trying to give a speech, realizes that Hapgood has stolen her limelight.(“ A Parade in Town”) She and Schub plan an emergency meeting at her house. Back at the hotel, Hapgood comes up with an idea, telling Fay to destroy the inmates' records. That way Fay can be free of them and they can stop pretending. When Fay is reluctant, Hapgood produces a record of his own- he is her fiftieth Cookie. He is a practicing idealist who, after years of attempted heroism, is tired of crusading and has come to the Cookie Jar to retire. Inspired by his record, Fay begins to tear the records up. As she does, the Cookies appear and begin to dance(“ Everybody Says Don' t”). Act 3. Act three begins with Cora at her house with her council. Schub has put the miracle on hiatus but announces that they can easily turn the town against Hapgood by blaming him for it. The group celebrates their alliance.(“ I' ve Got You to Lean On”) A mob quickly forms outside the hotel, and Hapgood and Fay, still disguised, take refuge under the rock. Discovering the fraud, Cora and the council confront them. At that moment, Cora receives a telegram from the governor warning that if the quota of forty- nine cookies is not filled, she will be impeached. Schub tells her that since Hapgood never said who is normal or not, they can arrest anyone at random until the quota is filled. Fay tries to get Hapgood to expose the miracle, but he warns her | no one will believe it |
is a fake, because it works as a miracle should. Fay wants his help stopping the Mayoress, but he refuses since he is through with crusading. Although she knows she still isn' t out of her shell, Fay angrily swears to go it alone.(“ See What it Gets You”) As Cora and the police force begin rounding up Cookies, Fay tries to get the key away from the guards in an extended ballet sequence.(“ The Cookie Chase”) As it ends, Fay is captured, and Dr. Detmold suddenly recognizes her. Fay tells the townspeople about the fake miracle, but the town refuses to believe her. Detmold tells Cora that even without the records, Fay can identify the inmates from memory. Cora warns that she will arrest forty- nine people, normal or not, and Fay, helplessly, identifies all the Cookies, except Hapgood. She tells him the world needs people like him, and Hapgood can' t turn himself in. He asks Fay to come with him, but she still can' t bring herself to break free. Parting ways, they reflect on what they briefly shared.(“ With So Little to Be Sure Of”) Word comes of a new miracle, two towns over, of a statue with a warm heart. Soon the town is all but deserted, and Cora is again upstaged. Again, Schub has the answer- since the Cookie Jar is still successful, they can turn the entire town into one big Cookie Jar! Cora realizes she and Schub are meant for each other, and they dance off together. As Fay resumes work, Detmold' s real new assistant arrives, and Fay is horrified to realize that she is even more practical, rigid and disbelieving than Fay herself, and the new nurse marches the Cookies off to the next town to disprove the new miracle. Horrified at seeing what she might become, Fay returns to the rock calling for Hapgood. When he doesn' t answer, she tries to whistle- and succeeds in blowing a shrill, ugly whistle. Hapgood appears again, saying' That' s good enough for me.' As they embrace, the water begins flowing from the rock- a true miracle this time.( Finale) Musical numbers. NotesCritical response. Howard Taubman in his" The New York Times" review wrote that Laurents' s" book lacks the fantasy that would make the idea work, and his staging has not improved matters. Mr. Sondheim has written several pleasing songs but not enough of them to give the musical wings. The performers yell rather than talk and run rather than walk. The dancing is the cream." Steven Suskin wrote in his 2000 book about Broadway composers: The" fascinating extended musical scenes, with extended choral work,... immediately marked Sondheim as the most distinctive theatre composer of his time. The first act sanity sequence... and the third act chase... are unlike anything that came before." An alcopop( or cooler, spirit cooler[ in South African English], or malternative[ in American English]) is any of certain flavored alcoholic beverages with relatively low alcohol content( e. g., 3– 7% alcohol by volume), including: The term" alcopop"( a portmanteau | of the words" alcohol" and" |
pop") is used commonly in the United Kingdom to describe these drinks. In English- speaking Canada," cooler" is more common but" alcopop" may also be used. Other terms include flavored alcoholic beverage( FAB), flavored malt beverage( FMB)," pre- packaged" or" premium packaged" spirit( PPS), and— in Australia and New Zealand— ready to drink( RTD)." Malternative" is exclusively an American term. Hard seltzer is a related category of alcoholic drinks based on flavored seltzer water. Hard soda, meanwhile, is specifically related to soft drinks. Hard lemonade, which could be considered an alcopop, has been around for some time. Hard cider, on the other hand, is its own category and may be more closely associated with beer. Homemade alcopop. A legal way to make home- made alcopop is to carbonate fermented water with a soda machine, and add soft drink syrup. Description. There are a variety of beverages produced and marketed around the world as well as within each market which are described as coolers or alcopops. They tend to be sweet and served in small bottles( typically 355 ml( the normal size of a soda pop can) in the US, 275 ml in South Africa and Germany, 330 ml in Canada and Europe), and between 4% and 7% ABV. In Europe, Canada, and South Africa coolers tend to be pre- mixed spirits, including vodka( e. g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum( e. g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un- hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt( and alcohol) is removed( leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol( usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can therefore be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit- based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that" are" simply pre- mixed spirits( e. g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12. 5% alcohol by volume, that can be sold only where hard liquor is available. In the United States there is a proportionally limited tax on alcopops relative to those sold in Europe. According to the US Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau( TTB): Flavored malt beverages are brewery products that differ from traditional malt beverages such as beer, ale, lager, porter, stout, or malt liquor in several respects. Flavored malt beverages exhibit little or no traditional beer or malt beverage character. Their flavor is derived primarily from added flavors rather than from malt and other materials used in fermentation. At the same time, flavored malt beverages are marketed in traditional beer- type bottles and cans and distributed to the alcohol beverage market through beer and malt beverage wholesalers, and their alcohol content is similar to other malt beverages in the 4- 6% alcohol by volume range. Although flavored malt beverages are produced at breweries, their method of production differs significantly from the production of other malt beverages and beer. In producing flavored malt beverages, brewers brew a fermented base | of beer from malt and |
other brewing materials. Brewers then treat this base using a variety of processes in order to remove malt beverage character from the base. For example, they remove the color, bitterness, and taste generally associated with beer, ale, porter, stout, and other malt beverages. This leaves a base product to which brewers add various flavors, which typically contain distilled spirits, to achieve the desired taste profile and alcohol level. While the alcohol content of flavored malt beverages is similar to that of most traditional malt beverages, the alcohol in many of them is derived primarily from the distilled spirits component of the added flavors rather than from fermentation. In some Continental European countries, such as Austria and Germany, bottled beer cocktails and shandies are available, which are being marketed the same way like alcopops. However, these beverages are based on traditional hopped beers and therefore not considered to be alcopops. History.WinecoolersgainedpopularityintheUSmarketinthe1980s when Bartles and Jaymes began advertising their brand of wine coolers, which were followed by other brands, including when Bacardi introduced the Breezer. A growth in popularity occurred around 1993 with Two Dogs, DNA Alcoholic Spring Water, Hooper' s Hooch and Zima, which was marketed under the title of" malternative beverage." Wine coolers were on the decline due to the increase in the US federal wine tax, and using a malt- beverage base became the new industry standard. Later, Mike' s Hard Lemonade was released in the United States, with humorous commercials depicting what they called" violence against lemons". Smirnoff also came out with another citrus-flavoredmaltbeverageintheUnitedStatesinthelate1990s called Smirnoff Ice, which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places.( In the UK, Smirnoff Ice is marketed by Diageo as a PPS.) Through its Alcopop- Free Zone® campaign," Alcohol Justice has sought to ban alcopop sales entirely since the sweet and brightly colored alcoholic drinks may appeal to children. Many cooler advertising campaigns have been criticized as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. In the United Kingdom, a media outcry during the mid-1990s arose as the tabloid press associated alcopops with under- age drinking which damaged sales and led to British liquor stores withdrawing them from their shelves. In response to a complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest( CSPI), the Federal Trade Commission( FTC) conducted an extensive investigation in 2001. The agency" found no evidence of intent to target minors with FMB products, packaging, or advertising. Furthermore, after reviewing the consumer survey evidence submitted by CSPI in support of the proposition that FMBs were predominantly popular with minors, the FTC concluded that flaws in the survey' s methodology limited the ability to draw conclusions from the survey data." The Federal Trade Commission again in 2003 investigated FMB ads, product placement, and internal company marketing documents after a directive from the conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees." The Commission' s investigation found no evidence of targeting underage consumers in the marketing of FMBs. Adults 21 to 29 appear to be the intended target of FMB marketing" and found that" | the majority of FMB drinkers |
are over the age of 27." In December 2003, Ireland raised the tax on flavored malt beverages to equal that of spirits, the second- highest in Europe. Germany has imposed an extra duty of 0. 80 to 0. 90 euro per bottle effective August 1, 2004. To circumvent higher taxation, some German producers have switched to wine coolers, which are being marketed the same way. Some bottles now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by people under the legal drinking age( under 18 in the UK and 21 in the United States). On May 11, 2008, the Australian Government increased the excise tax on alcopops by 70%, to bring it in line with the tax on spirits. There is the concern this tax will encourage consumers to buy straight spirits and mix the drinks themselves, possibly resulting in drinks with a higher alcohol concentration than the premixed alternatives. This tax was revoked during March 2009 meaning the government had to pay back the 290 million collected on the tax. The Federal Trade Commission report states," Further, industry- conducted research on consumers over the age of 21 who use FMBs shows that these consumers generally view the FMBs as substitutes for beer,... This research also concludes that consumers are not likely to consume more than two or three FMBs on any occasion because of the products' sweetness. In March 2018, Coca- Cola announced it would be launching an alcopop product for the first time, a" chūhai" beverage in Japan. Brands. Brands of coolers are numerous and their alcoholic base vary greatly. Some notable brands include: VK Vodkakick, Smirnoff Ice, Mike' s Hard Lemonade, Bacardi Breezer, Palm Bay, Skyy Blue, Jack Daniel' s Hard Cola and, in the UK, WKD Original Vodka. Garage is an alcopop produced by the Finnish brewery Sinebrychoff. Attempts to discourage. Australia. The Australian government increased the tax on these drinks under the 2008 budget to the same rate as spirits, volumetrically, in an effort to stop binge drinking. The tax was criticized by the opposition as a tax grab, and voted down in the Senate on March 18, 2009. Before its rejection, the tax had already raised at least A$ 290 million after April 2008. In April 2009, some Labor party MPs planned to resubmit the tax to the Senate, and it was finally approved in August 2009, increasing the tax on the drinks from$ 39. 36 to$ 66. 67 per litre of alcohol. A 2013 study concluded that the tax had no impact on binge drinking of the drinks by teenagers. Germany. On 1 July 2004 the German government increased the tax on mixed drinks based on spirits( e. g. vodka, rum) by roughly one Euro per 275- ml- bottle in order to discourage teenagers drinking excessively, although those drinks were already prohibited for those under the age of 18. This had two implications: The most common alcopops, such as Smirnoff Ice or Bacardi Breezer, were nearly taken off the market, while other manufacturers changed the recipes of their drinks to replace spirit alcohols | with wine or beer, but |
with the same ABV, enabling these mixed drinks( which are not" alcopops" under German law) to be sold legally to minors 16 and 17 years of age. Philippines. In 2019, some senators including Pia Cayetano and former Special Assistant to the President Bong Go called for pullout of alcopops from the market due to" deceptive packaging that resembles fruit juices usually bought by young consumers". Alcopops also have seven percent alcohol content, which is slightly lower than that of local beer brand Red Horse Beer. South Africa. In South Africa," spirit coolers" cannot be sold to persons under the age of 18. They are only sold at liquor stores. United Kingdom. In June 1997, Co- op Food became the first major retailer to place an outright ban on the sale of alcopops in its shops. This has since been rescinded. In chemistry, an alkali(; from) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7. 0. The adjective alkaline is commonly, and alkalescent less often, used in English as a synonym for basic, especially for bases soluble in water. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases. Etymology. The word" alkali" is derived from Arabic" al qalīy"( or" alkali"), meaning" the calcined ashes"( see calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. A water- extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After heating this substance with calcium hydroxide(" slaked lime"), a far more strongly basic substance known as" caustic potash"( potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also gave potassium its chemical symbol K( from the German name Kalium), which ultimately derived from alkali. Common properties of alkalis and bases. Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions( OH−) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include: Difference between alkali and base. The terms" base" and" alkali" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside the context of chemistry and chemical engineering. There are various more specific definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are usually defined as a subset of the bases. One of two subsets is commonly chosen. The second subset of bases is also called an" Arrhenius base". Alkali salts. Alkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common examples are: Alkaline soil. Soils with pH values that are higher than 7. 3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur naturally, due | to the presence of alkali |
salts. Although many plants do prefer slightly basic soil( including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalo grass), most plants prefer a mildly acidic soil( with pHs between 6. 0 and 6. 8), and alkaline soils can cause problems. Alkali lakes. In alkali lakes( also called" soda lakes"), evaporation concentrates the naturally occurring carbonate salts, giving rise to an alkalic and often saline lake. Examples of alkali lakes: Ain' t I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism is a 1981 book by bell hooks titled after Sojourner Truth' s" Ain' t I a Woman?" speech. hooks examines the effect of racism and sexism on Black women, the civil rights movement,andfeministmovementsfromsuffragetothe1970s. She argues that the convergence of sexism and racism during slavery contributed to Black women having the lowest status and worst conditions of any group in American society. White female abolitionists and suffragists were often more comfortable with Black male abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, while southern segregationalists and stereotypes of Black female promiscuity and immorality caused protests whenever Black women spoke. hooks points out that these white female reformers were more concerned with white morality than the conditions these morals caused Black Americans. Further, she argues that the stereotypes that were set during slavery still affect Black women today. She argued that slavery allowed white society to stereotype white women as the pure goddess virgin and move Black women to the seductive whore stereotype formerly placed on all women, thus justifying the devaluation of Black femininity and rape of Black women. The work which Black women have been forced to perform, either in slavery or in a discriminatory workplace, that would be non- gender conforming for white women has been used against Black women as a proof of their emasculating behaviour. bell hooks argues that Black nationalism was largely a patriarchal and misogynist movement, seeking to overcome racial divisions by strengthening sexist ones, and that it readily latched onto the idea of the emasculating Black" matriarch" proposed by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose theories bell hooks often criticizes. Meanwhile, she says, the" feminist movement", a largely white middle and upper class affair, did not articulate the needs of poor and non- white women, thus reinforcing sexism, racism, and classism. She suggests this explains the low numbers of Black women who participated in the feministmovementinthe1970s, pointing to Louis Harris' Virginia Slims poll done in 1972 for Philip Morris that she says showed 62 percent of Black women supported" efforts to change women' s status" and 67 percent" sympathized with the women' s rights movement", compared with 45 and 35 percent of white women( also Steinem, 1972). Reception. Since its publication," Ain' t I a Woman" has been critically acclaimed as groundbreaking in the study of feminist theory for discussing the correlation between the history of oppression Black women have faced in the United States and its lingering effects in modern American society." Ain' t I a Woman" is praised for tackling the intersection of race and gender that marginalizes Black women. hooks' writing has also opened the door for other Black women to | write and theorize about similar |
topics. The book is commonly used in gender studies, Black studies, and philosophy courses. The work has led to some criticism of her being" ahistorical, unscholarly( there were many complaints about the absence of footnotes), and homophobic". She does not provide a bibliography for any of her work, making it difficult to find the editors and publication information for the pieces listed under the" notes" section of her work. In" Theory as Liberatory Practice," hooks explains that her lack of conventional academic format was" motivated by the desire to be inclusive, to reach as many readers as possible in as many different locations as possible". In a book review of hooks' s" Remembered Rapture: The Writer at Work," Nicole Abraham criticizes hooks' s unconventional format rationalization. Abraham suggests that, if her rationalization for not providing footnotes and bibliographic information in her writing is that it will help her reach a broader, presumably less academic audience, hooks either assumes that the average person is uninterested in pursuing her sources and ideas or implies that her readers are too lazy or unsophisticated for proper endnotes. AMOS BASIC is a dialect of the BASIC programming language implemented on the Amiga computer. AMOS BASIC was published by Europress Software and originally written by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos in the year 1990. AMOS was considered to be a fast language.Italsohad3D capabilities. History. AMOS is a descendant of STOS BASIC for the Atari ST. AMOS BASIC was first produced in 1990. AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software' s Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high- level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways. The original AMOS was a BASIC interpreter which, whilst working fine, suffered the same disadvantages of any language being run interpretively. By all accounts, AMOS was extremely fast among interpreted languages,beingspeedyenoughthatanextensioncalledAMOS3Dcouldproduceplayable3D games even on plain 7 MHz 68000 Amigas. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed that further increased speed.AMOScouldalsorunMC68000 machine code, loaded into a program' s memory banks. To simplify animation of sprites, AMOS included the AMOS Animation Language( AMAL), a compiled sprite scripting language which runs independently of the main AMOS BASIC program. It was also possible to control screen and" rainbow" effects using AMAL scripts. AMAL scripts in effect created CopperLists, small routines executed by the Amiga' s Agnus chip. After the original version of AMOS, Europress released a compiler( AMOS Compiler), and two other versions of the language: Easy AMOS, a simpler version for beginners, and AMOS Professional, a more advanced version with added features, such as a better IDE, ARexx support, a new UI API and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS. AMOS was used mostly to make multimedia software, video games( platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software. The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners. | Perhaps AMOS BASIC' s biggest |
disadvantage, stemming from its Atari ST lineage, was its incompatibility with the Amiga' s operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non- standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of hardware. Today, the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS was released around 2001 under a BSD style license by Clickteam, a company that includes the original programmer. On the 4 April 2019,FrançoisLionetannouncedthereleaseofAMOS2onhiswebsiteamos2. org.AMOS2 replaces STOS and AMOS together, using JavaScript as its code interpreter, making the new development system independent and generally deployed in internet browsers. Amos 2 is now called AOZ Studio. Its website is at https:// www. aoz. studio/. Software. Software written using AMOS BASIC includes: The Arcadia 2001 is a second- generation 8- bit home video game console released by Emerson Radio in May 1982 for a price of US$ 99, several months before the release of ColecoVision. It was discontinued only 18 months later, with a total of 35 games having been released. Emerson licensed the Arcadia 2001 to Bandai, which released it in Japan. Over 30 Arcadia 2001 clones exist. The unrelated Arcadia Corporation, manufacturer of the Atari 2600 Supercharger add- on, was sued by Emerson for trademark infringement. Arcadia Corporation then changed its name to Starpath. Description. The Arcadia is much smaller than its contemporary competitors and is powered by a standard 12 volt power supply so it can be used in a boat or a vehicle. It also has two outputs( or inputs) headphone jacks on the back of the unit, on the far left and far right sides. The system came with two Intellivision- style controllers with a 12- button keypad and' fire' buttons on the sides. The direction pads have a removable joystick attachment. Most games came with BoPET overlays that could be applied to the controller' s keypads. The console itself had five buttons: power, start, reset, option, and select. There are at least three different types of cartridge case styles and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson- family cartridges come in two different lengths( short and long) of black plastic cases. Console variants and clones. Many variants and clones of the Arcadia 2001 have been released by various companies in different countries. These systems are mostly compatible with each other. In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia was released only in Japan. Four exclusive games were released for the system. Bandai Arcadia. In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia, a variant of the Emerson Arcadia 2001, was licensed and distributed to Japan by Bandai for a price of 19, 800 yen. There were four Japan- exclusive games released by Bandai. Reception. After seeing the Arcadia 2001 at the summer 1982 Consumer Electronics Show, Danny Goodman of" Creative Computing Video& amp; Arcade Games" reported that its graphics were similar to the Atari 2600' s, and that" our overall impression of the game play | was favorable for a system |
in this price range, though no cartridge stands out as being an exciting original creation". He called the controller offering both Intellivision- like disc and joystick functionality" A great idea". Games. Emerson planned to launch the console with 19 games. Some Arcadia 2001 games are ports of lesser- known arcade games such as" Route 16"," Jungler", and" Jump Bug", which were not available on other home systems. Emerson actually created many popular arcade titles including" Pac- Man"," Galaxian" and" Defender" for the Arcadia, but never had them manufactured as Atari started to sue its competitor companies for releasing games to which it had exclusive- rights agreements. Early marketing showed popular arcade games, but they were later released as clones. For instance, the Arcadia 2001 game" Space Raiders" is a clone of" Defender", and" Breakaway" is a clone of" Breakout". Released games. There are 47 games known to have been released for the Arcadia 2001 and its clones. In geometry, a convex uniform honeycomb is a uniform tessellation which fills three- dimensional Euclidean space with non- overlapping convex uniform polyhedral cells. Twenty- eight such honeycombs are known: They can be considered the three- dimensional analogue to the uniform tilings of the plane. The Voronoi diagram of any lattice forms a convex uniform honeycomb in which the cells are zonohedra. History. Only 14 of the convex uniform polyhedra appear in these patterns: Names. This set can be called the regular and semiregular honeycombs. It has been called the Archimedean honeycombs by analogy with the convex uniform( non- regular) polyhedra, commonly called Archimedean solids. Recently Conway has suggested naming the set as the Architectonic tessellations and the dual honeycombs as the Catoptric tessellations. The individual honeycombs are listed with names given to them by Norman Johnson.( Some of the terms used below are defined in Uniform 4- polytope# Geometric derivations for 46 nonprismatic Wythoffian uniform 4- polytopes) For cross- referencing, they are given with list indices from Andreini( 1- 22), Williams( 1- 2, 9- 19), Johnson( 11- 19, 21– 25, 31– 34, 41– 49, 51– 52, 61– 65), and Grünbaum( 1- 28).Coxeterusesδ4 for a cubic honeycomb,hδ4 for an alternated cubic honeycomb,qδ4 for a quarter cubic honeycomb, with subscripts for other forms based on the ring patterns of the Coxeter diagram. Compact Euclidean uniform tessellations( by their infinite Coxeter group families). The fundamental infinite Coxeter groups for 3- space are: There is a correspondence between all three families.Removingonemirrorfromformula_1producesformula_2,andremovingonemirrorfromformula_2producesformula_3. This allows multiple constructions of the same honeycombs. If cells are colored based on unique positions within each Wythoff construction, these different symmetries can be shown. In addition there are 5 special honeycombs which don' t have pure reflectional symmetry and are constructed from reflectional forms with" elongation" and" gyration" operations. The total unique honeycombs above are 18. The prismatic stacks from infinite Coxeter groups for 3- space are: In addition there is one special" elongated" form of the triangular prismatic honeycomb. The total unique prismatic honeycombs above( excluding the cubic counted previously) are 10. Combining these counts, 18 and 10 gives us the total 28 uniform honeycombs. | The C̃ 3,[ 4, 3, |
4] group( cubic). The regular cubic honeycomb, represented by Schläfli symbol{ 4, 3, 4}, offers seven unique derived uniform honeycombs via truncation operations.( One redundant form, the" runcinated cubic honeycomb", is included for completeness though identical to the cubic honeycomb.) The reflectional symmetry is the affine Coxeter group[ 4, 3, 4]. There are four index 2 subgroups that generate alternations:[ 1+, 4, 3, 4],[( 4, 3, 4, 2+)],[ 4, 3+, 4], and[ 4, 3, 4]+, with the first two generated repeated forms, and the last two are nonuniform. B̃ 3,[ 4, 31, 1] group.Theformula_2,[ 4, 3] group offers 11 derived forms via truncation operations, four being unique uniform honeycombs. There are 3 index 2 subgroups that generate alternations:[ 1+, 4, 31, 1],[ 4,( 31, 1)+], and[ 4, 31, 1]+. The first generates repeated honeycomb, and the last two are nonuniform but included for completeness. The honeycombs from this group are called" alternated cubic" because the first form can be seen as a" cubic honeycomb" with alternate vertices removed, reducing cubic cells to tetrahedra and creating octahedron cells in the gaps. Nodes are indexed left to right as" 0, 1, 0', 3" with 0' being below and interchangeable with" 0". The" alternate cubic" names given are based on this ordering.Ã3,[ 3[ 4]] group.Thereare5formsconstructedfromtheformula_3,[ 3[ 4]] Coxeter group, of which only the" quarter cubic honeycomb" is unique. There is one index 2 subgroup[ 3[ 4]]+ which generates the snub form, which is not uniform, but included for completeness. Nonwythoffian forms( gyrated and elongated). Three more uniform honeycombs are generated by breaking one or another of the above honeycombs where its faces form a continuous plane, then rotating alternate layers by 60 or 90 degrees(" gyration") and/ or inserting a layer of prisms(" elongation"). The elongated and gyroelongated alternated cubic tilings have the same vertex figure, but are not alike. In the" elongated" form, each prism meets a tetrahedron at one triangular end and an octahedron at the other. In the" gyroelongated" form, prisms that meet tetrahedra at both ends alternate with prisms that meet octahedra at both ends. The gyroelongated triangular prismatic tiling has the same vertex figure as one of the plain prismatic tilings; the two may be derived from the gyrated and plain triangular prismatic tilings, respectively, by inserting layers of cubes. Prismatic stacks. Eleven prismatic tilings are obtained by stacking the eleven uniform plane tilings, shown below, in parallel layers.( One of these honeycombs is the cubic, shown above.) The vertex figure of each is an irregular bipyramid whose faces are isosceles triangles. The C̃ 2×Ĩ1(∞),[ 4, 4, 2,∞], prismatic group. There are only 3 unique honeycombs from the square tiling, but all 6 tiling truncations are listed below for completeness, and tiling images are shown by colors corresponding to each form. Enumeration of Wythoff forms. All nonprismatic Wythoff constructions by Coxeter groups are given below, along with their alternations. Uniform solutions are indexed with Branko Grünbaum' s listing. Green backgrounds are shown on repeated honeycombs, with the relations are expressed in the extended symmetry diagrams. Examples. All 28 of these | tessellations are found in crystal |
arrangements. The alternated cubic honeycomb is of special importance since its vertices form a cubic close- packing of spheres. The space- filling truss of packed octahedra and tetrahedra was apparently first discovered by Alexander Graham Bell and independently re- discovered by Buckminster Fuller(whocalledittheoctettrussandpatenteditinthe1940s). Octet trusses are now among the most common types of truss used in construction. Frieze forms. If cells are allowed to be uniform tilings, more uniform honeycombs can be defined: Families: Scaliform honeycomb. A scaliform honeycomb is vertex- transitive, like a" uniform honeycomb", with regular polygon faces while cells and higher elements are only required to be" orbiforms", equilateral, with their vertices lying on hyperspheres.For3D honeycombs, this allows a subset of Johnson solids along with the uniform polyhedra. Some scaliforms can be generated by an alternation process, leaving, for example, pyramid and cupola gaps. Hyperbolic forms. There are 9 Coxeter group families of compact uniform honeycombs in hyperbolic 3- space, generated as Wythoff constructions, and represented by ring permutations of the Coxeter- Dynkin diagrams for each family. From these 9 families, there are a total of 76 unique honeycombs generated: The full list of hyperbolic uniform honeycombs has not been proven and an unknown number of non- Wythoffian forms exist. One known example is in the{ 3, 5, 3} family. Paracompact hyperbolic forms. There are also 23 paracompact Coxeter groups of rank 4. These families can produce uniform honeycombs with unbounded facets or vertex figure, including ideal vertices at infinity: Assassination is the murder of a prominent or important person, such as a head of state, head of government, politician, member of a royal family, or CEO. An assassination may be prompted by political and military motives, or done for financial gain, to avenge a grievance, from a desire to acquire fame or notoriety, or because of a military, security, insurgent or secret police group' s command to carry out the assassination. Acts of assassination have been performed since ancient times. A person who carried out an assassination is called an assassin or hitman. Etymology. The word" assassin" is often believed to derive from the word" hashshashin"( Arabic: حشّ اشين, ħashshāshīyīn), and shares its etymological roots with" hashish"( or; from Arabic:""). It referred to a group of Nizari Ismailis known as the Assassins who worked against various political targets. Founded by Hassan- i Sabbah, the Assassins were active in the fortress of Alamut inPersiafromthe8thtothe14th centuries, and later expanded into a" de facto" state by acquiring or building many scattered strongholds. The group killed members of the Abbasid, Seljuk, Fatimid, and Christian Crusader elite for political and religious reasons. Although it is commonly believed that Assassins were under the influence of hashish during their killings or during their indoctrination, there is debate as to whether these claims have merit, with many Eastern writers and an increasing number of Western academics coming to believe that drug- taking was not the key feature behind the name. The earliest known use of the verb" to assassinate" in printed English was by Matthew Sutcliffe in" A Briefe Replie to a Certaine Odious and Slanderous | Libel, Lately Published by a |
Seditious Jesuite", a pamphlet printed in 1600, five years before it was used in" Macbeth" by William Shakespeare( 1605). Use in history. Ancient to medieval times. Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics. It dates back at least as far as recorded history. In the Old Testament, King Joash of Judah was assassinated by his own servants; Joab assassinated Absalom, King David' s son; and King Sennacherib of Assyria was assassinated by his own sons. Chanakya( c. 350– 283 BC) wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise" Arthashastra". His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies, including two of Alexander the Great' s generals, Nicanor and Philip. Other famous victims are Philip II of Macedon( 336 BC), the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman dictator Julius Caesar( 44 BC). Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later. Three successive Rashidun caliphs( Umar, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib) were assassinated in early civil conflicts between Muslims. The practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Ke' s failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassinations were performed by individuals or small groups, there were also specialized units who used a collective group of people to perform more than one assassination. The earliest were the sicarii in 6 AD, who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese shinobis by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, but it was a recurring theme in the Eastern Roman Empire. Strangling in the bathtub was the most commonly used method. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide— or assassination for personal or political reasons— became more common again in Western Europe. High medieval sources mention the assassination of King Demetrius Zvonimir( 1089), dying at the hands of his own people, who objected to a proposition by the pope to go on a campaign to aid the Byzantines against the Seljuk Turks. This account is, however, contentious among historians, it being most commonly asserted that he died of natural causes. The myth of the" Curse of King Zvonimir" is based on the legend of his assassination. On August 2, 1100, King William II of England died in a mysterious hunting accident wherein he was shot by an arrow; this was widely suspected to be the result of an assassination plot. In 1192, Conrad of Montferrat, the" de facto" King of Jerusalem, was killed by an assassin. The Arab World and East Asia at the time, though generally more enlightened, also suffered from assassinations at this point in history, such as Seljuk Turk leaders Alp Arslan( November 24, 1072) and his son Malik- Shah I( November 19, 1092), as well as Japanese Shogun Oda Nobunaga( June 21, 1582), who was forced to commit seppuku in the Honno- ji Incident. The reigns of King Przemysł II of Poland( 1296), William the Silent of the Netherlands( 1584), | and the French kings Henry |
III( 1589) and Henry IV( 1610) were all ended by assassins.Duringthe16thand17th century, international lawyers began to voice condemnation of assassinations of leaders. Balthazar Ayala has been described as" the first prominent jurist to condemn the use of assassination in foreign policy". Alberico Gentili condemned assassinations in a 1598 publication where he appealed to the self- interest of leaders:( i) assassinations had adverse short- term consequences by arousing the ire of the assassinated leader' s successor, and( ii) assassinations had the adverse long- term consequences of causing disorder and chaos. Hugo Grotius' s works on the law of war strictly forbade assassinations, arguing that killing was only permissible on the battlefield. Modern history. In the modern world, the killing of important people began to become more than a tool in power struggles between rulers themselves and was also used for political symbolism, such as in the propaganda of the deed. In Stockholm, King Gustav III of Sweden was fatally shot at a masked ball on March 29, 1792. In Russia alone, two emperors, Paul I and his grandson Alexander II, were assassinated within 80 years. In the United Kingdom, only one Prime Minister has been assassinated— Spencer Perceval on May 11, 1812. In Japan, a group of assassins called the Four Hitokiri of the Bakumatsu killed a number of people, including Ii Naosuke who was the head of administration for the Tokugawa shogunate, during the Boshin War. Most of the assassinations in Japan were committed with bladed weaponry, a trait that was carried on into modern history. A video- record exists of the assassination of Inejiro Asanuma, using a sword. In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents— Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy— died at the hands of assassins. There have been at least 20 known attempts on U. S. presidents' lives. Huey Long, a senator, was assassinated on September 10, 1935. Robert F. Kennedy, a senator and a presidential candidate, was also assassinated on June 6, 1968, in the United States. On April 3, 1882, outlaw Jesse James was shot dead by an outlaw of his own gang in what was lamented as an assassination. On June 25, 1894, French President Sadi Carnot( statesman) was stabbed by Sante Geronimo Caserio in Lyon, subsequently dying of his wound. Twenty years later, on July 31, 1914, French Socialist leader Jean Jaures was shot dead in Paris. On September 10, 1898, Empress Elisabeth of Austria died a day after being stabbed with a thin file by an Italian anarchist while vacationing in Geneva. Another Italian anarchist was responsible for the July 29, 1900, murder of Umberto I of Italy. In the Lisbon Regicide of February 1, 1908, King Carlos I of Portugal and his heir Luis Filipe, Prince Royal of Portugal were shot dead in the first violent action against a Portuguese monarch directly since 1578. On November 14, 1908, the Guangxu Emperor of the Qing dynasty in China died in the Forbidden City. Subsequent analysis of his remains showed very high levels of arsenic, with some coming | to the conclusion that Empress |
Dowager Cixi, who herself died the following day( November 15, 1908), had murdered the emperor in a conspiracy; she had had him under house arrest by that point for many years due to his attempts to reform the Qing bureaucracy. On September 18, 1911, Russian Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin died after being fatally shot by a Jewish extremist in Kiev. On December 30, 1916, Grigori Rasputin was murdered by Prince Felix Yusupov as the culmination of a plan by Russian nobles to eliminate the peasant mystic and end his influence over the House of Romanov. In Austria, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, carried out by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian national and a member of the Serbian nationalist insurgents( The Black Hand), is blamed for igniting World War I after a succession of minor conflicts, while belligerents on both sides in World War II used operatives specifically trained for assassination. The man sometimes identified as the last Russian Tsar, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia, was imprisoned and assassinated on June 13, 1918; on July 17 of the same year, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia( the last universally recognized Tsar), along with his wife and children, were all killed in Yekaterinburg by Bolsheviks following the October Revolution. Reinhard Heydrich died after an attack by British- trained Czechoslovak soldiers on behalf of the Czechoslovak government in exile in Operation Anthropoid, and knowledge from decoded transmissions allowed the United States to carry out a targeted attack, killing Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto while he was travelling by plane. The Polish Home Army conducted a regular campaign of assassinations against top Nazi German officials in occupied Poland. Adolf Hitler was almost killed by his own officers, and survived various attempts by other persons and organizations( such as Operation Foxley, though this plan was never put into practice). On June 7, 1927, Soviet Ambassador Pyotr Voykov was assassinated in Poland by a Russian monarchist. On July 17, 1928, Mexican General Alvaro Obregon was assassinated at La Bombilla Cafe in Mexico for being anti- Catholic.Duringthe1930sand1940s, Joseph Stalin' s NKVD carried out numerous assassinations outside of the Soviet Union, such as the killings of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists leader Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, Fourth International secretary Rudolf Klement, Leon Trotsky, and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification( POUM) leadership in Catalonia. On February 21, 1934, Nicaraguan revolutionary Augusto Cesar Sandino was assassinated by members of the National Guard. On October 9, 1934, during a state visit to France, King Alexander I of Yugoslavia died after being shot twice by a Bulgarian Vlado Chernozemski. French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou( who was with the king) was killed by a stray bullet fired by French police during the scuffle following the attack. India' s" Father of the Nation", Mahatma Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30, 1948, by Nathuram Godse. The African- American civil rights activist, Martin Luther King Jr., was assassinated on April 4, 1968, at the Lorraine Motel( now the National Civil Rights Museum) in Memphis, | Tennessee. Three years prior, another |
African- American civil rights activist, Malcolm X, was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom on February 21, 1965. Two years prior, another African- American civil rights activist, Medgar Evers, was assassinated on June 12, 1963. Fred Hampton of the Black Panther Party was assassinated on December 4, 1969. Cold War and beyond. Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan, was assassinated by Saad Akbar, a lone assassin, in 1951. Conspiracy theorists believe his conflict with certain members of the Pakistani military( the Rawalpindi Conspiracy) or suppression of communists and antagonism towards the Soviet Union, were potential reasons for his assassination. On July 20, 1951, King Abdullah I of Jordan was shot dead at the entrance of Al- Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem as he was arriving for Friday prayers by a Palestinian fearing the king would make peace with the Israelis. In the 14 July Revolution of 1958 in Iraq, King Faisal II of Iraq was assassinated in the royal family' s overthrow. In 1960, Inejiro Asanuma, the chairman of the Japanese Socialist Party, was stabbed to death by Otoya Yamaguchi. On May 30, 1961, Dominican Republic President Rafael Trujillo was shot dead in an assassination plot to end his three decades of dictatorial rule. On March 25, 1975, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia was shot dead at point- blank range by his nephew, Faisal bin Musaid Al Saud, who had just returned from the United States. On August 27, 1975, Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia was murdered by Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Asfaw on the orders of the Derg. The U. S. Senate Select Committee, chaired by Senator Frank Church( the Church Committee), reported in 1975 that it had found" concrete evidence of at least eight plots involving the CIA to assassinate Fidel Castro from 1960 to 1965." On November 27, 1978, San Francisco City Supervisor Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone were assassinated by former City Supervisor Dan White for respectively lobbying against and refusing to reappoint White to the Board of Supervisors following his resignation. Most major powers repudiated Cold War assassination tactics, but many allege that was merely a smokescreen for political benefit and that covert and illegal training of assassins continues today, with Russia, Israel, the U. S., Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and other nations accused of engaging in such operations. In 1986, U. S. President Ronald Reagan, who has survived an assassination attempt himself, ordered the Operation El Dorado Canyon air raid on Libya in which one of the primary targets was the home residence of Libyan ruler Muammar Gaddafi. Gaddafi escaped unharmed, but his adopted daughter Hanna was claimed to be one of the civilian casualties. In the Philippines, the assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr., triggered the eventual downfall of the 20- year autocratic rule of President Ferdinand Marcos. Aquino, a former senator and a leading figure of the political opposition, was assassinated in 1983 at the Manila International Airport( now the Ninoy Aquino International Airport) after he had returned home from exile. His death thrust his widow, Corazon Aquino into the limelight and, ultimately, the | presidency after the peaceful 1986 |
EDSA Revolution. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979,thenewIslamicgovernmentofIranbegananinternationalcampaignofassassinationthatlastedintothe1990s. At least 162 killings in 19 countries have been linked to the senior leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The campaign came to an end after the Mykonos restaurant assassinations because a German court publicly implicated senior members of the government and issued arrest warrants for Ali Fallahian, the head of Iranian intelligence. Evidence indicates that Fallahian' s personal involvement and individual responsibility for the murders were far more pervasive than his current indictment record represents. On September 17, 1980, Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle was assassinated in an ambush in Paraguay. Anwar Sadat, the president of the Arab Republic of Egypt( formerly the president of the United Arab Republic), was assassinated October 6, 1981, during the annual parade celebrating Operation Badr, the opening maneuver of the Yom Kippur War. On September 3, 1982, Italian general Carlo Alberto della Chiesa and his wife were sprayed with over thirty bullets and killed by the Sicilian Mafia in the Via Carini massacre. Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme was murdered by a gun- wielding man close to midnight on February 28, 1986, after having visited a cinema with his wife. The couple was not accompanied by a bodyguard detail. In 2020 Swedish prosecutors named Stig Engström as the killer. On August 17, 1988, President of Pakistan Gen. M. Zia ul Haq died alongside 31 others, including the Chief of Staff of the Pakistani Armed Forces, the US Ambassador to Pakistan and the chief of the US Military Mission to Pakistan, when his C- 130 transport plane mysteriously crashed. The crash is widely considered in Pakistan to be an act of political assassination. In post- Saddam Iraq, the Shiite- dominated government used death squads to perform extrajudicial executions of radical Sunni Iraqis, with some alleging that the death squads were trained by the U. S. Concrete allegations have since surfaced that the Iranian government has actively armed and funded Shia death- squads in post- Saddam Iraq. In India, Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv Gandhi( neither of whom was related to Mahatma Gandhi, who had himself been assassinated in 1948), were assassinated in 1984 and 1991 respectively in what were linked to separatist movements in Punjab and northern Sri Lanka, respectively. In Liberia, President Samuel Doe was assassinated on September 9, 1990, after being captured by rebels. His torturous and brutal death was captured live on television. On March 23, 1994, progressive Mexican presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was gunned down at a campaign rally in northern Mexico. Amidst the chaos of the Rwandan genocide of April 7– July 15, 1994, Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana was murdered in the genocide' s opening action on April 7. In Israel, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4, 1995. Yigal Amir confessed to and was convicted of the crime. On July 15, 1997, Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace was shot twice execution- style and killed by spree killer Andrew Cunanan. In the Nepalese royal massacre of June 1, 2001, King Birendra of Nepal and Queen Aishwarya | of Nepal, along with several |
other royal family members, were shot to death by the mentally unstable Crown Prince Dipendra of Nepal, who shot himself in the head and died three days later on June 4, spending his very brief reign as King in a coma. Israeli Tourist Minister Rehavam Ze' evi was assassinated on October 17, 2001, by Hamdi Quran and three other members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine( PFLP), which stated that the assassination was in retaliation for the August 27, 2001, killing of Abu Ali Mustafa, the Secretary General of the PFLP, by the Israeli Air Force under its policy of targeted killings. In Lebanon, the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on February 14, 2005, prompted an investigation by the United Nations. The suggestion in the resulting" Mehlis report" that there was involvement by Syria prompted the Cedar Revolution, which drove Syrian troops out of Lebanon. On January 19, 2007, Armenian- Turkish journalist Hrant Dink was shot three times in the back of the head and killed as retaliation for speaking out on the Armenian Genocide. Eleven years later, on October 2, 2018, another journalist, Saudi Arabian dissident Jamal Khashoggi, was assassinated by agents of the Saudi government for speaking out against it. In Pakistan, a former prime minister and opposition leader, Benazir Bhutto, was assassinated in 2007 while she was running for election. Bhutto' s assassination drew unanimous condemnation from the international community. In Guinea Bissau, President João Bernardo Vieira was assassinated in the early hours of March 2, 2009, in the capital, Bissau. Unlike typical assassinations, his death was not swift; he first survived an explosion at the Presidential Villa, was then shot and wounded, and was finally butchered with machetes. His assassination was carried out by renegade soldiers, who were apparently avenging the death of General Tagme Na Waie, the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of Guinea Bissau, who had been killed by a bomb exploding the day before. In the 2012 Benghazi attack, occurring in the night of September 11– 12, U. S. Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens was among those targeted and murdered in a coordinated terrorist attack. On December 19, 2016, the Russian Ambassador to Turkey, Andrei Karlov, was shot dead in Ankara by a Turkish nationalist during a tense period between Turkey and Russia over the conflict in Syria. On February 22, 2021, a World Food Programme convoy was attacked in the Democratic Republic of the Congo by militants, with Italian Ambassador Luca Attanasio, who was riding with the convoy, being murdered in the attack. On July 6, 2021, Dutch journalist Peter R. de Vries was shot in the head in Amsterdam. He died of his injury nine days later, on July 15. On July 7, 2021, Haitian President Jovenel Moïse was shot to death in his own home by gunmen. Further motivations. As a military and foreign policy doctrine. Assassination for military purposes has long been espoused: Sun Tzu, writing around 500 BC, argued in favor of using assassination in his book" The Art of War". Nearly 2000 years | later, in his book" The |
Prince", Machiavelli also advises rulers to assassinate enemies whenever possible to prevent them from posing a threat. An army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny, or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war. For similar and additional reasons, assassination has also sometimes been used in the conduct of foreign policy. The costs and benefits of such actions are difficult to compute. It may not be clear whether the assassinated leader gets replaced with a more or less competent successor, whether the assassination provokes ire in the state in question, whether the assassination leads to souring domestic public opinion, and whether the assassination provokes condemnation from third- parties. One study found that perceptual biases held by leaders often negatively affect decision making in that area, and decisions to go forward with assassinations often reflect the vague hope that any successor might be better. In both military and foreign policy assassinations, there is the risk that the target could be replaced by an even more competent leader or that such a killing( or a failed attempt) will" martyr" a leader and lead to greater support of his or her cause by showing the ruthlessness of the assassins. Faced with particularly brilliant leaders, that possibility has in various instances been risked, such as in the attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the Peloponnesian War. A number of additional examples from World War II show how assassination was used as a tool: Use of assassination has continued in more recent conflicts: As a tool of insurgents. Insurgent groups have often employed assassination as a tool to further their causes. Assassinations provide several functions for such groups: the removal of specific enemies and as propaganda tools to focus the attention of media and politics on their cause. The Irish Republican Army guerrillas in 1919 to 1921 killed many Royal Irish Constabulary Police intelligence officers during the Irish War of Independence. Michael Collins set up a special unit, the Squad, for that purpose, which had the effect of intimidating many policemen into resigning from the force. The Squad' s activities peaked with the killing of 14 British agents in Dublin on Bloody Sunday in 1920. The tactic was used again by the Provisional IRA during the Troubles in Northern Ireland( 1969– 1998). Killing Royal Ulster Constabulary officers and assassination of unionist politicians was one of a number of methods used in the Provisional IRA campaign 1969– 1997. The IRA also attempted to assassinate British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by bombing the Conservative Party Conference in a Brighton hotel. Loyalist paramilitaries retaliated by killing Catholics at random and assassinating Irish nationalist politicians. Basque separatists ETA in Spain assassinated many security and political figures sincethelate1960s, notably the president of the government of Spain, Luis Carrero Blanco,1st Duke of Carrero- Blanco Grandee of Spain, in 1973. In theearly1990s, it also began to target academics, journalists and local politicians who publicly disagreed with it. The Red Brigades in Italy carried out assassinations of political figures and, to | a lesser extent, so did |
theRedArmyFactioninGermanyinthe1970sandthe1980s. In the Vietnam War, communist insurgents routinely assassinated government officials and individual civilians deemed to offend or rival the revolutionary movement. Such attacks, along with widespread military activity by insurgent bands, almost brought the Ngo Dinh Diem regime to collapse before the US intervened. Psychology.AmajorstudyaboutassassinationattemptsintheUSinthesecondhalfofthe20th century came to the conclusion that most prospective assassins spend copious amounts of time planning and preparing for their attempts. Assassinations are thus rarely" impulsive" actions. However, about 25% of the actual attackers were found to be delusional, a figure that rose to 60% with" near- lethal approachers"( people apprehended before reaching their targets). That shows that while mental instability plays a role in many modern- assassinations, the more delusional attackers are less likely to succeed in their attempts. The report also found that around two thirds of attackers had previously been arrested, not necessarily for related offenses; 44% had a history of serious depression, and 39% had a history of substance abuse. Techniques. Modern methods. With the advent of effective ranged weaponry and later firearms, the position of an assassination target was more precarious. Bodyguards were no longer enough to hold back determined killers, who no longer needed to engage directly or even to subvert the guard to kill the leader in question. Moreover, the engagement of targets at greater distances dramatically increased the chances for assassins to survive since they could quickly flee the scene. The first heads of government to be assassinated with a firearm were James Stewart,1st Earl of Moray, the regent of Scotland, in 1570, and William the Silent, the Prince of Orange of the Netherlands, in 1584. Gunpowder and other explosives also allowed the use of bombs or even greater concentrations of explosives for deeds requiring a larger touch. Explosives, especially the car bomb, become far more common in modern history, with grenades and remote- triggered land mines also used, especially in the Middle East and the Balkans; the initial attempt on Archduke Franz Ferdinand' s life was with a grenade. With heavy weapons, the rocket- propelled grenade( RPG) has become a useful tool given the popularity of armored cars( discussed below), and Israeli forces have pioneered the use of aircraft- mounted missiles, as well as the innovative use of explosive devices. A sniper with a precision rifle is often used in fictional assassinations. However, certain pragmatic difficulties attend long- range shooting, including finding a hidden shooting position with a clear line of sight, detailed advance knowledge of the intended victim' s travel plans, the ability to identify the target at long range, and the ability to score a first- round lethal hit at long range, which is usually measured in hundreds of meters. A dedicated sniper rifle is also expensive, often costing thousands of dollars because of the high level of precision machining and handfinishing required to achieve extreme accuracy. Despite their comparative disadvantages, handguns are more easily concealable and so are much more commonly used than rifles. Of the 74 principal incidents evaluated in a major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of | the20th century, 51% were undertaken |
by a handgun, 30% with a rifle or shotgun, 15% used knives, and 8% explosives( the use of multiple weapons/ methods was reported in 16% of all cases). In the case of state- sponsored assassination, poisoning can be more easily denied. Georgi Markov, a dissident from Bulgaria, was assassinated by ricin poisoning. A tiny pellet containing the poison was injected into his leg through a specially designed umbrella. Widespread allegations involving the Bulgarian government and the KGB have not led to any legal results. However, after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was learned that the KGB had developed an umbrella that could inject ricin pellets into a victim, and two former KGB agents who defected stated that the agency assisted in the murder. The CIA made several attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro, many of the schemes involving poisoning his cigars.Inthelate1950s, the KGB assassin Bohdan Stashynsky killed Ukrainian nationalist leaders Lev Rebet and Stepan Bandera with a spray gun that fired a jet of poison gas from a crushed cyanide ampule, making their deaths look like heart attacks. A 2006 case in the UK concerned the assassination of Alexander Litvinenko who was given a lethal dose of radioactive polonium- 210, possibly passed to him in aerosol form sprayed directly onto his food. Litvinenko, a former KGB agent, had been granted asylum in the UK in 2000 after he had cited persecution in Russia. Shortly before his death, he issued a statement accusing Russian President Vladimir Putin of involvement in his assassination. Putin, a former KGB agent, denied any involvement in Litvinenko' s death. Targeted killing. Targeted killing is the intentional killing by a government or its agents of a civilian or" unlawful combatant" who is not in the government' s custody. The target is a person asserted to be taking part in an armed conflict or terrorism, by bearing arms or otherwise, who has thereby lost the immunity from being targeted that he would otherwise have under the Third Geneva Convention. Note that it is a different term and concept from that of" targeted violence", as used by specialists who study violence. On the other hand, Georgetown University Law Center Professor Gary D. Solis, in his 2010 book" The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War", wrote," Assassinations and targeted killings are very different acts." The use of the term" assassination" is opposed, as it denotes murder( unlawful killing), but the terrorists are targeted in self- defense, which is thus viewed as a killing but not a crime( justifiable homicide). Abraham D. Sofaer, former federal judge for the US District Court for the Southern District of New York, wrote on the subject: When people call a targeted killing an" assassination", they are attempting to preclude debate on the merits of the action. Assassination is widely defined as murder, and is for that reason prohibited in the United States... U. S. officials may not kill people merely because their policies are seen as detrimental to our interests... But killings in self- defense are no more" assassinations" in international affairs than | they are murders when undertaken |
by our police forces against domestic killers. Targeted killings in self- defense have been authoritatively determined by the federal government to fall outside the assassination prohibition. Author and former U. S. Army Captain Matthew J. Morgan argued that" there is a major difference between assassination and targeted killing... targeted killing[ is] not synonymous with assassination. Assassination... constitutes an illegal killing." Similarly, Amos Guiora, a professor of law at the University of Utah, wrote," Targeted killing is... not an assassination." Steve David, Professor of International Relations at Johns Hopkins University, wrote," There are strong reasons to believe that the Israeli policy of targeted killing is not the same as assassination." Syracuse Law Professor William Banks and GW Law Professor Peter Raven- Hansen wrote," Targeted killing of terrorists is... not unlawful and would not constitute assassination." Rory Miller writes:" Targeted killing... is not' assassination.'" Associate Professor Eric Patterson and Teresa Casale wrote," Perhaps most important is the legal distinction between targeted killing and assassination." On the other hand, the American Civil Liberties Union also states on its website," A program of targeted killing far from any battlefield, without charge or trial, violates the constitutional guarantee of due process. It also violates international law, under which lethal force may be used outside armed conflict zones only as a last resort to prevent imminent threats, when non- lethal means are not available. Targeting people who are suspected of terrorism for execution, far from any war zone, turns the whole world into a battlefield." Yael Stein, the research director of B' Tselem, the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, also stated in her article" By Any Name Illegal and Immoral: Response to' Israel' s Policy of Targeted Killing'":" The argument that this policy affords the public a sense of revenge and retribution could serve to justify acts both illegal and immoral. Clearly, lawbreakers ought to be punished. Yet, no matter how horrific their deeds, as the targeting of Israeli civilians indeed is, they should be punished according to the law. David' s arguments could, in principle, justify the abolition of formal legal systems altogether." Targeted killing has become a frequent tactic of the United States and Israel in their fight against terrorism. The tactic can raise complex questions and lead to contentious disputes as to the legal basis for its application, who qualifies as an appropriate" hit list" target, and what circumstances must exist before the tactic may be used. Opinions range from people considering it a legal form of self- defense that reduces terrorism to people calling it an extra- judicial killing that lacks due process and leads to further violence. Methods used have included firing Hellfire missiles from Predator or Reaper drones( unmanned, remote- controlled planes), detonating a cell phone bomb, and long- range sniper shooting. Countries such as the US( in Pakistan and Yemen) and Israel( in the West Bank and Gaza) have used targeted killing to eliminate members of groups such as Al- Qaeda and Hamas. In early 2010, with President Obama' s approval, Anwar al- Awlaki became the | first US citizen to be |
publicly approved for targeted killing by the Central Intelligence Agency. Awlaki was killed in a drone strike in September 2011. United Nations investigator Ben Emmerson said that US drone strikes may have violated international humanitarian law." The Intercept" reported," Between January 2012 and February 2013, U. S. special operations airstrikes[ in northeastern Afghanistan] killed more than 200 people. Of those, only 35 were the intended targets." Countermeasures. Early forms. One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins was employing bodyguards, who act as a shield for the potential target; keep a lookout for potential attackers, sometimes in advance, such as on a parade route; and putting themselves in harm' s way, both by simple presence, showing that physical force is available to protect the target, and by shielding the target if any attack occurs. To neutralize an attacker, bodyguards are typically armed as much as legal and practical concerns permit. Notable examples of bodyguards include the Roman Praetorian Guard or the Ottoman Janissaries, but in both cases, the protectors sometimes became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the head of state a virtual hostage or killing the very leaders whom they were supposed to protect. The loyalty of individual bodyguards is an important question as well, especially for leaders who oversee states with strong ethnic or religious divisions. Failure to realize such divided loyalties allowed the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who was assassinated by two Sikh bodyguards in 1984. The bodyguard function was often executed by the leader' s most loyal warriors, and it was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, which led assassins to attempt stealthy means, such as poison, whose risk was reduced by having another person taste the leader' s food first. Another notable measure is the use of a body double, a person who looks like the leader and pretends to be the leader to draw attention away from the intended target. Modern strategies. With the advent of gunpowder, ranged assassination via bombs or firearms became possible. One of the first reactions was simply to increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a small army trailing every leader. Another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present to the point that entire sections of a city might be shut down.Asthe20th century dawned, the prevalence and capability of assassins grew quickly, as did measures to protect against them. For the first time, armored cars or limousines were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions virtually invulnerable to small arms fire, smaller bombs and mines. Bulletproof vests also began to be used, but since they were of limited utility, restricting movement and leaving the head unprotected, they tended to be worn only during high- profile public events, if at all. Access to famous persons also became more and more restricted; potential visitors would be forced through numerous different checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as communication became better and information technology more prevalent, it has become all but impossible for a | would- be killer to get |
close enough to the personage at work or in private life to effect an attempt on his or her life, especially with the common use of metal and bomb detectors. Most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during transport, both because of weaker security and security lapses, such as with U. S. President John F. Kennedy and former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, or as part of a coup d' état in which security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba. The methods used for protection by famous people have sometimes evoked negative reactions by the public, with some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear bulletproof glass, such as the MRAP- like Popemobile of Pope John Paul II, built following an attempt at his life. Politicians often resent the need for separation and sometimes send their bodyguards away from them for personal or publicity reasons. US President William McKinley did so at the public reception in which he was assassinated. Other potential targets go into seclusion and are rarely heard from or seen in public, such as writer Salman Rushdie. A related form of protection is the use of body doubles, people with similar builds to those they are expected to impersonate. These persons are then made up and, in some cases, undergo plastic surgery to look like the target, with the body double then taking the place of the person in high- risk situations. According to Joe R. Reeder, Under Secretary of the Army from 1993 to 1997, Fidel Castro used body doubles. US Secret Service protective agents receive training in the psychology of assassins. An audio optical disc is an optical disc that stores sound information such as music or speech. It may specifically refer to: Alcoholism is, broadly, any drinking of alcohol that results in significant mental or physical health problems. Because there is disagreement on the definition of the word" alcoholism", it is not a recognized diagnostic entity. Predominant diagnostic classifications are alcohol use disorder( DSM- 5) or alcohol dependence( ICD- 11); these are defined in their respective sources. Excessive alcohol use can damage all organ systems, but it particularly affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas and immune system. Alcoholism can result in mental illness, delirium tremens, Wernicke– Korsakoff syndrome, irregular heartbeat, an impaired immune response, liver cirrhosis and increased cancer risk. Drinking during pregnancy can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Women are generally more sensitive than men to the harmful effects of alcohol, primarily due to their smaller body weight, lower capacity to metabolize alcohol, and higher proportion of body fat. In a small number of individuals, prolonged, severe alcohol misuse ultimately leads to cognitive impairment and frank dementia. Environment and genetics are two factors in the risk of development of alcoholism, with about half the risk attributed to each. Stress and associated disorders, including anxiety, are key factors in the development of alcoholism as alcohol consumption | can temporarily reduce dysphoria. Someone |
with a parent or sibling with an alcohol use disorder is three to four times more likely to develop an alcohol use disorder themselves, but only a minority of them do. Environmental factors include social, cultural and behavioral influences. High stress levels and anxiety, as well as alcohol' s inexpensive cost and easy accessibility, increase the risk. People may continue to drink partly to prevent or improve symptoms of withdrawal. After a person stops drinking alcohol, they may experience a low level of withdrawal lasting for months. Medically, alcoholism is considered both a physical and mental illness. Questionnaires are usually used to detect possible alcoholism. Further information is then collected to confirm the diagnosis. Prevention of alcoholism may be attempted by reducing the experience of stress and anxiety in individuals. It can be attempted by regulating and limiting the sale of alcohol( particularly to minors), taxing alcohol to increase its cost, and providing education and treatment. Treatment of alcoholism may take several forms. Due to medical problems that can occur during withdrawal, alcohol cessation should be controlled carefully. One common method involves the use of benzodiazepine medications, such as diazepam. These can be taken while admitted to a health care institution or individually. The medications acamprosate, disulfiram or naltrexone may also be used to help prevent further drinking. Mental illness or other addictions may complicate treatment. Various forms of individual or group therapy or support groups are used to attempt to keep a person from returning to alcoholism. One support group is Alcoholics Anonymous. The World Health Organization has estimated that as of 2016, there were 380 million people with alcoholism worldwide( 5. 1% of the population over 15 years of age). As of 2015 in the United States, about 17 million( 7%) of adults and 0. 7 million( 2. 8%) of those age 12 to 17 years of age are affected. Alcoholism is most common among males and young adults. Geographically, it is least common in Africa( 1. 1% of the population) and has the highest rates in Eastern Europe( 11%). Alcoholism directly resulted in 139, 000 deaths in 2013, up from 112, 000 deaths in 1990. A total of 3. 3 million deaths( 5. 9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol. Alcoholism reduces a person' s life expectancy by approximately ten years. Many terms, some slurs and others informal, have been used to refer to people affected by alcoholism; the expressions include" tippler"," drunkard"," dipsomaniac" and" souse". In 1979, the World Health Organization discouraged the use of" alcoholism" due to its inexact meaning, preferring" alcohol dependence syndrome". Signs and symptoms. The risk of alcohol dependence begins at low levels of drinking and increases directly with both the volume of alcohol consumed and a pattern of drinking larger amounts on an occasion, to the point of intoxication, which is sometimes called" binge drinking". Long- term misuse. Alcoholism is characterised by an increased tolerance to alcohol– which means that an individual can consume more alcohol– and physical dependence on alcohol, which makes it hard for an individual to | control their consumption. The physical |
dependency caused by alcohol can lead to an affected individual having a very strong urge to drink alcohol. These characteristics play a role in decreasing the ability to stop drinking of an individual with an alcohol use disorder. Alcoholism can have adverse effects on mental health, contributing to psychiatric disorders and increasing the risk of suicide. A depressed mood is a common symptom of heavy alcohol drinkers. Warning signs. Warning signs of alcoholism include the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol and frequent intoxication, preoccupation with drinking to the exclusion of other activities, promises to quit drinking and failure to keep those promises, the inability to remember what was said or done while drinking( colloquially known as" blackouts"), personality changes associated with drinking, denial or the making of excuses for drinking, the refusal to admit excessive drinking, dysfunction or other problems at work or school, the loss of interest in personal appearance or hygiene, marital and economic problems, and the complaint of poor health, with loss of appetite, respiratory infections, or increased anxiety. Physical. Short- term effects. Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration( BAC) of 0. 03– 0. 12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria( a" happy" feeling), increased self- confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0. 09% to 0. 25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC of 0. 18% to 0. 30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech( e. g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0. 25% to 0. 40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting( death may occur due to inhalation of vomit while unconscious) and respiratory depression( potentially life- threatening). A BAC from 0. 35% to 0. 80% causes a coma( unconsciousness), life- threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. With all alcoholic beverages, drinking while driving, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have penalties for drunk driving. Long- term effects. Having more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Risk is greater with binge drinking, which may also result in violence or accidents. About 3. 3 million deaths( 5. 9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person' s life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking. Long- term alcohol misuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, nutritional deficiencies, peptic ulcers and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and several cancers. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide | range of immunologic defects can |
result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures. Women develop long- term complications of alcohol dependence more rapidly than do men. Additionally, women have a higher mortality rate from alcoholism than men. Examples of long- term complications include brain, heart, and liver damage and an increased risk of breast cancer. Additionally, heavy drinking over time has been found to have a negative effect on reproductive functioning in women. This results in reproductive dysfunction such as anovulation, decreased ovarian mass, problems or irregularity of the menstrual cycle, and early menopause. Alcoholic ketoacidosis can occur in individuals who chronically misuse alcohol and have a recent history of binge drinking. The amount of alcohol that can be biologically processed and its effects differ between sexes. Equal dosages of alcohol consumed by men and women generally result in women having higher blood alcohol concentrations( BACs), since women generally have a lower weight and higher percentage of body fat and therefore a lower volume of distribution for alcohol than men. Psychiatric. Long- term misuse of alcohol can cause a wide range of mental health problems. Severe cognitive problems are common; approximately 10 percent of all dementia cases are related to alcohol consumption, making it the second leading cause of dementia. Excessive alcohol use causes damage to brain function, and psychological health can be increasingly affected over time. Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol use disorder include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody, perception problems, and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humor is also impaired in people who misuse alcohol. Psychiatric disorders are common in people with alcohol use disorders, with as many as 25 percent suffering severe psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms are anxiety and depression disorders. Psychiatric symptoms usually initially worsen during alcohol withdrawal, but typically improve or disappear with continued abstinence. Psychosis, confusion, and organic brain syndrome may be caused by alcohol misuse, which can lead to a misdiagnosis such as schizophrenia. Panic disorder can develop or worsen as a direct result of long- term alcohol misuse. The co- occurrence of major depressive disorder and alcoholism is well documented. Among those with comorbid occurrences, a distinction is commonly made between depressive episodes that remit with alcohol abstinence(" substance- induced"), and depressive episodes that are primary and do not remit with abstinence(" independent" episodes). Additional use of other drugs may increase the risk of depression. Psychiatric disorders differ depending on gender. Women who have alcohol- use disorders often have a co- occurring psychiatric diagnosis such as major depression, anxiety, panic disorder, bulimia, post- traumatic stress disorder( PTSD), or borderline personality disorder. Men with alcohol- use disorders more often have a co- occurring diagnosis of narcissistic or antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, impulse disorders or attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder( ADHD). Women with alcohol use disorder | are more likely to experience |
physical or sexual assault, abuse, and domestic violence than women in the general population, which can lead to higher instances of psychiatric disorders and greater dependence on alcohol. Social effects. Serious social problems arise from alcohol use disorder; these dilemmas are caused by the pathological changes in the brain and the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Alcohol misuse is associated with an increased risk of committing criminal offences, including child abuse, domestic violence, rape, burglary and assault. Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times and behavior caused by reduced judgment can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior. An alcoholic' s behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly affect those surrounding him and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of children of people with alcohol use disorders. For this reason, children of people with alcohol use disorders can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors. They may develop shame over their inadequacy to liberate their parents from alcoholism and, as a result of this, may develop self- image problems, which can lead to depression. Alcohol withdrawal. As with similar substances with a sedative- hypnotic mechanism, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, withdrawal from alcohol dependence can be fatal if it is not properly managed. Alcohol' s primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the GABAA receptor, promoting central nervous system depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. When alcohol consumption is stopped too abruptly, the person' s nervous system experiences uncontrolled synapse firing. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life- threatening seizures, delirium tremens, hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure. Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved, especially dopamine, NMDA and glutamate. Severe acute withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens and seizures rarely occur after 1- week post cessation of alcohol. The acute withdrawal phase can be defined as lasting between one and three weeks. In the period of 3– 6 weeks following cessation, anxiety, depression, fatigue, and sleep disturbance are common. Similar post- acute withdrawal symptoms have also been observed in animal models of alcohol dependence and withdrawal. A kindling effect also occurs in people with alcohol use disorders whereby each subsequent withdrawal syndrome is more severe than the previous withdrawal episode; this is due to neuroadaptations which occur as a result of periods of abstinence followed by re- exposure to alcohol. Individuals who have had multiple withdrawal episodes are more likely to develop seizures and experience more severe anxiety during withdrawal from alcohol than alcohol- dependent individuals without a history of past alcohol withdrawal episodes. The kindling effect leads to persistent functional changes in brain neural circuits as | well as to gene expression. |
Kindling also results in the intensification of psychological symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. There are decision tools and questionnaires that help guide physicians in evaluating alcohol withdrawal. For example, the CIWA- Ar objectifies alcohol withdrawal symptoms in order to guide therapy decisions which allows for an efficient interview while at the same time retaining clinical usefulness, validity, and reliability, ensuring proper care for withdrawal patients, who can be in danger of death. Causes. A complex combination of genetic and environmental factors influences the risk of the development of alcoholism. Genes that influence the metabolism of alcohol also influence the risk of alcoholism, as can a family history of alcoholism. There is compelling evidence that alcohol use at an early age may influence the expression of genes which increase the risk of alcohol dependence. These genetic and epigenetic results are regarded as consistent with large longitudinal population studies finding that the younger the age of drinking onset, the greater the prevalence of lifetime alcohol dependence. Severe childhood trauma is also associated with a general increase in the risk of drug dependency. Lack of peer and family support is associated with an increased risk of alcoholism developing. Genetics and adolescence are associated with an increased sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of chronic alcohol misuse. Cortical degeneration due to the neurotoxic effects increases impulsive behaviour, which may contribute to the development, persistence and severity of alcohol use disorders. There is evidence that with abstinence, there is a reversal of at least some of the alcohol induced central nervous system damage. The use of cannabis was associated with later problems with alcohol use. Alcohol use was associated with an increased probability of later use of tobacco and illegal drugs such as cannabis. Availability. Alcohol is the most available, widely consumed, and widely misused recreational drug. Beer alone is the world' s most widely consumed alcoholic beverage; it is the third- most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented beverage. Gender difference. Based on combined data in the US from SAMHSA' s 2004– 2005 National Surveys on Drug Use& amp; Health, the rate of past- year alcohol dependence or misuse among persons aged 12 or older varied by level of alcohol use: 44. 7% of past month heavy drinkers, 18. 5% binge drinkers, 3. 8% past month non- binge drinkers, and 1. 3% of those who did not drink alcohol in the past month met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year. Males had higher rates than females for all measures of drinking in the past month: any alcohol use( 57. 5% vs. 45%), binge drinking( 30. 8% vs. 15. 1%), and heavy alcohol use( 10. 5% vs. 3. 3%), and males were twice as likely as females to have met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year( 10. 5% vs. 5. 1%). Genetic variation. There are genetic variations that affect the risk for alcoholism. Some of these variations are more common in individuals with ancestry from certain areas, for | example Africa, East Asia, the |
Middle East and Europe. The variants with strongest effect are in genes that encode the main enzymes of alcohol metabolism,"ADH1B" and"ALDH2". These genetic factors influence the rate at which alcohol and its initial metabolic product, acetaldehyde, are metabolized. They are found at different frequencies in people from different parts of the world. The alcohol dehydrogenase allele"ADH1B* 2" causes a more rapid metabolism of alcohol to acetaldehyde, and reduces risk for alcoholism; it is most common in individuals from East Asia and the Middle East. The alcohol dehydrogenase allele"ADH1B* 3" also causes a more rapid metabolism of alcohol.ThealleleADH1B* 3 is only found in some individuals of African descent and certain Native American tribes. African Americans and Native Americans with this allele have a reduced risk of developing alcoholism. Native Americans, however, have a significantly higher rate of alcoholism than average; risk factors such as cultural environmental effects( e. g. trauma) have been proposed to explain the higher rates. The aldehyde dehydrogenase allele"ALDH2* 2" greatly reduces the rate at which acetaldehyde, the initial product of alcohol metabolism, is removed by conversion to acetate; it greatly reduces the risk for alcoholism. A genome- wide association study( GWAS) of more than 100, 000 human individuals identified variants of the gene" KLB", which encodes the transmembrane protein β- Klotho, as highly associated with alcohol consumption. The protein β- Klotho is an essential element in cell surface receptors for hormones involved in modulation of appetites for simple sugars and alcohol. Several large GWAS have found differences in the genetics of alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence, although the two are to some degree related. Diagnosis. Definition. Misuse, problem use, abuse, and heavy use of alcohol refer to improper use of alcohol, which may cause physical, social, or moral harm to the drinker." The Dietary Guidelines for Americans" defines" moderate use" as no more than two alcoholic beverages a day for men and no more than one alcoholic beverage a day for women. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism( NIAAA) defines binge drinking as the amount of alcohol leading to a blood alcohol content( BAC) of 0. 08, which, for most adults, would be reached by consuming five drinks for men or four for women over a two- hour period. According to the NIAAA, men may be at risk for alcohol- related problems if their alcohol consumption exceeds 14 standard drinks per week or 4 drinks per day, and women may be at risk if they have more than 7 standard drinks per week or 3 drinks per day. It defines a standard drink as one 12- ounce bottle of beer, one 5- ounce glass of wine, or 1. 5 ounces of distilled spirits. Despite this risk, a 2014 report in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that only 10% of either" heavy drinkers" or" binge drinkers" defined according to the above criteria also met the criteria for alcohol dependence, while only 1. 3% of non- binge drinkers met the criteria. An inference drawn from this study is that evidence- based policy strategies and clinical | preventive services may effectively reduce |
binge drinking without requiring addiction treatment in most cases. Alcoholism. The term" alcoholism" is commonly used amongst laypeople, but the word is poorly defined. Despite the imprecision inherent in the term, there have been attempts to define how the word" alcoholism" should be interpreted when encountered. In 1992, it was defined by the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence( NCADD) and ASAM as" a primary, chronic disease characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking." MeSH has had an entry for" alcoholism" since 1999, and references the 1992 definition. The WHO calls" alcoholism"" a term of long- standing use and variable meaning", and use of the term was disfavored by a 1979 WHO expert committee. In professional and research contexts, the term" alcoholism" is not currently favored, but rather alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol use disorder are used. Talbot( 1989) observes that alcoholism in the classical disease model follows a progressive course: if a person continues to drink, their condition will worsen. This will lead to harmful consequences in their life, physically, mentally, emotionally and socially. Johnson( 1980) explores the emotional progression of the addict' s response to alcohol. He looks at this in four phases. The first two are considered" normal" drinking and the last two are viewed as" typical" alcoholic drinking. Johnson' s four phases consist of: DSM and ICD. In the United States, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders( DSM) is the most common diagnostic guide for substance use disorders, whereas most countries use the International Classification of Diseases( ICD) for diagnostic( and other) purposes. The two manuals use similar but not identical nomenclature to classify alcohol problems. Social barriers. Attitudes and social stereotypes can create barriers to the detection and treatment of alcohol use disorder. This is more of a barrier for women than men. Fear of stigmatization may lead women to deny that they are suffering from a medical condition, to hide their drinking, and to drink alone. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be less likely to suspect that a woman they know has alcohol use disorder. In contrast, reduced fear of stigma may lead men to admit that they are suffering from a medical condition, to display their drinking publicly, and to drink in groups. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be more likely to suspect that a man they know is someone with an alcohol use disorder. Screening. Screening is recommended among those over the age of 18. Several tools may be used to detect a loss of control of alcohol use. These tools are mostly self- reports in questionnaire form. Another common theme is a score or tally that sums up the general severity of alcohol use. The CAGE questionnaire, named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor' s office. Other tests are sometimes used for the detection of alcohol dependence, such as the Alcohol Dependence | Data Questionnaire, which is a |
more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE questionnaire. It helps distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of heavy alcohol use. The Michigan Alcohol Screening Test( MAST) is a screening tool for alcoholism widely used by courts to determine the appropriate sentencing for people convicted of alcohol- related offenses, driving under the influence being the most common. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test( AUDIT), a screening questionnaire developed by the World Health Organization, is unique in that it has been validated in six countries and is used internationally. Like the CAGE questionnaire, it uses a simple set of questions– a high score earning a deeper investigation. The Paddington Alcohol Test( PAT) was designed to screen for alcohol- related problems amongst those attending Accident and Emergency departments. It concords well with the AUDIT questionnaire but is administered in a fifth of the time. Urine and blood tests. There are reliable tests for the actual use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content( BAC). These tests do not differentiate people with alcohol use disorders from people without; however, long- term heavy drinking does have a few recognizable effects on the body, including: With regard to alcoholism, BAC is useful to judge alcohol tolerance, which in turn is a sign of alcoholism. Electrolyte and acid- base abnormalities including hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hyponatremia, hyperuricemia, metabolic acidosis, and respiratory alkalosis are common in people with alcohol use disorders. However, none of these blood tests for biological markers is as sensitive as screening questionnaires. Prevention. The World Health Organization, the European Union and other regional bodies, national governments and parliaments have formed alcohol policies in order to reduce the harm of alcoholism. Increasing the age at which licit drugs that are susceptible to misuse, such as alcohol, can be purchased, and banning or restricting alcohol beverage advertising are common methods to reduce alcohol use among adolescents and young adults in particular. Credible, evidence- based educational campaigns in the mass media about the consequences of alcohol misuse have been recommended. Guidelines for parents to prevent alcohol misuse amongst adolescents, and for helping young people with mental health problems have also been suggested. Management. Treatments are varied because there are multiple perspectives of alcoholism. Those who approach alcoholism as a medical condition or disease recommend differing treatments from, for instance, those who approach the condition as one of social choice. Most treatments focus on helping people discontinue their alcohol intake, followed up with life training and/ or social support to help them resist a return to alcohol use. Since alcoholism involves multiple factors which encourage a person to continue drinking, they must all be addressed to successfully prevent a relapse. An example of this kind of treatment is detoxification followed by a combination of supportive therapy, attendance at self- help groups, and ongoing development of coping mechanisms. Much of the treatment community for alcoholism supports an abstinence- based zero tolerance approach; however, some prefer a harm- reduction approach. Cessation of alcohol intake. Medical treatment for alcohol detoxification usually involves administration of a benzodiazepine, in order to | ameliorate alcohol withdrawal syndrome' s |
adverse impact. The addition of phenobarbital improves outcomes if benzodiazepine administration lacks the usually efficacy, and phenobarbital alone might be an effective treatment. Propofol also might enhance treatment for individuals showing limited therapeutic response to a benzodiazepine. Individuals who are only at risk of mild to moderate withdrawal symptoms can be treated as outpatients. Individuals at risk of a severe withdrawal syndrome as well as those who have significant or acute comorbid conditions can be treated as inpatients. Direct treatment can be followed by a treatment program for alcohol dependence or alcohol use disorder to attempt to reduce the risk of relapse. Experiences following alcohol withdrawal, such as depressed mood and anxiety, can take weeks or months to abate while other symptoms persist longer due to persisting neuroadaptations. Psychological. Various forms of group therapy or psychotherapy are often utilized to encourage and support abstinence from alcohol, or to reduce alcohol consumption to levels that are not associated with adverse outcomes. Mutual- aid group- counseling is an approach used to facilitate relapse prevention. Alcoholics Anonymous was one of the earliest organizations formed to provide mutual peer support and it is still the largest. Others include LifeRing Secular Recovery, SMART Recovery, Women for Sobriety, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety. ManualizedTwelve Step Facilitation( TSF) interventions( i. e. therapy which encourages active, long- term Alcoholics Anonymous participation) for Alcohol Use Disorder lead to higher abstinence rates, compared to other clinical interventions and to wait- list control groups. Moderate drinking. Rationing and moderation programs such as Moderation Management and DrinkWise do not mandate complete abstinence. While most people with alcohol use disorders are unable to limit their drinking in this way, some return to moderate drinking. A 2002 US study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism( NIAAA) showed that 17. 7 percent of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than one year prior returned to low- risk drinking. This group, however, showed fewer initial symptoms of dependency. A follow- up study, using the same subjects that were judged to be in remission in 2001– 2002, examined the rates of return to problem drinking in 2004– 2005. The study found abstinence from alcohol was the most stable form of remission for recovering alcoholics. There was also a 1973 study showing chronic alcoholics drinking moderately again, but a 1982 follow- up showed that 95% of subjects were not able to moderately drink over the long term. Another study was a long- term( 60 year) follow- up of two groups of alcoholic men which concluded that" return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence." Internet based measures appear to be useful at least in the short term. Medications. In the United States there are four approved medications for alcoholism: acamprosate, two methods of using naltrexone and disulfiram. Several other drugs are also used and many are under investigation. Evidence does not support the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors( SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants( TCAs), antipsychotics, or gabapentin. Dual addictions and dependences. Alcoholics may also require treatment for other | psychotropic drug addictions and drug |
dependences. The most common dual dependence syndrome with alcohol dependence is benzodiazepine dependence, with studies showing 10– 20 percent of alcohol- dependent individuals had problems of dependence and/ or misuse problems of benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam or clonazepam. These drugs are, like alcohol, depressants. Benzodiazepines may be used legally, if they are prescribed by doctors for anxiety problems or other mood disorders, or they may be purchased as illegal drugs. Benzodiazepine use increases cravings for alcohol and the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers. Benzodiazepine dependency requires careful reduction in dosage to avoid benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome and other health consequences. Dependence on other sedative- hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone as well as opiates and illegal drugs is common in alcoholics. Alcohol itself is a sedative- hypnotic and is cross- tolerant with other sedative- hypnotics such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines. Dependence upon and withdrawal from sedative- hypnotics can be medically severe and, as with alcohol withdrawal, there is a risk of psychosis or seizures if not properly managed. Epidemiology. The World Health Organization estimates that as of 2016 there are 380 million people with alcoholism worldwide( 5. 1% of the population over 15 years of age). Substance use disorders are a major public health problem facing many countries." The most common substance of abuse/ dependence in patients presenting for treatment is alcohol." In the United Kingdom, the number of' dependent drinkers' was calculated as over 2. 8 million in 2001. About 12% of American adults have had an alcohol dependence problem at some time in their life. In the United States and Western Europe, 10 to 20 percent of men and 5 to 10 percent of women at some point in their lives will meet criteria for alcoholism. Estonia had the highest death rate from alcohol in Europe in 2015 at 8. 8 per 100, 000 population. In the United States, 30% of people admitted to hospital have a problem related to alcohol. Within the medical and scientific communities, there is a broad consensus regarding alcoholism as a disease state. For example, the American Medical Association considers alcohol a drug and states that" drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite often devastating consequences. It results from a complex interplay of biological vulnerability, environmental exposure, and developmental factors( e. g., stage of brain maturity)." Alcoholism has a higher prevalence among men, though, in recent decades, the proportion of female alcoholics has increased. Current evidence indicates that in both men and women, alcoholism is 50– 60 percent genetically determined, leaving 40– 50 percent for environmental influences. Most alcoholics develop alcoholism during adolescence or young adulthood. Prognosis. Alcoholism often reduces a person' s life expectancy by around ten years. The most common cause of death in alcoholics is from cardiovascular complications. There is a high rate of suicide in chronic alcoholics, which increases the longer a person drinks. Approximately 3– 15 percent of alcoholics commit suicide, and research has found that over 50 percent of all suicides are associated with alcohol or drug | dependence. This is believed to |
be due to alcohol causing physiological distortion of brain chemistry, as well as social isolation. Suicide is also very common in adolescent alcohol abusers, with 25 percent of suicides in adolescents being related to alcohol abuse. Among those with alcohol dependence after one year, some met the criteria for low- risk drinking, even though only 25. 5 percent of the group received any treatment, with the breakdown as follows: 25 percent were found to be still dependent, 27. 3 percent were in partial remission( some symptoms persist), 11. 8 percent asymptomatic drinkers( consumption increases chances of relapse) and 35. 9 percent were fully recovered– made up of 17. 7 percent low- risk drinkers plus 18. 2 percent abstainers. In contrast, however, the results of a long- term( 60- year) follow- up of two groups of alcoholic men indicated that" return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence." There was also" return- to- controlled drinking, as reported in short- term studies, is often a mirage." History. Historically the name" dipsomania" was coined by German physician C. W. Hufeland in 1819 before it was superseded by" alcoholism". That term now has a more specific meaning. The term" alcoholism" was first used in 1849 by the Swedish physician Magnus Huss to describe the systematic adverse effects of alcohol. Alcohol has a long history of use and misuse throughout recorded history. Biblical, Egyptian and Babylonian sources record the history of abuse and dependence on alcohol. In some ancient cultures alcohol was worshiped and in others, its misuse was condemned. Excessive alcohol misuse and drunkenness were recognized as causing social problems even thousands of years ago. However, the defining of habitual drunkenness as it was then known as and its adverse consequenceswerenotwellestablishedmedicallyuntilthe18th century. In 1647 a Greek monk named Agapios was the first to document that chronic alcohol misuse was associated with toxicity to the nervous system and body which resulted in a range of medical disorders such as seizures, paralysis, and internal bleeding.Inthe1910sand1920s, the effects of alcohol misuse and chronic drunkenness boosted membership of the temperance movement and led to the prohibition of alcohol in many Western countries, nationwide bans on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages that generally remainedinplaceuntilthelate1920sorearly1930s; these policies resulted in the decline of death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism. In 2005, alcohol dependence and misuse was estimated to cost the US economy approximately 220 billion dollars per year, more than cancer and obesity. Society and culture. The various health problems associated with long- term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society, for example, money due to lost labor- hours, medical costs due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long- term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle injuriess( 27%), interpersonal violence( 18%), suicides( 18%), and epilepsy( 13%). Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the | alcoholic and their family and |
friends. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to an incurable and damaging condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome, which often results in cognitive deficits, mental health problems, an inability to live independently and an increased risk of criminal behaviour, all of which can cause emotional stress for parents and caregivers. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol misuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from one to six percent of a country' s GDP. One Australian estimate pegged alcohol' s social costs at 24% of all drug misuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol' s share was 41%. One study quantified the cost to the UK of" all" forms of alcohol misuse in 2001 as£ 18. 5– 20 billion. All economic costs in the United States in 2006 have been estimated at$ 223. 5 billion. The idea of hitting rock bottom refers to an experience of stress that is attributed to alcohol misuse. There is no single definition for this idea, and people may identify their own lowest points in terms of lost jobs, lost relationships, health problems, legal problems, or other consequences of alcohol misuse. The concept is promoted by 12- step recovery groups and researchers using the transtheoretical model of motivation for behavior change. The first use of this slang phrase in the formal medical literature appeared in a 1965 review in the" British Medical Journal", which said that some men refused treatment until they" hit rock bottom", but that treatment was generally more successful for" the alcohol addict who has friends and family to support him" than for impoverished and homeless addicts. Stereotypes of alcoholics are often found in fiction and popular culture. The" town drunk" is a stock character in Western popular culture. Stereotypes of drunkenness may be based on racism or xenophobia, as in the fictional depiction of the Irish as heavy drinkers. Studies by social psychologists Stivers and Greeley attempt to document the perceived prevalence of high alcohol consumption amongst the Irish in America. Alcohol consumption is relatively similar between many European cultures, the United States, and Australia. In Asian countries that have a high gross domestic product, there is heightened drinking compared to other Asian countries, but it is nowhere near as high as it is in other countries like the United States. It is also inversely seen, with countries that have very low gross domestic product showing high alcohol consumption. In a study done on Korean immigrants in Canada, they reported alcohol was even an integral part of their meal, and is the only time solo drinking should occur. They also believe alcohol is necessary at any social event as it helps conversations start. Peyote, a psychoactive agent, has even shown promise in treating alcoholism. Alcohol had actually replaced peyote as Native Americans' psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed. Abstraction in its main sense is a conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples, literal(" real" or" concrete") signifiers, first principles, or other methods." An | abstraction" is the outcome of |
this process— a concept that acts as a common noun for all subordinate concepts, and connects any related concepts as a" group"," field", or" category". Conceptual abstractions may be formed by filtering the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, selecting only those aspects which are relevant for a particular subjectively valued purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball selects only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, excluding, but not eliminating, the other phenomenal and cognitive characteristics of that particular ball. In a type– token distinction, a type( e. g., a' ball') is more abstract than its tokens( e. g.,' that leather soccer ball'). Abstraction in its secondary use is a material process, discussed in the themes below. Origins. Thinking in abstractions is considered by anthropologists, archaeologists, and sociologists to be one of the key traits in modern human behaviour, which is believed to have developed between 50, 000 and 100, 000 years ago. Its development is likely to have been closely connected with the development of human language, which( whether spoken or written) appears to both involve and facilitate abstract thinking. History." Abstraction" involves induction of ideas or the synthesis of particular facts into one general theory about something. It is the opposite of" specification", which is the analysis or breaking- down of a general idea or abstraction into concrete facts. Abstraction can be illustrated with Francis Bacon' s" Novum Organum"( 1620), a book of modern scientific philosophy written in the late Jacobean era of England to encourage modern thinkers to collect specific facts before making any generalizations. Bacon used and promoted induction as an abstraction tool, and it countered the ancient deductive- thinking approach that had dominated the intellectual world since the times of Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Aristotle. Thales( c. 624– 546 BCE) believed that everything in the universe comes from one main substance, water. He deduced or specified from a general idea," everything is water", to the specific forms of water such as ice, snow, fog, and rivers. Modern scientists can also use the opposite approach of abstraction, or going from particular facts collected into one general idea, such as the motion of the planets( Newton( 1642– 1727)). When determining that the sun is the center of our solar system( Copernicus( 1473– 1543)), scientists had to use thousands of measurements to finally conclude that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit about the sun( Kepler( 1571– 1630)), or to assemble multiple specific facts into the law of falling bodies( Galileo( 1564– 1642)). Themes. Compression. An abstraction can be seen as a compression process, mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data; based on similarities in the constituent data, for example, many different physical cats map to the abstraction" CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between" abstract" and" concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects, and | the process of associating these |
objects with an abstraction( which is itself an object). Chains of abstractions can be construed, moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape, to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat, to semantic abstractions such as the" idea" of a CAT, to classes of objects such as" mammals" and even categories such as" object" as opposed to" action". Instantiation. Non- existent things in any particular place and time are often seen as abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be" multiply instantiated", in the sense of" picture 1"," picture 2", etc., shown below. It is not sufficient, however, to define" abstract" ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define" abstraction" as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts" cat" and" telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept" cat" or the concept" telephone". Although the concepts" cat" and" telephone" are" abstractions", they are not" abstract" in the sense of the objects in" graph 1" below. We might look at other graphs, in a progression from" cat" to" mammal" to" animal", and see that" animal" is more abstract than" mammal"; but on the other hand" mammal" is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to" marsupial" or" monotreme". Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to" tropes"( instances of properties) as" abstract particulars"— e. g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an" abstract particular". This is similar to qualia and sumbebekos. Material process. Still retaining the primary meaning of' abstrere' or' to draw away from', the abstraction of money, for example, works by drawing away from the particular value of things allowing completely incommensurate objects to be compared( see the section on' Physicality' below). Karl Marx' s writing on the commodity abstraction recognizes a parallel process. The state( polity) as both concept and material practice exemplifies the two sides of this process of abstraction. Conceptually,' the current concept of the state is an abstraction from the much more concrete early- modern use as the standing or status of the prince, his visible estates'. At the same time, materially, the' practice of statehood is now constitutively and materially more abstract than at the time when princes ruled as the embodiment of extended power'. Ontological status. The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in" picture 1" exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in" graph 1" exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word" abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times. Physicality. A physical | object( a possible referent of |
a concept or word) is considered" concrete"( not abstract) if it is a" particular individual" that occupies a particular place and time. However, in the secondary sense of the term' abstraction', this physical object can carry materially abstracting processes. For example, record- keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi( clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in containers. According to, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers for the count, marks were placed on the outside of the containers. These physical marks, in other words, acted as material abstractions of a materially abstract process of accounting, using conceptual abstractions( numbers) to communicate its meaning. Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real( i. e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like" God"," the number three", and" goodness" are real, abstract, or both. An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use" predicates" as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property( e. g.," good"). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the" graph 1" below, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Referencing and referring. Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example," happiness"( when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise," architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building. Simplification and ordering. Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/ abstract communication. For example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces( as in" picture 1", to the right). The property of" redness" and the relation" sitting- on" are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram" graph 1" identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows( and their five labels), whereas the" picture 1" shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph." Graph 1" details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For | example, the arrow between the" |
agent" and" CAT: Elsie" depicts an example of an" is- a" relationship, as does the arrow between the" location" and the" MAT". The arrows between the gerund/ present participle" SITTING" and the nouns" agent" and" location" express the diagram' s basic relationship;" agent is SITTING on location";" Elsie" is an instance of" CAT". Although the description" sitting- on"( graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat( picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter' s illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in" Gödel, Escher, Bach"( 1979): An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/ scientist/ engineer might seek to learn about something, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle. Thought processes. In philosophical terminology," abstraction" is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects. But an idea can be symbolized. As used in different disciplines. In art. Typically," abstraction" is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world— it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction.Inthe20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freedom from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs. In computer science. Computer scientists use abstraction to make models that can be used and re- used without having to re- write all the program code for each new application on every different type of computer. They communicate their solutions with the computer by writing source code in some particular computer language which can be translated into machine code for different types of computers to execute. Abstraction allows program designers to separate a framework( categorical concepts related to computing problems) from specific instances which implement details. This means that the program code can be written so that code doesn' t have to depend on the specific details of supporting applications, operating system software, or hardware, but on a categorical concept of the solution. A solution to the problem can then be integrated into the system framework with minimal additional work. This allows programmers to take advantage of another programmer' s work, while requiring only an abstract understanding of the implementation of another' s work, apart from the problem that it solves. In general semantics. Abstractions and levels of abstraction play | an important role in the |
theory of general semantics originated by Alfred Korzybski. Anatol Rapoport wrote:" Abstracting is a mechanism by which an infinite variety of experiences can be mapped on short noises( words)." In history. Francis Fukuyama defines history as" a deliberate attempt of abstraction in which we separate out important from unimportant events". In linguistics. Researchers in linguistics frequently apply abstraction so as to allow analysis of the phenomena of language at the desired level of detail. A commonly used abstraction, the" phoneme", abstracts speech sounds in such a way as to neglect details that cannot serve to differentiate meaning. Other analogous kinds of abstractions( sometimes called" emic units") considered by linguists include morphemes, graphemes, and lexemes. Abstraction also arises in the relation between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pragmatics involves considerations that make reference to the user of the language; semantics considers expressions and what they denote( the designata) abstracted from the language user; and syntax considers only the expressions themselves, abstracted from the designata. In mathematics. Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying structures, patterns or properties of a mathematical concept or object, removing any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena. The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are: The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and might require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated. In music. In music, the term" abstraction" can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized by the exploration of internal numeric relationships. In neurology. A recent meta- analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts which elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta- analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage. In philosophy. Abstraction in philosophy is the process( or, to some, the alleged process) in concept formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space. John Locke defined abstraction in" An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":' So words are used to stand as outward marks of our internal ideas, which are taken from particular things; but if every particular idea that we take in had its own | special name, there would be |
no end to names. To prevent this, the mind makes particular ideas received from particular things become general; which it does by considering them as they are in the mind— mental appearances— separate from all other existences, and from the circumstances of real existence, such as time, place, and so on. This procedure is called abstraction. In it, an idea taken from a particular thing becomes a general representative of all of the same kind, and its name becomes a general name that is applicable to any existing thing that fits that abstract idea.'( 2. 11. 9) In psychology. Carl Jung' s definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, different complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism." Abstraction" is one of Jung' s 57 definitions in Chapter XI of" Psychological Types". There is an abstract" thinking", just as there is abstract" feeling"," sensation" and" intuition". Abstract thinking singles out the rational, logical qualities... Abstract feeling does the same with... its feeling- values.... I put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts.... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as opposed to sensuous" sensation" and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic" intuition".( Jung,[ 1921]( 1971): par. 678). In social theory. Social theorists deal with abstraction both as an ideational and as a material process. Alfred Sohn- Rethel( 1899- 1990) asked:" Can there be abstraction other than by thought?" He used the example of commodity abstraction to show that abstraction occurs in practice as people create systems of abstract exchange that extend beyond the immediate physicality of the object and yet have real and immediate consequences. This work was extended through the' Constitutive Abstraction' approach of writers associated with the Journal" Arena". Two books that have taken this theme of the abstraction of social relations as an organizing process in human history are" Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community"( 1996) and an associated volume published in 2006," Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In". These books argue that a nation is an abstract community bringing together strangers who will never meet as such; thus constituting materially real and substantial, but abstracted and mediated relations. The books suggest that contemporary processes of globalization and mediatization have contributed to materially abstracting relations between people, with major consequences for how humans live their lives. One can readily argue that abstraction is an elementary methodological tool in several disciplines of social science. These disciplines have definite and different concepts of" man" that highlight those aspects of man and his behaviour by idealization that are relevant for the given human science. For example, is the man as sociology abstracts and idealizes it, depicting man as a social being. Moreover, we could | talk about( the man who |
can extend his biologically- determined intelligence thanks to new technologies), or( who is simply creative). Abstraction( combined with Weberian idealization) plays a crucial role in economics- hence abstractions such as" the market" and the generalized concept of" business". Breaking away from directly-experiencedrealitywasacommontrendin19th- century sciences( especially physics), and this was the effort which fundamentally determined the way economics tried( and still tries) to approach the economic aspects of social life. It is abstraction we meet in the case of both Newton' s physics and the neoclassical theory, since the goal was to grasp the unchangeable and timeless essence of phenomena. For example, Newton created the concept of the material point by following the abstraction method so that he abstracted from the dimension and shape of any perceptible object, preserving only inertial and translational motion. Material point is the ultimate and common feature of all bodies. Neoclassical economists created the indefinitely abstract notion of homo economicus by following the same procedure. Economists abstract from all individual and personal qualities in order to get to those characteristics that embody the essence of economic activity. Eventually, it is the substance of the economic man that they try to grasp. Any characteristic beyond it only disturbs the functioning of this essential core. In mathematics, an abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, the group operation is commutative. With addition as an operation, the integers and the real numbers form abelian groups, and the concept of an abelian group may be viewed as a generalization of these examples.Abeliangroupsarenamedafterearly19th century mathematician Niels Henrik Abel. The concept of an abelian group underlies many fundamental algebraic structures, such as fields, rings, vector spaces, and algebras. The theory of abelian groups is generally simpler than that of their non- abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood and fully classified. Definition.Anabeliangroupisasetformula_1,togetherwithanoperationformula_2thatcombinesanytwoelementsformula_3andformula_4offormula_1toformanotherelementofformula_6denotedformula_7.Thesymbolformula_2 is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an abelian group, the set and operation,formula_9, must satisfy four requirements known as the" abelian group axioms"( some authors include in the axioms some properties that belong to the definition of an operation: namely that the operation is" defined" for any ordered pair of elements of, that the result is" well- defined", and that the result" belongs to"): A group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a" non- abelian group" or" non- commutative group". Facts. Notation. There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups– additive and multiplicative. Generally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for modules and rings. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian, whenever both abelian and non- abelian groups are considered, some notable exceptions being near- rings and partially ordered groups, where an operation is written additively even when non- abelian. Multiplication table. To verify that a finite group is abelian, | a table( matrix)– known as |
a Cayley table– can be constructed in a similar fashion to a multiplication table.Ifthegroupisformula_30underthetheentryofthistablecontainstheproductformula_31. The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal.Thisistruesincethegroupisabelianiffformula_32forallformula_33,whichisifftheformula_34entryofthetableequalstheformula_35entryforallformula_33, i. e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal. Examples. In general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix multiplication–oneexampleisthegroupofformula_55 rotation matrices. Historical remarks. Camille Jordan named abelian groups after Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel, because Abel found that the commutativity of the group of a polynomial implies that the roots of the polynomial can be calculated by using radicals. Properties.Ifformula_39isanaturalnumberandformula_45isanelementofanabeliangroupformula_44 written additively,thenformula_59canbedefinedasformula_60(formula_39 summands)andformula_62. In this way,formula_44becomesamoduleovertheringformula_49 of integers. In fact,themodulesoverformula_49 can be identified with the abelian groups. Theorems about abelian groups( i. e.modulesovertheprincipalidealdomainformula_49) can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group.Theformermaybewrittenasadirectsumoffinitelymanygroupsoftheformformula_67forformula_68 prime,andthelatterisadirectsumoffinitelymanycopiesofformula_49.Ifformula_70 are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups,thentheirsumformula_71,definedbyformula_72, is again a homomorphism.(Thisisnottrueifformula_73 is a non- abelian group.)Thesetformula_74ofallgrouphomomorphismsfromformula_44toformula_73 is therefore an abelian group in its own right. Somewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a" rank". It is defined as the maximal cardinality of a set of linearly independent( over the integers) elements of the group. Finite abelian groups and torsion groups have rank zero, and every abelian group of rank zero is a torsion group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as well as every nonzero additive subgroup of the rationals. On the other hand, the multiplicative group of the nonzero rationals has an infinite rank, as it is a free abelian group with the set of the prime numbers as a basis( this results from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic).Thecenterformula_77ofagroupformula_44isthesetofelementsthatcommutewitheveryelementofformula_44.Agroupformula_44isabelianifandonlyifitisequaltoitscenterformula_77.Thecenterofagroupformula_44isalwaysacharacteristicabeliansubgroupofformula_44.Ifthequotientgroupformula_84ofagroupbyitscenteriscyclicthenformula_44 is abelian. Finite abelian groups.Cyclicgroupsofintegersmoduloformula_39,formula_87, were among the first examples of groups. It turns out that an arbitrary finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups of prime power order, and these orders are uniquely determined, forming a complete system of invariants. The automorphism group of a finite abelian group can be described directly in terms of these invariants. The theory had been first developed in the 1879 paper of Georg Frobenius and Ludwig Stickelberger and later was both simplified and generalized to finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain, forming an important chapter of linear algebra. Any group of prime order is isomorphic to a cyclic group and therefore abelian. Any group whose order is a square of a prime number is also abelian. In fact, for everyprimenumberformula_68 there are( up to isomorphism) exactly two groupsoforderformula_89,namelyformula_90andformula_91. Classification. The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian groupformula_44 can be expressed as the direct sum of | cyclic subgroups of prime- power |
order; it is also known as the basis theorem for finite abelian groups. Moreover, automorphism groups of cyclic groups are examples of abelian groups. This is generalized by the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups, with finite groups being the special case when" G" has zero rank; this in turn admits numerous further generalizations. The classification was proven by Leopold Kronecker in 1870, though it was not stated in modern group- theoretic terms until later, and was preceded by a similar classification of quadratic forms by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801; see history for details.Thecyclicgroupformula_93oforderformula_94isisomorphictothedirectsumofformula_95andformula_96ifandonlyifformula_42andformula_39 are coprime.Itfollowsthatanyfiniteabeliangroupformula_44 is isomorphic to a direct sum of the formin either of the following canonical ways: For example,formula_106 can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5:formula_107. The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are isomorphic. For another example,everyabeliangroupoforder8isisomorphictoeitherformula_108( the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8),formula_109( the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16),orformula_110. See also list of small groups for finite abelian groups of order 30 or less. Automorphisms. One can apply the fundamental theorem to count( and sometimes determine)theautomorphismsofagivenfiniteabeliangroupformula_44. To do this,oneusesthefactthatifformula_44splitsasadirectsumformula_113 of subgroups of coprime order, thenGiven this,thefundamentaltheoremshowsthattocomputetheautomorphismgroupofformula_44itsufficestocomputetheautomorphismgroupsoftheSylowformula_68- subgroups separately( that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups,eachwithorderapowerofformula_68).Fixaprimeformula_68andsupposetheexponentsformula_119ofthecyclicfactorsoftheSylowformula_68- subgroup are arranged in increasing order:forsomeformula_122.OneneedstofindtheautomorphismsofOnespecialcaseiswhenformula_124, so that there is only one cyclic prime-powerfactorintheSylowformula_68-subgroupformula_126. In this case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used.Anotherspecialcaseiswhenformula_39isarbitrarybutformula_128forformula_129. Here,oneisconsideringformula_126tobeoftheformsoelementsofthissubgroupcanbeviewedascomprisingavectorspaceofdimensionformula_39overthefinitefieldofformula_68elementsformula_134. The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations,sowhereformula_136 is the appropriate general linear group. This is easily shown to have orderIn the most general case,wheretheformula_119andformula_39 are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is known, however,thatifonedefinesandthenonehasinparticularformula_142,formula_143, andOne can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases( see Hillar, C.,& amp; Rhea, D.). Finitely generated abelian groups. An abelian group is finitely generated if it contains a finite set of elements( called" generators")formula_145 such that every element of the group is a linear combination with integer coefficients of elements of.Letbeafreeabeliangroupwithbasisformula_146Thereisauniquegrouphomomorphismformula_147 such thatThis homomorphism is surjective, and its kernel is finitely generated( since integers form a Noetherian ring). Consider the matrix with integer entries, such that the entries of its th column are the coefficients of the th generator of the kernel. Then, the abelian group is isomorphic to the cokernel of linear map defined by. Conversely every integer matrix defines a finitely generated abelian group. It follows that the study of finitely generated abelian groups is totally equivalent with the study of integer matrices. In particular, changing the generating set of is equivalent with multiplying on the left by a unimodular matrix( that is, an invertible integer matrix whose inverse is also an integer matrix). Changing the generating set of the kernel of is equivalent with multiplying on the right by a unimodular matrix. The Smith normal form of is a matrixwhere and are unimodular, and is a matrix such that all non- diagonal | entries are zero, the non- |
zero diagonal entries are the first ones, and is a divisor of for. The existence and the shape of the Smith normal proves that the finitely generated abelian group is the direct sumwhere is the number of zero rows at the bottom of( and also the rank of the group). This is the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups. The existence of algorithms for Smith normal form shows that the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups is not only a theorem of abstract existence, but provides a way for computing expression of finitely generated abelian groups as direct sums. Infinite abelian groups.Thesimplestinfiniteabeliangroupistheinfinitecyclicgroupformula_49.Anyfinitelygeneratedabeliangroupformula_1isisomorphictothedirectsumofformula_153copiesofformula_49 and a finite abelian group, which in turn is decomposable into a direct sum of finitely many cyclic groups of prime power orders. Even though the decomposition is not unique,thenumberformula_153,calledtherankofformula_1, and the prime powers giving the orders of finite cyclic summands are uniquely determined. By contrast, classification of general infinitely generated abelian groups is far from complete. Divisible groups, i. e.abeliangroupsformula_1inwhichtheequationformula_158admitsasolutionformula_159foranynaturalnumberformula_39andelementformula_3offormula_1, constitute one important class of infinite abelian groups that can be completely characterized. Every divisible group is isomorphic to a direct sum,withsummandsisomorphictoformula_163andPrüfergroupsformula_164forvariousprimenumbersformula_68, and the cardinality of the set of summands of each type is uniquely determined. Moreover,ifadivisiblegroupformula_1isasubgroupofanabeliangroupformula_44thenformula_1 admits a direct complement:asubgroupformula_169offormula_44suchthatformula_171. Thus divisible groups are injective modules in the category of abelian groups, and conversely, every injective abelian group is divisible( Baer' s criterion). An abelian group without non- zero divisible subgroups is called reduced. Two important special classes of infinite abelian groups with diametrically opposite properties are" torsion groups" and" torsion- free groups",exemplifiedbythegroupsformula_172( periodic)andformula_163( torsion- free). Torsion groups. An abelian group is called periodic or torsion, if every element has finite order. A direct sum of finite cyclic groups is periodic. Although the converse statement is not true in general, some special cases are known.ThefirstandsecondPrüfertheoremsstatethatifformula_1 is a periodic group, and it either has a bounded exponent, i. e.,formula_175forsomenaturalnumberformula_39,oriscountableandtheformula_68-heightsoftheelementsofformula_1arefiniteforeachformula_68,thenformula_1 is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups.Thecardinalityofthesetofdirectsummandsisomorphictoformula_181insuchadecompositionisaninvariantofformula_1. These theorems were later subsumed in the Kulikov criterion. In a different direction,HelmutUlmfoundanextensionofthesecondPrüfertheoremtocountableabelianformula_68- groups with elements of infinite height: those groups are completely classified by means of their Ulm invariants. Torsion- free and mixed groups. An abelian group is called torsion- free if every non- zero element has infinite order. Several classes of torsion- free abelian groups have been studied extensively: An abelian group that is neither periodic nor torsion- free is called mixed.Ifformula_1isanabeliangroupandformula_187 is its torsion subgroup,thenthefactorgroupformula_188 is torsion- free. However, in general the torsionsubgroupisnotadirectsummandofformula_1,soformula_1 is" not"isomorphictoformula_191. Thus the theory of mixed groups involves more than simply combining the results about periodic and torsion- free groups.Theadditivegroupformula_49 of integers is torsion-freeformula_49- module. Invariants and classification. One of the most basic invariants of aninfiniteabeliangroupformula_1 is its rank: the cardinality of the maximal linearlyindependentsubsetofformula_1. Abelian groups of rank 0 are precisely the periodic groups, while torsion- free abelian groups of rank 1 are necessarilysubgroupsofformula_163 and can be completely described. More generally, a torsion- free abelian group of finiterankformula_153 is a subgroupofformula_198. On the other hand, the group offormula_68- adic integersformula_200 is a torsion- free abelian group of infiniteformula_49- rank and | the groupsformula_202 with differentformula_39 are |
non- isomorphic, so this invariant does not even fully capture properties of some familiar groups. The classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion- free abelian groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion- free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress. See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffith, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in" Lecture Notes in Mathematics" for more recent findings. Additive groups of rings. The additive group of a ring is an abelian group, but not all abelian groups are additive groups of rings( with nontrivial multiplication). Some important topics in this area of study are: Relation to other mathematical topics. Many large abelian groups possess a natural topology, which turns them into topological groups. The collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them,formsthecategoryformula_204, the prototype of an abelian category. proved that the first- order theory of abelian groups, unlike its non- abelian counterpart, is decidable. Most algebraic structures other than Boolean algebras are undecidable. There are still many areas of current research: Moreover, abelian groups of infinite order lead, quite surprisingly, to deep questions about the set theory commonly assumed to underlie all of mathematics. Take the Whitehead problem: are all Whitehead groups of infinite order also free abelian groups?Inthe1970s, Saharon Shelah proved that the Whitehead problem is: A note on typography. Among mathematical adjectives derived from the proper name of a mathematician, the word" abelian" is rare in that it is often spelled with a lowercase a, rather than an uppercase A, the lack of capitalization being a tacit acknowledgment not only of the degree to which Abel' s name has been institutionalized but also of how ubiquitous in modern mathematics are the concepts introduced by him. The Anti- Ballistic Missile Treaty( ABM Treaty or ABMT)( 1972— 2002) was an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti- ballistic missile( ABM) systems used in defending areas against ballistic missile- delivered nuclear weapons. Under the terms of the treaty, each party was limited to two ABM complexes, each of which was to be limited to 100 anti- ballistic missiles. Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years. In 1997, five years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, four former Soviet republics agreed with the United States to succeed the USSR' s role in the treaty. In June 2002 the United States withdrew from the treaty, leading to its termination. Background. Throughoutthelate1950s andintothe1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union had been developing missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming ICBM warheads. During this period, the US considered the defense of the US as part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange. | As part of this defense, |
Canada and the US established the North American Air Defense Command( now called North American Aerospace Defense Command).Bytheearly1950s, US research on the Nike Zeus missile system had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of an operational ABM system. Work started on a short- range, high- speed counterpart known as Sprint to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s, both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a limited ABM system dubbed Sentinel. In 1967, the US announced that Sentinel itself would be scaled down to the smaller and less expensive Safeguard. Soviet doctrine called for development of its own ABM system and return to strategic parity with the US. This was achieved with the operational deployment of the A- 35 ABM system and its successors, which remain operational to this day. The development of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle( MIRV) systems allowed a single ICBM to deliver as many as ten separate warheads at a time. An ABM defense system could be overwhelmed with the sheer number of warheads. Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would be economically unfeasible: The defenders required one rocket per incoming warhead, whereas the attackers could place 10 warheads on a single missile at a reasonable cost. To further protect against ABM systems, the Soviet MIRV missiles were equipped with decoys; R-36M heavy missiles carried as many as 40. These decoys would appear as warheads to an ABM, effectively requiring engagement of five times as many targets and rendering defense even less effective. ABM Treaty. The United States first proposed an anti- ballistic missile treaty at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference during discussions between U. S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Alexei Kosygin. McNamara argued both that ballistic missile defense could provoke an arms race, and that it might provoke a first- strike against the nation fielding the defense. Kosygin rejected this reasoning. They were trying to minimize the number of nuclear missiles in the world. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969( SALT I). By 1972 an agreement had been reached to limit strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed two sites at which it could base a defensive system, one for the capital and one for ICBM silos. The treaty was signed during the 1972 Moscow Summit on 26 May by the President of the United States, Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev; and ratified by the US Senate on 3 August 1972. The 1974 Protocol reduced the number of sites to one per party, largely because neither country had developed a second site. The sites were Moscow for the USSR and the North Dakota Safeguard Complex for the US, which was already under construction. Missiles limited by the treaty. The Treaty limited only ABMs capable of defending against" strategic ballistic | missiles", without attempting to define" |
strategic". It was understood that both ICBMs and SLBMs are obviously" strategic". Neither country intended to stop the development of counter- tactical ABMs. The topic became disputable as soon as most potent counter- tactical ABMs started to be capable of shooting down SLBMs( SLBMs naturally tend to be much slower than ICBMs), nevertheless both sides continued counter- tactical ABM development. After the SDI announcement. On 23 March 1983, Ronald Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a research program into ballistic missile defense which would be" consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty". Reagan was wary of mutual deterrence with what he had recently called an" Evil Empire", and wanted to escape the traditional confines of mutual assured destruction. The project was a blow to Yuri Andropov' s so- called" peace offensive". Andropov said that" It is time[ Washington] stopped thinking up one option after another in search of the best way of unleashing nuclear war in the hope of winning it. To do this is not just irresponsible. It is madness". Regardless of the opposition, Reagan gave every indication that SDI would not be used as a bargaining chip and that the United States would do all in its power to build the system. The Soviets were threatened because the Americans might have been able to make a nuclear first strike possible. In" The Nuclear Predicament," Beckman claims that one of the central goals of Soviet diplomacy was to terminate SDI. A surprise attack from the Americans would destroy much of the Soviet ICBM fleet, allowing SDI to defeat a" ragged" Soviet retaliatory response. Furthermore, if the Soviets chose to enter this new arms race, they would further cripple their economy. The Soviets could not afford to ignore Reagan' s new endeavor, therefore their policy at the time was to enter negotiations with the Americans. By 1987, however, the USSR withdrew its opposition, concluding the SDI posed no threat and scientifically" would never work". SDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped- for result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan' s presidency, and in 1995 it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that" missile defense systems may be deployed...[ that] will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to...[ create] that capability." This was reaffirmed in 1997. Successor states to Soviet Union agree to continue treaty in force. Although the Soviet Union ceased to exist in December 1991, in the view of the U. S. Department of State, the treaty continued in force. An additional memorandum of understanding was prepared in 1997, establishing Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine as successor states to the Soviet Union, for the purposes of the treaty. United States withdrawal. On 13 December 2001, George W. Bush gave Russia notice of the United States' withdrawal from the treaty, in accordance with the clause that required six months' notice before terminating the pact— the first time in recent history that the United States has withdrawn from | a major international arms treaty. |
This led to the eventual creation of the American Missile Defense Agency. Supporters of the withdrawal argued that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited National Missile Defense to protect the United States from nuclear blackmail by a rogue state. The withdrawal also had many critics. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a" fatal blow" to the Non- Proliferation Treaty and would lead to a" world without effective legal constraints on nuclear proliferation". The construction of a missile defense system was also feared to enable the US to attack with a nuclear first strike. Former U. S. Secretary of Defense William Perry also criticized the U. S. withdrawal as a very bad decision. Putin responded to the withdrawal by ordering a build- up of Russia' s nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U. S. capabilities. Russia and the United States signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty in Moscow on 24 May 2002. This treaty mandates cuts in deployed strategic nuclear warheads, but without actually mandating cuts to total stockpiled warheads, and without any mechanism for enforcement. In interviews with Oliver Stone in 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that in trying to persuade Russia to accept US withdrawal from the treaty, both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush had tried, without evidence, to convince him of an emerging nuclear threat from Iran. 2018 statement by Putin on new weapons. On 1 March 2018, Russian president Vladimir Putin, in an address to the Federal Assembly, announced the development of a series of technologically new missile systems and stressed that those were designed as a response to U. S. withdrawal from the ABM Treaty. His statements were referred to by Trump administration officials as largely boastful untruths, but also as confirmation that" Russia has been developing destabilizing weapons systems for over a decade, in direct violation of its treaty obligations." Austria- Hungary, often referred to as the Austro- Hungarian Empire or the Dual Monarchy, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro- Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and was dissolved shortly after its defeat in the First World War. At its core was the dual monarchy which was a real union between Cisleithania, the northern and western parts of the former Austrian Empire, and the Kingdom of Hungary. A third component of the union was the Kingdom of Croatia- Slavonia, an autonomous region under the Hungarian crown, which negotiated the Croatian– Hungarian Settlement in 1868. From 1878, Austria- Hungary jointly governed Bosnia- Herzegovina, which it annexed in 1908. Austria- Hungary was ruled by the House of Habsburg and constituted the last phase in the constitutional evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. The union was established by the Austro- Hungarian Compromise on 30 March 1867 in the aftermath of the Austro- Prussian War. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and Hungarian states were co- equal in power. The two states conducted common foreign, defense, and financial policies, but all other governmental faculties were | divided among respective states. Austria- |
Hungary was a multinational state and one of Europe' s major powers at the time. Austria- Hungary was geographically the second- largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at and the third- most populous( after Russia and the German Empire). The Empire built up the fourth- largest machine building industry in the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Austria- Hungary also became the world' s third- largest manufacturer and exporter of electric home appliances, electric industrial appliances, and power generation apparatus for power plants, after the United States and the German Empire. The Austro- Hungarian Compromise remained bitterly unpopular among the ethnic Hungarian voters because ethnic Hungarians did not vote for the ruling pro- compromise parties in the Hungarian parliamentary elections. Therefore, the political maintenance of the Austro- Hungarian Compromise( thus Austria- Hungary itself) was mostly a result of the popularity of the pro- compromise ruling Liberal Party among ethnic minority voters in the Kingdom of Hungary. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro- Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis among the other powers. The northern part of the Ottoman Sanjak of Novi Pazar was also under" de facto" joint occupation during that period, but the Austro- Hungarian army withdrew as part of their annexation of Bosnia. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as an official state religion due to Bosnia' s Muslim population. Austria- Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I, which began with an Austro- Hungarian war declaration on the Kingdom of Serbia on 28 July 1914. It was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The Kingdom of Hungary and the First Austrian Republic were treated as its successors" de jure", whereas the independence of the West Slavs and South Slavs of the Empire as the First Czechoslovak Republic, the Second Polish Republic, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, respectively, and most of the territorial demands of the Kingdom of Romania were also recognized by the victorious powers in 1920. Creation. The Austro- Hungarian Compromise of 1867( called the" Ausgleich" in German and the" Kiegyezés" in Hungarian), which inaugurated the empire' s dual structure in place of the former Austrian Empire( 1804– 1867), originated at a time when Austria had declined in strength and in power— both in the Italian Peninsula( as a result of the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859) and among the states of the German Confederation( it had been surpassed by Prussia as the dominant German- speaking power following the Austro- Prussian War of 1866). The Compromise re- established the full sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, which had been lost after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Other factors in the constitutional changes were continued Hungarian dissatisfaction with rule from Vienna and increasing national consciousness on the part of other nationalities( or ethnicities) of the Austrian Empire. Hungarian dissatisfaction arose partly from Austria' s suppression, with Russian support, of | the Hungarian liberal revolution of |
1848– 49. However, dissatisfaction with Austrian rule had grown for many years within Hungary and had many other causes.Bythelate1850s, a large number of Hungarians who had supported the 1848– 49 revolution were willing to accept the Habsburg monarchy. They argued that, while Hungary had the right to full internal independence, under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs and defense were" common" to both Austria and Hungary. After the Austrian defeat at Königgrätz, the government realized it needed to reconcile with Hungary to regain the status of a great power. The new foreign minister, Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, wanted to conclude the stalemated negotiations with the Hungarians. To secure the monarchy, Emperor Franz Joseph began negotiations for a compromise with the Hungarian nobility, led by Ferenc Deák. On 20 March 1867, the re- established Hungarian parliament at Pest started to negotiate the new laws to be accepted on 30 March. However, Hungarian leaders received the Emperor' s coronation as King of Hungary on 8 June as a necessity for the laws to be enacted within the lands of the Holy Crown of Hungary. On 28 July, Franz Joseph, in his new capacity as King of Hungary, approved and promulgated the new laws, which officially gave birth to the Dual Monarchy. Name and terminology. The realm' s official name was in' and in'(), though in international relations" Austria– Hungary" was used(;). The Austrians also used the names()( in detail;) and" Danubian Monarchy"(;) or" Dual Monarchy"(;) and" The Double Eagle"(;), but none of these became widespread either in Hungary or elsewhere. The realm' s full name used in the internal administration was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen. From 1867 onwards, the abbreviations heading the names of official institutions in Austria– Hungary reflected their responsibility: Following a decision of Franz Joseph I in 1868, the realm bore the official name Austro- Hungarian Monarchy/ Realm(;) in its international relations. It was often contracted to the Dual Monarchy in English or simply referred to as Austria. Structure. The Compromise turned the Habsburg domains into a real union between the Austrian Empire(" Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania) in the western and northern half and the Kingdom of Hungary(" Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", or Transleithania). in the eastern half. The two halves shared a common monarch, who ruled as Emperor of Austria over the western and northern half portion and as King of Hungary over the eastern portion. Foreign relations and defense were managed jointly, and the two countries also formed a customs union. All other state functions were to be handled separately by each of the two states. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, each with its own unique governmental structures( see: Polish Autonomy in Galicia and Croatian– Hungarian Settlement). The division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship: one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. | This also meant that there |
were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, never a common one. However, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia- Slavonia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports, which were written in Croatian and French, and displayed the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Croatia- Slavonia- Dalmatia on them. Croatia- Slavonia also had executive autonomy regarding naturalization and citizenship, defined as" Hungarian- Croatian citizenship" for the kingdom' s citizens. It is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia- Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, even after the Austrian Empire was created in 1804. The administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary( until 1848– 49 Hungarian revolution) remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungary' s central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government. The country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary( the Gubernium)– located in Pressburg and later in Pest– and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848 and were reinstated after the Austro- Hungarian Compromise in 1867. Despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the personal union( from 1527), the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separate and independent budget. After the revolution of 1848– 1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, and it was only after the Compromise of 1867 that Hungary obtained a separate budget. From 1527( the creation of the monarchic personal union) to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated it from the other parts of the Habsburg- ruled territories. After 1867, the Austrian and Hungarian customs union agreement had to be renegotiated and stipulated every ten years. The agreements were renewed and signed by Vienna and Budapest at the end of every decade because both countries hoped to derive mutual economic benefit from the customs union. The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary contracted their foreign commercial treaties independently of each other. Vienna served as the Monarchy' s primary capital. The Cisleithanian( Austrian) part contained about 57 percent of the total population and the larger share of its economic resources, compared to the Hungarian part. Government. There were three parts to the rule of the Austro- Hungarian Empire: Joint government. The common government was led by a Ministerial Council(" Ministerrat für Gemeinsame Angelegenheiten"), which had responsibility for the Common Army, navy, foreign policy, and the customs union. It consisted of three Imperial and Royal Joint- ministries(""): In addition to the three ministers, the Ministerial Council also contained the prime minister of Hungary, the prime minister of Cisleithania, some Archdukes, and the monarch. The Chief of the General Staff usually attended as well. The council was usually chaired by the Minister of the Household and Foreign Affairs, except when the | Monarch was present. In addition |
to the council, the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments each elected a delegation of 60 members, who met separately and voted on the expenditures of the Ministerial Council, giving the two governments influence in the common administration. However, the ministers ultimately answered only to the monarch, who had the final decision on matters of foreign and military policy. Overlapping responsibilities between the joint ministries and the ministries of the two halves caused friction and inefficiencies. The armed forces suffered particularly from the overlap. Although the unified government determined the overall military direction, the Austrian and Hungarian governments each remained in charge of recruiting, supplies and training. Each government could have a strong influence over common governmental responsibilities. Each half of the Dual Monarchy proved quite prepared to disrupt common operations to advance its own interests. Relations during the half- century after 1867 between the two parts of the dual monarchy featured repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each government to the common treasury. These matters were determined by the Austro- Hungarian Compromise of 1867, in which common expenditures were allocated 70% to Austria and 30% to Hungary. This division had to be renegotiated every ten years. There was political turmoil during the build- up to each renewal of the agreement. By 1907, the Hungarian share had risen to 36. 4%.Thedisputesculminatedintheearly1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis. It was triggered by disagreement over which language to use for command in Hungarian army units and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest in April 1906 of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October 1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the" status quo". The negotiations in 1917 ended with the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy. Parliaments. Hungary and Austria maintained separate parliaments, each with its own prime minister: the Diet of Hungary( commonly known as the National Assembly) and the Imperial Council() in Cisleithania. Each parliament had its own executive government, appointed by the monarch. In this sense, Austria– Hungary remained under an autocratic government, as the Emperor- King appointed both Austrian and Hungarian prime ministers along with their respective cabinets. This made both governments responsible to the Emperor- King, as neither half could have a government with a program contrary to the views of the Monarch. The Emperor- King could appoint non- parliamentary governments, for example, or keep a government that did not have a parliamentary majority in power in order to block the formation of another government which he did not approve of. The Imperial Council was a bicameral body: the upper house was the House of Lords(), and the lower house was the House of Deputies(). Members of the House of Deputies were elected through a system of" curiae" which weighted representation in favor of the wealthy but was progressively reformed until universal male suffrage was introduced in 1906. To become law, bills had to be passed by both houses, signed by the government minister responsible and then granted royal assent by the Emperor. The Diet of | Hungary was also bicameral: the |
upper house was the House of Magnates(), and the lower house was the House of Representatives(). The" curia" system was also used to elect members of the House of Representatives. Franchise was very limited, with around 5% of men eligible to vote in 1874, rising to 8% at the beginning of World War I. The Hungarian parliament had the power to legislate on all matters concerning Hungary, but for Croatia- Slavonia only on matters which it shared with Hungary. Matters concerning Croatia- Slavonia alone fell to the Croatian- Slavonian Diet( commonly referred to as the Croatian Parliament). The Monarch had the right to veto any kind of Bill before it was presented to the National Assembly, the right to veto all legislation passed by the National Assembly, and the power to prorogue or dissolve the Assembly and call for new elections. In practice, these powers were rarely used. Public administration and local governments. Empire of Austria( Cisleithania). The administrative system in the Austrian Empire consisted of three levels: the central State administration, the territories(" Länder"), and the local communal administration. The State administration comprised all affairs having relation to rights, duties, and interests" which are common to all territories"; all other administrative tasks were left to the territories. Finally, the communes had self- government within their own sphere. The central authorities were known as the" Ministry"(" Ministerium"). In 1867 the Ministerium consisted of seven ministries( Agriculture, Religion and Education, Finance, Interior, Justice, Commerce and Public Works, Defence). A Ministry of Railways was created in 1896, and the Ministry of Public Works was separated from Commerce in 1908. Ministries of and Social Welfare were established in 1917 to deal with issues arising from World War I. The ministries all had the title k. k.(" Imperial- Royal"), referring to the Imperial Crown of Austria and the Royal Crown of Bohemia. Each of the seventeen territories had its own government, led by a( officially" Landeschef", but commonly called" Statthalter" or" Landespräsident"), appointed by the Emperor, to serve as his representative. Usually, a territory was equivalent to a Crown territory(" Kronland"), but the immense variations in area of the Crown territories meant that there were some exceptions. Each territory had its own territorial assembly(" Landtag") and executive(""). The territorial assembly and executive were led by the" Landeshauptmann"( i. e., territorial premier), appointed by the Emperor from the members of the territorial assembly. Many branches of the territorial administrations had great similarities with those of the State, so that their spheres of activity frequently overlapped and came into collision. This administrative" double track", as it was called, resulted largely from the origin of the State– for the most part through a voluntary union of countries that had a strong sense of their own individuality. Below the territory was the district(" Bezirk") under a district- head(" Bezirkshauptmann"), appointed by the State government. These district- heads united nearly all the administrative functions which were divided among the various ministries. Each district was divided into a number of municipalities(" Ortsgemeinden"), each with its own elected mayor(" Bürgermeister"). The nine statutory | cities were autonomous units at |
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