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the district- level. The complexity of this system, particularly the overlap between State and territorial administration, led to moves for administrative reform. As early as 1904, premier Ernest von Koerber had declared that a complete change in the principles of administration would be essential if the machinery of State were to continue working. Richard von Bienerth' s last act as Austrian premier in May 1911 was the appointment of a commission nominated by the Emperor to draw up a scheme of administrative reform. The imperial rescript did not present reforms as a matter of urgency or outline an overall philosophy for them. The continuous progress of society, it said, had made increased demands on the administration, that is to say, it was assumed that reform was required because of the changing times, not underlying problems with the administrative structure. The reform commission first occupied itself with reforms about which there was no controversy. In 1912 it published" Proposals for the training of State officials". The commission produced several further reports before its work was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It was not till March 1918 that the Seidler Government decided upon a program of national autonomy as a basis for administrative reform, which was, however, never carried into effect. Kingdom of Hungary( Transleithania). Executive power in Transleithania was vested in a cabinet responsible to the National Assembly, consisting of ten ministers, including: the Prime Minister, the Minister for Croatia- Slavonia, a Minister besides the King, and the Ministers of the Interior, National Defence, Religion and Public Education, Finance, Agriculture, Industry, and Trade, Public Works and Transport, and Justice. The Minister besides the King was responsible for coordination with Austria and the Imperial and royal court in Vienna. In 1889, the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Trade was split into separate ministries of Agriculture and Trade. The Ministry of Public Works and Transport was folded into the new Ministry of Trade. From 1867 the administrative and political divisions of the lands belonging to the Hungarian crown were remodeled due to some restorations and other changes. In 1868 Transylvania was definitely reunited to Hungary proper, and the town and district of Fiume maintained its status as a" Corpus separatum"(" separate body"). The" Military Frontier" was abolished in stages between 1871 and 1881, with Banat and Šajkaška being incorporated into Hungary proper and the Croatian and Slavonian Military Frontiers joining Croatia- Slavonia. In regard to local government, Hungary had traditionally been divided into around seventy counties(, singular" megye"; Croatian:) and an array of districts and cities with special statuses. This system was reformed in two stages. In 1870, most historical privileges of territorial subdivisions were abolished, but the existing names and territories were retained. At this point, there were a total of 175 territorial subdivisions: 65 counties( 49 in Hungary proper, 8 in Transylvania, and 8 in Croatia), 89 cities with municipal rights, and 21 other types of municipality( 3 in Hungary proper and 18 in Transylvania). In a further reform in 1876, most of the cities and other types | of municipality were incorporated into |
the counties. The counties in Hungary were grouped into seven circuits, which had no administrative function. The lowest level subdivision was the district or" processus"(). After 1876, some urban municipalities remained independent of the counties in which they were situated. There were 26 of these urban municipalities in Hungary: Arad, Baja, Debreczen, Győr, Hódmezővásárhely, Kassa, Kecskemét, Kolozsvár, Komárom, Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pancsova, Pécs, Pozsony, Selmecz- és Bélabanya, Sopron, Szabadka, Szatmárnémeti, Szeged, Székesfehervár, Temesvár, Újvidék, Versecz, Zombor, and Budapest, the capital of the country. In Croatia- Slavonia, there were four: Osijek, Varaždin and Zagreb and Zemun. Fiume continued to form a separate division. The administration of the municipalities was carried on by an official appointed by the king. These municipalities each had a council of twenty members. Counties were led by a County head( or) appointed by the king and under the control of the Ministry of the Interior. Each county had a municipal committee of 20 members, comprising 50% virilists( persons paying the highest direct taxes) and 50% elected persons fulfilling the prescribed census and" ex officio" members( deputy county head, main notary, and others). The powers and responsibilities of the counties were constantly decreased and were transferred to regional agencies of the kingdom' s ministries. Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1878, the Congress of Berlin placed the Bosnia Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire under Austro- Hungarian occupation. The region was formally annexed in 1908 and was governed by Austria and Hungary jointly through the Imperial and Royal Ministry of Finance' s Bosnian Office(). The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina was headed by a governor(), who was also the commander of the military forces based in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The executive branch was headed by a National Council, which was chaired by the governor and contained the governor' s deputy and chiefs of departments. At first, the government had only three departments, administrative, financial and legislative. Later, other departments, including construction, economics, education, religion, and technical, were founded as well. The Diet of Bosnia, created in 1910, had very limited legislative powers. The main legislative power was in the hands of the emperor, the parliaments in Vienna and Budapest, and the joint- minister of finance. The Diet of Bosnia could make proposals, but they had to be approved by both parliaments in Vienna and Budapest. The Diet could only deliberate on matters that affected Bosnia and Herzegovina exclusively; decisions on armed forces, commercial and traffic connections, customs, and similar matters, were made by the parliaments in Vienna and Budapest. The Diet also had no control over the National Council or the municipal councils. The Austrian- Hungarian authorities left the Ottoman division of Bosnia and Herzegovina untouched, and only changed the names of divisional units. Thus the Bosnia Vilayet was renamed" Reichsland"," sanjaks" were renamed" Kreise"( Circuits)," kazas" were renamed" Bezirke"( Districts), and nahiyahs became" Exposituren". There were six" Kreise" and 54" Bezirke". The heads of the" Kreises" were" Kreiseleiters," and the heads of the" Bezirke" were" Bezirkesleiters". Judicial system. Empire of Austria. The December Constitution of 1867 restored the rule of law, independence of | the judiciary, and public jury |
trials in Austria. The system of general courts had the same four rungs it still has today: Habsburg subjects would from now on be able to take the State to court should it violate their fundamental rights. Since regular courts were still unable to overrule the bureaucracy, much less the legislature, these guarantees necessitated the creation of specialist courts that could: Kingdom of Hungary. Judicial power was also independent of the executive in Hungary. After the Croatian– Hungarian Settlement of 1868, Croatia- Slavonia had its own independent judicial system( the Table of Seven was the court of last instance for Croatia- Slavonia with final civil and criminal jurisdiction). The judicial authorities in Hungary were: Politics. The first prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy( 1867– 1871). The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Andrássy next served as the Foreign Minister of Austria– Hungary( 1871– 1879). The Empire relied increasingly on a cosmopolitan bureaucracy— in which Czechs played an important role— backed by loyal elements, including a large part of the German, Hungarian, Polish and Croat aristocracy. Political struggles in the Empire. The traditional aristocracy and land- based gentry class gradually faced increasingly wealthy men of the cities, who achieved wealth through trade and industrialization. The urban middle and upper class tended to seek their own power and supported progressive movements in the aftermath of revolutions in Europe. As in the German Empire, the Austro- Hungarian Empire frequently used liberal economic policies and practices.Fromthe1860s, businessmen succeeded in industrializing parts of the Empire. Newly prosperous members of the bourgeoisie erected large homes and began to take prominent roles in urban life that rivaled the aristocracy' s. In the early period, they encouraged the government to seek foreign investment to build up infrastructure, such as railroads, in aid of industrialization, transportation and communications, and development. The influence of liberals in Austria, most of them ethnic Germans, weakened under the leadership of Count Eduard von Taaffe, the Austrian prime minister from 1879 to 1893. Taaffe used a coalition of clergy, conservatives and Slavic parties to weaken the liberals. In Bohemia, for example, he authorized Czech as an official language of the bureaucracy and school system, thus breaking the German speakers' monopoly on holding office. Such reforms encouraged other ethnic groups to push for greater autonomy as well. By playing nationalities off one another, the government ensured the monarchy' s central role in holding together competing interest groups in an era of rapid change. During the First World War, rising national sentiments and labour movements contributed to strikes, protests and civil unrest in the Empire. After the war, republican, national parties contributed to the disintegration and collapse of the monarchy in Austria and Hungary. Republics were established in Vienna and Budapest. Legislation to help the working class emerged from Catholic conservatives. They turned to social reform by using Swiss and German models and intervening in private industry. In Germany, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had used such policies to neutralize socialist promises. The Catholics studied the | Swiss Factory Act of 1877, |
which limited working hours for everyone and provided maternity benefits, and German laws that insured workers against industrial risks inherent in the workplace. These served as the basis for Austria' s 1885 Trade Code Amendment. The Austro- Hungarian compromise and its supporters remained bitterly unpopular among the ethnic Hungarian voters, and the continuous electoral success of the pro- compromise Liberal Party frustrated many Hungarian voters. While the pro- compromise liberal parties were the most popular among ethnic minority voters, the Slovak, Serb, and Romanian minority parties remained unpopular among the ethnic minorities. The nationalist Hungarian parties, which were supported by the overwhelming majority of ethnic Hungarian voters, remained in the opposition, except from 1906 to 1910 where the nationalist Hungarian parties were able to form government. Ethnic relations. In July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted ethnic and minority rights( the next such laws were in Switzerland), but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution. After the Kingdom of Hungary reached the Compromise with the Habsburg Dynasty in 1867, one of the first acts of its restored Parliament was to pass a Law on Nationalities( Act Number XLIV of 1868). It was a liberal piece of legislation and offered extensive language and cultural rights. It did not recognize non- Hungarians to have rights to form states with any territorial autonomy. The" Austro- Hungarian Compromise of 1867" created the personal union of the independent states of Hungary and Austria, linked under a common monarch also having joint institutions. The Hungarian majority asserted more of their identity within the Kingdom of Hungary, and it came to conflict with some of her own minorities. The imperial power of German- speakers who controlled the Austrian half was resented by others. In addition, the emergence of nationalism in the newly independent Romania and Serbia also contributed to ethnic issues in the empire. Article 19 of the 1867" Basic State Act"(" Staatsgrundgesetz"), valid only for the Cisleithanian( Austrian) part of Austria– Hungary, said: The implementation of this principle led to several disputes, as it was not clear which languages could be regarded as" customary". The Germans, the traditional bureaucratic, capitalist and cultural elite, demanded the recognition of their language as a customary language in every part of the empire. German nationalists, especially in the Sudetenland( part of Bohemia), looked to Berlin in the new German Empire. There was a German- speaking element in Austria proper( west of Vienna), but it did not display much sense of German nationalism. That is, it did not demand an independent state; rather it flourished by holding most of the high military and diplomatic offices in the Empire. Italian was regarded as an old" culture language"("") by German intellectuals and had always been granted equal rights as an official language of the Empire, but the Germans had difficulty in accepting the Slavic languages as equal to their own. On one occasion Count A. Auersperg( Anastasius Grün) entered the Diet of Carniola carrying what he claimed to be the whole corpus of Slovene literature under his | arm; this was to demonstrate |
that the Slovene language could not be substituted for German as the language of higher education. The following years saw official recognition of several languages, at least in Austria. From 1867, laws awarded Croatian equal status with Italian in Dalmatia. From 1882, there was a Slovene majority in the Diet of Carniola and in the capital Laibach( Ljubljana); they replaced German with Slovene as their primary official language. Galicia designated Polish instead of German in 1869 as the customary language of government. In Istria, the Istro- Romanians, a small ethnic group composed by around 2,600peopleinthe1880s, suffered severe discrimination. The Croats of the region, who formed the majority, tried to assimilate them, while the Italian minority supported them in their requests for self- determination. In 1888, the possibility of opening the first school for the Istro- Romanians teaching in the Romanian language was discussed in the Diet of Istria. The proposal was very popular among them. The Italian deputies showed their support, but the Croat ones opposed it and tried to show that the Istro- Romanians were in fact Slavs. During Austro- Hungarian rule, the Istro- Romanians lived under poverty conditions, and those living in the island of Krk were fully assimilated by 1875. The language disputes were most fiercely fought in Bohemia, where the Czech speakers formed a majority and sought equal status for their language to German.TheCzechshadlivedprimarilyinBohemiasincethe6th century and GermanimmigrantshadbegunsettlingtheBohemianperipheryinthe13th century. The constitution of 1627 made the German language a second official language and equal to Czech. German speakers lost their majority in the Bohemian Diet in 1880 and became a minority to Czech speakers in the cities of Prague and Pilsen( while retaining a slight numerical majority in the city of Brno( Brünn)). The old Charles University in Prague, hitherto dominated by German speakers, was divided into German and Czech- speaking faculties in 1882. At the same time, Hungarian dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of Romanians in Transylvania and in the eastern Banat, Slovaks in today' s Slovakia, and Croats and Serbs in the crown lands of Croatia and of Dalmatia( today' s Croatia), in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in the provinces known as the Vojvodina( today' s northern Serbia). The Romanians and the Serbs began to agitate for union with their fellow nationalists and language speakers in the newly founded states of Romania( 1859– 1878) and Serbia. Hungary' s leaders were generally less willing than their Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, but they granted a large measure of autonomy to Croatia in 1868. To some extent, they modeled their relationship to that kingdom on their own compromise with Austria of the previous year. In spite of nominal autonomy, the Croatian government was an economic and administrative part of Hungary, which the Croatians resented. In the Kingdom of Croatia- Slavonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina many advocated the idea of a trialist Austro- Hungaro- Croatian monarchy; among the supporters of the idea were Archduke Leopold Salvator, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and emperor and king Charles I who during his short reign supported the trialist idea only | to be vetoed by the |
Hungarian government and Count Istvan Tisza. The count finally signed the trialist proclamation after heavy pressure from the king on 23 October 1918. Language was one of the most contentious issues in Austro- Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in deciding on the languages of government and of instruction. The minorities sought the widest opportunities for education in their own languages, as well as in the" dominant" languages— Hungarian and German. By the" Ordinance of 5 April 1897", the Austrian Prime Minister Count Kasimir Felix Badeni gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of Bohemia; this led to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the empire. The Crown dismissed Badeni. The Hungarian Minority Act of 1868 gave the minorities( Slovaks, Romanians, Serbs, et al.) individual( but not also communal) rights to use their language in offices, schools( although in practice often only in those founded by them and not by the state), courts and municipalities( if 20% of the deputies demanded it). Beginning with the 1879 Primary Education Act and the 1883 Secondary Education Act, the Hungarian state made more efforts to reduce the use of non- Magyar languages, in strong violation of the 1868 Nationalities Law. After 1875, all Slovak language schools higher than elementary were closed, including the only three high schools( gymnasiums) in Revúca( Nagyrőce), Turčiansky Svätý Martin( Turócszentmárton) and Kláštor pod Znievom( Znióváralja). From June 1907, all public and private schools in Hungary were obliged to ensure that after the fourth grade, the pupils could express themselves fluently in Hungarian. This led to the further closing of minority schools, devoted mostly to the Slovak and Rusyn languages. The two kingdoms sometimes divided their spheres of influence. According to Misha Glenny in his book," The Balkans, 1804– 1999", the Austrians responded to Hungarian support of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb. In recognition that he reigned in a multi- ethnic country, Emperor Franz Joseph spoke( and used) German, Hungarian and Czech fluently, and Croatian, Serbian, Polish and Italian to some degree. Jews. Around 1900, Jews numbered about two million in the whole territory of the Austro- Hungarian Empire; their position was ambiguous. The populist and antisemitic politics of the Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Adolf Hitler' s Nazism. Antisemitic parties and movements existed, but the governments of Vienna and Budapest did not initiate pogroms or implement official antisemitic policies. They feared that such ethnic violence could ignite other ethnic minorities and escalate out of control. The antisemitic parties remained on the periphery of the political sphere due to their low popularity among voters in the parliamentary elections. In that period, the majority of Jews in Austria– Hungary lived in small towns(" shtetls") in Galicia and rural areas in Hungary and Bohemia; however, they had large communities and even local majorities in the downtown districts of Vienna, Budapest and Prague. Of the pre- World War I military forces of the major European powers, the Austro- Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion | of Jews to positions of |
command. While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about five percent, Jews made up nearly eighteen percent of the reserve officer corps. Thanks to the modernity of the constitution and to the benevolence of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian Jews came to regard the era of Austria– Hungary as a golden era of their history. By 1910 about 900, 000 religious Jews made up approximately 5% of the population of Hungary and about 23% of Budapest' s citizenry. Jews accounted for 54% of commercial business owners, 85% of financial institution directors and owners in banking, and 62% of all employees in commerce, 20% of all general grammar school students, and 37% of all commercial scientific grammar school students, 31. 9% of all engineering students, and 34. 1% of all students in human faculties of the universities. Jews were accounted for 48. 5% of all physicians, and 49. 4% of all lawyers/ jurists in Hungary. Note: The numbers of Jews were reconstructed from religious censuses. They did not include the people of Jewish origin who had converted to Christianity, or the number of atheists. Among many Hungarian parliament members of Jewish origin, the most famous Jewish members in Hungarian political life were Vilmos Vázsonyi as Minister of Justice, Samu Hazai as Minister of War, János Teleszky as minister of finance and János Harkányi as minister of trade, and József Szterényi as minister of trade. Foreign affairs. The emperor officially had charge of foreign affairs. His minister of foreign affairs conducted diplomacy. See Ministers of the Imperial and Royal House and of Foreign Affairs of Austria- Hungary( 1867– 1918). The Dual Monarchy was created in the wake of the losing war in 1866 with Prussia and Italy. The war was ended by the Peace of Prague( 1866). To rebuild Habsburg prestige and gain revenge against Prussia, Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust became foreign secretary( 1866– 1871). He hated Prussia' s leader, Otto von Bismarck, who had repeatedly outmaneuvered him. Beust looked to France and negotiated with Emperor Napoleon III and Italy for an anti- Prussian alliance. No terms could be reached. The decisive victory of Prusso- German armies in the war of 1870 with France and the founding of the German Empire ended all hope of revenge and Beust retired. After being forced out of Germany and Italy, the Dual Monarchy turned to the Balkans, which were in tumult as nationalistic movements were gaining strength and demanding independence. Both Russia and Austria– Hungary saw an opportunity to expand in this region. Russia took on the role of protector of Slavs and Orthodox Christians. Austria envisioned a multi- ethnic, religiously diverse empire under Vienna' s control. Count Gyula Andrássy, a Hungarian who was Foreign Minister( 1871 to 1879), made the centerpiece of his policy one of opposition to Russian expansion in the Balkans and blocking Serbian ambitions to dominate a new South Slav federation. He wanted Germany to ally with Austria, not Russia. When Russia defeated Turkey in a war the resulting Treaty of San Stefano was seen in Austria | as much too favourable for |
Russia and its Orthodox- Slavic goals. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 let Austria occupy( but not annex) the province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a predominantly Slavic area. In 1914, Slavic militants in Bosnia rejected Austria' s plan to fully absorb the area; they assassinated the Austrian heir and precipitated World War I. Voting rights.Towardstheendofthe19th century, the Austrian half of the dual monarchy began to move towards constitutionalism. A constitutional system with a parliament, the Reichsrat was created, and a bill of rights was enacted also in 1867. Suffrage to the Reichstag' s lower house was gradually expanded until 1907, when equal suffrage for all male citizens was introduced. The 1907 Cisleithanian legislative election were the first elections held under universal male suffrage, after an electoral reform abolishing tax- paying requirements for voters had been adopted by the council and was endorsed by Emperor Franz Joseph earlier in the year. However, seat allocations were based on tax revenues from the States. Demographics. The following data is based on the official Austro- Hungarian census conducted in 1910. Languages. In Austria( Cisleithania), the census of 1910 recorded" Umgangssprache", everyday language. Jews and those using German in offices often stated German as their" Umgangssprache", even when having a different" Muttersprache". 36. 8% of the total population spoke German as their native language, and more than 71% of the inhabitants spoke some German. In Hungary( Transleithania), where the census was based primarily on mother tongue, 48. 1% of the total population spoke Hungarian as their native language. Not counting autonomous Croatia- Slavonia, more than 54. 4% of the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Hungary were native speakers of Hungarian( this included also the Jews around 5% of the population as mostly they were Hungarian- speaking). Note that some languages were considered dialects of more widely spoken languages. For example: in the census, Rhaeto- Romance languages were counted as" Italian", while Istro- Romanian was counted as" Romanian". Yiddish was counted as" German" in both Austria and Hungary. Historical regions: Religion. Solely in the Empire of Austria: Solely in the Kingdom of Hungary: Largest cities. Data:censusin1910Education. Austrian Empire. Primary and secondary schoolsThe organization of the Austrian elementary schools was based on the principle of compulsory school attendance, free education, and the imparting of public instruction in the child' s own language. Side by side with these existed private schools. The proportion of children attending private schools to those attending the public elementary schools in 1912 was 144, 000 to 4. 5 millions, i. e. a thirtieth part. Hence the accusation of denationalizing children through the Schulvereine must be accepted with caution. The expenses of education were distributed as follows: the communes built the schoolhouses, the political sub- districts( Bezirke) paid the teachers, the Crown territory gave a grant, and the State appointed the inspectors. Since the State supervised the schools without maintaining them, it was able to increase its demands without being hampered by financial considerations. It is remarkable that the difference between the State educational estimates in Austria and in Hungary was one of 9. 3 millions | in the former as opposed |
to 67. 6 in the latter. Under Austria, since everywhere that 40 scholars of one nationality were to be found within a radius of 5 km. a school had to be set up in which their language was used, national schools were assured even to linguistic minorities. It is true that this mostly happened at the expense of the German industrial communities, since the Slav labourers as immigrants acquired schools in their own language. The number of elementary schools increased from 19, 016 in 1900 to 24, 713 in 1913; the number of scholars from 3, 490, 000 in 1900 to 4, 630, 000 in 1913. Universities in Austrian EmpireThe first University in the Austrian half of the Empire( Charles University) was founded by H. R. Emperor Charles IV in Prague in 1347. The second oldest university( University of Vienna) was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365. The higher educational institutions were predominantly German,butbeginninginthe1870s, language shifts began to occur. These establishments,whichinthemiddleofthe19th century had had a predominantly German character, underwent in Galicia a conversion into Polish national institutions, in Bohemia and Moravia a separation into German and Czech ones. Thus Germans, Czechs and Poles were provided for. But now the smaller nations also made their voices heard: the Ruthenians, Slovenes and Italians. The Ruthenians demanded at first, in view of the predominantly Ruthenian character of East Galicia, a national partition of the Polish university existing there. Since the Poles were at first unyielding, Ruthenian demonstrations and strikes of students arose, and the Ruthenians were no longer content with the reversion of a few separate professorial chairs, and with parallel courses of lectures. By a pact concluded on 28 January 1914 the Poles promised a Ruthenian university; but owing to the war the question lapsed. The Italians could hardly claim a university of their own on grounds of population( in 1910 they numbered 783, 000), but they claimed it all the more on grounds of their ancient culture. All parties were agreed that an Italian faculty of laws should be created; the difficulty lay in the choice of the place. The Italians demanded Trieste; but the Government was afraid to let this Adriatic port become the centre of an irredenta; moreover the Southern Slavs of the city wished it kept free from an Italian educational establishment. Bienerth in 1910 brought about a compromise; namely, that it should be founded at once, the situation to be provisionally in Vienna, and to be transferred within four years to Italian national territory. The German National Union( Nationalverband) agreed to extend temporary hospitality to the Italian university in Vienna, but the Southern Slav Hochschule Club demanded a guarantee that a later transfer to the coast provinces should not be contemplated, together with the simultaneous foundation of Slovene professorial chairs in Prague and Cracow, and preliminary steps towards the foundation of a Southern Slav university in Laibach. But in spite of the constant renewal of negotiations for a compromise it was impossible to arrive at any agreement, until the outbreak of war left all the projects for a | Ruthenian university at Lemberg, a |
Slovene one in Laibach, and a second Czech one in Moravia, unrealized. Kingdom of Hungary. Primary and secondary schoolsOne of the first measures of newly established Hungarian government was to provide supplementary schools of a non- denominational character. By a law passed in 1868 attendance at school was obligatory for all children between the ages of 6 and 12 years. The communes or parishes were bound to maintain elementary schools, and they were entitled to levy an additional tax of 5% on the state taxes for their maintenance. But the number of state- aided elementary schools was continually increasing, as the spread of the Magyar language to the other races through the medium of the elementary schools was one of the principal concerns of the Hungarian government, and was vigorously pursued. In 1902 there were in Hungary 18, 729 elementary schools with 32, 020 teachers, attended by 2, 573, 377 pupils, figures which compare favourably with those of 1877, when there were 15, 486 schools with 20, 717 teachers, attended by 1, 559, 636 pupils. In about 61% of these schools the language used was exclusively Magyar, in about 6 20% it was mixed, and in the remainder some non- Magyar language was used. In 1902, 80. 56% of the children of school age actually attended school. Since 1891 infant schools, for children between the ages of 3 and 6 years, were maintained either by the communes or by the state. The public instruction of Hungary contained three other groups of educational institutions: middle or secondary schools," high schools" and technical schools. The middle schools comprised classical schools( gymnasia) which were preparatory for the universities and other" high schools", and modern schools( Realschulen) preparatory for the technical schools. Their course of study was generally eight years, and they were maintained mostly by the state. The state- maintained gymnasia were mostly of recent foundation, but some schools maintained by the various churches had been in existence for three or sometimes four centuries. The number of middle schools in 1902 was 243 with 4705 teachers, attended by 71, 788 pupils; in 1880 their number was 185, attended by 40, 747 pupils. Universities in Kingdom of HungaryIn the year 1276, the university of Veszprém was destroyed by the troops of Péter Csák and it was never rebuilt. A university was established by Louis I of Hungary in Pécs in 1367. Sigismund established a university at Óbuda in 1395. Another, Universitas Istropolitana, was established 1465 in Pozsony( now Bratislava in Slovakia) by Mattias Corvinus. None of these medieval universities survived the Ottoman wars. Nagyszombat University was founded in 1635 and moved to Buda in 1777 and it is called Eötvös Loránd University today. The world' s first institute of technology was founded in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary( since 1920 Banská Štiavnica, now Slovakia) in 1735. Its legal successor is the University of Miskolc in Hungary. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics( BME) is considered the oldest institute of technology in the world with university rank and structure. Its legal predecessor the Institutum Geometrico- Hydrotechnicum was | founded in 1782 by Emperor |
Joseph II. The high schools included the universities, of which Hungary possessed five, all maintained by the state: at Budapest( founded in 1635), at Kolozsvár( founded in 1872), and at Zagreb( founded in 1874). Newer universities were established in Debrecen in 1912, and Pozsony university was reestablished after a half millennium in 1912. They had four faculties: theology, law, philosophy and medicine( the university at Zagreb was without a faculty of medicine). There were in addition ten high schools of law, called academies, which in 1900 were attended by 1569 pupils. The Polytechnicum in Budapest, founded in 1844, which contained four faculties and was attended in 1900 by 1772 pupils, was also considered a high school. There were in Hungary in 1900 forty- nine theological colleges, twenty- nine Catholic, five Greek Uniat, four Greek Orthodox, ten Protestant and one Jewish. Among special schools the principal mining schools were at Selmeczbánya, Nagyág and Felsőbánya; the principal agricultural colleges at Debreczen and Kolozsvár; and there was a school of forestry at Selmeczbánya, military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, Déva and Zagreb, and a naval school at Fiume. There were in addition a number of training institutes for teachers and a large number of schools of commerce, several art schools– for design, painting, sculpture, music. Economy. The heavily rural Austro- Hungarian economy slowly modernised after 1867. Railroads opened up once- remote areas, and cities grew. Many small firms promoted capitalist way of production. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The first Austrian stock exchange( the Wiener Börse) was opened in 1771 in Vienna, the first stock exchange of the Kingdom of Hungary( the Budapest Stock Exchange) was opened in Budapest in 1864. The central bank( Bank of issue) was founded as Austrian National Bank in 1816. In 1878, it transformed into Austro- Hungarian National Bank with principal offices in both Vienna and Budapest. The central bank was governed by alternating Austrian or Hungarian governors and vice- governors. The gross national product per capita grew roughly 1. 76% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain( 1%), France( 1. 06%), and Germany( 1. 51%). However, in a comparison with Germany and Britain, the Austro- Hungarian economy as a whole still lagged considerably, as sustained modernization had begun much later. Like the German Empire, that of Austria– Hungary frequently employed liberal economic policies and practices. In 1873, the old Hungarian capital Buda and Óbuda( Ancient Buda) were officially merged with the third city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic Pest grew into Hungary' s administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub. Many of the state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. Economic growth centered on Vienna and Budapest, the Austrian lands( areas of modern Austria), the Alpine region and the Bohemian lands. In the later yearsofthe19th century, rapid economic growth spread to the central Hungarian plain and to the Carpathian lands. As a result, wide disparities of development existed within the empire. In | general, the western areas became |
more developed than the eastern ones. The Kingdom of Hungary became the world' s second- largest flour exporter after the United States. The large Hungarian food exports were not limited to neighbouring Germany and Italy: Hungary became the most important foreign food supplier of the large cities and industrial centres of the United Kingdom. Galicia, which has been described as the poorest province of Austro- Hungary, experienced near- constant famines, resulting in 50, 000 deaths a year. The Istro- Romanians of Istria were also poor, as pastoralism lost strength and agriculture was not productive. However,bytheendofthe19th century, economic differences gradually began to even out as economic growth in the eastern parts of the monarchy consistently surpassed that in the western. The strong agriculture and food industry of the Kingdom of Hungary with the centre of Budapest became predominant within the empire and made up a large proportion of the export to the rest of Europe. Meanwhile, western areas, concentrated mainly around Prague and Vienna, excelled in various manufacturing industries. This division of labour between the east and west, besides the existing economic and monetary union, led to an even more rapid economic growth throughout Austria–Hungarybytheearly20th century. However, since the turn of the twentieth century, the Austrian half of the Monarchy could preserve its dominance within the empire in the sectors of the first industrial revolution, but Hungary had a better position in the industries of the second industrial revolution, in these modern sectors of the second industrial revolution the Austrian competition could not become dominant. The empire' s heavy industry had mostly focused on machine building, especially for the electric power industry, locomotive industry and automotive industry, while in light industry the precision mechanics industry was the most dominant. ThroughtheyearsleadinguptoWorldWarIthecountrybecamethe4th biggest machine manufacturer in the world. The two most important trading partners were traditionally Germany( 1910: 48% of all exports, 39% of all imports), and Great Britain( 1910: almost 10% of all exports, 8% of all imports), the third most important partner was the United States, it followed by Russia, France, Switzerland, Romania, the Balkan states and South America. Trade with the geographically neighbouring Russia, however, had a relatively low weight( 1910: 3% of all exports/ mainly machinery for Russia, 7% of all imports/ mainly raw materials from Russia). Automotive industry. Prior to World War I, the Austrian Empire had five car manufacturer companies. These were: Austro- Daimler in Wiener- Neustadt( cars trucks, buses), Gräf& amp; Stift in Vienna( cars), Laurin& amp; Klement in Mladá Boleslav( motorcycles, cars), Nesselsdorfer in Nesselsdorf( Kopřivnice), Moravia( automobiles), and Lohner- Werke in Vienna( cars). Austrian car production started in 1897. Prior to World War I, the Kingdom of Hungary had four car manufacturer companies. These were: the Ganz company in Budapest, RÁBA Automobile in Győr, MÁG( later Magomobil) in Budapest, and MARTA( Hungarian Automobile Joint- stock Company Arad) in Arad. Hungarian car production started in 1900. Automotive factories in the Kingdom of Hungary manufactured motorcycles, cars, taxicabs, trucks and buses. Electrical industry and electronics. In 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri( ZBD), three engineers associated | with the Ganz Works of |
Budapest, determined that open- core devices were impractical, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems, closed- core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces. The other essential milestone was the introduction of' voltage source, voltage intensive'( VSVI) systems' by the invention of constant voltage generators in 1885. Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections, and Déri had performed the experiments; The first Hungarian water turbine was designed by the engineers of the Ganz Works in 1866, the mass production with dynamo generators started in 1883. The manufacturing of steam turbo generators started in the Ganz Works in 1903. In 1905, the Láng Machine Factory company also started the production of steam turbines for alternators. Tungsram is a Hungarian manufacturer of light bulbs and vacuum tubes since 1896. On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent( No. 34541) for the world' s first tungsten filament lamp. The tungsten filament lasted longer and gave brighter light than the traditional carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram- bulbs in many European countries. Despite the long experimentation with vacuum tubes at Tungsram company,themassproductionofradiotubesbegunduringWW1, and the production of X-raytubesstartedalsoduringtheWW1 in Tungsram Company. The Orion Electronics was founded in 1913. Its main profiles were the production of electrical switches, sockets, wires, incandescent lamps, electric fans, electric kettles, and various household electronics. The telephone exchange was an idea of the Hungarian engineer Tivadar Puskás( 1844– 1893) in 1876, while he was working for Thomas Edison on a telegraph exchange. The first Hungarian telephone factory( Factory for Telephone Apparatuses) was founded by János Neuhold in Budapest in 1879, which produced telephones microphones, telegraphs, and telephone exchanges. In 1884, the Tungsram company also started to produce microphones, telephone apparatuses, telephone switchboards and cables. The Ericsson company also established a factory for telephones and switchboards in Budapest in 1911. Aeronautic industry. The first airplane in Austria was Edvard Rusjan' s design, the Eda I, which had its maiden flight in the vicinity of Gorizia on 25 November 1909. The first Hungarian hydrogen- filled experimental balloons were built by István Szabik and József Domin in 1784. The first Hungarian designed and produced airplane( powered by a Hungarian built inline engine) was flown at Rákosmező on 4 November 1909. The earliest Hungarian airplane with Hungarian built radial engine was flown in 1913. Between 1912 and 1918, the Hungarian aircraft industry began developing. The three greatest: UFAG Hungarian Aircraft Factory( 1914), Hungarian General Aircraft Factory( 1916), Hungarian Lloyd Aircraft, Engine Factory at Aszód( 1916), and Marta in Arad( 1914). During the First World War, fighter planes, bombers and reconnaissance planes were produced in these factories. The most important aero- engine factories were Weiss Manfred Works, GANZ Works, and Hungarian Automobile Joint- stock Company Arad. Locomotive engine and railway vehicle manufacturers. The | locomotive( steam engines and wagons, |
bridge and iron structures) factories were installed in Vienna( Locomotive Factory of the State Railway Company, founded in 1839), in Wiener Neustadt( New Vienna Locomotive Factory, founded in 1841), and in Floridsdorf( Floridsdorf Locomotive Factory, founded in 1869). The Hungarian Locomotive( engines and wagons bridge and iron structures) factories were the MÁVAG company in Budapest( steam engines and wagons) and the Ganz company in Budapest( steam engines, wagons, the production of electric locomotives and electric trams started from 1894). and the RÁBA Company in Győr. Infrastructure. Telecommunication. Telegraph. The first telegraph connection( Vienna– Brno– Prague) had started operation in 1847. In Hungarian territory the first telegraph stations were opened in Pressburg(" Pozsony", today' s Bratislava) in December 1847 and in Buda in 1848. The first telegraph connection between Vienna and Pest– Buda( later Budapest) was constructed in 1850, and Vienna– Zagreb in 1850. Austria subsequently joined a telegraph union with German states. In the Kingdom of Hungary, 2, 406 telegraph post offices operated in 1884. By 1914 the number of telegraph offices reached 3, 000 in post offices and further 2, 400 were installed in the railway stations of the Kingdom of Hungary. Telephone. The first telephone exchange was opened in Zagreb( 8 January 1881), the second was in Budapest( 1 May 1881), and the third was opened in Vienna( 3 June 1881). Initially telephony was available in the homes of individual subscribers, companies and offices.Publictelephonestationsappearedinthe1890s, and they quickly became widespread in post offices and railway stations. Austria– Hungary had 568 million telephone calls in 1913; only two Western European countries had more phone calls: the German Empire and the United Kingdom. The Austro- Hungarian Empire was followed by France with 396 million telephone calls and Italy with 230 million phone calls. In 1916, there were 366 million telephone calls in Cisleithania, among them 8. 4 million long distant calls. All telephone exchanges of the cities, towns and larger villages in Transleithania were linked until 1893. By 1914, more than 2000 settlements had telephone exchange in Kingdom of Hungary. Electronic Audio Broadcasting. The Telefon Hírmondó( Telephone Herald) news and entertainment service was introduced in Budapest in 1893. Two decades before the introduction of radio broadcasting, people could listen to political, economic and sports news, cabaret, music and opera in Budapest daily. It operated over a special type of telephone exchange system. Transport. Railways. By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Hungary reached. In Western Europe only Germany had more extended railway network(); the Austro- Hungarian Empire was followed by France(), the United Kingdom(), Italy() and Spain(). Railway network of the Austrian Empire. Rail transport expanded rapidly in the Austro- Hungarian Empire. Its predecessor state, the Habsburg Empire, had built a substantial core of railways in the west, originating from Vienna, by 1841. Austria' s first steam railway from Vienna to Moravia with its terminus in Galicia( Bochnie) was opened in 1839. The first train travelled from Vienna to Lundenburg( Břeclav) on 6 June 1839 and one month later between the imperial capital in | Vienna and the capital of |
Moravia Brünn( Brno) on 7 July. At that point, the government realized the military possibilities of rail and began to invest heavily in construction. Pozsony( Bratislava), Budapest, Prague, Kraków, Graz, Laibach( Ljubljana) and Venedig( Venice) became linked to the main network. By 1854, the empire had almost of track, about 60– 70% of it in state hands. The government then began to sell off large portions of track to private investors to recoup some of its investments and because of the financial strains of the 1848 Revolution and of the Crimean War. From 1854 to 1879, private interests conducted almost all rail construction. What would become Cisleithania gained of track, and Hungary built of track. During this time, many new areas joined the railway system and the existing rail networks gained connections and interconnections. This period marked the beginning of widespread rail transportation in Austria– Hungary, and also the integration of transportation systems in the area. Railways allowed the empire to integrate its economy far more than previously possible, when transportation depended on rivers. After 1879, the Austrian and the Hungarian governments slowly began to renationalize their rail networks,largelybecauseofthesluggishpaceofdevelopmentduringtheworldwidedepressionofthe1870s. Between 1879 and 1900, more than of railways were built in Cisleithania and Hungary. Most of this constituted" filling in" of the existing network, although some areas, primarily in the far east, gained rail connections for the first time. The railway reduced transportation costs throughout the empire, opening new markets for products from other lands of the Dual Monarchy. In 1914, of a total of of railway tracks in Austria,( 82%) were state- owned. Railway network in the Kingdom of Hungary. The first Hungarian steam locomotive railway line was opened on 15 July 1846 between Pest and Vác. In 1890 most large Hungarian private railway companies were nationalized as a consequence of the poor management of private companies, except the strong Austrian- owned Kaschau- Oderberg Railway( KsOd) and the Austrian- Hungarian Southern Railway( SB/ DV). They also joined the zone tariff system of the MÁV( Hungarian State Railways). By 1910, the total length of the rail networks of Hungarian Kingdom reached, the Hungarian network linked more than 1, 490 settlements. Nearly half( 52%) of the empire' s railways were built in Hungary, thus the railroad density there became higher than that of Cisleithania.ThishasrankedHungarianrailwaysthe6th most dense in the world( ahead of Germany and France). Electrified commuter railways: A set of four electric commuter rai lines were built in Budapest, the BHÉV: Ráckeve line( 1887), Szentendre line( 1888), Gödöllő line( 1888), Csepel line( 1912) Metropolitan transit systems. Tramway lines in the cities. Horse- drawntramwaysappearedinthefirsthalfofthe19th century.Betweenthe1850sand1880s many were built: Vienna( 1865), Budapest( 1866), Brno( 1869), Trieste( 1876).Steamtramsappearedinthelate1860s. The electrification oftramwaysstartedinthelate1880s. The first electrified tramway in Austria– Hungary was built in Budapest in 1887. Electric tramway lines in the Austrian Empire: Electric tramway lines in the Kingdom of Hungary: Underground. The Budapest Metro Line 1( originally the" Franz Joseph Underground Electric Railway Company") is the second oldest underground railway in the world( the first being the London Underground' s Metropolitan Line and the third being Glasgow), and | the first on the European |
mainland. It was built from 1894 to 1896 and opened on 2 May 1896. In 2002, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.TheM1 line became an IEEE Milestone due to the radically new innovations in its era:" Among the railway’ s innovative elements were bidirectional tram cars; electric lighting in the subway stations and tram cars; and an overhead wire structure instead of a third- rail system for power." Canals and river regulations. In 1900 the engineer C. Wagenführer drew up plans to link the Danube and the Adriatic Sea by a canal from Vienna to Trieste. It was born from the desire of Austria– Hungary to have a direct link to the Adriatic Sea but was never constructed. Regulation of the lower Danube and the Iron Gates. In 1831 a plan had already been drafted to make the passage navigable, at the initiative of the Hungarian politician István Széchenyi. Finally Gábor Baross, Hungary' s" Iron Minister", succeeded in financing this project. The riverbed rocks and the associated rapids made the gorge valley an infamous passage for shipping. In German, the passage is still known as the Kataraktenstrecke, even though the cataracts are gone. Near the actual" Iron Gates" strait the Prigrada rock was the most important obstacle until 1896: the river widened considerably here and the water level was consequently low. Upstream, the Greben rock near the" Kazan" gorge was notorious. Regulation of the Tisza River. The length of the Tisza in Hungary used to be. It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a river to flow very slowly, the Tisza used to follow a path with many curves and turns, which led to many large floods in the area. After several small- scale attempts, István Széchenyi organised the" regulation of the Tisza"( Hungarian: a Tisza szabályozása) which started on 27 August 1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new length of the river in Hungary was( total), with of" dead channels" and of new riverbed. The resultant length of the flood- protected river comprises( out of of all Hungarian protected rivers). Shipping and ports. The most important seaport was Trieste( today part of Italy), where the Austrian merchant marine was based. Two major shipping companies( Austrian Lloyd and Austro- Americana) and several shipyards were located there. From 1815 to 1866, Venice had been part of the Habsburg empire. The loss of Venice prompted the development of the Austrian merchant marine. By 1913, the commercial marine of Austria, comprised 16, 764 vessels with a tonnage of 471, 252, and crews number- ing 45, 567. Of the total( 1913) 394 of 422, 368 tons were steamers, and 16, 370 of 48, 884 tons were sailing vessels The Austrian Lloyd was one of the biggest ocean shipping companies of the time. Prior to the beginning of World War I, the company owned 65 middle- sized and large steamers. The Austro- Americana owned one third of this number, including the biggest Austrian passenger ship, the SS" Kaiser | Franz Joseph I". In comparison |
to the Austrian Lloyd, the Austro- American concentrated on destinations in North and South America. The Austro- Hungarian Navy became much more significant than previously, as industrialization provided sufficient revenues to develop it. The ships of the Austro- Hungarian navy were built in Trieste' s shipyards. Pola( Pula, today part of Croatia) was also especially significant for the navy. The most important seaport for the Hungarian part of the monarchy was Fiume( Rijeka, today part of Croatia), where the Hungarian shipping companies, such as the Adria, operated. On the Danube, the DDSG had established the Óbuda Shipyard on the Hungarian Hajógyári Island in 1835. The largest Hungarian shipbuilding company was the Ganz- Danubius. The commercial marine of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1913 comprised 545 vessels of 144, 433 tons, and crews numbering 3, 217. Of the total number of vessels 134, 000 of 142, 539 tons were steamers, and 411 of 1, 894 tons were sailing vessels. The first Danubian steamer company, Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft( DDSG), was the largest inland shipping company in the world until the collapse of Austria- Hungary. Military. The Austro- Hungarian Army was under the command of Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen( 1817– 1895), an old- fashioned bureaucrat who opposed modernization. The military system of the Austro- Hungarian monarchy was similar in both states, and rested since 1868 upon the principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military force was composed of the common army; the special armies, namely the Austrian Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honved, which were separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy- en masse. As stated above, the common army stood under the administration of the joint minister of war, while the special armies were under the administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the army was fixed by the military bills voted on by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments and was generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103, 100 men, of which Austria furnished 59, 211 men, and Hungary 43, 889. Besides 10, 000 men were annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12, 500 to the Hungarian Honved. The term of service was two years( three years in the cavalry) with the colours, seven or eight in the reserve and two in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the same total period of service was spent in various special reserves. The common minister of war was the head for the administration of all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of the Hungarian Honved, which were committed to the ministries for national defence of the two respective states. But the supreme command of the army was nominally vested in the monarch, who had the power to take all measures regarding the whole army. In practice, the emperor' s nephew Archduke Albrecht was his chief military advisor and made the policy decisions. The Austro- Hungarian navy was mainly | a coast defence force, and |
also included a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It was administered by the naval department of the ministry of war. Foreign policy: 1897– 1914. Disputed land: Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russian Pan- Slavic organizations sent aid to the Balkan rebels and so pressured the tsar' s government to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877 in the name of protecting Orthodox Christians. Unable to mediate between the Ottoman Empire and Russia over the control of Serbia, Austria– Hungary declared neutrality when the conflict between the two powers escalated into a war. With help from Romania and Greece, Russia defeated the Ottomans and with the Treaty of San Stefano tried to create a large pro- Russian Bulgaria. This treaty sparked an international uproar that almost resulted in a general European war. Austria– Hungary and Britain feared that a large Bulgaria would become a Russian satellite that would enable the tsar to dominate the Balkans. British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli moved warships into position against Russia to halt the advance of Russian influence in the eastern Mediterranean so close to Britain' s route through the Suez Canal. The Congress of Berlin rolled back the Russian victory by partitioning the large Bulgarian state that Russia had carved out of Ottoman territory and denying any part of Bulgaria full independence from the Ottomans. Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina as a way of gaining power in the Balkans. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania became fully independent. Nonetheless, the Balkans remained a site of political unrest with teeming ambition for independence and great power rivalries. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 Gyula Andrássy( Minister of Foreign Affairs) managed to force Russia to retreat from further demands in the Balkans. As a result, Greater Bulgaria was broken up and Serbian independence was guaranteed. In that year, with Britain' s support, Austria– Hungary stationed troops in Bosnia to prevent the Russians from expanding into nearby Serbia. In another measure to keep the Russians out of the Balkans, Austria– Hungary formed an alliance, the Mediterranean Entente, with Britain and Italy in 1887 and concluded mutual defence pacts with Germany in 1879 and Romania in 1883 against a possible Russian attack. Following the Congress of Berlin the European powers attempted to guarantee stability through a complex series of alliances and treaties. Anxious about Balkan instability and Russian aggression, and to counter French interests in Europe, Austria– Hungary forged a defensive alliance with Germany in October 1879 and in May 1882. In October 1882 Italy joined this partnership in the Triple Alliance largely because of Italy' s imperial rivalries with France. Tensions between Russia and Austria– Hungary remained high, so Bismarck replaced the League of the Three Emperors with the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to keep the Habsburgs from recklessly starting a war over Pan- Slavism. The Sandžak- Raška/ Novibazar region was under Austro- Hungarian occupation between 1878 and 1909, when it was returned to the Ottoman Empire, before being ultimately divided between kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia. On the heels of the Great Balkan Crisis, Austro- Hungarian forces occupied Bosnia and | Herzegovina in August 1878 and |
the monarchy eventually annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common holding of Cisleithania and Transleithania under the control of the Imperial& amp; Royal finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation in 1908 led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third Slavic component of the monarchy. The deaths of Franz Joseph' s brother, Maximilian( 1867), and his only son, Rudolf, made the Emperor' s nephew, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne. The Archduke was rumoured to have been an advocate for this trialism as a means to limit the power of the Hungarian aristocracy. A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexation to the Habsburg Monarchy in October 1908 promised these lands constitutional institutions, which should secure to their inhabitants full civil rights and a share in the management of their own affairs by means of a local representative assembly. In performance of this promise a constitution was promulgated in 1910. This included a Territorial Statute( Landesstatut) with the setting up of a Territorial Diet, regulations for the election and procedure of the Diet, a law of associations, a law of public meetings, and a law dealing with the district councils. According to this statute Bosnia- Herzegovina formed a single administrative territory under the responsible direction and supervision of the Ministry of Finance of the Dual Monarchy in Vienna. The administration of the country, together with the carrying out of the laws, devolved upon the Territorial Government in Sarajevo, which was subordinate and responsible to the Common Ministry of Finance. The existing judicial and administrative authorities of the Territory retained their previous organization and functions. That statute introduced the modern rights and laws in Bosnia– Herzegovina, and it guaranteed generally the civil rights of the inhabitants of the Territory, namely citizenship, personal liberty, protection by the competent judicial authorities, liberty of creed and conscience, preservation of the national individuality and language, freedom of speech, freedom of learning and education, inviolability of the domicile, secrecy of posts and telegraphs, inviolability of property, the right of petition, and finally the right of holding meetings. The Diet( Sabor) of Bosnia- Herzegovina set up consisted of a single Chamber, elected on the principle of the representation of interests. It numbered 92 members. Of these 20 consisted of representatives of all the religious confessions, the president of the Supreme Court, the president of the Chamber of Advocates, the president of the Chamber of Commerce, and the mayor of Sarajevo. In addition to these were 72 deputies, elected by three curiae or electoral groups. The first curia included the large landowners, the highest taxpayers, and people who had reached a certain standard of education without regard to the amount they paid in taxes. To the second curia belonged inhabitants of the towns not qualified to vote in the first; to the third, country dwellers disqualified in the same way. With this curial system was combined the grouping of the mandates and of the electors according to the three dominant creeds( Catholic, Serbian | Orthodox, Muslim). To the adherents |
of other creeds the right was conceded of voting with one or other of the religious electoral bodies within the curia to which they belonged. Bosnian Crisis of 1908- 1909. The principal players in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908- 09 were the foreign ministers of Austria and Russia, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky. Both were motivated by political ambition; the first would emerge successful, and the latter would be broken by the crisis. Along the way, they would drag Europe to the brink of war in 1909. They would also divide Europe into the two armed camps that would go to war in July 1914. Under the Treaty of Berlin, The Ottomans controlled the Dardanelles straight connecting the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The Treaty prohibited the passage of any warships from any country into or out of the Black Sea. This treaty bottled up a major portion of the Russian Fleet, making it useless in the Russo- Japanese War of 1904- 1905 when it was urgently needed. Izvolsky wanted this changed to allow the passage of Russian ships through the straits. Aehrenthal wanted full control of Bosnia- Herzogovina. Austria- Hungary had administered the provinces since 1878 but the Ottoman Empire remained the nominal legal owner. Aehrenthal concocted a grand diplomatic deal that proposed major benefits for both sides. Austria would gain full ownership of Bosnia with Russian approval. Turkey would get full control of the territory knoiwn as the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, plus cash. Russia would get the right of passage for its warships through the Straits. Serbia would get zero. Before approaching the Russians, Aehrenthal met with Austrian official and won the approval of Emperor Franz Joseph I. On September 15– 16 Aehrenthal and Izvolsky held a secret meeting. No record was kept— and afterwards both sides remembered it very differently. Aehrenthal assumed he had full Russian approval for his scheme, but he not give out planned dates. Izvolsky assumed he would be informed before any actual move happened. Aehrenthal vaguely informed all the major countries but gave no details. The world was astonished on October 6, 1908, when a press release in Vienna announced that Bosnia was fully annexed. Inside Austria there was general approval except in Czech areas— that minority strongly felt its demands had been deliberately ignored. Aehrenthal had expected wide European approval and instead he faced a hostile volcanic eruption from every direction. Izvolsky vehemently denounced the treachery demanded an international conference on Bosnia. After decades of low level activity, pan- Slavic forces inside Russia suddenly mobilized in opposition. Mass demonstrations broke out across the continent. Rome took advantage of the situation by reversing its friendship with Vienna. Berlin officials were surprised and appalled. The British were especially angry, denouncing the violation of an international agreement signed by both Austria and Britain. France denounced the scheme. Turkey was surprised by the unexpected development, but it was quieted by the cash payment. By far the angriest reaction came from Serbia, which called for revenge, and began setting up secret guerrilla bands, plotting insurrection in | Bosnia. All across Europe the |
chief blame was placed on Berlin, not Vienna. Europeans feared the powerful German army and took the episode as proof of its expansionist intentions. Berlin now realized it stood alone, with Austria its only friend. It therefore decided it would firmly support Austria despite doubts about the wisdom of annexing Bosnia, Berlin explicitly warned St Petersburg that continued demands for an international conference constituted a hostile action that increase the risk of war with Germany. Russia backed down. Thanks to the German intervention, Austria scored a complete short- term diplomatic success in taking control of Bosnia. in the long run however, Germany and Austria both made many too enemies, as the battle lines of World War I started to harden. Aehrenthal had started with the assumption that the Slavic minorities could never come together, and the Balkan League Would never accomplish any damage to Austria. He turned down an Ottoman proposal for an alliance that would include Austria, Turkey and Romania. However his policies alienated the Bulgarians, who turned instead to Russia and Serbia. Although Austria had no intention to embark on additional expansion to the south, Aehrenthal encouraged speculation to that effect, expecting it would paralyze the Balkan states. Instead, it incited them to feverish activity to create a defensive block to stop Austria. A series of grave miscalculations at the highest level thus significantly strengthened Austria' s enemies. 1914: Coming of World War. Sarajevo assassination. On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. A group of six assassins( Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso Čubrilović) from the nationalist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the Black Hand, had gathered on the street where the Archduke' s motorcade would pass. Čabrinović threw a grenade at the car, but missed. It injured some people nearby, and Franz Ferdinand' s convoy could carry on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them quickly. About an hour later, when Franz Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital, the convoy took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip by coincidence stood. With a pistol, Princip shot and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The reaction among the Austrian people was mild, almost indifferent. As historian Z. A. B. Zeman later wrote," the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday[ June 28 and 29], the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Escalation of violence in Bosnia. The assassination excessively intensified the existing traditional religion- based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia. However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged violence against the Serb residents, which resulted in the Anti- Serb riots of Sarajevo, in which Catholic Croats and Bosnian Muslims killed two and damaged numerous Serb- owned buildings. Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence as the" Sarajevo frenzy of hate." Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized not only in Sarajevo but also in many other larger Austro- Hungarian cities in modern- day Croatia and Bosnia and | Herzegovina. Austro- Hungarian authorities in |
Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5, 500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2, 200 of whom died in prison. 460 Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim special militia known as the" Schutzkorps" was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs. Decision for war. While the empire' s military spending had not even doubled since the 1878 Congress of Berlin, Germany' s spending had risen fivefold, and the British, Russian, and French expenditures threefold. The empire had lost ethnic Italian areas to Piedmont because of nationalist movements that had swept through Italy, and many Austro- Hungarians perceived as imminent the threat of losing to Serbia the southern territories inhabited by Slavs. Serbia had recently gained considerable territory in the Second Balkan War of 1913, causing much distress in government circles in Vienna and Budapest. Former ambassador and foreign minister Count Alois Aehrenthal had assumed that any future war would be in the Balkan region. Hungarian prime minister and political scientist István Tisza opposed the expansion of the monarchy in the Balkans( see Bosnian crisis in 1908) because" the Dual Monarchy already had too many Slavs", which would further threaten the integrity of the Dual Monarchy. In March 1914, Tisza wrote a memorandum to Emperor Franz Joseph with a strongly apocalyptic, predictive and embittered tone. He used the hitherto unknown word" Weltkrieg"( meaning World War)." It is my firm conviction that Germany' s two neighbors[ Russia and France] are carefully proceeding with military preparations, but will not start the war so long as they have not attained a grouping of the Balkan states against us that confronts the monarchy with an attack from three sides and pins down the majority of our forces on our eastern and southern front." On the day of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Tisza immediately traveled to Vienna where he met Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Leopold Berchtold and Army Commander Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. They proposed to solve the dispute with arms, attacking Serbia. Tisza proposed to give the government of Serbia time to take a stand as to whether it was involved in the organisation of the murder and proposed a peaceful resolution, arguing that the international situation would settle soon. Returning to Budapest, he wrote to Emperor Franz Joseph saying he would not take any responsibility for the armed conflict because there was no proof that Serbia had plotted the assassination. Tisza opposed a war with Serbia, stating( correctly, as it turned out) that any war with the Serbs was bound to trigger a war with Russia and hence a general European war. He did not trust in the Italian alliance, due to the political aftermath of the Second Italian War of Independence. He thought that even a successful Austro- Hungarian war would be disastrous for the integrity of Kingdom of Hungary, where Hungary would be the next victim of Austrian politics. After a successful war against Serbia, Tisza foresaw a possible Austrian military attack against the Kingdom of Hungary, where the Austrians want to break up the territory | of Hungary. Some members of |
the government, such as Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years in a preventive war, but the Emperor, 84 years old and an enemy of all adventures, disapproved. The foreign ministry of Austro- Hungarian Empire sent ambassador László Szőgyény to Potsdam, where he inquired about the standpoint of the German Emperor on 5 July. Szőgyény described what happened in a secret report to Vienna later that day: But now the leaders of Austria– Hungary, especially General Count Leopold von Berchtold, backed by its ally Germany, decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt; using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of ten demands called the July Ultimatum, expecting Serbia would never accept. When Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially accepted the remaining one, Austria– Hungary declared war. Franz Joseph I finally followed the urgent counsel of his top advisers. Over the course of July and August 1914, these events caused the start of World War I, as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off a series of counter- mobilizations. In support of his German ally, on Thursday, 6 August 1914, Emperor Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war on Russia. Italy initially remained neutral, although it had an alliance with Austria– Hungary. In 1915, it switched to the side of the Entente powers, hoping to gain territory from its former ally. World War I. Wartime foreign policy. The Austro- Hungarian Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany. The only goal was to punish Serbia and try to stop the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Instead as the war went on the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities and the Empire faced disintegration. Starting in late 1916 the new Emperor Karl removed the pro- German officials and opened peace overtures to the Allies, whereby the entire war could be ended by compromise, or perhaps Austria would make a separate peace from Germany. The main effort was vetoed by Italy, which had been promised large slices of Austria for joining the Allies in 1915. Austria was only willing to turn over the Trentino region but nothing more. Karl was seen as a defeatist, which weakened his standing at home and with both the Allies and Germany. As the Imperial economy collapsed into severe hardship and even starvation, its multi- ethnic army lost its morale and was increasingly hard- pressed to hold its line. In the capital cities of Vienna and Budapest, the leftist and liberal movements and opposition parties strengthened and supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. As it became apparent that the Allies would win the war, nationalist movements, which had previously been calling for a greater degree of autonomy for their majority areas, started demanding full independence. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule, as his realm disintegrated. Homefront. The heavily rural Empire did have a small industrial base, | but its major contribution was |
manpower and food. Nevertheless, Austria– Hungary was more urbanized( 25%) than its actual opponents in the First World War, like the Russian Empire( 13. 4%), Serbia( 13. 2%) or Romania( 18. 8%). Furthermore, the Austro- Hungarian Empire had also more industrialized economy and higher GDP per capita than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the far most developed actual opponent of the Empire. On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural base, was somewhat better fed. The Army conquered productive agricultural areas in Romania and elsewhere, but refused to allow food shipments to civilians back home. Morale fell every year, and the diverse nationalities gave up on the Empire and looked for ways to establish their own nation states. Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping out the cash savings of the middle- class. In terms of war damage to the economy, the war used up about 20 percent of the GDP. The dead soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared all the major countries in the war, the death and casualty rate was toward the high- end regarding the present- day territory of Austra. By summer 1918," Green Cadres" of army deserters formed armed bands in the hills of Croatia- Slavonia and civil authority disintegrated. By late October violence and massive looting erupted and there were efforts to form peasant republics. However, the Croatian political leadership was focused on creating a new state( Yugoslavia) and worked with the advancing Serbian army to impose control and end the uprisings. Military events. The Austro- Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8millionsoldiersduringtheWW1. General von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro- Hungarian General Staff. Franz Joseph I, who was much too old to command the army, appointed Archduke Friedrich von Österreich- Teschen as Supreme Army Commander( Armeeoberkommandant), but asked him to give Von Hötzendorf freedom to take any decisions. Von Hötzendorf remained in effective command of the military forces until Emperor Karl I took the supreme command himself in late 1916 and dismissed Conrad von Hötzendorf in 1917. Meanwhile, economic conditions on the homefront deteriorated rapidly. The Empire depended on agriculture, and agriculture depended on the heavy labor of millions of men who were now in the Army. Food production fell, the transportation system became overcrowded, and industrial production could not successfully handle the overwhelming need for munitions. Germany provided a great deal of help, but it was not enough. Furthermore, the political instability of the multiple ethnic groups of Empire now ripped apart any hope for national consensus in support of the war. Increasingly there was a demand for breaking up the Empire and setting up autonomous national states based on historic language- based cultures. The new Emperor sought peace terms from the Allies, but his initiatives were vetoed by Italy. Serbian front 1914– 1916. At the start of the war, the army was divided into two: the smaller part attacked Serbia while the larger | part fought against the formidable |
Imperial Russian Army. The invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a disaster: by the end of the year, the Austro- Hungarian Army had taken no territory, but had lost 227, 000 out of a total force of 450, 000 men. However, in the autumn of 1915, the Serbian Army was defeated by the Central Powers, which led to the occupation of Serbia. Near the end of 1915, in a massive rescue operation involving more than 1, 000 trips made by Italian, French and British steamers, 260, 000 Serb surviving soldiers were transported to Brindisi and Corfu, where they waited for the chance of the victory of Allied Powers to reclaim their country. Corfu hosted the Serbian government in exile after the collapse of Serbia and served as a supply base to the Greek front. In April 1916 a large number of Serbian troops were transported in British and French naval vessels from Corfu to mainland Greece. The contingent numbering over 120, 000 relieved a much smaller army at the Macedonian front and fought alongside British and French troops. Russian front 1914– 1917. On the Eastern front, the war started out equally poorly. The Austro- Hungarian Army was defeated at the Battle of Lemberg and the great fortress city of Przemyśl was besieged and fell in March 1915. The Gorlice– Tarnów Offensive started as a minor German offensive to relieve the pressure of the Russian numerical superiority on the Austro- Hungarians, but the cooperation of the Central Powers resulted in huge Russian losses and the total collapse of the Russian lines and their long retreat into Russia. The Russian Third Army perished. In summer 1915, the Austro- Hungarian Army, under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the successful Gorlice– Tarnów Offensive. From June 1916, the Russians focused their attacks on the Austro- Hungarian army in the Brusilov Offensive, recognizing the numerical inferiority of the Austro- Hungarian army. By the end of September 1916, Austria– Hungary mobilized and concentrated new divisions, and the successful Russian advance was halted and slowly repelled; but the Austrian armies took heavy losses( about 1 million men) and never recovered. The Battle of Zborov( 1917) was the first significant action of the Czechoslovak Legions, who fought for the independence of Czechoslovakia against the Austro- Hungarian army. However the huge losses in men and material inflicted on the Russians during the offensive contributed greatly to the revolutions of 1917, and it caused an economic crash in the Russian Empire. Italian front 1915– 1918. In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria– Hungary. Italy was the only military opponent of Austria– Hungary which had a similar degree of industrialization and economic level; moreover, her army was numerous(≈ 1, 000, 000 men were immediately fielded), but suffered from poor leadership, training and organization. Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna marched his army towards the Isonzo river, hoping to seize Ljubljana, and to eventually threaten Vienna. However, the Royal Italian Army were halted on the river, where four battles took place over five months( 23 June– 2 December 1915). The fight was extremely bloody | and exhausting for both the |
contenders. On 15 May 1916, the Austrian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf launched the" Strafexpedition"(" punitive expedition"): the Austrians broke through the opposing front and occupied the Asiago plateau. The Italians managed to resist and in a counteroffensive seized Gorizia on 9 August. Nonetheless, they had to stop on the Carso, a few kilometres away from the border. At this point, several months of indecisive trench warfare ensued( analogous to the Western front). As the Russian Empire collapsed as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution and Russians ended their involvement in the war, Germans and Austrians were able to move on the Western and Southern fronts much manpower from the erstwhile Eastern fighting. On 24 October 1917, Austrians( now enjoying decisive German support) attacked at Caporetto using new infiltration tactics; although they advanced more than in the direction of Venice and gained considerable supplies, they were halted and could not cross the Piave river. Italy, although suffering massive casualties, recovered from the blow, and a coalition government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was formed. Italy also enjoyed support by the Entente powers: by 1918, large amounts of war materials and a few auxiliary American, British, and French divisions arrived in the Italian battle zone. Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz; under his command, the Italians retook the initiative and won the decisive Battle of the Piave river( 15– 23 June 1918), in which some 60, 000 Austrian and 43, 000 Italian soldiers were killed. The multiethnic Austro- Hungarian Empire started to disintegrate, leaving its army alone on the battlefields. The final battle was at Vittorio Veneto; after 4 days of stiff resistance, Italian troops crossed the Piave River, and after losing 90, 000 men the defeated Austrian troops retreated in disarray pursued by the Italians. The Italians captured 448, 000 Austrian- Hungarian soldiers( about one- third of the imperial- royal army), 24 of whom were generals, 5, 600 cannons and mortars, and 4, 000 machine guns. The military breakdown also marked the start of the rebellion for the numerous ethnicities who made up the multiethnic Empire, as they refused to keep on fighting for a cause that now appeared senseless. These events marked the end of Austria– Hungary, which collapsed on 31 October 1918. The armistice was signed at Villa Giusti on 3 November. Romanian front 1916– 1917. On 27 August 1916, Romania declared war against Austria– Hungary. The Romanian Army crossed the borders of Eastern Hungary( Transylvania), and despite initial successes, by November 1916, the Central Powers formed by the Austro- Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Ottoman armies, had defeated the Romanian and Russian armies of the Entente Powers, and occupied the southern part of Romania( including Oltenia, Muntenia and Dobruja). Within 3 months of the war, the Central Powers came near Bucharest, the Romanian capital city. On 6 December, the Central Powers captured Bucharest, and part of the population moved to the unoccupied Romanian territory, in Moldavia, together with the Romanian government, royal court and public authorities, which relocated to Iași. In 1917, after several defensive victories( managing to stop | the German- Austro- Hungarian advance), |
with Russia' s withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania was forced to drop out of the war. Whereas the German army realized it needed close cooperation from the homefront, Habsburg officers saw themselves as entirely separate from the civilian world, and superior to it. When they occupied productive areas, such as southern Romania, they seized food stocks and other supplies for their own purposes and blocked any shipments intended for civilians back in the Austro- Hungarian Empire. The result was that the officers lived well, as the civilians began to starve. Vienna even transferred training units to Serbia and Poland for the sole purpose of feeding them. In all, the Army obtained about 15 percent of its cereal needs from occupied territories. Role of Hungary. Although the Kingdom of Hungary composed only 42% of the population of Austria– Hungary, the thin majority– more than 3. 8 million soldiers– of the Austro- Hungarian armed forces were conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary during the First World War. Roughly 600, 000 soldiers were killed in action, and 700, 000 soldiers were wounded in the war. Austria– Hungary held on for years, as the Hungarian half provided sufficient supplies for the military to continue to wage war. This was shown in a transition of power after which the Hungarian prime minister, Count István Tisza, and foreign minister, Count István Burián, had decisive influence over the internal and external affairs of the monarchy. By late 1916, food supply from Hungary became intermittent and the government sought an armistice with the Entente powers. However, this failed as Britain and France no longer had any regard for the integrity of the monarchy because of Austro- Hungarian support for Germany. Analysis of defeat. The setbacks that the Austrian army suffered in 1914 and 1915 can be attributed to a large extent by the incompetence of the Austrian high command. After attacking Serbia, its forces soon had to be withdrawn to protect its eastern frontier against Russia' s invasion, while German units were engaged in fighting on the Western Front. This resulted in a greater than expected loss of men in the invasion of Serbia. Furthermore, it became evident that the Austrian high command had had no plans for possible continental war and that the army and navy were also ill- equipped to handle such a conflict. From 1916, the Austro- Hungarian war effort became more and more subordinated to the direction of German planners. The Austrians viewed the German army favorably, on the other hand by 1916 the general belief in Germany was that Germany, in its alliance with Austria– Hungary, was" shackled to a corpse". The operational capability of the Austro- Hungarian army was seriously affected by supply shortages, low morale and a high casualty rate, and by the army' s composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages and customs. The last two successes for the Austrians, the Romanian Offensive and the Caporetto Offensive, were German- assisted operations. As the Dual Monarchy became more politically unstable, it became more and more dependent on German assistance. | The majority of its people, |
other than Hungarians and German Austrians, became increasingly restless. In 1917, the Eastern front of the Entente Powers completely collapsed. The Austro- Hungarian Empire then withdrew from all defeated countries. By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes in factories, and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. During the Italian battles, the Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence. On 31 October Hungary ended the personal union with Austria, officially dissolving the Monarchy. At the last Italian offensive, the Austro- Hungarian Army took to the field without any food and munition supply and fought without any political supports for a" de facto" non- existent empire. On the end of the decisive joint Italian, British and French offensive at Vittorio Veneto, the disintegrated Austria– Hungary signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The government had failed badly on the homefront. Historian Alexander Watson reports: Dissolution. The Austro- Hungarian Monarchy collapsed with dramatic speed in the autumn of 1918. In the capital cities of Vienna and Budapest, the leftist and liberal movements and politicians( the opposition parties) strengthened and supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. These leftist or left- liberal pro- Entente maverick parties opposed the monarchy as a form of government and considered themselves internationalist rather than patriotic. Eventually, the German defeat and the minor revolutions in Vienna and Budapest gave political power to the left/ liberal political parties. As it became apparent that the Allied powers would win World War I, nationalist movements, which had previously been calling for a greater degree of autonomy for various areas, started pressing for full independence. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule, as his realm disintegrated. Alexander Watson argues that," The Habsburg regime' s doom was sealed when Wilson' s response to the note, sent two and a half weeks earlier, arrived on 20 October." Wilson rejected the continuation of the dual monarchy as a negotiable possibility. As one of his Fourteen Points, President Woodrow Wilson demanded that the nationalities of Austria– Hungary have the" freest opportunity to autonomous development". In response, Emperor Karl I agreed to reconvene the Imperial Parliament in 1917 and allow the creation of a confederation with each national group exercising self- governance. However, the leaders of these national groups rejected the idea; they deeply distrusted Vienna and were now determined to get independence. On 14 October 1918, Foreign Minister Baron István Burián von Rajecz asked for an armistice based on the Fourteen Points. In an apparent attempt to demonstrate good faith, Emperor Karl issued a proclamation(" Imperial Manifesto of 16 October 1918") two days later which would have significantly altered the structure of the Austrian half of the monarchy. The Polish majority regions of Galicia and Lodomeria were to be granted the option of seceding from the empire, and it was understood that they would join their ethnic brethren in Russia and Germany in resurrecting a Polish state. The rest of Cisleithania was transformed into a federal union composed of four parts— German, Czech, South Slav and | Ukrainian. Each of these was |
to be governed by a national council that would negotiate the future of the empire with Vienna. Trieste was to receive a special status. No such proclamation could be issued in Hungary, where Hungarian aristocrats still believed they could subdue other nationalities and maintain the" Holy Kingdom of St. Stephen". It was a dead letter. Four days later, on 18 October, United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied that the Allies were now committed to the causes of the Czechs, Slovaks and South Slavs. Therefore, Lansing said, autonomy for the nationalities– the tenth of the Fourteen Points– was no longer enough and Washington could not deal on the basis of the Fourteen Points anymore. In fact, a Czechoslovak provisional government had joined the Allies on 14 October. The South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already declared in favor of uniting with Serbia in a large South Slav state by way of the 1917 Corfu Declaration signed by members of the Yugoslav Committee. Indeed, the Croatians had begun disregarding orders from Budapest earlier in October. The Lansing note was, in effect, the death certificate of Austria– Hungary. The national councils had already begun acting more or less as provisional governments of independent countries. With defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague on 28 October( later declared the birthday of Czechoslovakia) and followed up in other major cities in the next few days. On 30 October, the Slovaks followed in Martin. On 29 October, the Slavs in both portions of what remained of Austria– Hungary proclaimed the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. They also declared that their ultimate intention was to unite with Serbia and Montenegro in a large South Slav state. On the same day, the Czechs and Slovaks formally proclaimed the establishment of Czechoslovakia as an independent state. In Hungary, the most prominent opponent of continued union with Austria, Count Mihály Károlyi, seized power in the Aster Revolution on 31 October. Charles was all but forced to appoint Károlyi as his Hungarian prime minister. One of Károlyi' s first acts was to cancel the compromise agreement, officially dissolving the Austro- Hungarian state. By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm but its majority- German Danubian and Alpine provinces, and Karl' s authority was being challenged even there by the German- Austrian state council. Karl' s last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch, concluded that Karl was in an impossible situation, and persuaded Karl that the best course was to relinquish, at least temporarily, his right to exercise sovereign authority. Consequences. On 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognized the Austrian people' s right to determine the form of the state and relinquished his right to take part in Austrian state affairs. He also dismissed Lammasch and his government from office and released the officials in the Austrian half of the empire from their oath of loyalty to him. Two | days later, he issued a |
similar proclamation for Hungary. However, he did not abdicate, remaining available in the event the people of either state should recall him. For all intents and purposes, this was the end of the Habsburg rule. Since my ascent to the throne, I have been constantly trying to lead my people out of the horrors of war, which I am not responsible for. I have not hesitated to restore constitutional life and have opened the way for peoples to develop their own state independently. Still filled with unchangeable love for all My peoples, I do not want to oppose the free development of My Person as an obstacle. I recognize in advance the decision that German Austria will make regarding its future form of government. The people took over the government through their representatives. I waive any share in state affairs. At the same time, I am releasing My Austrian Government from office. May the people of German Austria create and consolidate the reorganization in harmony and forgiveness. The happiness of my peoples has been the goal of my hottest wishes from the beginning. Only inner peace can heal the wounds of this war. Seit meiner thronbesteigung war ich unablässig bemüht, Meine Volker aus den Schrecknissen des Krieges herauszuführen, an dessen Ausbruch ich keinerlei Schuld trage. Ich habe nicht gezögert, das verfassungsmaßige Leben wieder herzustellen und haben den Völkern den Weg zu ihrer selbständingen staatlichen Entwicklung eröffnet. Nach wie vor von unwandelbarer Liebe für alle Meine Völker erfüllt, will ich ihrer freien Entfaltung Meine Person nicht als Hindernis entgegenstellen. Im voraus erkenne ich die Entscheidung an, die Deutschösterreich über seine künftige Staatsform trifft. Das Volk hat durch seine Vertreter die Regierung übernommen. Ich verzichte auf jeden Anteil an den Staatsgeschäften. Gleichzeitig enthebe ich Meine österreichische Regierung ihres Amtes. Möge das Volk von Deutschösterreich in Eintracht und Versöhnlichkeit die Neuordnung schaffen und befestigen. Das Glück Meiner Völker war von Anbeginn das Ziel Meiner heißesten Wünsche. Nur der innere Friede kann die Wunden dieses Krieges heilen. Karl' s refusal to abdicate was ultimately irrelevant. On the day after he announced his withdrawal from Austria' s politics, the German- Austrian National Council proclaimed the Republic of German Austria. Károlyi followed suit on 16 November, proclaiming the Hungarian Democratic Republic. The Treaty of Saint- Germain- en- Laye( between the victors of World War I and Austria) and the Treaty of Trianon( between the victors and Hungary) regulated the new borders of Austria and Hungary, leaving both as small landlocked states. The Allies assumed without question that the minority nationalities wanted to leave Austria and Hungary, and also allowed them to annex significant blocks of German- and Hungarian- speaking territory. As a result, the Republic of Austria lost roughly 60% of the old Austrian Empire' s territory. It also had to drop its plans for union with Germany, as it was not allowed to unite with Germany without League approval. The restored Kingdom of Hungary, which had replaced the republican government in 1920, lost roughly 72% of the pre- war territory of the Kingdom of Hungary. The decisions | of the nations of the |
former Austria– Hungary and of the victors of the Great War, contained in the heavily one- sided treaties, had devastating political and economic effects. The previously rapid economic growth of the Dual Monarchy ground to a halt because the new borders became major economic barriers. All the formerly well- established industries, as well as the infrastructure supporting them, were designed to satisfy the needs of an extensive realm. As a result, the emerging countries were forced to make considerable sacrifices to transform their economies. The treaties created major political unease. As a result of these economic difficulties, extremist movements gained strength; and there was no regional superpower in central Europe. The new Austrian state was, at least on paper, on shakier ground than Hungary. Unlike its former Hungarian partner, Austria had never been a nation in any real sense. While the Austrian state had existed in one form or another for 700 years, it was united only by loyalty to the Habsburgs. With the loss of 60% of the Austrian Empire' s prewar territory, Vienna was now an imperial capital without an empire to support it. However, after a brief period of upheaval and the Allies' foreclosure of union with Germany, Austria established itself as a federal republic. Despite the temporary" Anschluss" with Nazi Germany, it still survives today. Adolf Hitler cited that all" Germans"– such as him and the others from Austria, etc.– should be united with Germany. By comparison, Hungary had been a nation and a state for over 900 years. Hungary, however, was severely disrupted by the loss of 72% of its territory, 64% of its population and most of its natural resources. The Hungarian Democratic Republic was short- lived and was temporarily replaced by the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic. Romanian troops ousted Béla Kun and his communist government during the Hungarian– Romanian War of 1919. In the summer of 1919, a Habsburg, Archduke Joseph August, became regent, but was forced to stand down after only two weeks when it became apparent the Allies would not recognise him. Finally, in March 1920, royal powers were entrusted to a regent, Miklós Horthy, who had been the last commanding admiral of the Austro- Hungarian Navy and had helped organize the counter- revolutionary forces. It was this government that signed the Treaty of Trianon under protest on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. In March and again in October 1921, ill- prepared attempts by Karl to regain the throne in Budapest collapsed. The initially wavering Horthy, after receiving threats of intervention from the Allied Powers and the Little Entente, refused his cooperation. Soon afterward, the Hungarian government nullified the Pragmatic Sanction, effectively dethroning the Habsburgs. Two years earlier, Austria had passed the" Habsburg Law," which both dethroned the Habsburgs and banished all Habsburgs from Austrian territory. While Karl was banned from ever returning to Austria again, other Habsburgs could return if they gave up all claims to the defunct throne. Subsequently, the British took custody of Karl and removed him and his family to the Portuguese island | of Madeira, where he died |
the following year. Successor states. The following successor states were formed at the dissolution of the former Austro– Hungarian monarchy: Additionally, the duchies of Bukovina, Transylvania and two- thirds of the Banat were joined to the Kingdom of Romania. Austro- Hungarian lands were also ceded to the Kingdom of Italy. The Principality of Liechtenstein, which had formerly looked to Vienna for protection, formed a customs and defense union with Switzerland, and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the Austrian. In April 1919, Vorarlberg– the westernmost province of Austria– voted by a large majority to join Switzerland; however, both the Swiss and the Allies disregarded this result. Territorial legacy. The following present- day countries and parts of countries were within the boundaries of Austria– Hungary when the empire was dissolved: Empire of Austria( Cisleithania): Kingdom of Hungary( Transleithania): Austro- Hungarian Condominium" Possessions of the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy" Other provinces of Europe had been part of the Habsburg monarchy at one time before 1867. Abracadabra is a magic word used in stage magic tricks. Historically was believed to be an incantation having healing powers when inscribed on an amulet. Etymology." Abracadabra" is of unknown origin, and its first occurrence is in the second century works of Serenus Sammonicus, according to the" Oxford English Dictionary". Several folk etymologies are associated with the word: from phrases in Hebrew that mean" I will create as I speak", or Aramaic" I create like the word"( אברא כדברא), to folk etymologies that point to similar words in Latin and Greek such as abraxas or to its similarity to the first four letters of the Greek alphabet( alpha- beta- gamma- delta or ΑΒΓΔ). According to the" OED Online"," no documentation has been found to support any of the various conjectures." History. The first known mention of the word was in the second century AD in a book called" Liber Medicinalis"( sometimes known as" De Medicina Praecepta Saluberrima") by Serenus Sammonicus, physician to the Roman emperor Caracalla, who in chapter 51 prescribed that malaria sufferers wear an amulet containing the word written in the form of a triangle. The power of the amulet, he claimed, makes lethal diseases go away. Other Roman emperors, including Geta and Severus Alexander, were followers of the medical teachings of Serenus Sammonicus and may have used the incantation as well. It was used as a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilides in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and misfortune. It is found on Abraxas stones, which were worn as amulets. Subsequently, its use spread beyond the Gnostics. The Puritan minister Increase Mather dismissed the word as bereft of power. Daniel Defoe also wrote dismissively about Londoners who posted the word on their doorways to ward off sickness during the Great Plague of London. The word is now more commonly used as a magic word in the performance of stage magic. The word is one of a limited set of words that can be typed in its entirety using the left- handed side of a QWERTY keyboard. The Acts of | Union() were two Acts of |
Parliament: the Union with Scotland Act 1706 passed by the Parliament of England, and the Union with England Act passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland. They put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, following negotiation between commissioners representing the parliaments of the two countries. By the two Acts, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotlandwhich at the time were separate states with separate legislatures, but with the same monarchwere, in the words of the Treaty," United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain". The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, and in spite of James' s acknowledgement of his accession to a single Crown, England and Scotland were officially separate Kingdoms until 1707( as opposed to the implied creation of a single unified Kingdom, exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). Prior to the Acts of Union there had been three previous attempts( in 1606, 1667, and 1689) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament,butitwasnotuntiltheearly18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons. The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the Scottish Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster in London, the home of the English Parliament. Hence, the Acts are referred to as the Union of the Parliaments. Political background prior to 1707. 1603– 1660. Prior to 1603, England and Scotland had different monarchs; as Elizabeth I never married, after 1567, her heir- presumptive became the Stuart king of Scotland, James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. After her death, the two Crowns were held in personal union by James, as James I of England, and James VI of Scotland. He announced his intention to unite the two, using the royal prerogative to take the title" King of Great Britain", and give a British character to his court and person. The 1603 Union of England and Scotland Act established a joint Commission to agree terms, but the English Parliament was concerned this would lead to the imposition of an absolutist structure similar to that of Scotland. James was forced to withdraw his proposals, and attempts to revive it in 1610 were met with hostility. Instead, he set about creating a unified Church of Scotland and England, as the first step towards a centralised, Unionist state. However, despite both being nominally Episcopalian in structure, the two were very different in doctrine; the Church of Scotland, or kirk, was Calvinist in doctrine, and viewed many Church of England practices as little better than Catholicism. As a result, attempts to impose religious policy by James and his son Charles I ultimately led to the 1639– 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The 1639– 1640 Bishops' | Wars confirmed the primacy of |
the kirk, and established a Covenanter government in Scotland. The Scots remained neutral when the First English Civil War began in 1642, before becoming concerned at the impact on Scotland of a Royalist victory. Presbyterian leaders like Argyll viewed union as a way to ensure free trade between England and Scotland, and preserve a Presbyterian kirk. Under the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant, the Covenanters agreed to provide military support for the English Parliament, in return for religious union. Although the treaty referred repeatedly to' union' between England, Scotland, and Ireland, political union had little support outside the Kirk Party. Even religious union was opposed by the Episcopalian majority in the Church of England, and Independents like Oliver Cromwell, who dominated the New Model Army. The Scots and English Presbyterians were political conservatives, who increasingly viewed the Independents, and associated radical groups like the Levellers, as a bigger threat than the Royalists. Both Royalists and Presbyterians agreed monarchy was divinely ordered, but disagreed on the nature and extent of Royal authority over the church. When Charles I surrendered in 1646, they allied with their former enemies to restore him to the English throne. After defeat in the 1647– 1648 Second English Civil War, Scotland was occupied by English troops which were withdrawn once the so- called Engagers whom Cromwell held responsible for the war had been replaced by the Kirk Party. In December 1648, Pride' s Purge confirmed Cromwell' s political control in England by removing Presbyterian MPs from Parliament, and executing Charles in January 1649. Seeing this as sacrilege, the Kirk Party proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland and Great Britain, and agreed to restore him to the English throne. Defeat in the 1649– 1651 Third English Civil War or Anglo- Scottish War resulted in Scotland' s incorporation into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, largely driven by Cromwell' s determination to break the power of the kirk, which he held responsible for the Anglo- Scottish War. The 1652 Tender of Union was followed on 12 April 1654 by" An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland," creating the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. It was ratified by the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657, creating a single Parliament in Westminster, with 30 representatives each from Scotland and Ireland added to the existing English members. 1660– 1707. While integration into the Commonwealth established free trade between Scotland and England, the economic benefits were diminished by the costs of military occupation. Both Scotland and England associated union with heavy taxes and military rule; it had little popular support in either country, and was dissolved after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. The Scottish economy was badly damaged by the English Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 and England' s wars with the Dutch Republic, Scotland' s major export market. An Anglo- Scots Trade Commission was set up in January 1668 but the English had no interest in making concessions, as the Scots had little to offer in return. In 1669, Charles II revived talks | on political union; his motives |
were to weaken Scotland' s commercial and political links with the Dutch, still seen as an enemy and complete the work of his grandfather James I. Continued opposition meant these negotiations were abandoned by the end of 1669. Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, a Scottish Convention met in Edinburgh in April 1689 to agree a new constitutional settlement; during which the Scottish Bishops backed a proposed union in an attempt to preserve Episcopalian control of the kirk. William and Mary were supportive of the idea but it was opposed both by the Presbyterian majority in Scotland and the English Parliament. Episcopacy in Scotland was abolished in 1690, alienating a significant part of the political class; it was this element that later formed the bedrock of opposition to Union.The1690s were a time of economic hardship in Europe as a whole and Scotland in particular, a period now known as the Seven ill years which led to strained relations with England. In 1698, the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies received a charter to raise capital through public subscription. The Company invested in the Darién scheme, an ambitious plan funded almost entirely by Scottish investors to build a colony on the Isthmus of Panama for trade with East Asia. The scheme was a disaster; the losses of over£ 150, 000 severely impacted the Scottish commercial system. Political motivations. The Acts of Union may be seen withinawiderEuropeancontextofincreasingstatecentralisationduringthelate17thandearly18th centuries, including the monarchies of France, Sweden, Denmark and Spain. While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the Republic of Venice, the trend was clear. The dangers of the monarch using one Parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651. It resurfaced during the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, caused by English resistance to the Catholic James II( of England, VII of Scotland) succeeding his brother Charles. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as Lord High Commissioner; in August, the Scottish Parliament passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir" regardless of religion", the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king, and the independence of the Scottish Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James' s succession to the Scottish throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without" the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war". The issue reappeared during the 1688 Glorious Revolution. The English Parliament generally supported replacing James with his Protestant daughter Mary, but resisted making her Dutch husband William of Orange joint ruler. They gave way only when he threatened to return to the Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him. In Scotland, conflict over control of the kirk between Presbyterians and Episcopalians and William' s position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the Committee of the Articles, an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given the Crown far greater control than in England but | he withdrew his demands due |
to the 1689– 1692 Jacobite Rising. English perspective. The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701, which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the House of Hanover. Until the Union of Parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after Queen Anne, who had said in her first speech to the English parliament that a Union was" very necessary". The Scottish Act of Security 1704, however, was passed after the English parliament, without consultation with Scotland, had designated Electoress Sophia of Hanover( granddaughter of James I and VI) as Anne' s successor, if Anne died childless. The Act of Security granted the Parliament of Scotland, the three Estates, the right to choose a successor and explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch unless the English were to grant free trade and navigation. Next the Alien Act 1705 was passed in the English parliament designating Scots in England as" foreign nationals" and blocking about half of all Scottish trade by boycotting exports to England or its colonies, unless Scotland came back to negotiate a Union. To encourage a Union," honours, appointments, pensions and even arrears of pay and other expenses were distributed to clinch support from Scottish peers and MPs". Scottish perspective. The Scottish economy was severely impacted by privateers during the 1688– 1697 Nine Years' War and the 1701 War of the Spanish Succession, with the Royal Navy focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by the Darien scheme,andthesevenillyearsofthe1690s, when 5– 15% of the population died of starvation. The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end to economic restrictions on trade with England. The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne' s favourite, the Duke of Queensberry, combined with the majority of the Squadrone Volante, were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty. Article 15 granted£ 398, 085 and ten shillings sterling to Scotland, a sum known as The Equivalent, to offset future liability towards the English national debt, which at the time was£ 18 million, but as Scotland had no national debt, most of the sum was used to compensate the investors in the Darien scheme, with 58. 6% of the fund allocated to its shareholders and creditors. The role played by bribery has long been debated;£ 20, 000 was distributed by the Earl of Glasgow, of which 60% went to James Douglas,2nd Duke of Queensberry, the Queen' s Commissioner in Parliament. Another negotiator, Argyll was given an English peerage. Robert Burns is commonly quoted in support of the argument of corruption:" We' re bought and sold for English Gold, Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation." As historian Christopher Whatley points out, this was actuallya17th- century Scots folk song; but he agrees money was paid, though suggests the economic benefits were supported by most Scots MPs, with the promises made for benefits to peers and MPs, even if it was reluctantly. Professor Sir Tom Devine agreed that promises of" favours, | sinecures, pensions, offices and straightforward |
cash bribes became indispensable to secure government majorities". As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in the new united parliament, only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16( unelected) peers in the House of Lords. Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath, the only Scottish negotiator to oppose Union, noted" the whole nation appears against( it)". Another negotiator, Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, who was an ardent Unionist, observed it was" contrary to the inclinations of at least three- fourths of the Kingdom". As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises. As the Treaty passed through the Scottish Parliament, opposition was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs claimedNot one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carillonneur in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, rang the bells in the tune" Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?" Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law. Irish perspective. Ireland, though a kingdom under the same crown, was not included in the union. It remained a separate kingdom, unrepresented in Parliament, and was legally subordinate to Great Britain until 1784. In July 1707 each House of the Parliament of Ireland passed a congratulatory address to Queen Anne, praying that" May God put it in your royal heart to add greater strength and lustre to your crown, by a still more comprehensive Union". The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equalunionbetweenGreatBritainandIrelandwasoutofconsiderationuntilthe1790s. The union with Ireland finally came about on 1 January 1801. Treaty and passage of the 1707 Acts. Deeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed to participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705. Both countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct the negotiations. Most of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was Queensberry, and the Lord Chancellor of Scotland, the Earl of Seafield. The English commissioners included the Lord High Treasurer, the Earl of Godolphin, the Lord Keeper, Baron Cowper, and a large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of union and only one was represented among the commissioners. Negotiations between the English and Scottish commissioners took place between 16 April and 22 July 1706 at the Cockpit in London. Each side had its own particular concerns. Within a few days, and with only one face to face meeting of all 62 commissioners, England had gained a guarantee that the Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they | would be placed on an |
equal footing in terms of trade. After negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of Scotland were supportive of the Court Party. For extra votes the pro- court side could rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante, led by the Marquess of Montrose and the Duke of Roxburghe. Opponents of the court were generally known as the Country party, and included various factions and individuals such as the Duke of Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, who spoke forcefully and passionately against the union, when the Scottish Parliament began its debate on the act in on 3 October 1706, but the deal had already been done. The Court party enjoyed significant funding from England and the Treasury and included many who had accumulated debts following the Darien Disaster. The Act ratifying the Treaty of Union was finally carried in the Parliament of Scotland by 110 votes to 69 on 16 January 1707, with a number of key amendments. News of the ratification and of the amendments was received in Westminster, where the Act was passed quickly through both Houses and received the royal assent on 6 March. Though the English Act was later in date, it bore the year' 1706' while Scotland' s was' 1707', as the legal year in England began only on 25 March. In Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for the successful passage of the Union act by the Parliament of Scotland. In Scotland, he also received much criticism from local residents, but in England he was cheered for his action. He had personally received around half of the funding awarded by the Westminster Treasury for himself. In April 1707, he travelled to London to attend celebrations at the royal court, and was greeted by groups of noblemen and gentry lined along the road. From Barnet, the route was lined with crowds of cheering people, and once he reached London a huge crowd had formed. On 17 April, the Duke was gratefully received by the Queen at Kensington Palace. Provisions. The Treaty of Union, agreed between representatives of the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1706, consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. To minimise the opposition of the Church of Scotland, an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69. The two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from the Peerage of Scotland | to sit in the House |
of Lords. It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would" remain in all time coming within Scotland", and that Scots law would" remain in the same force as before". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking the throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union. The Act provided that any" laws and statutes" that were" contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would" cease and become void". Related Acts. The Scottish Parliament also passed the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707 guaranteeing the status of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The English Parliament passed a similar Act, 6 Anne c. 8. Soon after the Union, the Act 6 Anne c.40later named the Union with Scotland( Amendment)Act1707united the English and Scottish Privy Councils and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day- to- day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of the College of Justice. On 18 December 1707 the Act for better Securing the Duties of East India Goods was passed which extended the monopoly of the East India Company to Scotland. In the year following the Union, the Treason Act 1708 abolished the Scottish law of and extended the corresponding English law across Great Britain. Evaluations. Scotland benefited, says historian G. N. Clark, gaining" freedom of trade with England and the colonies" as well as" a great expansion of markets". The agreement guaranteed the permanent status of the Presbyterian church in Scotland, and the separate system of laws and courts in Scotland. Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained wasof inestimable value. Scotland accepted the Hanoverian succession and gave up her power of threatening England' s military security and complicating her commercial relations... The sweeping successes of the eighteenth- century wars owed much to the new unity of the two nations. By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in" A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland", Johnson noted that Scotland was" a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain.300th anniversary. A commemorative two- pound coin was issued to mark the tercentennial—300th anniversary— of the Union, which occurred two days before the Scottish Parliament general election on 3 May 2007. The Scottish Government held a number of commemorative events through the year including an education project led by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, an exhibition of Union- related objects and documents at the National Museums of Scotland and an exhibition of portraits of people associated with the Union at the National Galleries of Scotland. The Admiralty was the British government department responsible for the command of the Royal Navy | until 1964, historically under its |
titular head, the Lord High Admiral– one of the Great Officers of State. For much of its history,fromtheearly18th century until its abolition, the role of the Lord High Admiral was almost invariably put" in commission" and exercised by the Lords Commissioner of the Admiralty, who sat on the governing Board of Admiralty, rather than by a single person. The Admiralty was replaced by the Admiralty Board in 1964, as part of the reforms that created the Ministry of Defence and its Navy Department( later Navy Command). Before the Acts of Union 1707, the Office of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs administered the Royal Navy of the Kingdom of England, which merged with the Royal Scots Navy and the absorbed the responsibilities of the Lord High Admiral of the Kingdom of Scotland with the unification of the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Admiralty was among the most important departments of the British Government, because of the Royal Navy'sroleintheexpansionandmaintenanceoftheEnglishoverseaspossessionsinthe17th century,theBritishEmpireintheinthe18th century, and subsequently. The modern Admiralty Board, to which the functions of the Admiralty were transferred in 1964, is a committee of the tri- service Defence Council of the United Kingdom. This Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day- to- day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board( not to be confused with the historic Navy Board). It is common for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply' The Admiralty'. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011. The title was awarded to Prince Philip,DukeofEdinburghbyQueenElizabethIIonhis90th birthday and since his 2021 death has reverted to the monarch. There also continues to be a Vice- Admiral of the United Kingdom and a Rear- Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are honorary offices. History. The office of Admiral of England( later Lord Admiral, and later Lord High Admiral) was created around 1400; there had previously been Admirals of the northern and western seas. King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine— later to become the Navy Board— in 1546, to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. This management approach would continue in force in the Royal Navy until 1832. King Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission in 1628, and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709, after which the office was almost permanently in commission( the last Lord High Admiral being the future King William IV in theearly19th century). In this organization a dual system operated the Lord High Admiral( from 1546) then Commissioners of the Admiralty( from 1628) exercised the function of general control( military administration) of the Navy and they were usually responsible for the conduct of | any war, while the actual |
supply lines, support and services were managed by four principal officers, namely, the Treasurer, Comptroller, Surveyor and Clerk of the Acts, responsible individually for finance, supervision of accounts, Shipbuilding and maintenance of ships, and record of business. These principal officers came to be known as the Navy Board responsible for' civil administration' of the navy, from 1546 to 1832. This structure of administering the navy lasted for 285 years, however, the supply system was often inefficient and corrupt its deficiencies were due as much to its limitations of the times they operated in. The various functions within the Admiralty were not coordinated effectively and lacked inter- dependency with each other, with the result that in 1832, Sir James Graham abolished the Navy Board and merged its functions within those of the Board of Admiralty. At the time this had distinct advantages; however, it failed to retain the principle of distinctions between the Admiralty and supply, and a lot of bureaucracy followed with the merger. In 1860 saw big growth in the development of technical crafts, the expansion of more admiralty branches that really began with age of steam that would have an enormous influence on the navy and naval thought. Between 1860 and 1908, there was no real study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service; it was practically ignored. All the Navy' s talent flowed to the great technical universities. This school of thought for the next 50 years was exclusively technically based. The first serious attempt to introduce a sole management body to administer the naval service manifested itself in the creation of the Admiralty Navy War Council in 1909. It was believed by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. However, this mentality would be severely questioned with the advent of the Agadir crisis, when the Admiralty' s war plans were heavily criticized. Following this, a new advisory body called the Admiralty War Staff was then instituted in 1912, headed by the Chief of the War Staff who was responsible for administering three new sub- divisions responsible for operations, intelligence and mobilisation. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it continually struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign. There were no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions. A Trade Division was created in 1914. Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty in 1916. He re- organized the war staff as following: Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilisation, Trade. It was not until 1917 that the admiralty department was again properly reorganized and began to function as a professional military staff. In May 1917, the term" Admiralty War Staff" was renamed and that department and its functional role were superseded by a new" Admiralty Naval Staff"; in addition, | the newly created office of |
Chief of the Naval Staff was merged in the office of the First Sea Lord. Also appointed was a new post, that of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, and an Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff; all were given seats on the Board of Admiralty. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the board; the presence of three senior naval senior members on the board ensured the necessary authority to carry through any operation of war. The Deputy Chief of Naval Staff would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the Assistant Chief of Naval Staff would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti- submarine operations. The office of Controller would be re- established to deal with all questions relating to supply; on 6 September 1917, a Deputy First Sea Lord, was added to the Board who would administer operations abroad and deal with questions of foreign policy. In October 1917, the development of the staff was carried one step further by the creation of two sub- committees of the Board— the Operations Committee and the Maintenance Committee. The First Lord of the Admiralty was chairman of both committees, and the Operations Committee consisted of the First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff, the Deputy First Sea Lord, Assistant Chief of Naval Staff, and Fifth Sea Lord. The Maintenance Committee consisted of the Deputy First Sea Lord( representing the operations committee), Second Sea Lord( personnel), Third Sea Lord( materiel), Fourth Sea Lord( transport and stores), Civil Lord, Controller and Financial Secretary. Full operational control of the Royal Navy was finally handed over to the Chief of Naval Staff( CNS) by an order in Council, effective October 1917, under which he became responsible for the issuing of orders affecting all war operations directly to the fleet. It also empowered the CNS to issue orders in their own name, as opposed to them previously being issued by the Permanent Secretary of the Admiralty in the name of the Board. In 1964, the Admiralty— along with the War Office and the Air Ministry— were abolished as separate departments of state, and placed under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the day- to- day running of the Royal Navy, the Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence. This structure remained in place until the department was abolished in 1964; the operational control and this system still remains in place with the Royal Navy today. For the organisational structure of the admiralty department and how it developed through the centuries see the following articles below. Organizational structure.Inthe20th century the structure of the Admiralty Headquarters was predominantly organized into four parts: Board of AdmiraltyWhen the office of Lord High Admiral was in commission, as it was for most of the18th,19th and20th centuries, until it reverted to the Crown, it was exercised by a Board of Admiralty, officially known as the" Commissioners | for Exercising the Office of |
Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,& amp; c."( alternatively of England, Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland depending on the period). The Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, normally politicians. The quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, who was a member of the Cabinet. After 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be( and is still today) known as the First Sea Lord. Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty( 1628– 1964) The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty were the members of The Board of Admiralty, which exercised the office of Lord High Admiral when it was not vested in a single person. The commissioners were a mixture of politicians without naval experience and professional naval officers, the proportion of naval officers generally increasing over time. Key OfficialsFirst Lord of the AdmiraltyThe First Lord of the Admiralty or formally the Office of the First Lord of the Admiralty was the British government' s senior civilian adviser on all naval affairs and the minister responsible for the direction and control of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office later the Department of Admiralty.(+) His office was supported by the Naval Secretariat. First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval StaffThe First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff was the Chief Naval Adviser on the Board of Admiralty to the First Lord and superintended the offices of the sea lords and the admiralty naval staff. Navy BoardThe Navy Board was an independent board from 1546 until 1628 when it became subordinate to, yet autonomous of the Board of Admiralty until 1832. Its principal commissioners of the Navy advised the board in relation to civil administration of the naval affairs. The Navy Board was based at the Navy Office. Board of Admiralty civilian members responsible other important civil functionsAdmiralty Naval StaffIt evolved from* Admiralty Navy War Council,( 1909– 1912) which in turn became the Admiralty War Staff,( 1912– 1917) before finally becoming the Admiralty Naval Staff in 1917. It was the former senior command, operational planning, policy and strategy department within the British Admiralty. It was established in 1917 and existed until 1964 when the department of the Admiralty was abolished, and the staff departments function continued within the Navy Department of the Ministry of Defence until 1971 when its functions became part of the new Naval Staff, Navy Department of the Ministry of Defence. Offices of the Naval StaffAdmiralty DepartmentsThe Admiralty Departments were distinct and component parts of the Department of Admiralty that were superintended by the various offices of the Sea Lords responsible for them; they were primarily administrative, research, scientific and logistical support organisations. The departments role was to provide the men, ships, aircraft and supplies | to carry out the approved |
policyoftheBoardofAdmiraltyandconveyedtothemduring20th century by the Admiralty Naval Staff. Offices of the Sea LordsDepartment of the Permanent SecretaryThe Secretary' s Department consisted of members of the civil service it was directed and controlled by a senior civil servant Permanent Secretary to the Board of Admiralty he was not a Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty, he functioned as a member of the board, and attended all of its meetings. Admiralty Buildings. The Admiralty complex lies between Whitehall, Horse Guards Parade and The Mall and includes five inter- connected buildings. Since the Admiralty no longer exists as a department, these buildings are now used by separate government departments: The Admiralty. The oldest building was long known simply as" The Admiralty"; it is now known officially as the Ripley Building, a three- storey U- shaped brick building designed by Thomas Ripley and completed in 1726. Alexander Pope implied that the architecture is rather dull, lacking either the vigour of the Baroque style, fading from fashion at the time, or the austere grandeur of the Palladian style just coming into vogue. It is mainly notable for being perhaps the first purpose- built office building in Great Britain. It contained the Admiralty board room, which is still used by the Admiralty, other state rooms, offices and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. Robert Adam designed the screen, which was added to the entrance front in 1788. The Ripley Building is currently occupied by the International Development section of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. Admiralty House. Admiralty House is a moderately proportioned mansion to the south of the Ripley Building,builtinthelate18th century as the residence of the First Lord of the Admiralty from 1788. It served that purpose until 1964. Winston Churchill was one of its occupants in 1911– 1915 and 1939– 1940. It lacks its own entrance from Whitehall and is entered through the Ripley Courtyard or Ripley Building. It is a three- storey building in yellow brick with neoclassical interiors. Its rear facade faces directly onto Horse Guards Parade. The architect was Samuel Pepys Cockerell. The ground floor comprises meeting rooms for the Cabinet Office and the upper floors are three ministerial residences. There was formerly also an Admiralty House located at, or near to, the main base and dockyard in each station of the Royal Navy for use of the Commander- in- Chief. Each property was designated as the" Admiralty House" named for its location, but often possessed a property name( similarly to stone frigates being commissioned with a name distinct from their functional designations, such as HMS Malabar, functionally Her Majesty' s Naval Base, Bermuda, which closed in 1995). The Commander- in- Chief of the station used the Admiralty House when based ashore, but was otherwise based afloat aboard the flagship of the squadron. There may have been more than one Admiralty House per station, as with the" North America Station"( later the North America and West Indies Station, and finally the" America and West Indies Station"), the squadron of which was for a time based in Bermuda during the winter months and Halifax, Nova | Scotia, during the summers, before |
Bermuda became the year- round headquarters. As separate stations were merged, such as the" Jamaica Station" being merged with the" North America Station" to create the" North America and West Indies Station", former Admiralty Houses would cease to have that function, either being disposed of( if having been on Admiralty property) or re- purposed. Other Admiralty Houses or former Admiralty Houses include: There are two former naval properties today known as" Admiralty House", though it is unclear whether they were ever so designated by the Admiralty, or ever served that function: Admiralty Extension. This is the largest of the Admiralty Buildings.Itwasbeguninthelate19th century and redesigned while the construction was in progress to accommodate the extra offices needed by the naval arms race with the German Empire. It is a red brick building with white stone, detailing in the Queen Anne style with French influences.IthasbeenusedbytheForeignandCommonwealthOfficefromthe1960s to 2016. The Department for Education planned to move into the building in September 2017 following the Foreign and Commonwealth Office' s decision to leave the building and consolidate its London staff into one building on King Charles Street. A change of contractor( BAM was replaced by Willmott Dixon) then delayed consolidation of the Department for Education to autumn 2018. In 2021, the building became the home of the Department for International Trade. Admiralty Arch. Admiralty Arch is linked to the Old Admiralty Building by a bridge and is part of the ceremonial route from Trafalgar Square to Buckingham Palace. In 2012, HM Government sold the building on a 125- year lease for£60m for a proposed redevelopment into a Waldorf Astoria luxury hotel and four apartments. The Admiralty Citadel. This is a squat, windowless World War II fortress north west of Horse Guards Parade, now covered in ivy. See Military citadels under London for further details." Admiralty" as a metonym for" sea power". In some cases, the term" admiralty" is used in a wider sense, as meaning" sea power" or" rule over the seas", rather than in strict reference to the institution exercising such power. For example, the well- known lines from Kipling' s" Song of the Dead": Further reading. The BuildingThe OfficeAn amphibian is an ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrate. Amphibian may also refer to: Amputation is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventive surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, such as Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, amputation is currently used to punish people who commit crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is | an amputator. In the US, |
the majority of new amputations occur due to complications of the vascular system( the blood vessels), especially from diabetes. Between 1988 and 1996, there were an average of 133, 735 hospital discharges for amputation per year in the US. In 2005, just in the US, there were 1. 6 million amputees. In 2013, the US had 2. 1 million amputees. Approximately 185, 000 amputations occur in the United States each year. In 2009, hospital costs associated with amputation totaled more than$ 8. 3 billion. There will be an estimated 3. 6 million people in the US living with limb loss by 2050. Types. Leg. Lower limb amputations can be divided into two broad categories: minor and major amputations. Minor amputations generally refer to the amputation of digits. Major amputations are commonly below- knee- or above- knee amputations. Common partial foot amputations include the Chopart, Lisfranc, and ray amputations. Common forms of ankle disarticulations include Pyrogoff, Boyd, and Syme amputations. A less common major amputation is the Van Nes rotation, or rotationplasty, i. e. the turning around and reattachment of the foot to allow the ankle joint to take over the function of the knee. Types of amputations include: Arm. Types of upper extremity amputations include: A variant of the trans- radial amputation is the Krukenberg procedure in which the radius and ulna are used to create a stump capable of a pincer action. Other. Hemicorporectomy, or amputation at the waist, and decapitation, or amputation at the neck, are the most radical amputations. Genital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease. Nails are typically trimmed with nail clippers, but this is not typically considered amputation. Self- amputation. In some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated his or her own limb. The most notable case of this is Aron Ralston, a hiker who amputated his own right forearm after it was pinned by a boulder in a hiking accident and he was unable to free himself for over five days. Body integrity identity disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed. Causes. Frostbite. Frostbite, also known as frostnip, happens when the individual' s skin is exposed to cold weather for too long. The fluid in the pale skin solidifies, creating ice crystals, leading to swelling and severe pain. Other symptoms can include numbness, confusion, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, stiffness in the muscles or joints as well as difficulty walking. If the frostbite doesn' t get treated soon, this process results in hypothermia, death or poisoning of the bloodstream. This can affect the hands, feet, toes, fingers, eyes, and face. Once the frostbite shuts | the eyelids, this is known |
as snow blindness. The only way to stop it from spreading is through skin grafts or amputation. Athletic performance. Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non- essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance. Surgery. Method. The first step is ligating the supplying artery and vein, to prevent hemorrhage( bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally, the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of bones are filed, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis. Distal stabilisation of muscles is recommended. This allows effective muscle contraction which reduces atrophy, allows functional use of the stump and maintains soft tissue coverage of the remnant bone. The preferred stabilisation technique is myodesis where the muscle is attached to the bone or its periosteum. In joint disarticulation amputations tenodesis may be used where the muscle tendon is attached to the bone. Muscles should be attached under similar tension to normal physiological conditions. An experimental technique known as the" Ewing amputation" aims to improve post- amputation proprioception. In 1920, Dr. Janos Ertl, Sr. of Hungary, developed the Ertl procedure in order to return a high number of amputees to the work force. The Ertl technique, an osteomyoplastic procedure for transtibial amputation, can be used to create a highly functional residual limb. Creation of a tibiofibular bone bridge provides a stable, broad tibiofibular articulation that may be capable of some distal weight bearing. Several different modified techniques and fibular bridge fixation methods have been used; however, no current evidence exists regarding comparison of the different techniques. Post- operative management. A 2019 Cochrane systematic review aimed to determine whether rigid dressings were more effective than soft dressings in helping wounds heal following transtibial( below the knee) amputations. Due to the limited and very low certainty evidence available, the authors concluded that it was uncertain what the benefits and harms were for each dressing type. They recommended that clinicians consider the pros and cons of each dressing type on a case- by- case basis e. g. rigid dressings may potentially benefit patients who have a high risk of falls and soft dressings may potentially benefit patients who have poor skin integrity. A 2017 review found that the use of rigid removable dressings( RRD' s) in trans- tibial amputations, rather than soft bandaging, improved healing time, reduced edema, prevented knee flexion contractures and reduced complications, including further amputation, from external trauma such as falls onto the stump. Post- operative management, in addition to wound healing, should consider maintenance of limb strength, joint range, edema management, preservation of the intact limb( if applicable) and stump desensitization. Trauma. Traumatic amputation is the partial or total avulsion of a part of a body during a serious accident, like traffic, labor, or combat. Traumatic amputation of a human limb, either partial or total, creates the immediate danger of death from blood loss. Orthopedic surgeons often assess the severity of different injuries using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score. Given different clinical and situational | factors, they can predict the |
likelihood of amputation. This is especially useful for emergency physicians to quickly evaluate patients and decide on consultations. Causes. Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans( 1 per 20, 804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically, the most common causes of traumatic amputations are: Treatment. The development of the science of microsurgery over the last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient' s specific trauma and clinical situation: Prevention. Methods in preventing amputation, limb- sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which would then necessitate amputation. There are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor blood circulation. Crush injuries where there is extensive tissue damage and poor circulation also benefit from hyperbaric oxygen therapy( HBOT). The high level of oxygenation and revascularization speed up recovery times and prevent infections. A study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arteriosclerosis. Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease. The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart. For victims of trauma,advancesinmicrosurgeryinthe1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible. The establishment of laws, rules, and guidelines, and employment of modern equipment help protect people from traumatic amputations. Prognosis. The individual may experience psychological trauma and emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations. A large proportion of amputees( 50– 80%) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e. g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth( phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye( phantom eye syndrome). A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain,(" Phantoms in the Brain": V. S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience | unexplained pressure or movement on |
his face or head. In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis. Another side effect can be heterotopic ossification, especially when a bone injury is combined with a head injury. The brain signals the bone to grow instead of scar tissue to form, and nodules and other growth can interfere with prosthetics and sometimes require further operations. This type of injury has been especially common among soldiers wounded by improvised explosive devices in the Iraq War. Due to technological advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as amputee soccer. Nearly half of the individuals who have an amputation due to vascular disease will die within 5 years, usually secondary to the extensive co- morbidities rather than due to direct consequences of amputation. This is higher than the five year mortality rates for breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer. Of persons with diabetes who have a lower extremity amputation, up to 55% will require amputation of the second leg within two to three years. Etymology. The word amputation is derived from the Latin" amputare"," to cut away", from" ambi-"(" about"," around") and" putare"(" to prune"). The English word“ Poes”wasfirstappliedtosurgeryinthe17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe' s" A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie"( published in either 1597 or 1612);hisworkwasderivedfrom16th- century French texts and early English writers also used the words" extirpation"(16th- century French texts tended to use" extirper")," disarticulation", and" dismemberment"( from the Old French" desmembrer"andamorecommontermbeforethe17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply" cutting",butbytheendofthe17th century" amputation" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term. An anemometer is a device used for measuring wind speed and direction. It is also a common weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word" anemos", which means wind, and is used to describe any wind speed instrument used in meteorology. The first known description of an anemometer was given by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450. History.Theanemometerhaschangedlittlesinceitsdevelopmentinthe15th century. Leon Battista Alberti( 1404– 1472) is said to have invented the first mechanical anemometer around 1450. In the ensuing centuries numerous others, including Robert Hooke( 1635– 1703), developed their own versions, with some being mistakenly credited as the inventor. In 1846, John Thomas Romney Robinson( 1792– 1882) improved upon the design by using four hemispherical cups and mechanical wheels. In 1926, Canadian meteorologist John Patterson( January 3, 1872– February 22, 1956) developed a three- cup anemometer, which was improved by Brevoort and Joiner in 1935. In 1991, Derek Weston added the ability to measure wind direction. In 1994, Andreas Pflitsch developed the sonic anemometer. Velocity anemometers. Cup anemometers. A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Rev Dr John Thomas Romney Robinson, | of Armagh Observatory. It consisted |
of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms, which were mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate that was roughly proportional to the wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns of the shaft over a set time interval produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. It is also called a rotational anemometer. On an anemometer with four cups, it is easy to see that since the cups are arranged symmetrically on the end of the arms, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it and is blowing on the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross. Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag coefficient of. 38 on the spherical side and 1. 42 on the hollow side, more force is generated on the cup that is presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this asymmetrical force, torque is generated on the axis of the anemometer, causing it to spin. Theoretically, the speed of rotation of the anemometer should be proportional to the wind speed because the force produced on an object is proportional to the speed of the fluid flowing past it. However, in practice other factors influence the rotational speed, including turbulence produced by the apparatus, increasing drag in opposition to the torque that is produced by the cups and support arms, and friction of the mount point. When Robinson first designed his anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one- third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by the cup size or arm length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the" anemometer factor", depends on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have a value between two and a little over three. Every previous experiment involving an anemometer had to be repeated after the error was discovered. The three- cup anemometer developed by the Canadian John Patterson in 1926 and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort& amp; Joiner of the United States in 1935 led to a cupwheel design with a nearly linear response and had an error of less than 3% up to. Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45° to the wind flow. The three- cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four- cup anemometer. The three- cup anemometer was further modified by the Australian Dr. Derek Weston in 1991 to measure both wind direction and wind speed. Weston added a tag to one cup, which causes the cupwheel speed to increase and decrease as the tag moves alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical changes in cupwheel speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cupwheel speed. Three- cup anemometers are currently used as the industry standard for wind resource assessment | studies& amp; practice. Vane anemometers. |
One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the" vane anemometer". It may be described as a windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the wind and is therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed. A" vane anemometer" thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the fan is measured by a rev counter and converted to a windspeed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross- sectional area is known. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results. Hot- wire anemometers. Hot wire anemometers use a fine wire( on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal( tungsten is a popular choice for hot- wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the speed of the air. In most cases, they cannot be used to measure the direction of the airflow, unless coupled with a wind vane. Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot- wire devices can be further classified as CCA( constant current anemometer), CVA( constant voltage anemometer) and CTA( constant- temperature anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable( current, voltage or temperature) constant, following Ohm' s law. Additionally, PWM( pulse- width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold" floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again. Hot- wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency- response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest. An industrial version of the fine- wire anemometer is the thermal flow meter, which follows the same concept, but uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot- wire anemometer. Laser Doppler anemometers. In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light | from a laser that is |
divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates( or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer. Ultrasonic anemometers. Ultrasonic anemometers,firstdevelopedinthe1950s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind velocity. They measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of transducers. Measurements from pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3- dimensional flow. The spatial resolution is given by the path length between transducers, which is typically 10 to 20 cm. Ultrasonic anemometers can take measurements with very fine temporal resolution, 20 Hz or better, which makes them well suited for turbulence measurements. The lack of moving parts makes them appropriate for long- term use in exposed automated weather stations and weather buoys where the accuracy and reliability of traditional cup- and- vane anemometers are adversely affected by salty air or dust. Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the air flow by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. An international standard for this process, ISO 16622" Meteorology— Ultrasonic anemometers/ thermometers— Acceptance test methods for mean wind measurements" is in general circulation. Another disadvantage is lower accuracy due to precipitation, where rain drops may vary the speed of sound. Since the speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers are also used as thermometers. Two- dimensional( wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as weather stations, ship navigation, aviation, weather buoys and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3 Hz, easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three- dimensional sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the eddy covariance method when used with fast- response infrared gas analyzers or laser- based analyzers. Two- dimensional wind sensors are of two types: Acoustic resonance anemometers. Acoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by Savvas Kapartis and patented in 1999. Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic( ultrasonic) waves within a small purpose- built cavity in order to perform their measurement. Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing- wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave' s property occurs( phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement | of wind speed and direction. |
Because acoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors tend to be typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes them physically strong and easy to heat, and therefore resistant to icing. This combination of features means that they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for by the sensor' s longevity and the fact that it does not require recalibration once installed. Ping- pong ball anemometers. A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping- pong ball attached to a string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping- pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string- ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the wind speed. This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle- school level instruction, which most students make on their own, but a similar device was also flown on the Phoenix Mars Lander. Pressure anemometers. The first designs of anemometers that measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes. Plate anemometers. These are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first mechanical anemometer; in 1664 it was re- invented by Robert Hooke( who is often mistakenly considered the inventor of the first anemometer). Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges. Tube anemometers. James Lind' s anemometer of 1775 consisted of a glass U tube containing a liquid manometer( pressure gauge), with one end bent in a horizontal direction to face the wind and the other vertical end remains parallel to the wind flow. Though the Lind was not the first it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting elevation difference in the two legs of the U | tube is an indication of |
the wind speed. However, an accurate measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading. The successful metal pressure tube anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed. The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/ h( 16 km/ h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration. While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at, it did not respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this problem. Pitot tube static anemometers. Modern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer but using a different design. The implementation uses a pitot- static tube which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube' s head to face the wind. Additionally, the tube is heated to prevent rime ice formation | on the tube. There are |
two lines from the tube down to the devices to measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be manometers, pressure transducers, or analog chart recorders. Effect of density on measurements. In the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the actual wind speed. Approximately 1. 5%( 1. 6% above 6, 000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft( 5% for each kilometer) above sea- level. Effect of icing. At airports, it is essential to have accurate wind data under all conditions, including freezing precipitation. Anemometry is also required in monitoring and controlling the operation of wind turbines, which in cold environments are prone to in- cloud icing. Icing alters the aerodynamics of an anemometer and may entirely block it from operating. Therefore, anemometers used in these applications must be internally heated. Both cup anemometers and sonic anemometers are presently available with heated versions. Instrument location. In order for wind speeds to be comparable from location to location, the effect of the terrain needs to be considered, especially in regard to height. Other considerations are the presence of trees, and both natural canyons and artificial canyons( urban buildings). The standard anemometer height in open rural terrain is 10 meters. Archaeopteryx(;), sometimes referred to by its German name,""( lit.' original bird' or' first bird'), is a genus of bird- like dinosaurs. The name derives from the ancient Greek(" archaīos"), meaning" ancient", and(" ptéryx"), meaning" feather" or" wing".Betweenthelate19thcenturyandtheearly21st century," Archaeopteryx" was generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird( member of the group Avialae). Older potential avialans have since been identified, including" Anchiornis"," Xiaotingia", and" Aurornis"." Archaeopteryx" lived in the Late Jurassic around 150 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany, during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven, the largest species of" Archaeopteryx" could grow to about in length. Despite their small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide," Archaeopteryx" had more in common with other small Mesozoic dinosaurs than with modern birds. In particular, they shared the following features with the dromaeosaurids and troodontids: jaws with sharp teeth, three fingers with claws, a long bony tail, hyperextensible second toes(" killing claw"), feathers( which also suggest warm- bloodedness), and various features of the skeleton. These features make" Archaeopteryx" a clear candidate for a transitional fossil between non- avian dinosaurs and birds. Thus," Archaeopteryx" plays an important role, not only in the study of the origin of birds, but in the study of dinosaurs. It was named from a single feather in 1861, the identity of which has been | controversial. That same year, the |
first complete specimen of" Archaeopteryx" was announced. Over the years, ten more fossils of" Archaeopteryx" have surfaced. Despite variation among these fossils, most experts regard all the remains that have been discovered as belonging to a single species, although this is still debated." Archaeopteryx" was long considered to be the beginning of the evolutionary tree of birds. It has qualities that helped define what it is like to be a bird, such as its long, powerful front limbs. However, in recent years, the discovery of several small, feathered dinosaurs has created a mystery for paleontologists, raising questions about which animals are the ancestors of modern birds and which are their relatives. Most of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of an advanced form( flight feathers), these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic. The type specimen of" Archaeopteryx" was discovered just two years after Charles Darwin published" On the Origin of Species"." Archaeopteryx" seemed to confirm Darwin' s theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds, the transitional fossils debate, and confirmation of evolution. History of discovery. Over the years, twelve body fossil specimens of" Archaeopteryx" have been found. All of the fossils come from the limestone deposits, quarried for centuries, near, Germany. The initial discovery, a single feather, was unearthed in 1860 or 1861 and described in 1861 by. It is currently located at the Natural History Museum of Berlin. Though it was the initial holotype, there were indications that it might not have been from the same animal as the body fossils. In 2019 it was reported that laser imaging had revealed the structure of the quill( which had not been visible since some time after the feather was described), and that the feather was inconsistent with the morphology of all other" Archaeopteryx" feathers known, leading to the conclusion that it originated from another dinosaur. This conclusion was challenged in 2020 as being unlikely; the feather was identified on the basis of morphology as most likely having been an upper major primary covert feather. The first skeleton, known as the London Specimen( BMNH 37001), was unearthed in 1861 near, Germany, and perhaps given to local physician in return for medical services. He then sold it for£ 700( roughly£ 83, 000 in 2020) to the Natural History Museum in London, where it remains. Missing most of its head and neck, it was described in 1863 by Richard Owen as" Archaeopteryx macrura", allowing for the possibility it did not belong to the same species as the feather. In the subsequent fourth edition of his" On the Origin of Species", Charles Darwin described how some authors had maintained" that the whole class of birds came suddenly into existence during the eocene period; but now we know, on the authority of Professor Owen, that a bird certainly lived during the deposition of the upper greensand; and still more recently, that strange bird, the" Archaeopteryx", with a long lizard- like tail, bearing a pair of feathers on | each joint, and with its |
wings furnished with two free claws, has been discovered in the oolitic slates of Solnhofen. Hardly any recent discovery shows more forcibly than this how little we as yet know of the former inhabitants of the world." The Greek word() means' ancient, primeval'. primarily means' wing', but it can also be just' feather'. Meyer suggested this in his description. At first he referred to a single feather which appeared to resemble a modern bird' s remex( wing feather), but he had heard of and been shown a rough sketch of the London specimen, to which he referred as a""(" skeleton of an animal covered in similar feathers"). In German, this ambiguity is resolved by the term which does not necessarily mean a wing used for flying. was the favoured translation of" Archaeopteryx" among German scholars in the late nineteenth century. In English,' ancient pinion' offers a rough approximation to this. Since then twelve specimens have been recovered: The Berlin Specimen( HMN 1880/ 81) was discovered in 1874 or 1875 on the Blumenberg near, Germany, by farmer Jakob Niemeyer. He sold this precious fossil for the money to buy a cow in 1876, to innkeeper Johann Dörr, who again sold it to Ernst Otto Häberlein, the son of K. Häberlein. Placed on sale between 1877 and 1881, with potential buyers including O. C. Marsh of Yale University' s Peabody Museum, it eventually was bought for 20, 000 Goldmark by the Berlin' s Natural History Museum, where it now is displayed. The transaction was financed by Ernst Werner von Siemens, founder of the famous company that bears his name. Described in 1884 by Wilhelm Dames, it is the most complete specimen, and the first with a complete head. In 1897 it was named by Dames as a new species," A. siemensii"; though often considered a synonym of" A. lithographica",several21st century studies have concluded that it is a distinct species which includes the Berlin, Munich, and Thermopolis specimens. Composed of a torso, the Maxberg Specimen(S5) was discovered in 1956 near Langenaltheim; it was brought to the attention of professor Florian Heller in 1958 and described by him in 1959. The specimen is missing its head and tail, although the rest of the skeleton is mostly intact. Although it was once exhibited at the Maxberg Museum in Solnhofen, it is currently missing. It belonged to Eduard Opitsch, who loaned it to the museum until 1974. After his death in 1991, it was discovered that the specimen was missing and may have been stolen or sold. The Haarlem Specimen( TM 6428/ 29, also known as the" Teylers Specimen") was discovered in 1855 near, Germany, and described as a" Pterodactylus crassipes" in 1857 by Meyer. It was reclassified in 1970 by John Ostrom and is currently located at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands. It was the very first specimen found, but was incorrectly classified at the time. It is also one of the least complete specimens, consisting mostly of limb bones, isolated cervical vertebrae, and ribs. In 2017 it was named as a separate genus" Ostromia", | considered more closely related to" |
Anchiornis" from China. The Eichstätt Specimen( JM 2257) was discovered in 1951 near Workerszell, Germany, and described by Peter Wellnhofer in 1974. Currently located at the Jura Museum in Eichstätt, Germany, it is the smallest known specimen and has the second best head. It is possibly a separate genus(" Jurapteryx recurva") or species(" A. recurva"). The Solnhofen Specimen( unnumbered specimen)wasdiscoveredinthe1970s near Eichstätt, Germany, and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the Bürgermeister- Müller- Museum in Solnhofen, it originally was classified as" Compsognathus" by an amateur collector, the same mayor Friedrich Müller after which the museum is named. It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species," Wellnhoferia grandis". It is missing only portions of the neck, tail, backbone, and head. The Munich Specimen( BSP 1999 I 50, formerly known as the" Solenhofer- Aktien- Verein Specimen") was discovered on 3 August 1992 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. It is currently located at the Paläontologisches Museum München in Munich, to which it was sold in 1999 for 1. 9 million Deutschmark. What was initially believed to be a bony sternum turned out to be part of the coracoid, but a cartilaginous sternum may have been present. Only the front of its face is missing. It has been used as the basis for a distinct species," A. bavarica", but more recent studies suggest it belongs to" A. siemensii". An eighth, fragmentary specimen was discovered in 1990 in the younger Mörnsheim Formation at Daiting, Suevia. Therefore, it is known as the Daiting Specimen, and had been known since 1996 only from a cast, briefly shown at the Naturkundemuseum in Bamberg. The original was purchased by palaeontologist Raimund Albertsdörfer in 2009. It was on display for the first time with six other original fossils of" Archaeopteryx" at the Munich Mineral Show in October 2009. The Daiting Specimen was subsequently named" Archaeopteryx albersdoerferi" by Kundrat et al.( 2018). Another fragmentary fossil was found in 2000. It is in private possession and, since 2004, on loan to the Bürgermeister- Müller Museum in Solnhofen, so it is called the Bürgermeister- Müller Specimen; the institute itself officially refers to it as the" Exemplar of the families Ottman& amp; Steil, Solnhofen". As the fragment represents the remains of a single wing of" Archaeopteryx", the popular name of this fossil is" chicken wing". Long in a private collection in Switzerland, the Thermopolis Specimen( WDC CSG 100) was discovered in Bavaria and described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis, Wyoming, it has the best- preserved head and feet; most of the neck and the lower jaw have not been preserved. The" Thermopolis" specimen was described on 2 December 2005" Science" journal article as" A well- preserved" Archaeopteryx" specimen with theropod features"; it shows that" Archaeopteryx" lacked a reversed toe— a universal feature of birds— limiting its ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk- climbing lifestyle. This has been interpreted as evidence of theropod ancestry. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul claimed | to have found evidence of |
a hyperextensible second toe, but this was not verified and accepted by other scientists until the Thermopolis specimen was described." Until now, the feature was thought to belong only to the species' close relatives, the deinonychosaurs." The Thermopolis Specimen was assigned to" Archaeopteryx siemensii" in 2007. The specimen is considered to represent the most complete and best- preserved" Archaeopteryx" remains yet. The discovery of an eleventh specimen was announced in 2011, and it was described in 2014. It is one of the more complete specimens, but is missing much of the skull and one forelimb. It is privately owned and has yet to be given a name. Palaeontologists of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich studied the specimen, which revealed previously unknown features of the plumage, such as feathers on both the upper and lower legs and metatarsus, and the only preserved tail tip. A twelfth specimen had been discovered by an amateur collector in 2010 at the Schamhaupten quarry, but the finding was only announced in February 2014. It was scientifically described in 2018. It represents a complete and mostly articulated skeleton with skull. It is the only specimen lacking preserved feathers. It is from the Painten Formation and somewhat older than the other specimens. Authenticity. Beginning in 1985, an amateur group including astronomer Fred Hoyle and physicist Lee Spetner published a series of papers claiming that the feathers on the Berlin and London specimens of" Archaeopteryx" were forged. Their claims were repudiated by Alan J. Charig and others at the Natural History Museum in London. Most of their supposed evidence for a forgery was based on unfamiliarity with the processes of lithification; for example, they proposed that, based on the difference in texture associated with the feathers, feather impressions were applied to a thin layer of cement, without realizing that feathers themselves would have caused a textural difference. They also misinterpreted the fossils, claiming that the tail was forged as one large feather, when visibly this is not the case. In addition, they claimed that the other specimens of" Archaeopteryx" known at the time did not have feathers, which is incorrect; the Maxberg and Eichstätt specimens have obvious feathers. They also expressed disbelief that slabs would split so smoothly, or that one half of a slab containing fossils would have good preservation, but not the counterslab. These are common properties of Solnhofen fossils, because the dead animals would fall onto hardened surfaces, which would form a natural plane for the future slabs to split along and would leave the bulk of the fossil on one side and little on the other. Finally, the motives they suggested for a forgery are not strong, and are contradictory; one is that Richard Owen wanted to forge evidence in support of Charles Darwin' s theory of evolution, which is unlikely given Owen' s views toward Darwin and his theory. The other is that Owen wanted to set a trap for Darwin, hoping the latter would support the fossils so Owen could discredit him with the forgery; this is unlikely because Owen wrote a detailed | paper on the London specimen, |
so such an action would certainly backfire. Charig" et al." pointed to the presence of hairline cracks in the slabs running through both rock and fossil impressions, and mineral growth over the slabs that had occurred before discovery and preparation, as evidence that the feathers were original. Spetner" et al." then attempted to show that the cracks would have propagated naturally through their postulated cement layer, but neglected to account for the fact that the cracks were old and had been filled with calcite, and thus were not able to propagate. They also attempted to show the presence of cement on the London specimen through X- ray spectroscopy, and did find something that was not rock; it was not cement either, and is most probably a fragment of silicone rubber left behind when moulds were made of the specimen. Their suggestions have not been taken seriously by palaeontologists, as their evidence was largely based on misunderstandings of geology, and they never discussed the other feather- bearing specimens, which have increased in number since then. Charig" et al." reported a discolouration: a dark band between two layers of limestone– they say it is the product of sedimentation. It is natural for limestone to take on the colour of its surroundings and most limestones are coloured( if not colour banded) to some degree, so the darkness was attributed to such impurities. They also mention that a complete absence of air bubbles in the rock slabs is further proof that the specimen is authentic. Description. Most of the specimens of" Archaeopteryx" that have been discovered come from the Solnhofen limestone in Bavaria, southern Germany, which is a, a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils laid down during the early Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period, approximately 150. 8– 148.5million years ago." Archaeopteryx" was roughly the size of a raven, with broad wings that were rounded at the ends and a long tail compared to its body length. It could reach up to in body length, with an estimated mass of." Archaeopteryx" feathers, although less documented than its other features, were very similar in structure to modern- day bird feathers. Despite the presence of numerous avian features," Archaeopteryx" had many non- avian theropod dinosaur characteristics. Unlike modern birds," Archaeopteryx" had small teeth, as well as a long bony tail, features which" Archaeopteryx" shared with other dinosaurs of the time. Because it displays features common to both birds and non- avian dinosaurs," Archaeopteryx" has often been considered a link between them.Inthe1970s, John Ostrom, following Thomas Henry Huxley' s lead in 1868, argued that birds evolved within theropod dinosaurs and" Archaeopteryx" was a critical piece of evidence for this argument; it had several avian features, such as a wishbone, flight feathers, wings, and a partially reversed first toe along with dinosaur and theropod features. For instance, it has a long ascending process of the ankle bone, interdental plates, an obturator process of the ischium, and long chevrons in the tail. In particular, Ostrom found that" Archaeopteryx" was remarkably similar to the theropod family | Dromaeosauridae. Archaeopteryx had three separate |
digits on each fore- leg each ending with a" claw". Few birds have such features. Some birds such as ducks, swans and Jacanas(" Jacana" sp.) and the hoatzin(" Opisthocomus hoazin") have them concealed beneath the feathers. Plumage. Specimens of" Archaeopteryx" were most notable for their well- developed flight feathers. They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of flight feathers in modern birds, with vanes given stability by a barb- barbule- barbicel arrangement. The tail feathers were less asymmetrical, again in line with the situation in modern birds and also had firm vanes. The thumb did not yet bear a separately movable tuft of stiff feathers. The body plumage of" Archaeopteryx" is less well documented and has only been properly researched in the well- preserved Berlin specimen. Thus, as more than one species seems to be involved, the research into the Berlin specimen' s feathers does not necessarily hold true for the rest of the species of" Archaeopteryx". In the Berlin specimen, there are" trousers" of well- developed feathers on the legs; some of these feathers seem to have a basic contour feather structure, but are somewhat decomposed( they lack barbicels as in ratites). In part they are firm and thus capable of supporting flight. A patch of pennaceous feathers is found running along its back, which was quite similar to the contour feathers of the body plumage of modern birds in being symmetrical and firm, although not as stiff as the flight- related feathers. Apart from that, the feather traces in the Berlin specimen are limited to a sort of" proto- down" not dissimilar to that found in the dinosaur" Sinosauropteryx": decomposed and fluffy, and possibly even appearing more like fur than feathers in life( although not in their microscopic structure). These occur on the remainder of the body— although some feathers did not fossilize and others were obliterated during preparation, leaving bare patches on specimens— and the lower neck. There is no indication of feathering on the upper neck and head. While these conceivably may have been nude, this may still be an artefact of preservation. It appears that most" Archaeopteryx" specimens became embedded in anoxic sediment after drifting some time on their backs in the sea— the head, neck and the tail are generally bent downward, which suggests that the specimens had just started to rot when they were embedded, with tendons and muscle relaxing so that the characteristic shape( death pose) of the fossil specimens was achieved. This would mean that the skin already was softened and loose, which is bolstered by the fact that in some specimens the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment. So it is hypothesized that the pertinent specimens moved along the sea bed in shallow water for some time before burial, the head and upper neck feathers sloughing off, while the more firmly attached tail feathers remained. Colouration. In 2011, graduate student Ryan Carney and colleagues performed the first colour study on an" Archaeopteryx" specimen. Using scanning electron microscopy technology and energy- dispersive X- ray | analysis, the team was able |
to detect the structure of melanosomes in the isolated feather specimen described in 1861. The resultant measurements were then compared to those of 87 modern bird species, and the original colour was calculated with a 95% likelihood to be black. The feather was determined to be black throughout, with heavier pigmentation in the distal tip. The feather studied was most probably a dorsal covert, which would have partly covered the primary feathers on the wings. The study does not mean that" Archaeopteryx" was entirely black, but suggests that it had some black colouration which included the coverts. Carney pointed out that this is consistent with what we know of modern flight characteristics, in that black melanosomes have structural properties that strengthen feathers for flight. In a 2013 study published in the" Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry", new analyses of" Archaeopteryx"' s feathers revealed that the animal may have had complex light- and dark- coloured plumage, with heavier pigmentation in the distal tips and outer vanes. This analysis of color distribution was based primarily on the distribution of sulphate within the fossil. An author on the previous" Archaeopteryx" color study argued against the interpretation of such biomarkers as an indicator of eumelanin in the full Archaeopteryx specimen. Carney and other colleagues also argued against the 2013 study' s interpretation of the sulphate and trace metals, and in a 2020 study published in Scientific Reports demonstrated that the isolated covert feather was entirely matte black( as opposed to black and white, or iridescent) and that the remaining" plumage patterns of Archaeopteryx remain unknown". Classification. Today, fossils of the genus" Archaeopteryx" are usually assigned to one or two species," A. lithographica" and" A. siemensii", but their taxonomic history is complicated. Ten names have been published for the handful of specimens. As interpreted today, the name" A. lithographica" only referred to the single feather described by Meyer. In 1954 Gavin de Beer concluded that the London specimen was the holotype. In 1960, Swinton accordingly proposed that the name" Archaeopteryx lithographica" be placed on the official genera list making the alternative names" Griphosaurus" and" Griphornis" invalid. The ICZN, implicitly accepting de Beer' s standpoint, did indeed suppress the plethora of alternative names initially proposed for the first skeleton specimens, which mainly resulted from the acrimonious dispute between Meyer and his opponent Johann Andreas Wagner( whose" Griphosaurus problematicus"–' problematic riddle- lizard'– was a vitriolic sneer at Meyer' s" Archaeopteryx"). In addition, in 1977, the Commission ruled that the first species name of the Haarlem specimen," crassipes", described by Meyer as a pterosaur before its true nature was realized, was not to be given preference over" lithographica" in instances where scientists considered them to represent the same species. It has been noted that the feather, the first specimen of" Archaeopteryx" described, does not correspond well with the flight- related feathers of" Archaeopteryx". It certainly is a flight feather of a contemporary species, but its size and proportions indicate that it may belong to another, smaller species of feathered theropod, of which only this feather is known so far. As | the feather had been designated |
the type specimen, the name" Archaeopteryx" should then no longer be applied to the skeletons, thus creating significant nomenclatorial confusion. In 2007, two sets of scientists therefore petitioned the ICZN requesting that the London specimen explicitly be made the type by designating it as the new holotype specimen, or neotype. This suggestion was upheld by the ICZN after four years of debate, and the London specimen was designated the neotype on 3 October 2011. Below is a cladogram published in 2013 by Godefroit" et al." Species. It has been argued that all the specimens belong to the same species," A. lithographica". Differences do exist among the specimens, and while some researchers regard these as due to the different ages of the specimens, some may be related to actual species diversity. In particular, the Munich, Eichstätt, Solnhofen, and Thermopolis specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Haarlem specimens in being smaller or much larger, having different finger proportions, having more slender snouts lined with forward- pointing teeth, and possible presence of a sternum. Due to these differences, most individual specimens have been given their own species name at one point or another. The Berlin specimen has been designated as" Archaeornis siemensii", the Eichstätt specimen as" Jurapteryx recurva", the Munich specimen as" Archaeopteryx bavarica", and the Solnhofen specimen as" Wellnhoferia grandis". In 2007, a review of all well- preserved specimens including the then- newly discovered Thermopolis specimen concluded that two distinct species of" Archaeopteryx" could be supported:" A. lithographica"( consisting of at least the London and Solnhofen specimens), and" A. siemensii"( consisting of at least the Berlin, Munich, and Thermopolis specimens). The two species are distinguished primarily by large flexor tubercles on the foot claws in" A. lithographica"( the claws of" A. siemensii" specimens being relatively simple and straight)." A. lithographica" also had a constricted portion of the crown in some teeth and a stouter metatarsus. A supposed additional species," Wellnhoferia grandis"( based on the Solnhofen specimen), seems to be indistinguishable from" A. lithographica" except in its larger size. Synonyms. If two names are given, the first denotes the original describer of the" species", the second the author on whom the given name combination is based. As always in zoological nomenclature, putting an author' s name in parentheses denotes that the taxon was originally described in a different genus."" Archaeopteryx" vicensensis"( Anon." fide" Lambrecht, 1933) is a" nomen nudum" for what appears to be an undescribed pterosaur. Phylogenetic position. Modern paleontology has often classified" Archaeopteryx" as the most primitive bird. It is not thought to be a true ancestor of modern birds, but rather, a close relative of that ancestor. Nonetheless," Archaeopteryx" was often used as a model of the true ancestral bird. Several authors have done so. Lowe( 1935) and Thulborn( 1984) questioned whether" Archaeopteryx" truly was the first bird. They suggested that" Archaeopteryx" was a dinosaur that was no more closely related to birds than were other dinosaur groups. Kurzanov( 1987) suggested that" Avimimus" was more likely to be the ancestor of all birds than" Archaeopteryx". Barsbold( 1983) and Zweers and Van | den Berge( 1997) noted that |
many maniraptoran lineages are extremely birdlike, and they suggested that different groups of birds may have descended from different dinosaur ancestors. The discovery of the closely related" Xiaotingia" in 2011 led to new phylogenetic analyses that suggested that" Archaeopteryx" is a deinonychosaur rather than an avialan, and therefore, not a" bird" under most common uses of that term. A more thorough analysis was published soon after to test this hypothesis, and failed to arrive at the same result; it found" Archaeopteryx" in its traditional position at the base of Avialae, while" Xiaotingia" was recovered as a basal dromaeosaurid or troodontid. The authors of the follow- up study noted that uncertainties still exist, and that it may not be possible to state confidently whether or not" Archaeopteryx" is a member of Avialae or not, barring new and better specimens of relevant species. Phylogenetic studies conducted by Senter," et al."( 2012) and Turner, Makovicky, and Norell( 2012) also" Archaeopteryx" to be more closely related to living birds than to dromaeosaurids and troodontids. On the other hand, Godefroit," et al."( 2013) recovered" Archaeopteryx" as more closely related to dromaeosaurids and troodontids in the analysis included in their description of" Eosinopteryx brevipenna". The authors used a modified version of the matrix from the study describing" Xiaotingia", adding" Jinfengopteryx elegans" and" Eosinopteryx brevipenna" to it, as well as adding four additional characters related to the development of the plumage. Unlike the analysis from the description of" Xiaotingia", the analysis conducted by Godefroit," et al." did not find" Archaeopteryx" to be related particularly closely to" Anchiornis" and" Xiaotingia", which were recovered as basal troodontids instead. Agnolín and Novas( 2013) found" Archaeopteryx" and( possibly synonymous)" Wellnhoferia" to be form a clade sister to the lineage including" Jeholornis" and Pygostylia, with Microraptoria, Unenlagiinae, and the clade containing" Anchiornis" and" Xiaotingia" being successively closer outgroups to the Avialae( defined by the authors as the clade stemming from the last common ancestor of" Archaeopteryx" and Aves). Another phylogenetic study by Godefroit," et al.", using a more inclusive matrix than the one from the analysis in the description of" Eosinopteryx brevipenna", also found" Archaeopteryx" to be a member of Avialae( defined by the authors as the most inclusive clade containing" Passer domesticus", but not" Dromaeosaurus albertensis" or" Troodon formosus")." Archaeopteryx" was found to form a grade at the base of Avialae with" Xiaotingia"," Anchiornis", and" Aurornis". Compared to" Archaeopteryx"," Xiaotingia" was found to be more closely related to extant birds, while both" Anchiornis" and" Aurornis" were found to be more distantly so. Hu" et al".( 2018), Wang" et al".( 2018) and Hartman" et al".( 2019) found" Archaeopteryx" to have been a deinonychosaur instead of an avialan. More specifically, it and closely related taxa were considered basal deinonychosaurs, with dromaeosaurids and troodontids forming together a parallel lineage within the group. Because Hartman" et al". found" Archaeopteryx" isolated in a group of flightless deinonychosaurs( otherwise considered" anchiornithids"), they considered it highly probable that this animal evolved flight independently from bird ancestors( and from" Microraptor" and" Yi"). The following cladogram illustrates their hypothesis regarding the position | of" Archaeopteryx": The authors, however, |
found that the" Archaeopteryx" being an avialan was only slightly less likely than this hypothesis, and as likely as Archaeopterygidae and Troodontidae being sister clades. Palaeobiology. Flight. As in the wings of modern birds, the flight feathers of" Archaeopteryx" were somewhat asymmetrical and the tail feathers were rather broad. This implies that the wings and tail were used for lift generation, but it is unclear whether" Archaeopteryx" was capable of flapping flight or simply a glider. The lack of a bony breastbone suggests that" Archaeopteryx" was not a very strong flier, but flight muscles might have attached to the thick, boomerang- shaped wishbone, the platelike coracoids, or perhaps, to a cartilaginous sternum. The sideways orientation of the glenoid( shoulder) joint between scapula, coracoid, and humerus— instead of the dorsally angled arrangement found in modern birds— may indicate that" Archaeopteryx" was unable to lift its wings above its back, a requirement for the upstroke found in modern flapping flight. According to a study by Philip Senter in 2006," Archaeopteryx" was indeed unable to use flapping flight as modern birds do, but it may well have used a downstroke- only flap- assisted gliding technique. However, a more recent study solves this issue by suggesting a different flight stroke configuration for non- avian flying theropods." Archaeopteryx" wings were relatively large, which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius. The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag, but also could have improved its ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush( similar wing shapes are seen in birds that fly through trees and brush, such as crows and pheasants). The presence of" hind wings", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as" Microraptor", also would have added to the aerial mobility of" Archaeopteryx". The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006, suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total airfoil. This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%. The feathers of" Archaeopteryx" were asymmetrical. This has been interpreted as evidence that it was a flyer, because flightless birds tend to have symmetrical feathers. Some scientists, including Thomson and Speakman, have questioned this. They studied more than 70 families of living birds, and found that some flightless types do have a range of asymmetry in their feathers, and that the feathers of" Archaeopteryx" fall into this range. The degree of asymmetry seen in" Archaeopteryx" is more typical for slow flyers than for flightless birds. In 2010, Robert L. Nudds and Gareth J. Dyke in the journal" Science" published a paper in which they analysed the rachises of the primary feathers of" Confuciusornis" and" Archaeopteryx". The analysis suggested that the rachises on these two genera were thinner and weaker than those of modern birds relative to body mass. The authors determined that" Archaeopteryx" and" Confuciusornis", were unable to use flapping flight. This study was criticized by Philip J. Currie and Luis Chiappe. Chiappe | suggested that it is difficult |
to measure the rachises of fossilized feathers, and Currie speculated that" Archaeopteryx" and" Confuciusornis" must have been able to fly to some degree, as their fossils are preserved in what is believed to have been marine or lake sediments, suggesting that they must have been able to fly over deep water. Gregory Paul also disagreed with the study, arguing in a 2010 response that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the masses of these early birds, and that more accurate mass estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow rachises. Nudds and Dyke had assumed a mass of for the Munich specimen" Archaeopteryx", a young juvenile, based on published mass estimates of larger specimens. Paul argued that a more reasonable body mass estimate for the Munich specimen is about. Paul also criticized the measurements of the rachises themselves, noting that the feathers in the Munich specimen are poorly preserved. Nudds and Dyke reported a diameter of for the longest primary feather, which Paul could not confirm using photographs. Paul measured some of the inner primary feathers, finding rachises across. Despite these criticisms, Nudds and Dyke stood by their original conclusions. They claimed that Paul' s statement, that an adult" Archaeopteryx" would have been a better flyer than the juvenile Munich specimen, was dubious. This, they reasoned, would require an even thicker rachis, evidence for which has not yet been presented. Another possibility is that they had not achieved true flight, but instead used their wings as aids for extra lift while running over water after the fashion of the basilisk lizard, which could explain their presence in lake and marine deposits( see Origin of avian flight). In 2004, scientists analysing a detailed CT scan of the braincase of the London" Archaeopteryx" concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one- third of the brain. Other well- developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. The skull scan also revealed the structure of its inner ear. The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of non- avian reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that" Archaeopteryx" had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception, and coordination needed to fly." Archaeopteryx" had a cerebrum- to- brain- volume ratio 78% of the way to modern birds from the condition of non- coelurosaurian dinosaurs such as" Carcharodontosaurus" or" Allosaurus", which had a crocodile- like anatomy of the brain and inner ear. Newer research shows that while the" Archaeopteryx" brain was more complex than that of more primitive theropods, it had a more generalized brain volume among Maniraptora dinosaurs, even smaller than that of other non- avian dinosaurs in several instances, which indicates the neurological development required for flight was already a common trait in the maniraptoran clade. Recent studies of flight feather barb geometry reveal that modern birds possess a larger barb angle in the trailing vane of | the feather, whereas" Archaeopteryx" lacks |
this large barb angle, indicating potentially weak flight abilities." Archaeopteryx" continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds. Some scientists see it as a semi- arboreal climbing animal, following the idea that birds evolved from tree- dwelling gliders( the" trees down" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by O. C. Marsh). Other scientists see" Archaeopteryx" as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running( the" ground up" hypothesis proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston). Still others suggest that" Archaeopteryx" might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground, like modern crows, and this latter view is what currently is considered best- supported by morphological characters. Altogether, it appears that the species was not particularly specialized for running on the ground or for perching. A scenario outlined by Elżanowski in 2002 suggested that" Archaeopteryx" used its wings mainly to escape predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches, and alternatively, to cover longer distances( mainly) by gliding down from cliffs or treetops. In March 2018, scientists reported that" Archaeopteryx" was likely capable of flight, but in a manner distinct and substantially different from that of modern birds. This study on" Archaeopteryx"' s bone histology suggests that it was closest to true flying birds, and in particular to pheasants and other burst flyers. Studies of" Archaeopteryx' s" feather sheaths revealed that like modern birds, it had a center- out, flight related molting strategy. As it was a weak flier, this was extremely advantageous in preserving its maximum flight performance. Growth. A histological study by Erickson, Norell, Zhongue, and others in 2009 estimated that" Archaeopteryx" grew relatively slowly compared to modern birds, presumably because the outermost portions of" Archaeopteryx" bones appear poorly vascularized; in living vertebrates, poorly vascularized bone is correlated with slow growth rate. They also assume that all known skeletons of" Archaeopteryx" come from juvenile specimens. Because the bones of" Archaeopteryx" could not be histologically sectioned in a formal skeletochronological( growth ring) analysis, Erickson and colleagues used bone vascularity( porosity) to estimate bone growth rate. They assumed that poorly vascularized bone grows at similar rates in all birds and in" Archaeopteryx". The poorly vascularized bone of" Archaeopteryx" might have grown as slowly as that in a mallard( 2. 5 micrometres per day) or as fast as that in an ostrich( 4. 2 micrometres per day). Using this range of bone growth rates, they calculated how long it would take to" grow" each specimen of" Archaeopteryx" to the observed size; it may have taken at least 970 days( there were 375 days in a Late Jurassic year) to reach an adult size of. The study also found that the avialans" Jeholornis" and" Sapeornis" grew relatively slowly, as did the dromaeosaurid" Mahakala". The avialans" Confuciusornis" and" Ichthyornis" grew relatively quickly, following a growth trend similar to that of modern birds. One of the few modern birds that exhibit slow growth is the flightless kiwi, and the authors speculated that" Archaeopteryx" and the kiwi | had similar basal metabolic rate. |
Daily activity patterns. Comparisons between the scleral rings of" Archaeopteryx" and modern birds and reptiles indicate that it may have been diurnal, similar to most modern birds. Paleoecology. The richness and diversity of the Solnhofen limestones in which all specimens of" Archaeopteryx" have been found have shed light on an ancient Jurassic Bavaria strikingly different from the present day. The latitude was similar to Florida, though the climate was likely to have been drier, as evidenced by fossils of plants with adaptations for arid conditions and a lack of terrestrial sediments characteristic of rivers. Evidence of plants, although scarce, include cycads and conifers while animals found include a large number of insects, small lizards, pterosaurs, and" Compsognathus". The excellent preservation of" Archaeopteryx" fossils and other terrestrial fossils found at Solnhofen indicates that they did not travel far before becoming preserved. The" Archaeopteryx" specimens found were therefore likely to have lived on the low islands surrounding the Solnhofen lagoon rather than to have been corpses that drifted in from farther away." Archaeopteryx" skeletons are considerably less numerous in the deposits of Solnhofen than those of pterosaurs, of which seven genera have been found. The pterosaurs included species such as" Rhamphorhynchus" belonging to the Rhamphorhynchidae, the group which dominated the niche currently occupied by seabirds, and which became extinct at the end of the Jurassic. The pterosaurs, which also included" Pterodactylus", were common enough that it is unlikely that the specimens found are vagrants from the larger islands to the north. The islands that surrounded the Solnhofen lagoon were low lying, semi- arid, and sub- tropical with a long dry season and little rain. The closest modern analogue for the Solnhofen conditions is said to be Orca Basin in the northern Gulf of Mexico, although it is much deeper than the Solnhofen lagoons. The flora of these islands was adapted to these dry conditions and consisted mostly of low() shrubs. Contrary to reconstructions of" Archaeopteryx" climbing large trees, these seem to have been mostly absent from the islands; few trunks have been found in the sediments and fossilized tree pollen also is absent. The lifestyle of" Archaeopteryx" is difficult to reconstruct and there are several theories regarding it. Some researchers suggest that it was primarily adapted to life on the ground, while other researchers suggest that it was principally arboreal on the basis of the curvature of the claws which has since been questioned. The absence of trees does not preclude" Archaeopteryx" from an arboreal lifestyle, as several species of bird live exclusively in low shrubs. Various aspects of the morphology of" Archaeopteryx" point to either an arboreal or ground existence, including the length of its legs and the elongation in its feet; some authorities consider it likely to have been a generalist capable of feeding in both shrubs and open ground, as well as along the shores of the lagoon. It most likely hunted small prey, seizing it with its jaws if it was small enough, or with its claws if it was larger. Arthur Laurents( July 14, 1917– May 5, 2011) was | an American playwright, theatre director, |
film producer and screenwriter. After writing scripts for radio shows after college and then training films for the U. S. Army during World War II, Laurents turned to writing for Broadway, producing a body of work that includes" West Side Story"( 1957),""( 1959), and" Hallelujah, Baby!"( 1967), and directing some of his own shows and other Broadway productions. His film scripts include" Rope"( 1948) for Alfred Hitchcock, followed by" Anastasia"( 1956)," Bonjour Tristesse"( 1958)," The Way We Were"( 1973), and" The Turning Point"( 1977). Early life. Born Arthur Levine, Laurents was the son of middle- class Jewish parents, his father a lawyer and his mother a schoolteacher, who gave up her career when she married. He was born and raised in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City, New York, the elder of two children, and attended Erasmus Hall High School. His sister Edith suffered from chorea as a child. His paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews, and his mother' s parents, although born Jewish, were atheists. His mother kept a kosher home for her husband' s sake, but was lax about attending synagogue and observing the Jewish holidays. His Bar Mitzvah marked the end of Laurents' s religious education and the beginning of his rejection of all fundamentalist religions, although he continued to identify himself as Jewish. However, late in life he admitted to having changed his last name from Levine to the less Jewish- sounding Laurents," to get a job." After graduating from Cornell University, Laurents took an evening class in radio writing at New York University. William N. Robson, his instructor, a CBS Radio director/ producer, submitted his script" Now Playing Tomorrow", a comedic fantasy about clairvoyance, to the network, and it was produced in the Columbia Workshop series on January 30, 1939, with Shirley Booth in the lead role. It was Laurents' first professional credit. The show' s success led to him being hired to write scripts for various radio shows, among them" Lux Radio Theater". Laurents' career was interrupted when he was drafted into the U. S. Army in the middle of World War II. Through a series of clerical errors, he never saw battle, but instead was assigned to the U. S. Army Pictorial Service located in a film studio in Astoria, Queens, where he wrote training films and met, among others, George Cukor and William Holden. He later was reassigned to write plays for" Armed Service Force Presents", a radio show that dramatized the contributions of all branches of the armed forces. Theatrical career. According to John Clum," Laurents was always a mirror of his times. Through his best work, one sees a staged history of leftist, gender, and gay politics in the decades after World War II." After graduating from Cornell University in 1937, Laurents went to work as a writer for radio drama at CBS in New York. His military duties during World War II, which consisted of writing training films and radio scripts for" Armed Service Force Presents", brought him into contact with some of the best film directors— | distinguished director George Cukor directed |
his first script. Laurents' s work in radio and film during World War II was an excellent apprenticeship for a budding playwright and screenwriter. He also had the good fortune to be based in New York City. His first stage play," Home of the Brave", was produced in 1945. The sale of the play to a film studio gave Laurents the entrée he needed to become a Hollywood screenwriter though he continued, with mixed success, to write plays. The most important of his early screenplays is his adaptation of" Rope" for Alfred Hitchcock. Soon after being discharged from the Army, Laurents met ballerina Nora Kaye, and the two became involved in an on- again, off- again romantic relationship. While Kaye was on tour with" Fancy Free", Laurents continued to write for the radio but was becoming discontented with the medium. At the urging of Martin Gabel, he spent nine consecutive nights writing a play In 1962, Laurents directed" I Can Get It for You Wholesale", which helped to turn then- unknown Barbra Streisand into a star. His next project was the stage musical" Anyone Can Whistle", which he directed and for which he wrote the book, but it proved to be an infamous flop. He later had success with the musicals" Hallelujah, Baby!"( written for Lena Horne but ultimately starring Leslie Uggams) and" La Cage Aux Folles"( 1983), which he directed, however" Nick& amp; Nora" was not successful. In 2008, Laurents directed a Broadway revival of" Gypsy" starring Patti LuPone, and in 2009, he tackled a bilingual revival of" West Side Story", with Spanish translations of some dialogue and lyrics by Lin- Manuel Miranda. While preparing" West Side Story", he noted," The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity." Following the production' s March 19 opening at the Palace Theatre, Ben Brantley of" The New York Times" called the translations" an only partly successful experiment" and added," Mr. Laurents has exchanged insolence for innocence and, as with most such bargains, there are dividends and losses." The national tour( 2011- 2012) was directed by David Saint, who was Laurents' assistant director on the Broadway production. The Spanish lyrics and dialog were reduced from about 18% of the total to about 10%. Film career. Laurents' first Hollywood experience proved to be a frustrating disappointment. Director Anatole Litvak, unhappy with the script submitted by Frank Partos and Millen Brand for" The Snake Pit"( 1948), hired Laurents to rewrite it. Partos and Brand later insisted the bulk of the shooting script was theirs, and produced carbon copies of many of the pages Laurents actually had written to bolster their claim. Having destroyed the original script and all his notes and rewritten pages after completing the project, Laurents had no way to prove most of the work was his, and the Writers Guild of America denied him screen credit. Brand later confessed he and Partos had copied scenes written by Laurents and apologized for his role in the deception. Four decades later, Laurents learned he was | ineligible for WGA health benefits |
because he had failed to accumulate enough credits to qualify. He was short by one, the one he failed to get for" The Snake Pit".Uponhearing20th Century Fox executives were pleased with Laurents' work on" The Snake Pit", Alfred Hitchcock hired him for his next project, the film" Rope" starring James Stewart. Hitchcock wanted Laurents to Americanize the British play" Rope"( 1929) by Patrick Hamilton for the screen. With his then- lover Farley Granger set to star, Laurents was happy to accept the assignment. His dilemma was how to make the audience aware of the fact the three main characters were homosexual without blatantly saying so. The Hays Office kept close tabs on his work, and the final script was so discreet that Laurents was unsure whether co- star James Stewart ever realized that his character was gay. In later years, Hitchcock asked him to script both" Torn Curtain"( 1966) and" Topaz"( 1969), However, Laurents, in both cases unenthused by the material, declined the offers. Laurents also scripted" Anastasia"( 1956) and" Bonjour Tristesse"( 1958)." The Way We Were"( 1973), in which he incorporated many of his own experiences, particularly those with the HUAC, reunited him with Barbra Streisand, and" The Turning Point"( 1977), inspired in part by his love for Nora Kaye, was directed by her husband Herbert Ross. The Fox animated feature film" Anastasia"( 1997) was based in part from his screenplay of the live- action 1956 film of the same title. Blacklist. Because of a casual remark made by Russel Crouse, Laurents was called to Washington, D. C., to account for his political views. He explained himself to the House Un- American Activities Committee, and his appearance had no obvious impact on his career, which at the time was primarily in the theatre. When the McCarran Internal Security Act, which prohibited individuals suspected of engaging in subversive activities from obtaining a passport, was passed in 1950, Laurents and Granger immediately applied for and received passports and departed for Paris with Harold Clurman and his wife Stella Adler. Laurents and Granger remained abroad, traveling throughout Europe and northern Africa, for about 18 months. Years earlier, Laurents and Jerome Robbins had developed" Look Ma, I' m Dancin'!"( 1948), a stage musical about the world of ballet that ran for 188 performances on Broadway, and starred Nancy Walker and Harold Lang.( Although the musical was ultimately produced with a book by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, as Laurents left the project.) Robbins approached Paramount Pictures about directing a screen version, and the studio agreed as long as Laurents was not part of the package. It was not until then that Laurents learned he officially had been blacklisted, primarily because a review of" Home of the Brave" had been published in the" Daily Worker". He decided to return to Paris, but the State Department refused to renew his passport. Laurents spent three months trying to clear his name, and after submitting a lengthy letter explaining his political beliefs in detail, it was determined they were so idiosyncratic he could not have been a member | of any subversive groups. Within |
a week his passport was renewed, and the following day he sailed for Europe on the" Ile de France". While on board, he received a cable from Metro- Goldwyn- Mayer offering him a screenwriting assignment. The blacklist had ended. Memoirs. Laurents wrote" Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood", published in 2000. In it, he discusses his lengthy career and his many gay affairs and long- term relationships, including those with Farley Granger and Tom Hatcher( August 24, 1929- October 26, 2006). Hatcher was an aspiring actor whom Gore Vidal suggested Laurents seek out at the Beverly Hills men' s clothing store Hatcher was managing at the time. The couple remained together for 52 years until Hatcher' s death on October 26, 2006. Laurents wrote" Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story and Other Musicals", published in 2009, in which he discussed musicals he directed and the work of other directors he admired. His last memoir titled" The Rest of the Story" was published posthumously in September 2012. Death. Laurents died at the age of 93 at his home in Manhattan on May 5, 2011 of pneumonia complications, as reported by" The New York Times". Following a long tradition, Broadway theatre lights were dimmed at 8 p. m. on May 6, 2011, for one minute in his memory. His ashes were buried alongside those of Tom Hatcher in a memorial bench in Quogue, Long Island, New York. Awards, nominations and honors. A new award was established in 2010, The Laurents/ Hatcher Foundation Award. This is awarded annually" for an un- produced, full- length play of social relevance by an emerging American playwright." The Laurents/ Hatcher Foundation will give$ 50, 000 to the writer with a grant of$ 100, 000 towards production costs at a nonprofit theatre. The first award will be given in 2011. Adrián Alfonso Lamo Atwood( February 20, 1981– March 14, 2018) was an American threat analyst and hacker. Lamo first gained media attention for breaking into several high- profile computer networks, including those of" The New York Times", Yahoo!, and Microsoft, culminating in his 2003 arrest. Lamo was best known for reporting U. S. soldier Chelsea Manning to Army criminal investigators in 2010 for leaking hundreds of thousands of sensitive U. S. government documents to WikiLeaks. Lamo died on March 14, 2018, at the age of 37. Early life and education. Adrian Lamo was born in Malden, Massachusetts near Boston. His father, Mario Ricardo Lamo, was Colombian. Adrian Lamo attended high schools in Bogotá and San Francisco, from which he did not graduate, but received a GED and was court- ordered to take courses at American River College, a community college in Sacramento County, California. Lamo began his hacking efforts by hacking games on the Commodore 64 and through phone phreaking. Activities and legal issues. Lamo first became known for operating AOL watchdog site" Inside- AOL. com". Security compromise. Lamo was a grey hat hacker who viewed the rise of the World Wide Web with a mixture of excitement and alarm. He felt that others | failed to see the importance |
of internet security in the early days of the World Wide Web. Lamo would break into corporate computer systems, but he never caused damage to the systems involved. Instead, he would offer to fix the security flaws free of charge, and if the flaw wasn' t fixed, he would alert the media. Lamo hoped to be hired by a corporation to attempt to break into systems and test their security, a practice that came to be known as red teaming. However, by the time this practice was common, his felony conviction prevented him from being hired. In December 2001, Lamo was praised by Worldcom for helping to fortify their corporate security. In February 2002, he broke into the internal computer network of" The New York Times", added his name to the internal database of expert sources, and used the paper' s LexisNexis account to conduct research on high- profile subjects." The New York Times" filed a complaint, and a warrant for Lamo' s arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15- month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10: 15 a. m. on September 9, after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the US Marshals in Sacramento, California. He re- surrendered to the FBI in New York City on September 11, and pleaded guilty to one felony count of computer crimes against Microsoft, LexisNexis, and" The New York Times" on January 8, 2004. In July 2004, Lamo was sentenced to two years' probation, with six months to be served in home detention, and ordered to pay$ 65, 000 in restitution. He was convicted of compromising security at" The New York Times", Microsoft, Yahoo!, and WorldCom. When challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, his response was:" Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves". When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo frustrated reporters with non- sequiturs, such as" Faith manages" and" It' s a beautiful day." At his sentencing, Lamo expressed remorse for harm he had caused by his intrusions. The court record quotes him as adding:" I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life." He subsequently declared on the question- and- answer site Quora that:" We all own our actions in fullness, not just the pleasant aspects of them." Lamo accepted that he had committed mistakes. DNA controversy. On May 9, 2006, while 18 months into a two- year probation sentence, Lamo refused to give the United States government a blood sample, which they had demanded to record his DNA in their CODIS system. According to his attorney at the time Lamo had a religious objection to giving blood but was willing to give his DNA in another form. On June 15, 2007, lawyers for Lamo filed a motion citing the Book of Genesis as one basis for Lamo' s religious opposition to the giving of blood. On June 20, 2007, Lamo' s legal counsel | reached a settlement agreement with |
the U. S. Department of Justice whereby Lamo would submit a cheek swab in place of the blood sample. WikiLeaks and Chelsea Manning. In February 2009, a partial list of the anonymous donors to the WikiLeaks website was leaked and published on the WikiLeaks website. Some media sources indicated at the time that Lamo was among the donors on the list. Lamo commented on his Twitter page," Thanks WikiLeaks, for leaking your donor list... That' s dedication." In May 2010, Lamo reported to U. S. Army authorities that Chelsea Manning, then Bradley Manning, had claimed to have leaked a large body of classified documents, including 260, 000 classified United States diplomatic cables. Lamo stated that Manning also" took credit for leaking" the video footage of the July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike, which has since come to be known as the" Collateral Murder" video. Lamo stated, in an article written by Kevin Poulsen in" Wired" magazine, that he would not have turned Manning in" if lives weren' t in danger...[ Manning] was in a war zone and basically trying to vacuum up as much classified information as[ she] could, and just throwing it up into the air." WikiLeaks responded by denouncing Lamo and Poulsen as" notorious felons, informers& amp; manipulators", and said:" journalists should take care." According to Andy Greenberg of" Forbes", Lamo was a volunteer" adversary characterization" analyst for Project Vigilant, a Florida- based semi- secret government contractor, which encouraged him to inform the government about the alleged WikiLeaks source. The head of Project Vigilant, Chet Uber, claimed," I' m the one who called the U. S. government... All the people who say that Adrian is a narc, he did a patriotic thing. He sees all kinds of hacks, and he was seriously worried about people dying." Lamo was criticized by fellow hackers, such as those at the Hackers on Planet Earth conference in 2010, who labeled him a" snitch". Another commented to Lamo, following his speech during a panel discussion, saying:" From my perspective, I see what you have done as treason." In April 2011, WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange called Lamo" a very disreputable character", and said it was not right to call him a financial contributor to WikiLeaks, since Lamo' s monetary support amounted to only US$ 20 on one occasion. Assange said it was" mischievous to suggest the individual has anything to do with WikiLeaks." Lamo characterized his decision to work with the government as morally ambiguous, but objectively necessary, writing in" The Guardian":" There were no right choices that day, only less wrong ones. It was cold, it was needful, and it was no one' s to make except mine," adding to" The Guardian" s Ed Pilkington:" There were hundreds of thousands of documents— let' s drop the number to 250, 000 to be conservative— and doing nothing meant gambling that each and every one would do no harm if no warning was given." The Taliban insurgency later announced its intention to execute Afghan nationals named in the leaks as having cooperated with the U. S.- led coalition | in Afghanistan. By that time, |
the United States had received months of advance warning that their names were among the leaks. Manning was arrested and incarcerated in the U. S. military justice system and later sentenced to 35 years in confinement, which President Barack Obama at the end of his presidential term, commuted the sentence to a total of seven years, including time served. Lamo responded to the commutation with a post on Medium and an interview with" U. S. News& amp; World Report". Greenwald, Lamo, and" Wired" magazine. Lamo' s role in the Manning case drew criticism from Glenn Greenwald, who suggested that Lamo lied to Manning by turning Manning in, and then lied after the fact to cover up the circumstances of Manning' s confessions. This drew a response from" Wired":" At his most reasonable, Greenwald impugns our motives, attacks the character of our staff and carefully selects his facts and sources to misrepresent the truth and generate outrage in his readership." In an article about the Manning case, Greenwald mentioned" Wired" reporter Kevin Poulsen' s 1994 felony conviction for computer hacking, suggesting that" over the years, Poulsen has served more or less as Lamo' s personal media voice." Greenwald was skeptical of an earlier story by Poulsen about Lamo' s institutionalization on psychiatric grounds, writing:" Lamo claimed he was diagnosed with Asperger' s syndrome, a somewhat fashionable autism diagnosis which many stars in the computer world have also claimed." In an article entitled" The Worsening Journalistic Disgrace at Wired", Greenwald wrote that" Wired" was" actively conceal[ ing] from the public, for months on end, the key evidence[ the full Lamo– Manning chat logs] in a political story that has generated headlines around the world." On July 13, 2011," Wired" published the Lamo– Manning chat logs in full, stating:" The most significant of the unpublished details have now been publicly established with sufficient authority that we no longer believe any purpose is served by withholding the logs." Greenwald wrote of the newly released logs that in his opinion they validated his claim that" Wired" had concealed important evidence. Criticism of Anonymous. Lamo had been critical of media coverage of the hacker collective Anonymous, saying that media outlets have over- hyped and mythologized the group. He also said that Anonymous is not the" invulnerable" group it is claimed to be, and he could see" no rational point in what they' re doing." Film and television. On August 22, 2002, Lamo was removed from a segment of" NBC Nightly News" when, after being asked to demonstrate his skills for the camera, he gained access to NBC' s internal network. NBC was concerned that they broke the law by taping Lamo while he( possibly) broke the law. Lamo was a guest on" The Screen Savers" five times beginning in 2002." Hackers Wanted", a documentary film focusing on Lamo' s life as a hacker, was produced by Trigger Street Productions, and narrated by Kevin Spacey. Focusing on the 2003 hacking scene, the film features interviews with Kevin Rose and Steve Wozniak. The film has not been conventionally released. In | May 2009, a video purporting |
to be a trailer for" Hackers Wanted" was allegedly leaked to or by the Internet film site Eye Crave Network. In May 2010, an earlier cut of the film was leaked via BitTorrent. According to an insider, what was leaked on the Internet was a very different film from the newer version, which includes additional footage. On June 12, 2010, a director' s cut version of the film was also leaked onto torrent sites. Lamo also appeared on" Good Morning America", Fox News," Democracy Now!"," Frontline", and repeatedly on KCRA- TV News as an expert on netcentric crime and incidents. He was interviewed for the documentaries"" and" True Stories: WikiLeaks– Secrets and Lies". Lamo reconnected with Leo Laporte in 2015 as a result of a Quora article on the" dark web" for an episode of" The New Screen Savers". Lamo wrote the book" Ask Adrian", a collection of his best Q& amp; A drawn from over 500 pages of Quora answers, which have so far received nearly 30, 000, 000 views. Personal life and death. Lamo was known as the" Homeless Hacker" for his reportedly transient lifestyle, claiming that he spent much of his travels couch- surfing, squatting in abandoned buildings, and traveling to Internet cafés, libraries, and universities to investigate networks, sometimes exploiting security holes. He usually preferred sleeping on couches, and when he did sleep on beds, he didn' t sleep under covers. He would also often wander through homes and offices in the middle of the night, by the light of a flashlight. Lamo was bisexual and volunteered for the gay and lesbian media firm PlanetOut Inc. in the mid-1990s. In 1998, Lamo was appointed to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Questioning Youth Task Force by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. Lamo used a wide variety of supplements and drugs throughout his life. His wife, Lauren Fisher, called his drug use" body hacking". One of Lamo' s preferred supplements was kratom, which he used as a less- dangerous alternative to opioids. In 2001, he overdosed on prescription amphetamines. After he turned in Manning, his drug use escalated, but he later claimed that he was in recovery. In a 2004 interview with" Wired", an ex- girlfriend of Lamo' s described him as" very controlling", alleging" he carried a stun gun, which he used on me". The same article claimed a court had issued a restraining order against Lamo; he disputed the claim, writing:" I have never been subject to a restraining order in my life". Lamo said in a" Wired" article that, in May 2010, after he reported the theft of his backpack, an investigating officer noted unusual behavior and placed him under a 72- hour involuntary psychiatric hold, which was extended to a nine- day hold. Lamo said he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome at the psychiatric ward. For a period of time in March 2011, Lamo was allegedly" in hiding", claiming that his" life was under threat" after turning in Manning. Lamo died on March 14, 2018, in Wichita, Kansas, at the age of 37. | Nearly three months later, the |
Sedgwick County Regional Forensic Science Center reported that" Despite a complete autopsy and supplemental testing, no definitive cause of death was identified." However, many bottles of pills were found in his home. Several of the pills found there were known to cause severe health problems when combined with kratom. As a result, evidence points to an accidental death due to drug abuse. An associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States is any member of the Supreme Court of the United States other than the chief justice of the United States. The number of associate justices is eight, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869. Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution of the United States grants plenary power to the president to nominate, and with the advice and consent( confirmation) of the Senate, appoint justices to the Supreme Court. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution effectively grants life tenure to associate justices, and all other federal judges, which ends only when a justice dies, retires, resigns, or is removed from office by impeachment. Each Supreme Court justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the chief justice' s vote counts no more than that of any other justice. However, the chief justice— when in the majority— decides who writes the court' s opinion. Otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. Furthermore, the chief justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. The chief justice has certain administrative responsibilities that the other justices do not and is paid slightly more($ 270, 700 per year as of 2019, as opposed to$ 258, 900 per year for each associate justice). Associate justices have seniority in order of the date their respective commissions bear, although the chief justice is always considered to be the most senior of all the justices. If two justices are commissioned on the same day, the elder is designated the senior justice of the two. Currently, the senior associate justice is Clarence Thomas. By tradition, when the justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Supreme Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. The senior associate justice is also tasked with carrying out the chief justice' s duties when he is unable to, or if that office is vacant. Historically, associate justices were styled" Mr. Justice" in court opinions and other writings. The title was shortened to" Justice" in 1980, a year before Sandra Day O' Connor became the first female justice. Current associate justices. There are currently eight associate justices on the Supreme Court. The justices, ordered by seniority, are: Retired associate justices. An associate justice who leaves the Supreme Court after attaining the age and meeting the service requirements prescribed by federal statute() may retire rather than resign. After retirement, they keep their title, and by custom may also keep a set of chambers in the Supreme Court building, and employ law clerks. The names of retired associate justices continue to appear alongside those of | the active justices in the |
bound volumes of Supreme Court decisions. Federal statute() provides that retired Supreme Court justices may serve— if designated and assigned by the chief justice— on panels of the U. S. courts of appeals, or on the U. S. district courts. Retired justices are not, however, authorized to take part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Supreme Court( unlike other retired federal judges who may be permitted to do so in their former courts); neither are they known or designated as a" senior judge". When, after his retirement, William O. Douglas attempted to take a more active role than was customary, maintaining that it was his prerogative to do so because of his senior status, he was rebuffed by Chief Justice Warren Burger and admonished by the whole Court. As of 2022, there are three living retired associate justices: Sandra Day O' Connor, retired January 31, 2006; David Souter, retired June 29, 2009; and Anthony Kennedy, retired July 31, 2018. Souter regularly serves on panels of the First Circuit Courts of Appeals, while O' Connor also served on panels of various circuit courts for several years following her retirement and prior to her later withdrawal from public life; Kennedy has not performed any judicial duties since retiring. List of associate justices. Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 103 persons have served as an associate justice: Alan Jay Lerner( August 31, 1918– June 14, 1986) was an American lyricist and librettist. In collaboration with Frederick Loewe, and later Burton Lane, he created some of the world' s most popular and enduring works of musical theatre both for the stage and on film. He won three Tony Awards and three Academy Awards, among other honors. Early life and education. Born in New York City, he was the son of Edith Adelson Lerner and Joseph Jay Lerner, whose brother, Samuel Alexander Lerner, was founder and owner of the Lerner Stores, a chain of dress shops. One of Lerner' s cousins was the radio comedian and television game show panelist Henry Morgan. Lerner was educated at Bedales School in England, The Choate School( now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut,( where he wrote" The Choate Marching Song") and Harvard. He attended both Camp Androscoggin and Camp Greylock. At both Choate and Harvard, Lerner was a classmate of John F. Kennedy; at Choate they had worked together on the yearbook staff. Like Cole Porter at Yale and Richard Rodgers at Columbia, his career in musical theater began with his collegiate contributions, in Lerner' s case to the annual Harvard Hasty Pudding musicals. During the summers of 1936 and 1937, Lerner studied music composition at Juilliard. While attending Harvard, he lost his sight in his left eye due to an accident in the boxing ring. In 1957, Lerner and Leonard Bernstein, another of Lerner' s college classmates, collaborated on" Lonely Men of Harvard," a tongue- in- cheek salute to their alma mater. Career. Owing to his eye injury, Lerner could not serve in World War II. Instead he wrote radio scripts, | including" Your Hit Parade", until |
he was introduced to Austrian composer Frederick Loewe, who needed a partner, in 1942 at the Lamb' s Club. While at the Lamb' s, he also met Lorenz Hart, with whom he would also collaborate. Lerner and Loewe' s first collaboration was a musical adaptation of Barry Conners' s farce" The Patsy" called" Life of the Party" for a Detroit stock company. The lyrics were mostly written by Earle Crooker, but he had left the project, with the score needing vast improvement. It enjoyed a nine- week run and encouraged the duo to join forces with Arthur Pierson for" What' s Up?", which opened on Broadway in 1943. It ran for 63 performances and was followed two years later by" The Day Before Spring". Their first hit was" Brigadoon"( 1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village, directed by Robert Lewis. It was followed in 1951 by the Gold Rush story" Paint Your Wagon". While the show ran for nearly a year and included songs that later became pop standards, it was less successful than Lerner' s previous work. He later said of" Paint Your Wagon", it was" a success but not a hit." Lerner worked with Kurt Weill on the stage musical" Love Life"( 1948) and Burton Lane on the movie musical" Royal Wedding"( 1951). In that same year Lerner also wrote the Oscar- winning original screenplay for" An American in Paris", produced by Arthur Freed and directed by Vincente Minnelli. This was the same team who would later join with Lerner and Loewe to create" Gigi". In 1956, Lerner and Loewe unveiled" My Fair Lady". By this time, too, Lerner and Burton Lane were already working on a musical about Li' l Abner. Gabriel Pascal owned the rights to" Pygmalion", which had been unsuccessful with other composers who tried to adapt it into a musical. Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz first tried, and then Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II attempted, but gave up and Hammerstein told Lerner,"" Pygmalion" had no subplot". Lerner and Loewe' s adaptation of George Bernard Shaw' s" Pygmalion" retained his social commentary and added appropriate songs for the characters of Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle, played originally by Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews. It set box- office records in New York and London. When brought to the screen in 1964, the movie version won eight Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Rex Harrison. Lerner and Loewe' s run of success continued with their next project, a film adaptation of stories from Colette, the Academy Award- winning film musical" Gigi", starring Leslie Caron, Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier. The film won all of its nine Oscar nominations, a record at that time, and a special Oscar for co- star Maurice Chevalier. The Lerner- Loewe partnership cracked under the stress of producing the Arthurian" Camelot" in 1960, with Loewe resisting Lerner' s desire to direct as well as write when original director Moss Hart suffered a heart attack in the last few months of rehearsals and died shortly after the show' s premiere. | Lerner was hospitalized with bleeding |
ulcers while Loewe continued to have heart troubles." Camelot" was a hit nonetheless, and immediately following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, his widow told reporter Theodore H. White that JFK' s administration reminded her of the" one brief shining moment" of Lerner and Loewe' s" Camelot".Asoftheearly21st century," Camelot" was still invoked to describe the idealism, romance, and tragedy of the Kennedy years. Loewe retired to Palm Springs, California, while Lerner went through a series of musicals— some successful, some not— with such composers as André Previn(" Coco"), John Barry(" Lolita, My Love"), Leonard Bernstein(" 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue"), Burton Lane(" Carmelina") and Charles Strouse(" Dance a Little Closer", based on the film," Idiot' s Delight", nicknamed" Close A Little Faster" by Broadway humorists because it closed on opening night). Most biographers blame Lerner' s professional decline on the lack of a strong director with whom Lerner could collaborate, as Neil Simon did with Mike Nichols or Stephen Sondheim with Harold Prince.( Moss Hart, who had directed" My Fair Lady," died shortly after" Camelot" opened). In 1965 Lerner collaborated again with Burton Lane on the musical" On a Clear Day You Can See Forever", which was adapted for film in 1970. At this time, Lerner was hired by film producer Arthur P. Jacobs to write a treatment for an upcoming film project," Doctor Dolittle", but Lerner abrogated his contract after several non- productive months of non- communicative procrastination and was replaced with Leslie Bricusse. Lerner was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1971. In 1973, Lerner coaxed Loewe out of retirement to augment the" Gigi" score for a musical stage adaptation. The following year they collaborated on a musical film version of" The Little Prince", based on the classic children' s tale by Antoine de Saint- Exupéry. This film was a critical and box office failure, but it has gained a modern following. Lerner' s autobiography," The Street Where I Live"( 1978), was an account of three of his and Loewe' s successful collaborations," My Fair Lady"," Gigi", and" Camelot", along with personal information. In the last year of his life, he published" The Musical Theatre: A Celebration", a well- reviewed history of the theatre, with personal anecdotes and humor. The" Los Angeles Times" reviewer wrote:" There are several reasons why this book makes a fine introduction to musical theater. One is that Lerner knows exactly what was new, and when and why... In" The Musical Theatre," one is privy to the judgment of a man... who expresses his opinions in a forthright, warm and personal manner." A book of Lerner' s lyrics entitled" A Hymn To Him", edited by a British writer Benny Green, was published in 1987. At the time of Lerner' s death, he had been working with Gerard Kenny and Kristi Kane in London on a musical version of the film" My Man Godfrey". He had also received an urgent call from Andrew Lloyd Webber, asking him to write the lyrics to" The Phantom of the Opera". He wrote" Masquerade", but he then informed Webber that he | wanted to leave the project |
because he was losing his memory( he was suffering from metastatic lung cancer) and Charles Hart replaced him. He had turned down an invitation to write the English- language lyrics for the musical version of" Les Misérables". After Lerner' s death, Paul Blake made a musical revue based on Lerner' s lyrics and life entitled" Almost Like Being In Love", which featured music by Loewe, Lane, Previn, Strouse, and Weill. The show ran for 10 days at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco. Songwriting. Lerner often struggled with writing his lyrics. He was uncharacteristically able to complete" I Could Have Danced All Night" from" My Fair Lady" in one 24- hour period. He usually spent months on each song and was constantly rewriting them. Lerner was said to have insecurity about his talent. He would sometimes write songs with someone in mind, for instance," I' ve Grown Accustomed To Her Face" from" My Fair Lady" was written with Rex Harrison in mind to complement his very limited vocal range. Lerner said of writing: In a 1979 interview on NPR' s" All Things Considered", Lerner went into some depth about his lyrics for" My Fair Lady". Professor Henry Higgins sings," Look at her, a prisoner of the gutters/ Condemned by every syllable she utters/ By right she should be taken out and hung/ For the cold- blooded murder of the English tongue." Lerner said he knew the lyric used incorrect grammar for the sake of a rhyme. He was later approached about it by another lyricist: Dramatists Guild. Alan Jay Lerner was an advocate for writers' rights in theatre. He was a member of the Dramatists Guild of America. In 1960, he was elected as the twelfth president of the non- profit organization. He continued to serve as the Guild' s president until 1964. Personal life. For nearly twenty years, Lerner was addicted to amphetamines;duringthe1960s he was a patient of Max Jacobson, known as" Dr. Feelgood", who administered injections of" vitamins with enzymes" that were in fact laced with amphetamines. Lerner' s addiction is believed to have been the result of Jacobson' s practice. Marriages and children. Lerner married eight times: Ruth Boyd( 1940– 1947), singer Marion Bell( 1947– 1949), actress Nancy Olson( 1950– 1957), lawyer Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo( 1957– 1965), editor Karen Gundersen( 1966– 1974), Sandra Payne( 1974– 1976), Nina Bushkin( 1977– 1981) and Liz Robertson( 1981– 1986[ his death]). Four of his eight wives— Olson, Payne, Bushkin, and Robertson— were actresses. His seventh wife, Nina Bushkin, whom he married on May 30, 1977, was the director of development at Mannes College of Music and the daughter of composer and musician Joey Bushkin. After their divorce in 1981, Lerner was ordered to pay her a settlement of$ 50, 000. Lerner wrote in his autobiography( as quoted by" The New York Times"):" All I can say is that if I had no flair for marriage, I also had no flair for bachelorhood." One of his ex- wives reportedly said," Marriage is Alan' s way of saying goodbye." Lerner had four children— | three daughters, Susan( by Boyd), |
Liza and Jennifer( by Olson), and one son, screenwriter and journalist Michael Alan Lerner( by di Borgo). Lerner' s multiple divorces cost him much of his wealth, but he was primarily responsible for his own financial ups and downs and was apparently less than truthful about his financial fecklessness. One persistent fiction, widely publicized, was that his divorce settlement from Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo( his fourth wife) cost him an estimated$ 1 million in 1965. This was a gross distortion of the truth. Lerner' s pattern of financial mismanagement continued until his death from cancer in 1986, when he reportedly owed the U. S. Internal Revenue Service over US$ 1, 000, 000 in back taxes and was unable to pay for his final medical expenses. Death. On June 14, 1986, Lerner died of lung cancer in Manhattan at the age of 67. At the time of his death he was married to actress Liz Robertson, who was 36 years his junior. He lived in Center Island, New York. He has a memorial plaque in St Paul' s Church, the Actors' Church in Covent Garden in London. Works. Films. Source: TCMAlfred Gerald Caplin( September 28, 1909– November 5, 1979), better known as Al Capp, was an American cartoonist and humorist best known for the satirical comic strip" Li' l Abner", which he created in 1934 and continued writing and( with help from assistants) drawing until 1977. He also wrote the comic strips" Abbie an' Slats"( in the years 1937– 45) and" Long Sam"( 1954). He won the National Cartoonists Society' s Reuben Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year, and their 1979 Elzie Segar Award, posthumously for his" unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning". Comic strips dealt with urban experiences in the northern states of the USA until the year Capp introduced" Li' l Abner". Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years teaching the world about Dogpatch, reaching an estimated 60 million readers in more than 900 American newspapers and 100 more papers in 28 countries internationally. M. Thomas Inge says Capp made a large personal fortune through the strip and" had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South". Early life. Capp was born in New Haven, Connecticut, of East European Jewish heritage. He was the eldest child of Otto Philip Caplin( 1885– 1964) and Matilda( Davidson) Caplin( 1884– 1948). His brothers, Elliot and Jerome, were cartoonists, and his sister, Madeline, was a publicist. Capp' s parents were both natives of Latvia whose families had migrated toNewHaveninthe1880s." My mother and father had been brought to this country from Russia when they were infants", wrote Capp in 1978." Their fathers had found that the great promise of America was true— it was no crime to be a Jew." The Caplins were dirt- poor, and Capp later recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal. In August 1919, at the age of nine, Capp was run down by a trolley car | and had his left leg |
amputated above the knee. According to his father Otto' s unpublished autobiography, young Capp was not prepared for the amputation beforehand; having been in a coma for days, he suddenly awoke to discover that his leg had been removed. He was eventually given a prosthetic leg, but only learned to use it by adopting a slow way of walking which became increasingly painful as he grew older. The childhood tragedy of losing a leg likely helped shape Capp' s cynical worldview, which was darker and more sardonic than that of the average newspaper cartoonist." I was indignant as hell about that leg", he revealed in a November 1950 interview in" Time" magazine." The secret of how to live without resentment or embarrassment in a world in which I was different from everyone else", Capp philosophically wrote( in" Life magazine" on May 23, 1960)," was to be indifferent to that difference." The prevailing opinion among his friends was that Capp' s Swiftian satire was, to some degree, a creatively channeled, compensatory response to his disability. Capp' s father, a failed businessman and an amateur cartoonist, introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy. He became quite proficient, advancing mostly on his own. Among his earliest influences were" Punch" cartoonist– illustrator Phil May and American comic strip cartoonists Tad Dorgan, Cliff Sterrett, Rube Goldberg, Rudolph Dirks, Fred Opper, Billy DeBeck, George McManus, and Milt Gross. At about this same time, Capp became a voracious reader. According to Capp' s brother Elliot, Alfred had finished all of Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw by the time he turned 13. Among his childhood favorites were Dickens, Smollett, Mark Twain, Booth Tarkington, and later, Robert Benchley and S. J. Perelman. Capp spent five years at Bridgeport High School in Bridgeport, Connecticut, without receiving a diploma. He liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms. His formal training came from a series of art schools in the New England area. Attending three of them in rapid succession, the impoverished Capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuition— the Boston Museum School of Fine Arts, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and Designers Art School in Boston— the last before launching his career. Capp already had decided to become a cartoonist." I heard that Bud Fisher( creator of" Mutt and Jeff") got$ 3, 000 a week and was constantly marrying French countesses", Capp said." I decided that was for me." In early 1932, Capp hitchhiked to New York City. He lived in" airless rat holes" in Greenwich Village and turned out advertising strips at$ 2 each while scouring the city hunting for jobs. He eventually found work at the Associated Press when he was 23 years old. By March 1932, Capp was drawing" Colonel Gilfeather", a single- panel, AP- owned property created in 1930 by Dick Dorgan. Capp changed the focus and title to" Mister Gilfeather" but soon grew to hate the feature. He left the Associated Press in September 1932. Before leaving, he met Milton Caniff and the two became lifelong friends. | Capp moved to Boston and |
married Catherine Wingate Cameron, whom he had met earlier in art class. She died in 2006 at the age of 96. Leaving his new wife with her parents in Amesbury, Massachusetts, he subsequently returned to New York in 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression." I was 23, I carried a mass of drawings, and I had nearly five dollars in my pocket. People were sleeping in alleys then, willing to work at anything." There he met Ham Fisher, who hired him to ghost on" Joe Palooka". During one of Fisher' s extended vacations, Capp' s" Joe Palooka" story arc introduced a stupid, coarse, oafish mountaineer named" Big Leviticus," a crude prototype.( Leviticus was much closer to Capp' s later villains Lem and Luke Scragg than to the much more appealing and innocent Li' l Abner.) Also during this period, Capp was working at night on samples for the strip that eventually became" Li' l Abner". He based his cast of characters on the authentic mountain- dwellers he met while hitchhiking through rural West Virginia and the Cumberland Valley as a teenager.( This was years before the Tennessee Valley Authority Act brought basic utilities such as electricity and running water to the region.) Leaving" Joe Palooka", Capp sold" Li' l Abner" to United Feature Syndicate( later known as United Media). The feature was launched on Monday, August 13, 1934, in eight North American newspapers— including the" New York Mirror"— and was an immediate success. Alfred G. Caplin eventually became" Al Capp" because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame. Capp had his name changed legally in 1949. His younger brother, Elliot Caplin, also became a comic strip writer, best known for co- creating the soap opera strip" The Heart of Juliet Jones" with artist Stan Drake and conceiving the comic strip character" Broom- Hilda" with cartoonist Russell Myers. Elliot also authored several off- Broadway plays, including" A Nickel for Picasso"( 1981), which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother." Li' l Abner". What began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular, and well- drawn strips of the twentieth century. Featuring vividly outlandish characters, bizarre situations, and equal parts suspense, slapstick, irony, satire, black humor, and biting social commentary," Li' l Abner" is considered a classic of the genre. The comic strip stars Li' l Abner Yokum— the simple- minded, loutish but good- natured, and eternally innocent hayseed who lives with his parents— scrawny but superhuman Mammy Yokum, and shiftless, childlike Pappy Yokum." Yokum" was a combination of" yokel" and" hokum", although Capp established a deeper meaning for the name during a series of visits around 1965– 1970 with comics historians George E. Turner and Michael H. Price:" It' s phonetic Hebrew— that' s what it is, all right— and that' s what I was getting at with the name Yokum, more so than any attempt to sound" hickish". That was a fortunate coincidence, of course, that the name should pack a backwoods connotation. But it' | s a godly conceit, really, |
playing off a godly name—" Joachim" means' God' s determination', something like that— that also happens to have a rustic ring to it." The Yokums live in the backwater hamlet of Dogpatch, Kentucky. Described by its creator as" an average stone- age community", Dogpatch mostly consists of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, pine trees," tarnip" fields, and" hawg" wallows. Whatever energy Abner had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae Scragg, his sexy, well- endowed, but virtuous girlfriend, until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This newsworthy event made the cover of" Life" on March 31, 1952. Capp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Hairless Joe, Lonesome Polecat, Evil- Eye Fleegle, General Bullmoose, Lena the Hyena, Senator Jack S. Phogbound( Capp' s caricature of the anti- New Deal Dixiecrats), the"( shudder!)" Scraggs, Available Jones, Nightmare Alice, Earthquake McGoon, and a host of others. Especially notable, certainly from a G. I. point of view, are the beautiful, full- figured women such as Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Stupefyin' Jones, and Moonbeam McSwine( a caricature of his wife Catherine, aside from the dirt), all of whom found their way onto the painted noses of bomber planes during World War II and the Korean War. Perhaps Capp' s most popular creations were the Shmoos, creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it. Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wants to be a loving friend but is" the world' s worst jinx", bringing bad luck to all those nearby. Btfsplk( his name is" pronounced" by simply blowing a" raspberry" or Bronx cheer) always has an iconic dark cloud over his head. Dogpatch residents regularly combat the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials, and intellectuals with their homespun simplicity. Situations often take the characters to other destinations, including New York City, Washington, D. C., Hollywood, tropical islands, the moon, Mars, and some purely fanciful worlds of Capp' s invention, including El Passionato, Kigmyland, The Republic of Crumbumbo, Skunk Hollow, The Valley of the Shmoon, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, and a miserable frozen wasteland known as Lower Slobbovia, a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference. According to cultural historian Anthony Harkins:" Indeed," Li' l Abner" incorporates such a panoply of characters and ideas that it defies summary. Yet though Capp' s storylines often wandered far afield, his hillbilly setting remained a central touchstone, serving both as a microcosm and a distorting carnival mirror of broader American society." The strip' s popularity grew from an original eight papers to eventually more than 900. At its peak," Li' l Abner" was estimated to have been read daily in the United States by 60 to 70 million people( the U. S. population at the time was only 180 million), with adult readers far outnumbering children. Many communities, high schools, and colleges staged Sadie Hawkins dances patterned after the similar annual event in the strip. Li' | l Abner has one odd |
design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question" Which side does Abner part his hair on?", Capp would answer:" Both." Capp said he finally found the right" look" for Li' l Abner with Henry Fonda' s character Dave Tolliver in" The Trail of the Lonesome Pine"( 1936). In later years, Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in 1934. Parodies, toppers, and alternate strips." Li' l Abner" also features a comic strip- within- the- strip:" Fearless Fosdick" is a parody of Chester Gould' s" Dick Tracy". It first appeared in 1942, and proved so popular that it ran intermittently during the next 35 years. Gould was parodied personally in the series as cartoonist" Lester Gooch"— the diminutive, much- harassed and occasionally deranged" creator" of Fosdick. The style of the" Fosdick" sequences closely mimicks" Tracy", including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, and even the lettering style. In 1952, Fosdick was the star of his own short- lived puppet show on NBC, featuring the Mary Chase marionettes. Besides" Dick Tracy", Capp parodied many other comic strips in" Li' l Abner"— including" Steve Canyon"," Superman"( at least twice; first as" Jack Jawbreaker" in 1947, and again in 1966 as" Chickensouperman")," Mary Worth" as" Mary Worm"," Peanuts"{ with" Peewee" a parody of Charlie Brown with" Croopy" parody of Snoopy"{ 1968} drawn by Bedley Damp a parody of Charles Schulz}," Rex Morgan, M. D."," Little Annie Rooney", and" Little Orphan Annie"( in which Punjab became" Punjbag," an oleaginous slob)." Fearless Fosdick"— and Capp' s other spoofs such as" Little Fanny Gooney"( 1952) and" Jack Jawbreaker"— were almost certainly an early inspiration for Harvey Kurtzman' s" Mad Magazine", which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner. Capp also lampooned popular recording idols of the day, such as Elvis Presley(" Hawg McCall", 1957), Liberace(" Loverboynik", 1956), the Beatles(" the Beasties", 1964)— and in 1944, Frank Sinatra." Sinatra was the first great public figure I ever wrote about," Capp once said." I called him' Hal Fascinatra.' I remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be, and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it. He always made it a point to send me a spent condom whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant..."( from" Frank Sinatra, My Father" by Nancy Sinatra, 1985). On the other hand, Liberace was" cut to the quick" over Loverboynik, according to Capp, and even threatened legal action— as would Joan Baez later, over" Joanie Phoanie" in 1967. Capp was just as likely to parody himself; his self- caricature made frequent, tongue- in- cheek appearances in" Li' l Abner". The gag was often at his own expense, as in the above 1951 sequence showing Capp' s interaction with" fans"( | see excerpt), or in his |
1955 Disneyland parody," Hal Yappland". Just about anything could be a target for Capp' s satire— in one storyline Li' l Abner is revealed to be the missing link between ape and man. In another, the search is on in Dogpatch for a pair of missing socks knitted by the first president of the United States. In addition to creating" Li' l Abner", Capp also co- created two other newspaper strips:" Abbie an' Slats" with magazine illustrator Raeburn van Buren in 1937, and" Long Sam" with cartoonist Bob Lubbers in 1954, as well as the Sunday" topper" strips" Washable Jones"," Small Fry"( a. k. a." Small Change"), and" Advice fo' Chillun". Critical recognition. According to comics historian Coulton Waugh, a 1947 poll of newspaper readers who claimed they ignored the comics page altogether revealed that many confessed to making a single exception:" Li' l Abner"." When" Li' l Abner" made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside- down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into" Li' l Abner". The strip was the first to regularly introduce characters and story lines having nothing to do with the nominal stars of the strip. The technique— as invigorating as it was unorthodox— was later adopted by cartoonists such as Walt Kelly[" Pogo"] and Garry Trudeau[" Doonesbury"]", wrote comic strip historian Rick Marschall. According to Marschall," Li' l Abner" gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature. In his book" America' s Great Comic Strip Artists"( 1989), Marschall' s analysis revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext. Over the years," Li' l Abner" has been adapted to radio, animated cartoons, stage production, motion pictures, and television. Capp has been compared, at various times, to Mark Twain, Dostoevski, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne, and Rabelais. Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck— who called Capp" possibly the best writer in the world today" in 1953 and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature— to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp" the only robust satirical force in American life". John Updike, comparing Abner to a" hillbilly Candide", added that the strip' s" richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean". Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes, and( reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of" Li' l Abner"." Li' l Abner" was also the subject of the first book- length scholarly assessment of an American comic strip ever published." Li' l Abner: A Study in American Satire" by Arthur Asa Berger( Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp' s narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self- caricature, and grotesquerie, the place of" Li' l Abner" in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image." One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture," wrote Professor Berger,"" Li' l Abner" is worth studying... because | of Capp' s imagination and |
artistry, and because of the strip' s very obvious social relevance." It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994.The1940sand1950s. During World War II and for many years afterward, Capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life. Making no secret of his own disability, Capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life. In 1946, Capp created a special full- color comic book," Al Capp by Li' l Abner", to be distributed by the Red Cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war. Capp also was involved with the Sister Kenny Foundation,whichpioneerednewtreatmentsforpoliointhe1940s. Serving in his capacity as honorary chairman, Capp made public appearances on its behalf for years, contributed free artwork for its annual fundraising appeals, and entertained crippled and paraplegic children in children' s hospitals with inspirational pep talks, humorous stories, and sketches. In 1940, an RKO movie adaptation starred Granville Owen( later known as Jeff York) as Li' l Abner, with Buster Keaton taking the role of Lonesome Polecat, and featuring a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. A successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956, and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with a score by Nelson Riddle. Several performers repeated their Broadway roles in the film, most memorably Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones and Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam. Other highlights of that decade included the 1942 debut of Fearless Fosdick as Abner' s" ideel"( hero); the 1946 Lena the Hyena Contest, in which a hideous Lower Slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry( as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff, and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton; and an ill- fated Sunday parody of" Gone With the Wind" that aroused anger and legal threats from author Margaret Mitchell, and led to a printed apology within the strip. In October 1947, Li' l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Comic Strip Syndicate. The resulting sequence," Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!", was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster' s notorious exploitation by DC Comics over" Superman". It was later reprinted in" The World of Li' l Abner"( 1953).( Siegel and Shuster had earlier poked fun at Capp in a" Superman" story in" Action Comics# 55", December 1942, in which a cartoonist named" Al Hatt" invents a comic strip featuring the hillbilly" Tiny Rufe".) In 1947, Capp earned a" Newsweek" cover story. That same year the" New Yorker' s" profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues. In 1948, Capp reached a creative peak with the introduction | of the Shmoos, lovable and |
innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that, ironically, the world economy was endangered. The much- copied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the Cold War. Following his close friend Milton Caniff' s lead( with" Steve Canyon"), Capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the Shmoos debuted. As a result, he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected( and almost unprecedented) merchandising phenomenon that followed. As in the strip, Shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950— including a" Time" cover story. A paperback collection of the original sequence," The Life and Times of the Shmoo", became a bestseller for Simon& amp; Schuster. Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other Shmoo paraphernalia were produced. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of Shmoo apparel, including" Shmooveralls". The original sequence and its 1959 sequel" The Return of the Shmoo" have been collected in print many times since, most recently in 2011, always to high sales figures. The Shmoos later had their own animated television series. Capp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters, including the aboriginal and masochistic" Kigmies", who craved abuse( a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression), the dreaded" Nogoodniks"( or" bad" shmoos), and the irresistible" Bald Iggle", a guileless creature whose sad- eyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulness— with predictably disastrous results." Li' l Abner" was censored for the first time, but not the last, in September 1947 and was pulled from papers by Scripps- Howard. The controversy, as reported in" Time", centered on Capp' s portrayal of the United States Senate. Edward Leech of Scripps said," We don' t think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables." Capp criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, calling him a" poet"." He uses poetic license to try to create the beautifully ordered world of good guys and bad guys that he wants," said Capp." He seems at his best when terrifying the helpless and naïve." Capp received the National Cartoonists Society' s Billy DeBeck Memorial Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year.( When the award name was changed in 1954, Capp also retroactively received a Reuben statuette.) He was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the NCS by admitting women cartoonists. Originally, the Society had disallowed female members. Capp briefly resigned his membership in 1949 to protest their refusal of admission to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip" Teena". According to Tom Roberts, author of" Alex Raymond: His Life and Art"( 2007), Capp delivered a stirring speech that was instrumental in changing those rules. The NCS finally accepted female | members the following year. In |
December 1952, Capp published an article in" Real" magazine entitled" The REAL Powers in America" that further challenged the conventional attitudes of the day:" The real powers in America are" women"— the wives and sweethearts behind the masculine dummies..."Highlightsofthe1950s included the much- heralded marriage of Abner and Daisy Mae in 1952, the birth of their son" Honest Abe" Yokum in 1953, and in 1954 the introduction of Abner' s enormous, long- lost kid brother Tiny Yokum, who filled Abner' s place as a bachelor in the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race. In 1952, Capp and his characters graced the covers of both" Life" and" TV Guide". The year 1956 saw the debut of Bald Iggle, considered by some" Abner" enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip, as well as Mammy' s revelatory encounter with the" Square Eyes" Family— Capp' s thinly- veiled appeal for racial tolerance.( This fable- like story was collected into an educational comic book called" Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!" and distributed by the Anti- Defamation League of B' nai B' rith later that year.) Two years later, Capp' s studio issued" Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story", a biographical comic book distributed by the Fellowship of Reconciliation. Often, Capp had parodied corporate greed— pork tycoon J. Roaringham Fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the Shmoos. But in 1952, when General Motors president Charles E. Wilson, nominated for a cabinet post, told Congress"... what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa", he inspired one of Capp' s greatest satires— the introduction of General Bullmoose, the robust, ruthless, and ageless business tycoon. The blustering Bullmoose, who seemed to own and control nearly everything, justified his far- reaching and mercenary excesses by saying" What' s good for General Bullmoose is good for" everybody!"" Bullmoose' s corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic Lower Slobbovians in a classic mismatch of" haves" versus" have- nots". This character, along with the Shmoos, helped cement Capp' s favor with the Left, and increased their outrage a decade later when Capp, a former Franklin D. Roosevelt liberal, switched targets. Nonetheless, General Bullmoose continued to appear, undaunted and unredeemed, during the strip' s final right-wingphaseandintothe1970s. Feud with Ham Fisher. After Capp quit his ghosting job on Ham Fisher' s" Joe Palooka" in 1934 to launch his own strip, Fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors, claiming that Capp had" stolen" his idea. For years, Fisher brought the characters back to his strip, billing them as" The ORIGINAL Hillbilly Characters" and advising readers not to be" fooled by imitations".( In fact, Fisher' s brutish hillbilly character— Big Leviticus, created by Capp in Fisher' s absence— bore little resemblance to Li' l Abner.) According to a November 1950" Time" article," Capp parted from Fisher with a definite impression,( to put it mildly) that he had been underpaid and unappreciated. Fisher, a man of Roman self esteem, considered Capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper, and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror."" Fisher | repeatedly brought Leviticus and his |
clan back, claiming their primacy as comics' first hillbilly family— but he was missing the point. It wasn' t the setting that made Capp' s strip such a huge success. It was Capp' s finely tuned sense of the absurd, his ability to milk an outrageous situation for every laugh in it and then, impossibly, to squeeze even more laughs from it, that found such favor with the public,"( from Don Markstein' s" Toonopedia"). The Capp- Fisher feud was well known in cartooning circles, and it grew more personal as Capp' s strip eclipsed" Joe Palooka" in popularity. Fisher hired away Capp' s top assistant, Moe Leff. After Fisher underwent plastic surgery, Capp included a racehorse in" Li' l Abner" named" Ham' s Nose- Bob". In 1950, Capp introduced a cartoonist character named" Happy Vermin"— a caricature of Fisher— who hired Abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet( after sacking his previous" temporary" assistant of 20 years, who had been cut off from all his friends in the process). Instead of using Vermin' s tired characters, Abner inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant:" I' m proud of having created these characters!! They' ll make millions for me!! And if they do— I' ll get" you" a new light bulb!!" Traveling in the same social circles, the two men engaged in a 20- year mutual vendetta, as described by the" New York Daily News" in 1998:" They crossed paths often, in the midtown watering holes and at National Cartoonists Society banquets, and the city' s gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks." In 1950, Capp wrote a nasty article for" The Atlantic", entitled" I Remember Monster". The article recounted Capp' s days working for an unnamed" benefactor" with a miserly, swinish personality, who Capp claimed was a never- ending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip. The thinly- veiled boss was understood to be Ham Fisher. Fisher retaliated, doctoring photostats of" Li' l Abner" and falsely accusing Capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip. Fisher submitted examples of" Li' l Abner" to Capp' s syndicate and to the New York courts, in which Fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art. However, the X- rated material had been drawn there by Fisher. Capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork. In 1954, when Capp was applying for a Boston television license, the Federal Communications Commission( FCC) received an anonymous packet of pornographic" Li' l Abner" drawings. The National Cartoonists Society( NCS) convened an ethics hearing, and Fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found; Fisher' s scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion. Around the same time, his mansion in Wisconsin was destroyed by a storm. On December 27, 1955, Fisher committed suicide in his studio. The feud and Fisher' s suicide were used as the basis for a lurid, highly fictionalized murder mystery," | Strip for Murder" by Max |
Allan Collins. Another" feud" seemed to be looming when, in one run of Sunday strips in 1957, Capp lampooned the comic strip" Mary Worth" as" Mary Worm". The title character was depicted as a nosy, interfering busybody. Allen Saunders, the creator of the" Mary Worth" strip, returned Capp' s fire with the introduction of the character" Hal Rapp", a foul- tempered, ill- mannered, and( ironically) inebriated cartoonist,( Capp was a teetotaler). Later, the" feud" was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that Capp and his longtime pal Saunders had cooked up together. The Capp- Saunders" feud" fooled both editors and readers, generated plenty of free publicity for both strips— and Capp and Saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed. Personality. Capp is often associated with two other giants of the medium: Milton Caniff(" Terry and the Pirates"," Steve Canyon") and Walt Kelly(" Pogo"). The three cartoonists were close personal friends and professional associates throughout their adult lives, and occasionally, referenced each other in their strips. According to one anecdote( from" Al Capp Remembered", 1994), Capp and his brother Elliot ducked out of a dull party at Capp' s home— leaving Walt Kelly alone to fend for himself entertaining a group of Argentine envoys who didn' t speak English. Kelly retaliated by giving away Capp' s baby grand piano. According to Capp, who loved to relate the story, Kelly' s two perfectly logical reasons for doing so were: a. to cement diplomatic relations between Argentina and the United States, and b." Because you can' t play the piano, anyway!"(" Beetle Bailey" creator Mort Walker confirmed the story, relating a slightly expanded version in his autobiography," Mort Walker' s Private Scrapbook", 2001.) Milton Caniff offered another anecdote( from" Phi Beta Pogo", 1989) involving Capp and Walt Kelly," two boys from Bridgeport, Connecticut, nose to nose," onstage at a meeting of the Newspaper Comics Council in the sixties." Walt would say to Al,' Of course, Al, this is really how you should draw Daisy Mae, I' m only showing you this for your own good.' Then Walt would do a sketch. Capp, of course, got ticked off by this, as you can imagine! So he retaliated by doing" his" version of Pogo. Unfortunately, the drawings are long gone; no recording was made. What a shame! Nobody anticipated there' d be this dueling back and forth between the two of them..." Although he was often considered a difficult person, some acquaintances of Capp have stressed that the cartoonist also had a sensitive side. In 1973, upon learning that 12- year- old Ted Kennedy Jr., the son of his political rival Ted Kennedy Sr., had his right leg amputated, Capp wrote the boy an encouraging letter that gave candid advice about dealing with the loss of a limb, which Capp himself had experienced as a boy. One of Capp' s grandchildren recalls that at one point, tears were streaming down the cartoonist' s cheeks while he was watching a documentary about the Jonestown massacre. Also, it is reported that Capp gave money anonymously to charities | and" people in need" at |
various points in his life. Sexual misconduct claims. In her autobiography, American actress Goldie Hawn stated that Capp sexually propositioned her on a casting couch and exposed himself to her when she was 19 years old. When she refused his advances, Capp became angry and told her that she was" never gonna make anything in your life" and that she should" go and marry a Jewish dentist. You' ll never get anywhere in this business." Two biographies, one about Goldie Hawn and the other about Grace Kelly, describe Capp as trying to force Kelly into having sex with him, and he later tried to do the same with Hawn. In 1971, investigative journalist Jack Anderson wrote that Capp had exposed his genitals to four female students at the University of Alabama. In 1972, after an incident at the University of Wisconsin– Eau Claire, Capp was arrested. He pleaded guilty to a charge of attempted adultery, while charges of indecent exposure and sodomy were dropped. He was fined US$ 500(). Production methods. Like many cartoonists, Capp made extensive use of assistants( notably Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson, and Frank Frazetta). During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, public service comics, and other specialty work— in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week.Fromtheearly1940stothelate1950s, there were scores of Sunday strip- style magazine ads for Cream of Wheat using the" Abner" characters,andinthe1950s, Fearless Fosdick became a spokesman for Wildroot Cream- Oil hair tonic in a series of daily strip- style print ads. The characters also sold chainsaws, underwear, ties, detergent, candy, soft drinks— including a licensed version of Capp' s moonshine creation, Kickapoo Joy Juice— and General Electric and Procter& amp; Gamble products, all requiring special artwork. No matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on his drawing and inking the characters' faces and hands— especially of Abner and Daisy Mae— and his distinctive touch is often discernible." He had" the touch,"" Frazetta said of Capp in 2008." He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it" pop". I' ll never knock his talent." As is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips, his name was the only one credited— although, sensitive to his own experience working on" Joe Palooka", Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in" Time" even included photographs of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy( along with the subsequent fame of Frank Frazetta) has led to the misconception that his strip was" ghosted" by other hands. The production of" Li' l Abner" has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the hands and faces | of the characters. Frazetta authority |
David Winiewicz described the everyday working mode of operation in" Li' l Abner Dailies: 1954 Volume 20"( Kitchen Sink, 1994): There was also a separate line of comic book titles published by the Caplin family- owned Toby Press, including" Shmoo Comics" featuring Washable Jones. Cartoonist Mell Lazarus, creator of" Miss Peach" and" Momma", wrote a comic novel in 1963 entitled" The Boss Is Crazy, Too" which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with Capp and his brother Elliot at Toby. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby" the five funniest years of my life". Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the" four essentials" in the field of newspaper cartoonists, along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz, and Milton Caniff. Capp detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the Famous Artists School, beginning in 1956. In 1959, Capp recorded and released an album for Folkways Records( now owned by the Smithsonian) on which he identified and described" The Mechanics of the Comic Strip". Frazetta, later famous as a fantasy artist, assisted on the strip from 1954 to December 1961. Fascinated by Frazetta' s abilities, Capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence( about a biker named" Frankie," a caricature of Frazetta) to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail( particularly to the inking). After editors complained about the stylistic changes, the strip' s previous look was restored. During most of his tenure with Capp, Frazetta' s primary responsibility— along with various specialty art, such as a series of" Li' l Abner" greeting cards— was tight- penciling the Sunday pages from studio roughs. This work was collected by Dark Horse Comics in a four- volume hardcover series entitled" Al Capp' s Li' l Abner: The Frazetta Years". In 1961, Capp, complaining of declining revenue, wanted to have Frazetta continue with a 50% pay cut."[ Capp] said he would cut the salary in half. Goodbye. That was that." I" said goodbye,"( from" Frazetta: Painting with Fire"). However, Frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called" Li' l Abner and the Creatures from Drop- Outer Space", distributed by the Job Corps in 1965. Public service works. Capp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies, and charitable or nonprofit organizations, spanning several decades. The following titles are all single- issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services: In addition, Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the U. S. Treasury, the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Sister Kenny Foundation, the Boy Scouts of America, Community Chest, the National Reading Council, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, Christmas Seals, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others. Public figure. In the Golden Age of the American comic strip, successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention; their professional and private lives were reported | in the press, and their |
celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations. As" Li' l Abner" reached its peak years, and following the success of the Shmoos and other high moments in his work, Al Capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession, and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip." Capp was the best known, most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era," writes publisher( and leading Shmoo collector) Denis Kitchen." His personal celebrity transcended comics, reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media. For many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip, a weekly syndicated newspaper column, and a 500- station radio program..." He ran the Boston Summer Theatre with" The Phantom" cartoonist Lee Falk, bringing in Hollywood actors such as Mae West, Melvyn Douglas, and Claude Rains to star in their live productions. He even briefly considered running for a Massachusetts Senate seat. Vice President Spiro Agnew urged Capp to run in the Democratic Party Massachusetts primary in 1970 against Ted Kennedy, but Capp ultimately declined.( He did, however, donate his services as a speaker at a$ 100- a- plate fundraiser for Republican Congressman Jack Kemp.) Besides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor, Capp was a popular guest speaker at universities, and on radio and television. He remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by television; no other comic artist to date has come close to Capp' s televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on" The Author Meets the Critics"( 1948–' 54) and made regular, weekly appearances on" Today" in 1953. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC' s" Who Said That?"( 1948–' 55), and co- hosted DuMont' s" What' s the Story?"( 1953). Between 1952 and 1972, he hosted at least" five" television shows– three different talk shows called" The Al Capp Show"( 1952 and 1968) and" Al Capp"( 1971–' 72)," Al Capp' s America"( a live" chalk talk," with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons, 1954), and a CBS game show called" Anyone Can Win"( 1953). He also hosted similar vehicles on the radio— and was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs, including NBC Radio' s long- running" Monitor" with its famous" Monitor" Beacon audio signature, as a commentator dubbed" An expert of nothing with opinions on everything." His frequent appearances on NBC' s" The Tonight Show" spanned three emcees( Steve Allen, Jack Paar, and Johnny Carson),fromthe1950stothe1970s. One memorable story, as recounted to Johnny Carson, was about his meeting with then- President Dwight D. Eisenhower. As Capp was ushered into the Oval Office, his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor. The President immediately turned to an aide and said," Call Walter Reed( Hospital), or maybe Bethesda," to which Capp replied," Hell no, just call a good local mechanic!"( Capp also spoofed Carson in his strip, in a 1970 episode called" The Tommy Wholesome Show".) Capp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the Bob Hope | film" That Certain Feeling", for |
which he also provided promotional art. He was interviewed live on" Person to Person" on November 27, 1959, by host Charles Collingwood. He also appeared as himself on" The Ed Sullivan Show", Sid Caesar' s" Your Show of Shows"," The Red Skelton Show"," The Merv Griffin Show"," The Mike Douglas Show", and guested on Ralph Edwards'" This Is Your Life" on February 12, 1961, with honoree Peter Palmer. Capp also freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist, in a wide variety of publications including" Life"," Show"," Pageant"," The Atlantic"," Esquire"," Coronet", and" The Saturday Evening Post". Capp was impersonated by comedians Rich Little and David Frye. Although Capp' s endorsement activities never rivaled Li' l Abner' s or Fearless Fosdick' s, he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for Sheaffer Snorkel fountain pens( along with colleagues and close friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly), and— with an irony that became apparent later— a brand of cigarettes( Chesterfield). Capp resumed visiting war amputees during the Korean War and Vietnam War. He toured Vietnam with the USO, entertaining troops along with Art Buchwald and George Plimpton. He served as chairman of the Cartoonists' Committee in President Dwight D. Eisenhower' s People- to- People program in 1954( although Capp had supported Adlai Stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956), which was organized to promote Savings bonds for the U. S. Treasury. Capp had earlier provided the Shmoo for a special Children' s Savings Bond in 1949, accompanying President Harry S. Truman at the bond' s unveiling ceremony. During the Soviet Union' s blockade of West Berlin in 1948, the commanders of the Berlin airlift had cabled Capp, requesting inflatable shmoos as part of" Operation: Little Vittles". Candy- filled shmoos were air- dropped to hungry West Berliners by America's17th Military Airport Squadron during the humanitarian effort." When the candy- chocked shmoos were dropped, a near- riot resulted,"( reported in" Newsweek"— October 11, 1948). In addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for the handicapped, Capp also served on the National Reading Council, which was organized to combat illiteracy. He published a column(" Wrong Turn Onto Sesame Street") challenging federally funded public television endowments in favor of educational comics— which, according to Capp," didn' t cost a dime in taxes and never had. I pointed out that a kid could enjoy" Sesame Street"" without" learning how to read, but he couldn' t enjoy comic strips" unless" he could read; and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such" reading" form might make better sense." Capp' s academic interests included being one of nineteen original" Trustees and Advisors" for" Endicott, Junior College for Young Woman", located in Pride' s Crossing( Beverly), Massachusetts, which was founded in 1939. Al Capp is listed in the 1942 Mingotide Yearbook, representing the first graduating class from Endicott Junior College. The yearbook entry includes his credential as a" Cartoonist for United Feature Syndicate" and a resident of New York City." Comics," wrote Capp in 1970," can be a | combination of the highest quality |
of art and text, and many of them are." Capp produced many giveaway educational comic books and public services pamphlets, spanning several decades, for the Red Cross, the Department of Civil Defense, the Department of the Navy, the U. S. Army, the Anti- Defamation League, the Department of Labor, Community Chest( a forerunner of United Way), and the Job Corps. Capp' s studio provided special artwork for various civic groups and nonprofit organizations as well. Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Boy Scouts of America, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others. They were also used to help sell Christmas Seals.Intheearly1960s, Capp regularly wrote a column entitled" Al Capp' s Column" for the newspaper" The Schenectady Gazette"( currently" The Daily Gazette"). He was the" Playboy" interview subject in December 1965, in a conversation conducted by Alvin Toffler. In August 1967, Capp was the narrator and host of an ABC network special called" Do Blondes Have More Fun?" In 1970, he was the subject of a provocative NBC documentary called" This Is Al Capp".The1960sand1970s. Capp and his family lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, near Harvard during the entire Vietnam War protest era. The turmoil that Americans were watching on their television sets was happening live— right in his own neighborhood. Campus radicals and" hippies" inevitably became one of Capp' s favorite targets in the sixties. Alongside his long- established caricatures of right- wing, big business types such as General Bullmoose and J. Roaringham Fatback, Capp began spoofing counterculture icons such as Joan Baez( in the character of Joanie Phoanie, a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage ten thousand dollars' worth of" protest songs"). The sequence implicitly labeled Baez a limousine liberal, a charge she took to heart, as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography," And A Voice To Sing With: A Memoir". Another target was Senator Ted Kennedy, parodied as" Senator O. Noble McGesture", resident of" Hyideelsport". The town name is a play on Hyannisport, Massachusetts, where a number of the Kennedy clan have lived. Capp became a popular public speaker on college campuses, where he reportedly relished hecklers. He attacked militant antiwar demonstrators, both in his personal appearances and in his strip. He also satirized student political groups. The Youth International Party( YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society( SDS) emerged in" Li' l Abner" as" Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!"( SWINE). In an April 1969 letter to" Time", Capp insisted," The students I blast are not the dissenters, but the destroyers— the less than 4% who lock up deans in washrooms, who burn manuscripts of unpublished books, who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities. The remaining 96% detest them as heartily as I do." Capp' s increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during television appearances cost him his semi- regular spot on the" Tonight Show". His contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy LP called" Al Capp | On Campus". The album features |
his interaction with students at Fresno State College( now California State University, Fresno) on such topics as" sensitivity training,"" humanitarianism,"" abstract art"( Capp hated it), and" student protest". The cover features a cartoon drawing by Capp of wildly dressed, angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like" End Capp Brutality"," Abner and Daisy Mae Smoke Pot"," Capp Is Over[ 30, 40, 50— all crossed out] the Hill!!", and" If You Like Crap, You' ll Like Capp!" Highlights of the strip' s final decades include" Boomchik"( 1961), in which America' s international prestige is saved by Mammy Yokum," Daisy Mae Steps Out"( 1966), a female- empowering tale of Daisy' s brazenly audacious" homewrecker gland"," The Lips of Marcia Perkins"( 1967), a satirical, thinly- veiled commentary on venereal disease and public health warnings," Ignoble Savages"( 1968), in which the Mob takes over Harvard, and" Corporal Crock"( 1973), in which Bullmoose reveals his reactionary cartoon role model, in a tale of obsession and the fanatical world of comic book collecting. The cartoonist visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their 1969 Bed- In for Peace in Montreal, and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film'( 1988). Introducing himself with the words" I' m a dreadful Neanderthal fascist. How do you do?", Capp sardonically congratulated Lennon and Ono on their' nude album cover:" I think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair. You' ve done it, and I tell you that I applaud you for it." Following this exchange, Capp insulted Ono(" Good God, you' ve gotta live with that?"), and was asked to" get out" by Lennon publicist Derek Taylor. Lennon allowed him to stay, however, but the conversation had soured considerably. On Capp' s exit, Lennon sang an impromptu version of his song" The Ballad of John and Yoko" with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric:" Christ, you know it ain' t easy/ You know how hard it can be/ The way things are goin'/ They' re gonna crucify" Capp!"" Despite his political conservatism in the last decade of his life, Capp is reported to have been liberal in some particular causes; he supported gay rights, and did not tolerate any attempts at homophobic jokes. He is also said to have supported Martin Luther King Jr. and the fight for racial equality in American society, although he was very sceptical of the tactics of the Black Panthers and Malcolm X. In 1968, a theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp' s work and with his support. The park was a popular attractionduringthe1970s, but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties. By 2005, the area once devoted to a live- action facsimile of Dogpatch( including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch" founder" General Jubilation T. Cornpone) had been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and was slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness. On April 22, 1971, syndicated columnist Jack Anderson reported allegations that in February 1968 Capp had made indecent advances to four | female students when he was |
invited to speak at the University of Alabama. Anderson and an associate confirmed that Capp was shown out of town by university police, but that the incident had been hushed up by the university to avoid negative publicity. The following month, Capp was charged in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in connection with another alleged incident following his April 1 lecture at the University of Wisconsin- Eau Claire. Capp was accused of propositioning a married woman in his hotel room. Although no sexual act was alleged to have resulted, the original charge included" sodomy". As part of a plea agreement, Capp pleaded guilty to the charge of" attempted adultery"( adultery was a felony in Wisconsin) and the other charges were dropped. Capp was fined$ 500 and court costs. In a December 1992 article for" The New Yorker," Seymour Hersh reported that President Richard Nixon and Charles Colson had repeatedly discussed the Capp case in Oval Office recordings that had recently been made available by the National Archives. Nixon and Capp were on friendly terms, Hersh wrote, and Nixon and Colson had worked to find a way for Capp to run against Ted Kennedy for the U. S. Senate." Nixon was worried about the allegations, fearing that Capp' s very close links to the White House would become embarrassingly public", Hersh wrote." The White House tapes and documents show that he and Colson discussed the issue repeatedly, and that Colson eventually reassured the president by saying that he had, in essence, fixed the case. Specifically, the president was told that one of Colson' s people had gone to Wisconsin and tried to talk to the prosecutors." Colson' s efforts failed, however. The Eau Claire district attorney, a Republican, refused to dismiss the attempted adultery charge. In passing sentence in February 1972, the judge rejected the D. A.' s motion that Capp agree to undergo psychiatric treatment. The resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip, and Capp, already in failing health, withdrew from public speaking. Celebrity biographer James Spada has claimed that similar allegations were made by actress Grace Kelly. However, no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced." From beginning to end, Capp was acid- tongued toward the targets of his wit, intolerant of hypocrisy, and always wickedly funny. After about 40 years, however, Capp' s interest in" Abner" waned, and this showed in the strip itself," according to Don Markstein' s" Toonopedia". On November 13, 1977, Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to declining health." If you have any sense of humor about your strip— and I had a sense of humor about mine— you knew that for three or four years" Abner" was wrong. Oh hell, it' s like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have," he admitted, adding that he couldn' t breathe anymore." When he retired" Li' l Abner", newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era." People | magazine" ran a substantial feature, |
and even the comics- free" New York Times" devoted nearly a full page to the event", wrote publisher Denis Kitchen. Capp' s final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy. In October 1977, one of his two daughters died; a few weeks later, a beloved granddaughter was killed in a car accident. A lifelong chain smoker, Capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire. Capp is buried in Mount Prospect Cemetery in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Engraved on his headstone is a stanza from Thomas Gray:" The plowman homeward plods his weary way/ And leaves the world to darkness and to me"( from" Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard", 1751). Legacy." Neither the strip' s shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U. S. Postal Service", according to" Toonopedia"." Li' l Abner" was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps. Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum( formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists selected to their Hall of Fame. Capp was also inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004. Sadie Hawkins Day and double whammy are two terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Other, less ubiquitous Cappisms include skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo also has entered the lexicon, defining highly technical concepts in no fewer than" four" separate fields of science, including the variations shmooing( a microbiological term for the" budding" process in yeast reproduction), and shmoo plot( a technical term in the field of electrical engineering). In socioeconomics, a" shmoo" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself,( as opposed to" widgets" which require resources and active production). In the field of particle physics," shmoo" refers to a high energy survey instrument, as used at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X- 3 constellation. Capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze, and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. In his book" The American Language", H. L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding"- nik" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning— not with beatnik or Sputnik— but earlier, in the pages of" Li' l Abner". Al Capp' s life and career are the subjects of a new life-sizedmuralcommemoratingthe100th anniversary of his birth. Created by resident artist Jon P. Mooers, the mural was unveiled in downtown Amesbury on May 15, 2010. According to the" Boston Globe"( as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist' s honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming WNET- TV" American Masters" documentary," The Life and Times of Al Capp", produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning. Since his death | in 1979, Al Capp and |
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