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1. Elizabeth Bishop From childhood in Nova Scotia to travels in Brazil, this program illustrates the geographic spirit of Bishop's life and works with scenes from her poems. Go to this unit. 2. Hart Crane Diverse locations and dramatizations of his life illustrate Crane's poetry and his greatest work, "The Bridge." Go to this unit. 3. Emily Dickinson Dramatic scenarios and New England landscapes illuminate the passionate genius of Dickinson, whose poems represent a broad range of imaginative experience. Go to this unit. 4. T. S. Eliot Eliot's life, influence, and poetry from the bold originality of "Prufrock" to the probing, meditative style of "Four Quartets" are explored with photos, archival footage, and discussion with friends, critics, and scholars. Go to this unit. 5. Robert Frost Frost's image as elder statesman is vividly contrasted with his vigorous, poetic exploration of the darker forces of nature and the human condition. Readings and interviews with the poet reveal compelling insights into his work. Go to this unit. 6. Langston Hughes Hughes wrote of the beauty, dignity, and heritage of blacks in America. Interviews, music, and dance performances convey his work and influence, discussed by James Baldwin and biographer Arnold Rampersad. Go to this unit. 7. Robert Lowell Lowell's political passion encompasses much of his greatest poetry. Lowell himself reads from his work. Elizabeth Hardwick, Robert Hass, and others discuss his development and style as illustrated by "Lord Weary's Castle" and "Life Studies." Go to this unit. 8. Marianne Moore Funny, formidable, and paradoxical, the poet and her work are analyzed by critics and friends, including Monroe Wheeler, Grace Shulman, and Patricia Willis. Her most memorable poems display her power of observation and moral force. Go to this unit. 9. Sylvia Plath The creative intensity with which Plath confronted her experiences as daughter, wife, mother, and writer is explored in documentary and archival footage intercut with visualizations of her work. Go to this unit. 10. Ezra Pound The most controversial of American poets — artistic catalyst, legendary confidant, and author of brilliant cantos — Ezra Pound and his poetry and role in the modernist movement are explored by friends and critics. Go to this unit. 11. Wallace Stevens Stevens's flamboyant verbal technique and philosophical vision of American life are beautifully illustrated by archival footage. Go to this unit. 12. Walt Whitman Brilliant readings of Whitman's poems demonstrate his American vision and style and vividly convey their poignance and sheer power. Whitman's sources, including Emerson, the King James Bible, opera, and political oratory, are revealed. Go to this unit. 13. William Carlos Williams "No ideas but in things," Williams's aesthetic dictum sought to capture, not analyze. A collage of documentary footage, interviews, animation, and dramatization capture the poet's often visual work and intense life. Go to this unit.	<urn:uuid:ee3a556b-28f3-471f-983c-d45875fbb24e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.learner.org/resources/series57.html?pop=yes&pid=998	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.929294	682	3.234375	3
Coconuts are one of the most wonderful foods on the planet and can even help save your life. Every day, more and more people learn how important the coconut is to stabilizing blood sugar, lowering cholesterol, reducing inflammation and hydrating. Coconut milk is the closest thing to human breast milk, and coconut water has even been used intravenously in dire circumstances to save lives. (During World War II in the Pacific Theater, blood plasma supplies were scarce, and medics would siphon pure coconut water from young coconuts to be used as emergency plasma transfusions for soldiers who were injured. Since coconut water is nearly identical to human blood, it was suitable for people of all blood types). Coconut is an excellent immune booster and has antifungal, antiviral and antibacterial properties. Coconut water has the highest concentration of electrolytes of anything else found in nature. This makes it an excellent source of hydration (much better than sports drinks). Coconut oil can also protect your teeth from bacteria that can cause cavities and disease. Simply rubbing a little fresh coconut oil on your gums and teeth can keep them stronger and healthier than virtually any other dental treatment, due to the fat-soluble vitamins in coconut and its natural anti-inflammatory properties. Coconut oil is considered the best and safest oil to use for cooking as it does not break down into free radicals at high heat. And changing your cooking oil from the unsaturated fat variety to coconut oil can help you lose weight. How? Because the unsaturated fats found in canola, corn and other vegetable oils, as well as margarines, suppress the metabolism. This makes it hard to lose weight and easier to gain it. Coconut oil can help to increase thyroid function and boost your metabolism. Coconut cream is perfect for skin care and to achieve flawless skin. Unlike traditional skin creams which can actually introduce fats and oils to the skin that will break it down over time, making it look older, creams derived from the coconut can actually replenish the skin, giving it a more youthful and healthy glow than most other skin care products on the market. Young coconuts contain the purest unsaturated fat, compared to the fat found in the more mature varieties. This is why they offer the most rejuvenation properties for the body’s tissues. But how can you tell how old a coconut is? Young coconuts are usually green in color and oddly shaped. The brown hairy ones are mature coconuts, and while they offer a lot of healthy benefits, they aren’t nearly as good for you as younger varieties. Coconut oil is also good for heart health, although coconut has been the victim of misinformation because it is a source of saturated fats. However, medium-chain saturated fats do not induce the kind of cardiovascular risk associated with long-chain saturated fats. In fact, in recent years, researchers have been re-thinking the link between long saturated fats and heart disease. It must also be stated again that one can expect to derive the health benefits of ingested coconut oil from high-quality virgin products, not from common copra oil. Virgin coconut oil has been shown to increase good (HDL) cholesterol, reduce total cholesterol (due to its anti-inflammatory effects), reduce bad (LDL) cholesterol and LDL oxidation and reduce triglycerides. Dr. Mary Newport’s work on Alzheimer’s and coconut oil has implications for memory improvement as well as for neurological degenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, Lou Gehrig’s (ALS), diabetes, etc. So go ahead and enjoy coconut oil, coconut flakes, coconut meat, coconut water, and coconut manna. All are building blocks for better health. [The views presented in The River Reporter’s health features are those of the authors, and are provided for general information only. They should not be taken as a substitute for consultations with your physician or a local treatment center, or as prescribing treatment.]	<urn:uuid:9d2af7e8-7ec5-483c-bbf6-6bd6ab7bd68e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://riverreporter.com/print/community_living/4302/2013/11/27/health-benefits-coconuts	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958613	834	2.625	3
Was Luther Right? The Impact of Luther Martin Luther turned the world upside down in the sixteenth century by proclaiming the Pauline gospel. Luther, who was a professor of biblical exegesis for many years, slowly came to an understanding of the righteousness of God in Rom. 1:17. For many years he believed that God’s righteousness was a divine attribute, so that the Pauline meaning was that God rendered to a person according to his works. In other words, Rom. 1:17 referred to the judging righteousness of God. Through intensive biblical exegesis, both in Romans and the Psalms, it began to dawn on Luther that this conception of God’s righteousness was incorrect. God’s righteousness in Rom. 1:17 was not his judging righteousness but his saving righteousness. The righteousness of God did not refer to God’s just judgment of human beings. Instead, it referred to God’s saving righteousness by which human beings were righteous in his sight. When Paul speaks of the righteousness of God in Rom. 1:17, he has in mind the righteousness which is valid before God. The righteousness of God here does not refer to his just and impartial judgment of people. It refers to his saving righteousness by which human beings may stand before him as not guilty. This righteousness before God is not based on our works, nor can it ever be earned or merited. Righteousness which is valid before God is available by faith alone. Right-standing before God is obtained not by doing but by believing. It cannot be earned since it is a gift of God. Luther warned over and over again that human beings were prone to legalism. Legalism exists when people attempt to secure righteousness in God’s sight by good works. Legalists believe that they can earn or merit God’s approval by performing the requirements of the law. Luther’s polemic against legalism was grounded in his exegesis of the Pauline letters. He drew a correspondence between the Judaizers of Paul’s day and the Roman Catholics of his. Just as the Judaizers believed that they could gain righteousness in God’s sight by the works of the law, so too the Roman Catholics of Luther’s day were attempting to secure righteousness by observing God’s commandments. According to Luther the legalism of the Judaizers had manifested itself in the theology and behavior of mainstream Roman Catholicism in his day. Many Roman Catholic exegetes insisted that Luther’s exegesis was mistaken. They argued that the works of the law in Paul (Rom. 3:20, 28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2, 5, 10) referred to the ceremonial law alone, and thus they deflected the parallel between the Judaizers and themselves. Luther struck back by arguing that works of law in Paul referred to whole law, both ceremonial and moral. Paul did not merely criticize the Judaizers because they wanted to impose the ceremonial law on Gentiles. He also attacked them because they compromised the fundamental truth of the gospel. The Judaizers were attempting to secure eternal life by virtue of their own works and goodness instead of trusting solely in the atoning work of Jesus Christ on their behalf. Their focus on good works inevitably led to boasting, for if eternal life is obtained by virtue of one’s good works, then the person who performs the good works deserves praise and honor for accomplishing such a remarkable feat. The true gospel, Luther insisted, is exactly the reverse. All the praise, glory and honor belong to God because he has effected our salvation. We can do nothing to merit or earn salvation. Faith gives glory to God because it receives the gift of salvation which he has provided. This helps explain Luther’s uncompromising stance on the freedom of the will in his famous book The Bondage of the Will. Fallen human beings, according to Luther, are in bondage to sin. This means that they do not have any ability to do what is good in God’s sight. The idea that unregenerate human beings have the freedom to do what is good is a myth, explains Luther, for all people are slaves to sin (Romans 6). Slavery to sin does not mean that people are forced to sin against their wills. Neither God nor the devil puts a gun to our heads and says, “you must sin!” The slavery to sin which characterizes humanity expresses itself in a willing servitude to sin. When human beings sin, they simply carry out the desires in their hearts. Righteousness cannot be obtained by works of law because all human beings are born into the world as slaves of sin, condemned in Adam. They can never secure righteousness by performing good works, for they do not and cannot carry out the requisite works. As Paul said in Rom. 8:7-8, “For the mind that is set on the flesh is hostile to God; it does not submit to God’s law, indeed it cannot; and those who are in the flesh cannot please God” (RSV). The idea that human beings can obtain righteousness by works is the highest folly since we are totally dominated by sin and cannot perform the works required for justification. In his famous debate with Erasmus Luther also insisted on the reality of divine election. If human beings are slaves to sin and cannot do their own works, then the only means by which they can be liberated from the dominion of sin is God’s sovereign electing grace. Luther’s favorite verses in propounding this theme were Rom. 11:5-6, “Thus therefore also in the present time a remnant has come about according to gracious election. And if it is by grace, then it is no longer by works. Otherwise grace is no longer grace.” We see from these verses that Luther’s theology of divine election was closely conjoined with his theology of justification. Righteousness cannot be by works, for if it is then salvation is no longer by God’s grace. And God’s grace manifests itself as an electing grace by which he liberates his elect from the bondage of sin. Luther did not defend the doctrine of election for philosophical reasons. He defended it because it was part and parcel of his theology of justification. The doctrine of election reminds us that our good works cannot merit right-standing before God. Our salvation is wholly due to his grace. And if salvation is ascribed to his grace alone and not our works, then all the praise and glory and honor redound to God. Human beings cannot boast before God that they have gained salvation by virtue of their good works. The Consensus and Rudolf Bultmann John Calvin and Luther were in remarkable agreement in terms of the law. The most significant difference that surfaced was on the role of the law in the Christian’s life, i.e., on the third use of the law. Nonetheless, they were in substantial agreement on justification, works of the law, and the parallel between the Judaizers of Paul’s day and the Roman Catholics of their era. Indeed, the theology of the law and justification which was hammered out by the Reformers became the Protestant consensus. Despite the many changes which were introduced in the following years, Luther’s articulation of the relationship between the law and justification continued to hold firm well into the twentieth century and was never seriously threatened. This is illustrated by a brief glance at the contribution of Rudolf Bultmann. Bultmann was probably the most towering figure in New Testament studies in our century. He is famous for his attempt to fuse existential philosophy with the message of the New Testament. Obviously, he departed from Luther in many significant respects. But he did not abandon Luther’s theology of justification and the law, even though he adjusted it to fit with his existentialism. Bultmann maintained that the Judaizers were criticized by Paul because of their legalism. Indeed, he insisted that legalism was the fatal weakness of Judaism. Like Luther, he trumpeted the Pauline message that righteousness is by faith alone. The attempt to be right with God through the law signifies the human effort go gain security through self-effort. The desire to obey the law indicates a longing for approval from people instead of from God. The Pauline gospel teaches that security is only available through Jesus Christ, not the observance of the law. The Consensus Shattered: E. P. Sanders In the early part of the twentieth century a few dissenting voices were raised which called into question the consensus which had emerged since the Reformation. Both George Foote Moore and Claude Montefiore protested that Judaism was not legalistic, and that such a view of Judaism was a distortion of Jewish documentary sources. Despite the erudition of these scholars, their protests against the consensus did not have a significant impact on New Testament studies. New Testament scholars continued to describe Judaism as legalistic and to argue that Paul’s creative genius was displayed in his rejection of Jewish legalism. This consensus was shattered in 1977, however, by the publication of the most influential book in Pauline studies in recent years, viz., Paul and Palestinian Judaism by E. P. Sanders. Sanders conducted a careful inductive study of Jewish writings found in the Apocrypha, Psuedepigrapha, Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Rabbinic literature. He concluded that the notion that the Jews in Paul’s day were legalists was a myth imposed on the evidence by Christian scholars who read the disagreement between Paul and certain Jews through the lenses of the struggle between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The problem with Luther and subsequent NT scholarship was that they imposed their polemic against Roman Catholicism onto the NT documents. Luther naturally interpreted the Judaizers to be guilty of the same legalism he detected in his Roman Catholic opponents. But this understanding of Judaism cannot be sustained or defended historically, for it is an egregious error to interpret Judaism through the lenses of the Roman Catholic-Protestant struggle. NT scholars, especially Lutherans, have been guilty of imposing their own struggle with Catholicism onto the Judaism of Paul’s day. The actual soteriology of the Jews, Sanders asserted, was not legalistic at all. Instead Palestinian Judaism is better described with the term “covenantal nomism.” The covenant which God enacted with the Jews was based on his grace by which he elected them to be his people. God did not demand a certain level of works before entering into covenant with his people. And the idea that Jews had to keep 51% of the law in order to be saved is a myth which cannot be sustained from reading the source documents. God mercifully forgave his people’s sins and entered into a relationship with Israel. How does the word “nomism” fit into Sanders’ understanding of Jewish soteriology? Certainly the law was a central feature of Palestinian religion, but, says Sanders, the Jews never understood obedience to the law as a way of earning or meriting salvation. The observance of the law was a way of maintaining salvation once one was inducted into the covenant. The keeping of the law, then, was conceived as a grateful response to God’s covenantal mercy in redeeming his people. Nor should we criticize the Jews because of the detailed regulations and prescriptions found in their law. Detailed obedience of the law indicates a heart desire to follow God in every area of one’s life. This is not legalism but heart felt devotion to God. Sanders admits that there are statements in Jewish literature which could be construed as legalistic. For instance, the Jews accounted for their election by appealing to the merits of the fathers, and they said that God chose Israel because all of the other nations rejected the Torah and only Israel consented to obey it. Sanders warns, however, that we should be careful about reading legalism into these statements. The Jews were not systematic theologians and thus we should avoid the temptation to read these explanations as if they were precise soteriological formulations. In making these statements the Jews were attempting to explain why God was not arbitrary in selecting Israel to be his people. Sanders’ understanding of Judaism was an idea whose time had come, for we have already noted that others before Sanders suggested that Judaism was not a legalistic religion and yet their work did not exert a significant influence on New Testament scholarship. Sanders’ book, however, has changed the direction of Pauline studies, for he has convinced many scholars that the traditional picture of Judaism constructed by New Testament scholars does not accord with Palestinian Judaism as it really was. The probative force of his work is partially due to the thoroughness of his research. It is probably also the case that his thesis has gained acceptance because it was written after the Holocaust, for Christians were deeply troubled that a horrible destruction of the Jews could occur in a country deeply influenced by Lutheran theology. Christian scholars have become keenly aware of the mistreatment of the Jewish people by Christians throughout history. Indeed, Luther himself made some statements about the Jews which are indefensible and have been used to justify Jewish persecution. Sanders’ work on Judaism raised a fundamental question, in identifying Paul’s opponents as legalistic Jews have we been seeing correctly what is really there in the text? Or have we been imposing a traditional soteriological paradigm onto the Pauline letters so that we are blinded by our own presuppositions from understanding his message? Have we accepted the Reformation position simply because it accords with tradition? As the sons and daughters of Luther, we salute his emphasis on sola scriptura. It is imperative to ask, therefore, whether the scriptures teach the theology that Luther himself propounded. Sanders’ work has been helpful in provoking scholars to ask afresh whether we have been “seeing” what Paul actually says about Judaism or if we have been guilty of “creating” a polemic against Judaism that does not accord with the text. We are all influenced by our culture, and so perhaps we have labelled Judaism as legalistic simply because it fit our biases and the Protestant desire to tar Roman Catholicism with the legalistic brush. Richard John Neuhaus in a recent article in First Things argues that justification by faith alone may have been appropriate in the first century, but it is not necessarily a key issue in the twentieth. In any case, Sanders raises the question whether we have been interpreting Judaism accurately. A Reappraisal of Paul’s Criticism of Judaism A paradigm shift has undoubtedly occurred in the understanding of Judaism due to Sanders’ work. Many scholars are now persuaded that Sanders is correct and that Judaism was not legalistic. Judaism was a religion of grace and mercy. The notion that Christianity is more gracious than Judaism is a myth. Both religions taught that God was gracious and merciful, and neither taught that one must earn salvation by good works. Many evangelicals are simply unaware of the fact that Sanders’ bombshell has changed the landscape of scholarship. Some do not even know that many scholars (perhaps most) would no longer subscribe to the view that Judaism was legalistic. But if Sanders rightly describes Judaism, then how should we understand Paul’s critique of the Mosaic law in his letters? If Paul does not attack the legalism of his Jewish contemporaries, what is his complaint with reference to the Mosaic law? A number of scholars have proposed answers, but three scholars—Sanders himself, Heikki Räisänen, and James Dunn—have been particularly influential, and thus we will limit ourselves to them in the following discussion. E. P. Sanders Sanders followed up Paul and Palestinian Judaism with a book titled Paul, the Law and the Jewish People. In this latter work he defends the thesis that Paul’s soteriology led him to reject the Mosaic law as a way of salvation. However, it is completely wrong-head, according to Sanders, to conclude that Paul rejected the Mosaic law and Judaism because it was legalistic. The ultimate reason for Paul’s rejection of Judaism was that it was not Christianity. To be specific, Paul reasoned that since salvation was obtained through Christ, then it follows that the law could not be the means to salvation. Sanders coins the phrase solution to plight to explain his understanding of Pauline soteriology. Once Paul believed that salvation was only available through Christ, then he reflexively concluded that salvation was not available through the law, for if salvation is only through Christ then it could not be obtained via the law. Sanders’ study of Paul leads him to reject the anthropological emphasis found in Bultmann and other scholars. He argues that the problem with the law is not that it was impossible for anyone to keep it perfectly. Nor did Paul believe that adherence to the law led to legalism and meritorious works righteousness. The law is set aside as a soteriological path for salvation historical reasons. Now that Christ has come salvation must be through him rather than through Torah. In other words, the reason Paul rejects Judaism is that it is not Christianity. Paul does not reject Judaism because of any defect in the law or Judaism (such as legalism or the inability to keep the law). Paul has become convinced that Jesus is the answer, and if Jesus is the answer then it follows that Judaism must not be the solution. Heikki Räisänen, a Finnish scholars, acknowledges his debt to Sanders and agrees that the latter has demonstrated that Judaism was not legalistic. Thus, Räisänen represents a scholar who is utterly convinced that Sanders has proven that Judaism is not a legalistic religion. If this is the case, then how does one explain Paul? Sanders admitted that at times Paul’s arguments in favor of his conclusions were torturous and even inconsistent, but Räisänen moves even further in this direction than Sanders. The notion that Paul was a great theologian and a profound thinker needs to be dispelled says Räisänen. On the contrary, Paul’s theology is filled with contradictions and inconsistencies. For instance, in a number of texts Paul asserts that the law is abolished and should no longer play any role in the lives of believers (Rom. 7:1-6; 2 Corinthians 3; Gal. 3:15-4:7). In other texts, however, he claims that believers should fulfill the law (Rom. 8:4; 13:8-10; 1 Cor. 7:19; Gal. 5:14). Both of these teachings, observes Räisänen, could scarcely be true at the same time. To say that the law is set aside and that believers should keep it violates the law of non-contradiction. Scholars have labored to harmonize these two different kinds of statements, but Räisänen argues that we should honestly concede that Paul said different things in different contexts which do not ultimately cohere logically. Similarly, Paul asserts strongly that no one can keep the law and that all fall short of keeping its commands perfectly (Rom. 1:18-3:20; 3:23; Gal. 3:10). And yet in Rom. 2:14-15, 26- 27 he claims that even non-Christian Gentiles are able to keep the law. This demonstrates, says Räisänen, that Paul argues inconsistently to accomplish his own purposes. When he desires to argue against the Jewish Torah in favor of Christianity, then he claims that no one can keep the law. But his attack on fellow Jews who are devoted to the Torah becomes so all consuming that he forgets to notice, when he says Gentiles can observe the law, that he has already previously denied that anyone can keep it. A troubling characteristic of Paul emerges here, according to Räisänen, for he sharply attacks the Jews for their violations of Torah and claims in contradistinction that Christians keep the law. But in matter of fact we see that Christians scarcely kept the law any better than Jews. An examination of 1 Corinthians alone seems to bear this out. Thus, Räisänen concludes that Paul is guilty of blatant partisanship in trumpeting Christianity and denigrating Judaism. Moreover, Paul’s explanation of the origin and purpose of the law is filled with problems according to Räisänen. Usually Paul says that the law comes from God but he becomes so carried away with his argument in Gal. 3:19 that he even denies this and concludes that the law stems from the angels rather than God. Nor is Paul consistent as to the purpose of the law. In Rom. 7:10 he says that the law was given to produce life but in Gal. 3:19 and Rom. 5:20 he says that God’s intention in giving the law was to multiply sin. These two statements seem to be directly irreconcilable. And even if one or the other of these two statements fits reality, other problems emerge. If God gave the law to lead to life, then he must be lacking in wisdom. A wise God would surely have foreseen that life would not be obtained through the law. On the other hand, a God who enacted the law in order to increase sin seems to be rather cynical. How could God be good and give a law that would increase misery for human beings? Räisänen observes that Rom. 2:12 and 5:13 are also contradictory. In the former verse Paul says that those who do not have the law will perish without the law. The thought seems to be that they will be judged in terms of their obedience to the unwritten law that is written in their hearts (Rom. 2:14-15). And yet Paul says in Rom. 5:13 that sin is not reckoned when there is no law. Now if sin is not counted against someone when there is no law, then how can those who do not have the law be held responsible for their sin? Paul cannot have it both ways. Either people without the law are held responsible for their sins per Rom. 2:12, or sin is not counted against those who do not possess the law. Paul says different things on different occasions and does not perceive that he actually ends up contradicting himself. How can we account for such incoherent statements from Paul? Räisänen remarks that Paul’s motivation was laudable, for he desired to see the Gentiles included into the people of God without requiring them to observe the Mosaic law. But at the same time Paul retained the idea that the law was authoritative. Attempting to hold both of these convictions at the same time proved to be irreconcilable for Paul, and yet he could not bring himself to admit, says Räisänen, what moderns do not find to be so unpalatable, viz., that not everything found in the Old Testament is from God. James Dunn also celebrates the new perspective that Sanders has opened up to New Testament scholars through his study of Second Temple Judaism. He also concurs that it is a 7 7 mistake to read the New Testament through Reformation spectacles. Sanders’ thesis that Judaism at the time of Paul was not legalistic should be accepted. Dunn argues, however, that both Sanders and Räisänen have failed to take advantage of the paradigm shift when it comes to understanding Paul. In particular, the Paul reconstructed by Sanders is too idiosyncratic and arbitrary, for he rejects Judaism only because it is not Christianity. An analysis of the Pauline writings reveals, says Dunn, that Paul’s criticism of Judaism was deeper than this. Paul’s christology was not the sole reason he criticized the law as a way of salvation. Nonetheless, Dunn concurs with Sanders that the Pauline critique of Judaism is not directed against Jewish legalism or inability to keep the law. Dunn contends that we must take our Reformation eyeglasses off in interpreting Paul. If Judaism was not legalistic and if the root problem of the Jews does not relate to inability to keep the law, then how can we account for Paul’s critique of the Torah in his letters? Dunn suggests that the fundamental objection leveled against Torah observance is that thereby Gentiles were excluded from participation in the people of God. It is interesting to note that much of the controversy over the law related to circumcision, food laws, and the sabbath. These functioned as boundary markers between Jews and Gentiles, and Gentiles felt that in subscribing to these requirements they were surrendering their ethnic identity and becoming Jews. Indeed, Dunn argues the term “works of law” in Paul (Rom. 3:20, 28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2, 5, 10) focuses on those laws which create a sociological rift between Jews and Gentiles. What Paul opposed, then, was not legalism or meritorious worksrighteousness. He objected to the ethnocentricism and nationalism of certain Jews who were requiring Gentiles to become Jews in order to enter the people of God. An Evaluation of the new perspective on Paul The revolution in Pauline studies is salutary in that it stimulates us to examine the text afresh to discern what Paul actually says. The issues raised by Sanders, Räisänen, and Dunn cannot be explored in detail here, although I have examined their contribution in more detail elsewhere. At this juncture a few comments of a general nature will be made and it is hoped that they will at least prime the pump for further reflection. E. P. Sanders Sanders’ work has provided an important service for all too often Judaism and particularly the Pharisees are portrayed in a caricatured manner. The impression given is that the Jews were consumed with pettifogging legalism and trivia, while Christians are spared from these faults. Reading the texts in this way blinds us the fellow-humanity of the Jews who are criticized. Nonetheless, Sanders goes to the other extreme when he attempts to establish the thesis that the Jews were not criticized for legalism at all. Surely Sanders is correct in emphasizing that one reason Paul rejected the law was the salvation historical shift between the Testaments. However, his claim that Paul only argued from solution to plight is questionable as Frank Thielman has demonstrated in his careful study of the OT, Second Temple Judaism, and Galatians and Romans. Sanders is less convincing in his attempt to peel away any anthropological dimension to Paul’s soteriology. Here the criticisms of Robert Gundry and Timo Laato have laid bare a serious weakness in Sanders’ study. Moreover, a careful study of a number of texts (Luke 18:9-14; Rom. 3:27-4:5; 9:30-10:8; Gal. 3:1-14; Phil. 3:2-11) indicates that there is a polemic in the New Testament against legalism. These passages cannot be explained away so easily. Salvation history and anthropology are not at loggerheads but they both play a role in Pauline theology. Our existential knowledge of human beings confirms what we read in the NT. Our fundamental problem is pride, the desire to be great and admired by others. Pride expresses itself in a variety of ways, but one channel for pride is religious observance. We are all tempted to esteem ourselves above our fellow human beings because we have lived a morally superior (so we think!) life to them. It would be very surprising if the Jews of Paul’s day did not struggle with the same problem, for the desire to impress God and fellow human beings with our works is at heart a human problem (not a Jewish problem!). Sanders strains the natural exegesis of the text (see Rom. 3:27-4:8; 9:30- 10:8; Phil. 3:2-11) in denying legalism. For instance, in Rom. 4:4 Paul speaks against the one who does works in order to receive wages from God. These wages are a debt God owes to human beings who have done the requisite works. This text cannot be dismissed as a polemic against legalism. Sanders also seems tone deaf to what is a constant in human existence, the pride which C. S. Lewis calls the root sin. I would contend, from an exegesis of the forementioned texts, that Martin Luther’s interpretation of the NT is more on target than his modern critics. He was profoundly right in detecting a polemic against legalism in the New Testament. Evangelical students are tempted to dismiss and ignore Heikki Räisänen’s work since he detects so many contradictions in Paul’s theology. This would be a serious mistake for Räisänen raises all the right questions, and even if his answers are flawed he helps us see problems in the text with which we need to grapple. Adequate space is not available here to respond in detail to Räisänen. The fundamental problem, however, is that he fails to read Paul sympathetically and contextually. Wherever he detects a logical problem in Paul’s statements on the law, Räisänen concludes that a logical contradiction is present. But in virtually every case an examination of context resolves the alleged difficulties. For instance, Jeffrey A. D. Weima has demonstrated that the so-called contradictions relating to the law and sin yield a coherent sense. And Frank Thielman, by studying the Pauline statements on the law in the particular context in which they were made, shows that his theology is consistent. Dunn’s approach to Paul and the law is much more promising than either Sanders or Räisänen, for he attempts to understand and explain the Pauline theology of the law at a deeper level than the former two scholars. Moreover, he correctly identifies a major theme in Pauline theology. The inclusion of the Gentiles into the people of God was a driving force in the Pauline mission, for it was Paul’s ambition to plant churches where there were none and to bring about the obedience of faith among all nations (Rom. 1:5; 15:15-21; 16:26). Therefore, Paul passionately resisted Peter in Antioch (Gal. 2:11-14), for Peter’s hypocritical actions in effect excluded the Gentiles from the people of God unless they became Jews. We can also agree with Dunn when he establishes a connection between the cessation of Torah and the inclusion of the Gentiles. Circumcision, food laws, and sabbath were boundary markers that erected barriers between Jews and Gentiles. When Paul heralds the end of the Mosaic law (Gal. 3:15-4:7; 2 Cor. 3:4-18), one of his purposes was to tear down the dividing wall that separated Jews and Gentiles (Eph. 2:11-22). The laws which signalled to all that Jews and Gentiles were profoundly different were now passé. Now Jews and Gentiles were fellow members of the body through the gospel of Christ which Paul was specially commissioned to preach (Eph. 3:1-13). Despite the strengths of Dunn’s contribution, some weaknesses remain in his analysis. For instance, he has not sufficiently emphasized that “works of law” refers to the whole law and instead detects a focus on the laws that separate Jews from Gentiles. Joseph A. Fitzmyer has demonstrated that in the Qumran literature that “works of law” denotes the law as a whole and that a restriction to or focus upon a portion of the law cannot be sustained. That “works of law” refers to the entire law is the most satisfactory way to understand Paul’s usage of the term as well. Rom. 3:20 and Gal. 3:10 are particularly illuminating here, for both of these verses indicate that failure to keep the works of the law is the reason people (including the Jews!) are guilty before God. The fundamental problem with the Jews, as Rom. 2:17-29 confirms, is that they did not keep the law which they proclaimed and taught to others. The Jews are not primarily indicted for excluding Gentiles. They are condemned for disobeying the very law that they charged Gentiles with disobeying (Rom. 2:1- 2). Dunn wrongly makes the exclusion of the Gentiles the central fault of the Jews when in fact Paul’s central criticism is that they did not keep the law themselves. Similarly, Dunn’s contention that the problem with the Jews was ethnocentricism or nationalism rather than legalism is unpersuasive. He wrenches apart here what should be kept together, for the Jews believed that they were superior to other nations not only because of their ethnic identity but also because of their devotion to the Torah. This is reflected in the tradition which said that God offered the Torah to all nations but only Israel accepted it. Paul takes aim at the same conception in Romans 2. He does not merely criticize the Jews for nationalism but he strikes also at the root of their nationalism, a sense of moral superiority because of their adherence to Torah. The Jews did not believe that they were favored over the Jews by virtue of their Jewishness alone. No, what marked them apart was their devotion to and observance of God’s law. They were separate from the Gentiles both ethnically and morally. Such a stance is not necessarily legalistic, for some people may be superior to others morally. What both the Old Testament and New Testament teach, however, is that moral growth is due to the powerful electing and sustaining work of God’s grace, not to the inherent virtue of human beings. Those who are chosen by God are easily inclined to believe that it is their own virtue and nobility that sets them apart from other human beings. The temptation to praise oneself rather than God is always lurking at our side, and we may begin to think that God is paying us a debt for our good works (Rom. 4:4-5). In conclusion, Paul’s indictment of Jewish nationalism cannot be separated from legalism, for the texts in question show that the Jews believed that they were better than the Gentiles because of their performance of the law. We need only remark again that the inclination towards legalism is not a Jewish problem per se; it is a fundamental human problem, for we are inclined to praise ourselves instead of the God who is the giver of all gifts. In my critique of Dunn I have argued that Luther was substantially correct regarding both the meaning of “works of law” and the presence of legalism in Judaism. We should seriously listen to people like Sanders and Dunn because they may be correct in charging that we have read the NT through Reformation spectacles. It should also be observed, however, that such a charge cuts both ways. Perhaps they have interpreted Judaism and Paul in a way that fits with modernity (or postmodernity). I would argue that an exegesis of the relevant texts in Paul shows that this is in fact the case. Luther’s exposition of Paul was more in accord with the meaning of the Pauline texts than the recent interpretations of Sanders and Dunn. Indeed, the views of Sanders and Dunn are somewhat suspicious because they fit the postmodern agenda so well, for one could conclude from their study that all religions are equally viable and that inclusivism is the banner of the gospel. Martin Luther is a more reliable guide in maintaining that there is one true gospel and that false gospels must be resisted. For permissions, please see our Copyright Policy. Please include the following statement on any distributed copy: From Ligonier Ministries, the teaching fellowship of R.C. Sproul. All rights reserved. Website: www.ligonier.org \| Phone: 1-800-435-4343”	<urn:uuid:ca7fbea0-f168-4804-9f31-c5936eb812b3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/was-luther-right/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972786	7,381	3.5	4
Promoting education and achievement of adults learning English Supporting Adult English Language Learners' Transitions to Postsecondary Education Center for Adult English Language Acquisition (CAELA) Download a PDF of this brief (242 KB) Adult education programs serve both learners who are native English speakers and those whose first, or native, language is not English. Native English speakers attend adult basic education (ABE) classes to learn the skills needed to earn high school equivalency certificates or to achieve other goals related to job, family, or further education. English language learners attend English as a second language (ESL) or ABE classes to improve their oral and written skills in English and to achieve goals similar to those of native English speakers. Audience for This Brief This brief is written for the following audiences: - Practitioners—teachers, teacher trainers, and program administrators—who work with adult English language learners in ESL classes - Educational researchers focusing on instruction for adult English language learners Adult immigrants studying English in the United States have diverse educational backgrounds. Some have earned graduate degrees, while others have had little or no access to education. Their goals and expectations for future education and employment are also diverse. As shown in Figure 1, some adult English language need English skills to gain admission into a specific work training or certification program. Others take English classes to be able to enroll in postsecondary education, either directly or after first attending adult basic education (ABE) classes or earning General Educational Development (GED) credentials. Figure 1. Education Path for Adult English Language Learners What can adult English language learners expect when transitioning out of ESL classes to other education or work opportunities, and in what ways might their expectations and experiences be similar to or different from those of native English speaking adult learners? For adult English language learners with previous higher education or college preparatory classes, the experience may be different from that of native English speakers in adult education programs. Adult English language learners may be familiar with expectations of academic settings; strategies for managing academic coursework; and the process of selecting, applying for, and registering for appropriate classes. Those who have had fewer opportunities to study academic content may share experiences with native English speaking adult learners. - This brief focuses on one type of transition––from adult ESL programs to postsecondary education. This transition is especially important as statistics show that the income gap between individuals with and those without postsecondary education is growing rapidly: It doubled between 1979 and 1999 and continues to grow rapidly (Middle of the Class, 2005). The majority of jobs that pay enough to support a family require skills that cannot be obtained with just a high school education (Carnevale & Derochers, 2003). This brief discusses research-based strategies for the ESL classroom to support students’ transitions. It concludes with a description of program features that administrators might consider when supporting English language learners’ transitions to post-secondary education. Classroom-level approaches to promote transitions: What teachers can do Based on the understanding that the purpose and content of the adult ESL curriculum is significantly different from the curricula of GED and postsecondary courses, Rance-Roney (1995) noted that transitional programs should emphasize skills that help learners enter and be successful in academic programs. These skills should - focus on language accuracy and careful use of language, - include extensive reading and genre-based writing, - develop a vocabulary centered on less-frequently used academic terminology, and - develop conceptual and critical thinking skills. Recent research in second language acquisition and related areas adds further support to her recommendations, as described below. Focus on language accuracy and careful use of language Language acquisition researchers argue that immersion in the English-speaking culture and opportunities for discussion in the classroom are not sufficient for adult learners to gain the level of language competency needed for academic study. Long and Robinson (1998) first argued that instruction needs to focus on language form (grammar, syntax, and spelling) as well as meaning. Since then other educators have emphasized that instruction needs to focus on the specific features of language during communicative activities and on the systematic teaching of grammatical features and rules for their use. Basturkmen, Loewen, and Ellis (2002); Ellis, Basturkmen, and Loewen (2001); Laufer (2005); Lim (2001); and Long (2000) provide evidence that when instruction focuses on form as well as meaning adult English language learners achieve greater accuracy in their use of the language they need to succeed in academic classes. (For more information on strategies and activities that focus on form in adult ESL classes, see Moss and Ross-Feldman, 2003.) Include extensive reading and genre-based writing Many researchers (e.g., Green, 2005; Rao, 2005) argue that reading is the most important skill for adult language learners moving into academic contexts. Rao (2005) showed that reading is key to academic success and that explicit instruction in reading strategies helps adult learners achieve greater levels of success in postsecondary education. Rao suggests providing students with opportunities to engage in the following types of activities: - Reading the types of texts they will have to read in postsecondary classes - Making connections to prior learning - Making connections between reading and writing - Engaging in critical inquiry - Reviewing checklists of reading strategies - Setting their own goals Instruction in writing skills also is important for students transitioning to academic studies. This includes teaching the rhetorical organization of American English texts, written sentence structures, punctuation, and cohesion words; and developing familiarity with academic writing tasks. All of these recommendations can be at least partly addressed through the introduction of a genre-based pedagogy (e.g., see Cheng, 2006). Using this pedagogy, students are made aware of the common features and styles of different genres such as academic essays and personal narratives, provided with models of them, and given opportunities collaboratively and individually to analyze and produce samples of the different genres. So (2005) also argues that a genre-based approach to teaching school-based texts, such as editorials and argumentative essays, not only helps students become aware of the rhetorical structures and purposes of these types of texts, but also develops skills that can be transferred to understanding and producing other types of texts. Develop vocabulary centered on less-frequently used academic terminology Although vocabulary knowledge plays an important role in English language learners’ academic success (e.g., Clark & Ishida, 2005; Santos, 2005), a gap exists between the written English vocabulary of fluent native speakers (10,000–100,000 words) and that of second language learners who are beginning academic studies (2,000–7,000 words) (Hadley, 1993). Adult English language learners need to increase their vocabulary, and extensive reading is one way to do this. Horst (2005) used individualized checklists for students in an extensive reading program and found that the growth rates of learners’ vocabulary knowledge were higher than the growth rates noted in earlier experimental studies of alternative vocabulary learning techniques. Other suggestions for developing vocabulary can be found in a study by Fan (2003). Through studying adult language learners in a foreign language context, Fan’s large-scale study provides insights into effective strategies for learning low-frequency academic vocabulary. Fan found that successful students used strategies that involve conscious management of vocabulary learning such as - purposefully thinking about and planning one’s progress in learning vocabulary, - drawing on knowledge of grammar and morphology to determine the meaning of unknown words, and - using dictionaries to check for definitions, pronunciation, derivations, and correct word usage. In contrast, memorization strategies such as repetition, grouping, and word association were more frequently used by less successful students. Fan’s findings on the importance of explicit strategy instruction for increasing learners’ academic vocabulary knowledge are consistent with those of a recent synthesis of research on vocabulary acquisition (Hunt & Beglar, 2005). According to Hunt and Beglar, academic vocabulary is best taught by promoting both explicit and implicit instruction on words and learning strategies. In particular, they recommend teaching explicit strategies of using dictionaries and inferring from context. To provide reading practice, they also recommend narrow reading, in which learners read a number of texts on a specific topic or genre, for example, in connection with their academic or employment training; and extensive reading, in which learners read many different types of texts on many different topics. Develop conceptual and critical thinking skills Critical thinking skills––such as evaluation, synthesis, and analysis, which have long been recognized as important in education––are noted by Rance-Roney (1995) as important skills to be promoted in programs for students who are transitioning to academic environments. A recent study with ESL students further supports this idea and provides a suggestion for promoting critical thinking in the classroom. Kasper and Weiss (2005) describe an experiment involving an interclass collaboration project as a means for encouraging college-level ESL students to think critically, conceptualize, analyze, and find solutions to problems. The project brought two ESL classes together for a 2-hour event, in which students worked in small groups to discuss a controversial topic (the Kyoto Protocol). Before the event, students in the two classes had been given different background readings on the subject. Based on the teachers’ observations, student evaluations, and subsequent student essays, the authors report that the nature of the exercise and topic led to increased student use of critical thinking skills, such as interpreting information, formulating opinions, and articulating and supporting points of view. Program Features to Promote Transitions: What administrators can do Several studies emphasize the key role of community colleges in promoting transitions for adult students (e.g., Chisman, 2004; Jenkins, 2003; Liebowitz & Taylor, 2004; Morest, 2004; Walker & Strawn, 2004).Few of these programs are designed specifically for ESL students (e.g., Goldschmidt, Notzold, & Miller, 2003); most focus on programs for both ABE and ESL students. In fact, the number of adult English language learners enrolling in postsecondary education is still relatively small. Tyler’s (2001) synthesis of the literature on GED students (including both native and nonnative English speakers) showed that only between 5% and 10% of those leaving a GED program completed at least 1 year of postsecondary education in Washington. A large-scale study of students in Washington State community and technical colleges found that only 12% of ESL students went on to enroll in college-credit courses (Price & Jenkins, 2005). Interestingly, another large longitudinal study of community college students (Patthey-Chavez, Dillon, & Spiegel, 2005) showed that the ESL students who did go on to take regular content courses at the college level tended to outperform the native English speaking students in terms of grades and course completion. Bailey and Weininger (2002) reached a similar finding in their study of students at the City University of New York (CUNY). Foreign-born students in general, and foreign-born high school students with a high school education from a foreign country in particular, showed the greatest likelihood of completing their programs in CUNY’s 2-year colleges. The following is a description of factors administrators should consider the following when planning programs to promote adult English language learners’ transitions to postsecondary education and programs that incorporate these factors: Address nonacademic factors Nonacademic factors include such issues as lack of transportation, child care, and limited time to attend classes. The Arkansas Career Pathways Initiative, www.arpathways.com, for example, provides childcare facilities for its students, and Tacoma Community College offers integrated adult education and technical training programs in the evening for students who work during the day. Time management often figures prominently in the structure of transition programs. Because of the need to juggle work, school, and family, adult students frequently have high attrition rates from education programs, even after short periods of time. In response, programs like those in the Breaking Through project (www.jff.org/Documents/BreakingThrough.pdf) offer collaborative adult education and technical training in an accelerated learning format of several mini-courses given over short time periods. Time management also is addressed by the National College Transition Network, another program seeking to meet the needs of transitioning ABE and adult ESL learners. The transition student portfolio model is one of the practices highlighted on the network’s Web site as useful for ABE and adult ESL learners (www.collegetransition.org/promising/practice.html). The model provides students with a step-by-step framework for organizing assignments and responsibilities for the entire transition program and for applying to postsecondary programs. In the first year after its implementation, the number of students applying for and being accepted into community college postsecondary programs rose from 38% to 67% (Fina, 2004). Provide orientation to students Most transition programs attempt to provide adult students with some form of orientation to introduce them to the college experience and to help them with academic, career planning, and life management skills. Extended orientation programs (Chavez, 2003) provide counseling and mentoring services, which are generally recommended for adult learners who are transitioning to postsecondary education (Alamprese, 2005). Alamprese points out that counseling services should supply students with information on financial aid, stress and time management, study skills, personal support, and orientation to college life. Mentoring services, in which more experienced students are matched with incoming students to help orient them to college activities and to offer encouragement and support, can also play an important role. These services provide incoming students with important information about the academic community. Furthermore, the mentoring student presents an example of success that can motivate and raise the confidence of the incoming student. The National College Transition Network, for GED students (combined native and nonnative English speakers) at Cape Cod Community College in Massachusetts (www.collegetransition.org/promising/practice.html), is a model of an intensive, two-day orientation program that combines the above services. An additional feature that can be incorporated into orientation programs, popular in a transition program created specifically for ESL students, is having the orientation designed and conducted by experienced students (Goldschmidt, Notzold, & Miller, 2003). Address academic factors Research has shown the effectiveness of using content-based ESL instruction to improve the academic preparedness of adults (Brinton & Masters, 1997; Lewis, 1997). In such courses, students’ attention is focused on a particular content subject, such as history, anthropology, or psychology, and ESL instruction is woven into the assignments and discussions. Another model of content-based instruction involves using paired or integrated courses, in which students take ESL classes that run parallel to content courses and provide extra linguistic support. One study showed that a group of adult English language learners who attended 10 weeks of integrated vocational and ESL classes scored significantly higher on a posttest of vocational vocabulary and general reading than did groups of students receiving equal hours of only ESL classes or attending only vocational classes (Sticht, McDonald, & Erickson, 1998). Success using such paired courses has also been documented in the Tacoma Community College experimental technical training program. Adult English language learners follow a curriculum that combines ESL classes (9 hours weekly), early childhood education classes (3 hours weekly), and a 10-hour practicum. Upon completion, students earn a certificate, entitling them to higher wages at local childcare centers and nine college credits toward a regular 2-year college degree (Liebowitz & Taylor, 2004). A report on an integrated ESL and workplace training program in Washington also shows a dramatic increase in the percentage of learners successfully completing skills training––from 3% completion rates among adult learners attending traditional ESL classes, to 44% completion rates for those in paired classes (I BEST, 2005). Strengthen programs through cooperation To support practices such as integrated or paired classes or comprehensive orientation and counseling services, strong collaborative relationships between the ESL program and associated postsecondary education institutions are needed. How one program administrator institutionalized collaboration between the adult learning center and a local community college is described on the National College Transition Network Web site (www.collegetransition.org/promising/practice.html). Steps included signing an official memorandum of agreement with the president of a community college in a formal ceremony; inviting the president to speak at the graduations of students from the program; and regularly holding luncheons for key staff in admissions, academic affairs, financial aid, and the president’s office in order to give them the opportunity to meet the transition program students. Solidify economic benefits of postsecondary education As discussed above, many adult students make the transition to postsecondary education to gain the knowledge and skills necessary to obtain a better job. The various programs of the Breaking Through initiative (Liebowitz & Taylor, 2004) emphasize bridge training to guide ABE and ESL students toward a goal of gaining postsecondary credentials. The Portland and Mt. Hood Community Colleges in Oregon, for example, have nine technical career pathway programs; four are specifically designed for nonnative-English-speaking adults. The programs identify jobs that are critical to the local economy and the postsecondary certificates or degrees necessary to enter or advance within those jobs. Pathway program administrators break down the demands of regular postsecondary degree programs into manageable course modules and internships. Program administrators work to develop careful integration between the ESL classes—which are viewed positively as “feeders” for the community college’s occupational programs—and the local business community. Students are provided with extensive counseling services, including guidance on career and academic planning, financial aid, and job placement. Economic motivators are provided throughout the program to promote further study. For example, students completing a GED earn 19 free college credits toward the first module of the pathway program. While obtaining a 4-year college degree is not the goal of all adult students in ESL classes, some post-ESL study is needed by many adult English language learners. This study might include GED preparation, vocational training, and certification or recertification courses. Adult ESL teachers and administrators need to ensure that students are aware of the options that exist and prepare them with the tools and strategies that they need to make the transition. Research on reading, writing, and vocabulary instruction provides guidance for teachers helping adult English language learners acquire the linguistic skills necessary for academic coursework. Student orientation, counseling services, and productive integration of adult education programs with content programs in community and technical colleges to meet the particular needs of adult learners are important. Combined, these approaches can effectively serve the needs of adult English learners who are transitioning to postsecondary education. Alamprese, J. (2005). Helping adult learners make the transition to postsecondary education. Bethesda, MD: Abt Associates, Inc. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from www.c-pal.net/pdf/transition.pdf Bailey, T., & Weininger, E.B. (2002). Performance, graduation, and transfer of immigrants and natives in City University of New York community colleges. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(4), 359–377. Basturkmen, H., Loewen, S., & Ellis, R. (2002). Metalanguage in focus on form in the communicative classroom. Language Awareness, 11(1), 1–13. Brawer, F.B. (1996). Retention-attrition in the nineties. Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. (ERIC No. ED 409 971). Brinton, D., & Masters, P. (1997). New ways in content-based instruction. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Carnevale, A.P., & Derochers, D.M. (2003). Standards for what? The economic roots of K-16 reform. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Chavez, C.A. (2003). Student involvement in the community college setting. Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. (ERIC No. ED 477 911). Cheng, A. (2006). Understanding learners and learning in ESP genre-based writing instruction. English for Specific Purposes, 25(1), 76–89. Chisman, F.P. (2004). Adult education and literacy and community colleges in Kentucky. New York: Council for Advancement of Adult Literacy. Clark, M.K., & Ishida, S. (2005). Vocabulary knowledge differences between placed and promoted EAP students. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4(3), 225–238. Cuseo, J.B. (1997). Freshmen orientation seminar at the community college: A research-based rationale for its value, content, and delivery. Unpublished manuscript. (ERIC No. ED 411 005). Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2001). Preemptive focus on form in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 35(3), 407–432. Fan, M.Y. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. Modern Language Journal, 87(2), 222–241. Fina, P. (2004). Transition student portfolio model. NCTN Promising Practice Series, Vol. 1, No. 2. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from www.collegetransition.org/promising/practice2.html Goldschmidt, M.M., Notzold, N., & Miller, C.Z. (2003). ESL student transition to college: The 30-hour program. Journal of Developmental Education, 27(2), 12–17. Green, C. (2005). Integrating extensive reading in the task-based curriculum. ELT Journal, 59(4), 306–311. Hadley, A.O. (1993). Teaching language in context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Horst, M. (2005). Learning L2 vocabulary through extensive reading: A measurement study. Canadian Modern Language Review, 61(3), 355–382. Hunt, A., & Beglar, D. (2005). A framework for developing EFL reading vocabulary. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17(1), 23–59. I BEST. (2005, December). A program integrating adult basic education and workforce training. Report. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from www.sbctc.ctc.edu/Data/rsrchrpts/Resh05-2-1-BEST.doc Jenkins, D. (2003). The potential of community colleges as bridges to opportunity: Can it be achieved at scale? New York: Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University. Kasper, L.F., & Weiss, S.T. (2005). Building ESL students’ linguistic and academic literacy through content based interclass collaboration. Teaching English in the Two-Year College, 32(3), 282–297. Laufer, B. (2005). Focus on form in second language vocabulary learning. EUROSLA Yearbook, 5(1), 223–250. Lewis, M. (1997). New ways in teaching adults. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Liebowitz, M., & Taylor, J.C. (2004). Breaking through: Helping low-skilled adults enter and succeed in college and careers. Columbus, OH: National Council for Workforce Education. Lim, J. (2001). The effects of different types of instruction: Focus on form study. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 5(2), 253–266. Long, M. H. (2000). Focus on form in task-based language teaching. In R. D. Lambert & E. Shohamy (Eds.), Language policy and pedagogy: Essays in honor of A. Ronald Walton (pp. 179–192). Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Long, M., H., & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 15–41). New York: Cambridge University Press. Middle of the class. [Special section]. (2005, July 16). The Economist, 376 (8435), 9-13. Morest, V.S. (2004). The role of community colleges in state adult education systems: A national analysis. New York: Council for Advancement of Adult Literacy. Moss, D., & Ross-Feldman, L. (2003). Second language acquisition in adults: From research to practice. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved June 16, 2006 from www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/SLA.html Patthey-Chavez, G.G., Dillon, P.H., & Spiegel, J.T. (2005). How far do they get? Tracking students with different academic literacies through community college remediation. Teaching English in the Two Year College, 32(3), 261–277. Price, D., & Jenkins, D. (2005). Building pathways to success for low-skill adult students: Lessons from community college policy and practice from a statewide longitudinal tracking study. New York: Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University. Rance-Roney, J. (1995). Transitioning adult ESL learners to academic programs. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/RANCE.html Rao, D. (2005). What can we learn from developmental reading research in postsecondary education? Research to Practice, 2, National College Transition Network, World Education. Retrieved June 16, 2006 from www.collegetransition.org/promising/rp2.html Santos, M.G. (2004). Some findings on the academic vocabulary skills of language-minority community college students. Focus on Basics, 6(D), 7-9. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from www.ncsall.net/?id=175 So, B.P.C. (2005). From analysis to pedagogic applications: Using newspaper genres to write school genres. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4(1), 67–82. Sticht, T.G., McDonald, B.A., & Erickson, P.R. (1998). Passports to paradise: The struggle to teach and to learn on the margins of adult education. El Cajon, CA: Applied Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, Inc. (ERIC No. ED 418 238). Tyler, J. (2001). What do we know about the economic benefits of the GED? A synthesis of the evidence from recent research. Providence, RI: Brown University. Walker, S., & Strawn, C. (2004). Oregon shines! Adult education and literacy in Oregon community colleges. New York: Council for Advancement of Adult Literacy. This document was produced at the Center for Applied Linguistics (4646 40th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20016 202-362-0700) with funding from the U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), under Contract No. ED-04-CO-0031/0001. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED. This document is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission.	<urn:uuid:c1b6ebbb-5b5c-412e-a31f-2a092ed07e55>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.cal.org/adultesl/resources/briefs/supporting-adult-english-language-learners.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.914795	5,781	2.734375	3
The Formosan rock macaque (Macaca cyclopis) is Taiwan's only monkey species. It isn't difficult to find. An estimated 250,000 macaques roam the foothills and mountains; troupes vary in size from around 20 to 50 or more individuals. Females outnumber males but the ratio is usually less than two to one. These creatures, which weigh between five and 18kg and measure 35 to 45cm long (body only; the tail is another 30-odd cm) prefer mixed forest to bamboo or grasslands. Occasionally they're hunted for meat. Many farmers consider macaques a pest because they steal fruit, sweet potatoes and other foods. In captivity - some people keep them as pets - they live up to 30 years.	<urn:uuid:7c6ec4c3-1f57-4fdd-abd0-6098dbfd539a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://bradttaiwan.blogspot.com/2010/03/formosan-macaque.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952001	155	2.953125	3
innodb_log_file_size determines the size of the redo log. In short, this is a temporary storage zone on disk where data changes are buffered before being inserted in the actual table data files. It also stores temporary data that may be generated during the course of a transaction. The first, most obvious advantage of this buffer is that it mitigates the problem of random writes, which is what would happen otherwise in a typical real-life situation. Writes in the redo log are done sequentially, which is quicker. Randomly located changes may be committed to the actual data tables at a later time, when, hopefully, the activity decreases. The second advantage is it provides protection against data corruption in case of crash. Since a coherent version of the data (almost) always exists, either in the data table, or in the redo log, the risk of data corruption is lowered, since it should alwys be possible to restore the database to a coherent state. Other mechanisms exist on top of this one for the same purpose (eg. double-buffering) As the manual puts it: Sensible values range from 1MB to 1/N-th of the size of the buffer pool, where N is the number of log files in the group. (...) The larger the value, the less checkpoint flush activity is needed in the buffer pool, saving disk I/O. Larger log files also make crash recovery slower. innodb_log_buffer_size defines the size of the memory buffer where data is stored before being flushed to the redo log. The larger the better, but make sure to leave enough memory for other buffers. Also, I do not think there is a point in allocating more than the total redo log size (ie. Books the size of a dictionary can be written about database tuning, this cannot be addressed here. This manual page is a good starting point. If you have identified a specific bottleneck, please come back with relevant information and I (we) will be happy to help you.	<urn:uuid:c6dad256-e615-45b8-83ad-6f271da73b4f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://dba.stackexchange.com/questions/44682/how-important-are-mysqls-innodb-logs	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.910498	427	2.8125	3
CCS Noon Lecture Series. "Seals and the Sources of Chinese Buddhism" Stamp seals, both as physical objects and especially as metaphors, are nearly everywhere in Buddhism. This is easy to understand: seals had long been central to the practices of the civilizations, Indian and Chinese most prominently, in which Buddhism took on its most powerfully influential cultural forms. In this talk I will explore the broad history of religious seal practice in which ninth and tenth century Chinese Buddhist ritualists compiled versions of a manual for the making and use of Buddhist talismanic seals found among the Dunhuang manuscripts. - Courses & Registration - Wolverine Access Tutorials - Academic Calendar Knowing the Expectations for Your Degree - Choosing a Major - Cross-Campus Transfers - Transfer Student Programming	<urn:uuid:8e470bbc-9028-46b6-b1f5-0e4f33199a10>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.lsa.umich.edu/vgn-ext-templating/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=d706a199375c0410VgnVCM100000c2b1d38dRCRD&vgnextchannel=fdc16e03c75e6310VgnVCM100000c2b1d38dRCRD&vgnextfmt=detail	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938492	164	2.6875	3
Art students at El Centro College have the opportunity to create on site installations around campus. Some wall drawing installations have been created by the advanced drawing classes with an emphasis on drawing. The assignment involves dealing with the texture and surface of the wall as a drawing ground. It is a collaborative endeavor since each wall has a group of students working on it. Collaboration can be facilitated by the open exchange of ideas, review of one another’s preliminary sketches and keeping the lines of communication open as the project progresses. The wall installations should exhibit the students' grasp of the fundamentals of drawing and design. The 3-D Design class has also experimented with installation work with interactive work that engages the physical environment of the campus. The Digital Media class incorporates a mixed media approach to their installation work incorporating projected digital images onto a variety of surfaces. 3-D Design Installation outside Student Center	<urn:uuid:e0d9fe48-8550-4d69-8afc-c42d6bf9ee89>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.elcentrocollege.edu/programs/student-installations	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947389	178	2.6875	3
The Marmota vancouverensis , as it is known by scientists , is found only in the mountainous regions of British Columbia and Vancouver Island . These animals usually prefer an open area with soft soil that is good for burrowing, plentiful herbs and forbs to eat, and suitable rocks to perch on. Most colonies of these animals are found on elevations higher than 1000m. All a marmot needs for shelter is a burrow -- nearly all colonies of marmots live in large underground burrows where hibernation takes place. Marmots prefer mountainous regions for their rocks, soil and plentiful amounts of plants to eat. In 5 cases of ear-tagged marmots, research showed that the maximum movement was around 7 kilometres, but only around 30% would go this far. Most marmots would not wander off very far from their colonies, as this would leave them in danger of predators, like bears. The Vancouver island marmot has sometimes been called an oversized cat, as its appearance is very similar to one. The Marmot usually weighs around 3-7 kilograms and is usually about 28 inches or 70 cm long. Marmots are the largest of the squirrel family and all marmots build elaborate underground tunnels, hibernate during the winter and feed off grass and flowers. The animal can be distinguished easily from their brethren by their rich chocolate coloured fur and white patches as shown in the diagram below. Distinctive white and brown patches can be found on the shoulders, head, underside and the top portion of the snout and legs. They are characterised by their blunt snout ending in a flat black nose. Their eyes are small and allow for monocular vision. The legs are short and end in long, sharp claws. The feet can be used to grasp food and other objects, and the tail is bushy and squirrel-like. A male marmot is usually slightly heavier than a female and its life expectancy is around 10 years. There are usually 3-4 pups in a litter, and about a year between the birth of litters. Marmots are usually born around late May to June, and they hibernate from Mid-September until early June. During the summer they accumulate fat reserves, which total 20% of their body weight. This is what they live off while hibernating for several months. Marmots usually die while they are in hibernation, as this is when they are their weakest. Only 54% of juvenile marmots survive their first winter. They feed on green grasses and flowers that grow on mountain slopes. Interestingly, they are nicknamed 'whistlers', because when an enemy approaches a colony of marmots, a 'lookout marmot' will usually be perched on a rock and see the approaching enemy. It will then let out a shriek to warn its fellow marmots. After hearing the warning sound, the colony of marmots rush back into their burrows for safety.	<urn:uuid:3ffb6bb6-7f47-4aac-b6d6-6d87d4639886>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://everything2.com/title/Vancouver+Island+Marmot	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958751	615	4.09375	4
To view this page, you should have the most recent Java installed 32-bit JRE (Java Runtime Environment) 1.8.0_92. Use the Firefox browser for best results. This Applet will run online in your browser, but it is a hybrid you can also download, install and run it on your own machine as standalone application. It will start and run faster if you do that. It will also work safely even if you have disabled Java in your browser. A TimeZone is a Java class for a region of the earth that keeps the same time. Spelling is chaotic. The Java class is spelled precisely TimeZone. When you see that spelling on this website, you know I am referring to the Java class. Authorities say that time zone, timezone and time-zone are all correct. You will more frequently see timezone in the USA and time-zone in Britain, however, I have discovered from study Google hits, that most people including the Americans and Brits use time zone. I attempt to use the time zone spelling consistently on this web site. What are Time Zones If the people in a given time zone keep different time in summer and winter, everyone is the region flips together. The TimeZone class describes the offset from UTC (Coordinated Universal Time/Temps Universel Coordonné) in summer and winter time and when the flips occur of a given time zone. To get the default TimeZone adjusted for the user’s location: In ordinary use, a time zone is a region of the earth that keeps the same winter time. They may or may not all flip to summer time at the same time and some parts may not flip at all. TimeZone Names and Offsets The names for time zones used in Java comes from a database maintained by Arthur David Olson. For reasons only he understands, Pacific Standard Time is The reason that local time is different at different spots on the earth is a The earth rotates on its axis. The earth rotates counter-clockwise when viewed looking down on the north The earth rotates west to east. The sun rises in the east and sets in the In natural time, noon is when the sun is highest in the sky. This happens at one instant each day and at a different instant each day for each degree of People back east get up earlier and go to bed The reason we have time zones is to make synchronising railway (and later airline and TV) schedules easier. If we used natural time, based on observing the instant the sun were highest in the sky, every town would have its own slightly different clock from its immediate neighbours. This is how things used to be done in the days of the stagecoach. You will see many different ways of specifying a time zone, including: UTC relative UTC-8 Here is a list of available TimeZones: Java Requirements and Troubleshooting is a Java Applet (that can also be run as an application) You are welcome to install it on your own website. If it does not work… If Copy/Paste (Ctrl-C/Ctrl-V) do not work, you can turn them back on by modifying your java.policy file. This is not for the novice or faint of heart. instructions Your alternative is to download this program and run it without a browser. In the Java Control Panel security tab, click Start ⇒ Control Panel ⇒ Programs ⇒ Java ⇒ Security, configure medium security to allow self-signed and vanilla unsigned applets to run. If medium is not available, or if Java security is blocking you from running the program, configure high security and add http://mindprod.com to the Exception Site List at the bottom of the security tab. Often problems can be fixed simply by clicking the reload button on your browser. Make sure the Java in your browser is enabled in the security tab of the Java Control panel. Click Start ⇒ Control Panel ⇒ Programs ⇒ Java ⇒ Security ⇒ Enable Java Content in the browser. This Java Applet (that can also be run as an application) needs 32-bit or 64-bit Java 1.8 or later. For best results use the latest 1.8.0_92 Java. It works under any operating system that supports Java e.g. W2K, XP, W2003, Vista, W2008, W7-32, W7-64, W8-32, W8-64, W2012, W10-32, W10-64, Linux, LinuxARM, LinuxX86, LinuxX64, Ubuntu, Solaris, SolarisSPARC, SolarisSPARC64, SolarisX86, SolarisX64 and OSX You should see the Applet hybrid above looking much like this If you don’t, the following hints should help you get it working: Especially if this Applet hybrid has worked before, try clearing the browser cache and rebooting. To ensure your Java is up to date, check with Wassup. First, download it and run it as an application independent of your browser, then run it online as an Applet to add the complication of your browser. If the above Applet hybrid does not work, check the Java console for error messages. If the above Applet hybrid does not work, you might have better luck with the downloadable version available below. If you are using Mac OS X and would like an improved Look and Feel, download the QuaQua look & feel UnZip the contained quaqua.jar and install it in ~/Library/Java/Extensions or one of the other ext dirs. Click the Information bar, and then click Allow blocked content. Unfortunately, this also allows dangerous ActiveX code to run. However, you must do this in order to get access to perfectly-safe Java Applets running in a sandbox. This is part of Microsoft’s war on Java. Try upgrading to a more recent version of your browser, or try a different browser e.g. Firefox, SeaMonkey, IE or Avant. If you still can’t get the program working click the red HELP button below for more detail. If you can’t get the above Applet hybrid working after trying the advice above and from the red HELP button below, have bugs to report or ideas to improve the program or its documentation, please send me an email at. Add column 1 in hours to UTC to get local standard time. Add column 2 in hours to UTC to get local daylight saving time. when you want no time zone at all. Use Asia/Riyadh for Arabia Standard Time. Asia/Riyadh87, Asia/Riyadh88 and Asia/Riyadh89 are 3 hours and 7 minutes east of UTC. This is the offset used in 1987 to 1989. Actually it was 3 hours 7 minutes and 4 seconds to approximate solar time. Prior to 1950 they used 3:06:52. In the period 1951— 1986 and 1990 onward they used a simple 3 hour difference. In Islamic tradition, the day starts at sunset. Note how much many aliases there are for the same time zone. I speculate there are two reasons for this: To anticipate some geographical region adopting a quirky daylight saving rule in future. There would be no need adjust to a new split time zone to adopt the new rule. Only the tables built into Java would need to be adjusted. It makes it easier for people to find their own time zone. They need find only a nearby city without having to consult a map to find a distant city on the same longitude. Often they can find their own city directly. Timezone names never contain spaces. They use underscores, e. g. America/Los_Angeles. In Linux, make sure /etc/sysconfig/clock use official underscore names. Use UTC rather that GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) for the base time used internally. GMT is London civil time and has a DST (Daylight Saving Time) correction in summer. UTC huh not CUT? It was a weird compromise acronym half way between French and English. GMT stands for GMT. You can find out the current time at any place on the globe at WorldTimeServer.com. It will tell you the offset from UTC, but not the time zone name. huh not CUT? It was a weird compromise acronym half way between French and English. Unfortunately, you can’t extract the rules about when daylight savings go into effect from a TimeZone object. I suppose if you were patient you could deduce them by binary search on inDaylightTime. You could also study the code that is used to construct all the TimeZone objects in rt.jar, or the various locale jars and decompile and parse that to extract the information. Switch days are decided politically so can change erratically, especially in the USA, albeit with advance notice. In ancient Rome, one could bribe officials to have months lengthened or shortened, so we have made progress. Olson Timezone Database An ordinary citizen, David Olson has maintained a database of timezone and DST trivia that was used by the entire computing community. It was a much bigger job than you might imagine. Have a look at some of the changes in 2011. He has retired his server because a mean-spirited astrology company, Astrolabe, sued him distributing data free they sell. This information is clearly in the public domain. It is no secret when DST stops and starts and how far off UTC each spot on earth was at various times in the past. He did not have the resources to fight back. So for now, there is no one keeping track! Perhaps Anonymous could punish Astrolabe for this evil deed. Perhaps Oracle could sue them for selling their timezone data. These turkeys attempted to screw Microsoft, Oracle, AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph), the airlines, the railroads and every operating system/computer program that deals with local time. They all rely directly or indirectly on the Olson tables. All went well and Astrolabe was handily defeated.	<urn:uuid:9d57c722-a622-4b1f-a968-749efa6df412>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mindprod.com/jgloss/timezone.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.886036	2,220	2.765625	3
¿Qué es Depression? Depression or major depressive disorder can be characterized by feelings of sadness, fatigue, low self-esteem, trouble concentrating, hopelessness, and loss of interest and pleasure in normally enjoyed activities. Many people may experience these feelings occasionally, but depressive disorders are persistent and interfere with health and everyday life. Treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, and medications. The most common antidepressant treatments include SSRIs, SNRIs, atypical antidepressants, tricyclic antidepressants, and MAOIs. Puntos de ahorros para Depression see all savings tips June 02, 2016 The FDA has issued a safety alert for olanzapine (Zyprexa), an antipsychotic medication used to treat mental health disorders. According to the FDA, medications containing olanzapine may cause a rare but serious skin reaction that can spread to affect other parts of the body—and even lead to death. What type of skin reaction can olanzapine cause? Olanzapine can cause a skin reaction known as Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms (DRESS). See More May 19, 2016 There are many medications on the market that have very similar names, which can sometimes be confusing for you, your pharmacist, and your doctor. One example is Brintellix (an anti-depressant) and Brilinta (a blood thinner). Especially since they treat such different conditions, confusing these two prescriptions can cause big problems—and could even be life-threatening. To lower the risk of mixing these two up, and to decrease prescribing and dispensing mistakes, the FDA just approved a name change for Brintellix. See More May 18, 2016 You and your healthcare provider have decided it’s time to wean off your antidepressant and now you wonder: what is the best way to stop? Does taking it slow make more sense than cold turkey? What symptoms might I feel? First: the “discontinuation syndrome” is worse when you stop your antidepressant abruptly. This may include dizziness, nausea, fatigue, muscle aches, chills, anxiety, and irritability. See More Medicamentos de Depression Populares see all 47 drugs Note: Popularity is based on total prescriptions for the brand and generic versions of each drug, regardless of the condition being treated. Some drugs are prescribed for multiple conditions.	<urn:uuid:4342e7f7-688a-4912-abfa-0b13d84ec7f3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://es.goodrx.com/depression	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.898469	520	2.6875	3
Bringing life and hope to Zimbabwe through song During Mtukudzi’s lifetime, Zimbabweans have struggled through a long war for independence from British and minority white rule, a vicious AIDS epidemic, explosive bouts of political violence, hyperinflation, hunger and a cholera crisis. In a career spanning 30 years or so, Mtukudzi’s gift for addressing the most taboo of subjects through his music and lyrics has led him to being described as a moral guardian, a Shona prophet, a national hero. “I think as artists – be it musicians, sculptors, dancers, poets, actors and so on – our purpose is to give life and hope to the people,” Mtukudzi told us in a recent interview. “People never acquire hope if there’s no art, so it’s our duty to do that. That’s what we’re born for.” One of Mtukudzi’s most famous songs, “Tapera (We are Decimated)” targets men and questions their sexual behaviour. It was released in the early 2000s as the HIV prevalence rate was hitting its peak of around 24 percent of Zimbabwe’s adult population. “I wrote that song when we in Zimbabwe were struggling to defeat the stigma attached to the deadly disease of AIDS,” Mtukudzi recalled. Another Mtukudzi classic, “Todii”, asks Zimbabweans what they shall do to combat AIDS. Sung in a mixture of Shona and English, the song includes the lines: “How painful it is to look after someone you know is going to die/ When they have AIDS”. Although Zimbabwe has been successful in almost halving its HIV prevalence rate, Tuku as he is known back home cautioned against complacency. “We need to let people understand that it doesn’t take an organisation or a government, it takes you (to tackle it),” he said. “It starts with you. What are you doing? Are you safe? And if you’re (HIV) positive, are you keeping it to yourself?” For the full interview, click here Photo caption: Zimbabwean musician Oliver Mtukudzi plays his guitar in London, August 15, 2012. Photo courtesy of David Mbiyu/sixoone MEDIA	<urn:uuid:a936e69f-ebe2-4405-9f6d-0f57baf56488>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blogs.reuters.com/the-human-impact/2012/09/04/bringing-life-and-hope-to-zimbabwe-through-song/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968303	508	2.5625	3
Scientists have smashed preconceived notions of brain function in the field of conducting tasks that involve spatial processing//, such as, preparing to move when a traffic light turns green. Researcher Eric Schumacher, assistant professor of psychology at the Georgia Institute of Technology and colleagues, were surprised when they conducted MRI brain scans of their subjects during an experiment. The researchers were testing the notion that areas of the brain involved in tasks of spatial processing, which are the superior parietal cortex, known for its involvement in spatial attention, and the premotor cortex, known for planning movements, are activated before the prefrontal cortex, which is known for its role in decision-making. Admitting that he found the notion wrong, Schumacher says: "We found that all of these regions began to activate when the subjects prepared to do the task, even the prefrontal, which is the region that makes the decision on what to do. "Activating the decision-making region even before the stimulus is presented seems to allow for a quicker response, it allows the brain to get a running start." The experiment was carried out by loading the subjects into an MRI scanner. They were then shown a disk on a screen, and prompted to press a button, when needed. The subjects had two different tasks to perform, one labeled easy, and one hard. During the easy task, subjects were asked to push a button using the fingers of their left hand if the disk appeared on the left of the screen and their right hand if the disk appeared on the right. The hard task was manually incompatible, so that if the disk appeared on the left, they were to push the buttons using their right hand and vice-versa. Sometimes a visual cue prompted them that they were about to perform the hard or the easy task, sometimes it did not. When the tasks were cued, all three regions of the brain increased their a ctivity. When there was no cue, there was less activity. Says Schumacher, “My research suggests that preparation for an upcoming change and appropriate responses involves the same brain regions that are involved in actually carrying out the action.” The findings were published in the online journal Brain Research. AN Related medicine news :1 . Treating Stroke Patients in Rural Areas2 . UN Formulates Action Plan for Relief to Recovery in Quake-hit Areas of Pakistan3 . Lack Of Communication Between Brain Areas Can Cause Autism4 . Mortality Rates Due To Heart Diseases Is High In Rural Areas Too5 . New Healthcare Scheme For Rural Areas Launched6 . Assam Recruits Doctors to Serve in Rural Areas7 . Malaria Claimes 60 Lives In Terai, Dooars Areas8 . Study Finds That Brain Areas Of People With Autism Do Not Work In Coordination9 . Study Links Children Living In Isolated Rural Areas With A Higher Risk Of Cancer10 . Vibriosis Outbreak Leads To Shut Down Of More Oyster Growing Areas11 . India Launches A Massive Campaign Against HIV/AIDS In Rural Areas	<urn:uuid:6239d61c-3332-4f6c-a0cc-792c724d85f9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news/Same-Areas-of-the-Brain-Prepare-for-and-Respond-to-a-Stimulus--Say-Experts-18832-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953876	629	3.359375	3
Architectural Graphics Third Edition By Francis D.K. Ching "Graphics is an inseparable part of the design process," says Francis D.K. Ching, "an important tool that provides the designer with the means not only of presenting a design proposal, but also of communicating with oneself and others in the design studio." In his newly revised and expanded Third Edition of Architectural Graphics, Mr. Ching shows the student how to use graphic tools and drafting conventions to translate architectural ideas into effective visual representation. This Third Edition expands upon the wealth of illustrations and instruction that made this title a must-have for every beginning student of architecture and design. This classic guide has a new upright format, and covers: * Essential drafting principles * Architectural conventions for orthographic, paraline, and perspective drawings * Shade and shadow * Graphic symbols and lettering * Freehand sketching and diagramming * Presentation layouts Under the sure-handed guidance of Mr. Ching, you will develop the acute visual and manual skills that form the core of graphic communication. Here you will learn: * More precise ways of using line weight variation and tonal values to show depth * How to draw section views of building interiors * How to construct perspectives and accurate shade and shadows Clearly and beautifully, Architectural Graphics, Third Edition, demystifies the complexity of architectural concepts by presenting them in an intuitive graphic manner. Back to top Rent Architectural Graphics 3rd edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Francis D. K. Ching. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Wiley. Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now.	<urn:uuid:9f7dfa8d-a1d6-43e1-ba14-94da33c0931c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/architectural-graphics-3rd-edition-9780471287537-0471287539?ii=20&trackid=ebbe8463&omre_ir=1&omre_sp=	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.901942	359	2.609375	3
I apologize if this is a naive question, but I never really learned about this. I'm curious as to what happens to sound waves after they are "used"? For example, if I say something to you verbally, then a sound wave is transmitted and picked up by your ears, but what happens to the wave after that? Does it float away into space? And if sound waves are never destroyed (not saying that is the case, but if it is), does this theoretically mean we can reproduce or attain all sound waves from the history of man, including every word ever spoken? No, It's not possible. Sound ultimately transforms into heat energy. You can not reproduce all the useful and useless sounds from history. In general all energy is ultimately converted to heat energy and heat energy flows from an object at higher temperature to an object at lower temperature in order to attain thermal equilibrium. Just one more aspect to consider is the comparison with the electromagnetic waves from radio and TV broadcasts. One could ask the analogous question here:"what happens to them?" The answer is that some were broadcast also into space (when transmitters were entirely undirectional) and so are still available for reception, albeit only by aliens light years away and very attenuated. Sound waves stay on Earth in the atmosphere, and become part of that atmospheric motion, which is gaseous motion. This motion exists because there is a non-zero temperature for the atmosphere (say 300K). So the sound wave attenuation will reduce the given wave intensity, and corresponding particle motion, and corresponding air pressure difference (which is sound) below that of the ambient atmosphere. In a good (outdoor or indoor) auditorium the sound can last for longer and travel further, but eventually it will reach the general level of atmospheric noise. So I suppose that with sound (unlike with EM waves in space) one could say that the medium ultimately destroys the message. To supplement sb1's answer I would like you to think the same question about waves of the sea, even if directional, like the wake of a boat. Sound is waves of motion of all the particles that compose the air, similar to the waves of the sea. The shape and energy that the waves of the sea carry become finally thermal motion of the water, the air, and the sand if they break on a beach. protected by Qmechanic♦ Jan 31 '13 at 8:27 Thank you for your interest in this question. Because it has attracted low-quality or spam answers that had to be removed, posting an answer now requires 10 reputation on this site (the association bonus does not count). Would you like to answer one of these unanswered questions instead?	<urn:uuid:b2dd8e9e-ac44-4b86-808b-03a924cc80c7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/7324/what-happens-to-sound-waves	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954753	553	2.890625	3
Peg-A-Number Fact Game Peg-A-Number Fact is a fun maths game that allows kids to practise basic numbers sums and encourage the use of strategies to solve maths problems. It focuses on the idea of making a number using two different numbers, an addition or a subtraction of two numbers to get the same answer, which can be done with a number of combinations. For example 1 and 9 makes 10, 2 and 8 makes 10, 3 and 7 makes 10 and so on. Miss 6 has been working on subtraction and addition in class and I wanted to support her learning that wouldn’t involve me just writing a list of sums with pen and paper. Peg-A-Number Fact Game also allows her to complete these sums over and over again, increasing confidence and awareness of number patterns. There are addition and subtraction sums on the front and back of each peg so there are many variations. To make the Peg-A-Numbers Game you will need wooden pegs, coloured paint (optional), white sticker labels, a fine black pen and the printable number cards. Download and print your own here: Printable Peg-a-Number Facts Cards Painting the wooden pegs is optional but I wanted to make the pegs more colourful and fun. - Great for increasing mental arithmetic with basic addition and subtraction sums. - Develop an understanding that quantity can be thought of as being composed of parts for example 10+5=15, 9+6=15 and 8+7=15. - Understand the meaning and connections between counting, number partitions, addition and subtraction. - Recognise and use patterns in the way numbers are written to help calculate. - Develop and use a number of counting, concrete and other strategies to solve basic number sums.	<urn:uuid:fb19570a-aaf6-4ba1-8cb1-1b400b4e0f7a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.learning4kids.net/2012/09/26/peg-a-number-fact-game/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.922551	370	3.828125	4
Plagiarism, which is a violation of the Honor Code, is presenting as one’s own the writing or research of others. Three devices used to avoid plagiarism are quotation marks, citations, and lists of Works Cited. Quotation marks must be used to acknowledge all direct (word-for-word) quotations, no matter how short, especially of striking words and phrases. For long quotations (usually four lines or more) indentation of the quoted lines is a standard substitute for quotation marks. Neither quotation marks nor citations are used when both the idea and its wording come from the student’s own mind, as the products of creative thought. Citations are also not required when the statement is common knowledge. Common knowledge is to be understood as those easily verifiable facts available in the experience of educated persons and in a standard desk dictionary (e.g., the birth and death dates of a prominent person cited in a biographical entry in a standard dictionary or encyclopedia). But common knowledge does not include the content of encyclopedia articles, for these are often original scholarly works, sometimes even signed by the author; encyclopedia articles must therefore be documented if used. In a particular field of study, common knowledge may have a wider application; it may include, for example, certain basic assumptions regarding textual criticism in Biblical studies, even though the same assumptions would not be common knowledge in another field. Note that all borrowings from electronic sources—for example, from CD-ROMs, email, or the World Wide Web—must be acknowledged like other primary and secondary sources. Consult the Rhetoric handbook or ask your instructor about the proper form for such documentation. Properly formed citations with a list of Works Cited in correct Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), or Chicago bibliographic form at the end of the essay must be used to acknowledge the source of direct quotations; of any borrowed fact, idea, or concept; or of any copied table, chart, diagram, or other arrangement of facts or statistics (see the Rhetoric Program handbook for details about the different documentation styles). Similarly, proper documentation is necessary for material from sources that is paraphrased or summarized (note that paraphrase means “to put entirely in one’s own words,” not merely to alter a word or two here and there). On some occasions for a particular assignment, a professor may allow her or his students to omit documentation, especially if the assignment specifies the sources to be used. Those students, however, must not assume that such allowance permits them to ignore on other occasions the standard practices of documentation in writing and scholarship. Every writer should keep in mind that his or her name as author on a paper, whether submitted to a professor in a course or to an editor for publication, is an implicit claim to full authorship of the contents; readers have the right to expect authors to point out any exceptions to full authorship. When in doubt, always acknowledge the source or ask your professor for assistance. All work submitted to a professor is considered pledged work, whether or not the submitted work will receive a grade. “Draft” work refers to work that is currently in the process of being written and has not yet been formally submitted to a professor. Some professors require that early versions of a paper be formally submitted before a final submitted version is graded. While professors may refer to these versions as “drafts” in syllabi, assignment sheets, or spoken comments, these submitted papers are not considered “drafts” by the Honor Court; they are considered pledged work since they have been formally submitted to a professor. The Court considers a “draft” to be student work that has not been submitted to a professor. For example, if a student brings a draft to a professor for consultation before that draft is formally submitted in any way, the discovery of incorrectly attributed or cited content in the draft by the professor is not grounds for referral to the student justice system. Should a student be referred to the student justice system at this point in the drafting process, the following procedure will occur: a representative of the Honor Court will meet with both the student and the professor and explain that if this document, in its current form, were formally submitted in any way, it would most likely be considered plagiarism by the Court. Professors have discretion in deciding whether to refer cases of apparent plagiarism to the student justice system when students formally submit earlier versions of an assignment before a final version is to be collected and graded. The reason for this discretion is that, because of the nature of the assignment and the sequential way in which it is being submitted (that is, an assignment’s being submitted in several versions or parts over a period of time, rather than all at once), the individual professor is best able to determine the context of apparent plagiarism. For example, if a student seems genuinely to have made a clumsy error in this early version of a paper, the professor may simply notify him of the error—with the warning that this error or others like it in future submissions may be referred to the student justice system. Alternately, if the apparent plagiarism does not appear to be the result of an error—for example, a student’s purchasing a paper online and submitting it as his own work—the professor may immediately refer the student to the student justice system. Once a student has been referred to the student justice system because of an issue detected in submitted work—as opposed to “draft” work as described above—the student justice system will follow the normal procedures of bringing cases to trial.	<urn:uuid:ee5333f0-483b-4486-bd10-f26e5fe9fcc4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.hsc.edu/Student-Life/The-Key-Student-Handbook/IV-Rules-Governing-Student-Life/Student-Justice-System/Appendices-of-Justice-System/Plagiarism.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947528	1,157	3.203125	3
A diaphragm (or iris or iris diaphragm) is a mechanism in a camera that makes a variable aperture to control the amount of light that passes through the lens and exposes the film or image sensor. A diaphragm may take many forms, from very simple devices for "point-and-shoot" film cameras consisting of just two notched pieces of metal, to more complex ones used in higher-quality cameras which have many blades arranged in a circle. This arrangement, also called an "iris" after the corresponding structure in the eye, creates a nearly-circular aperture whose size can be varied as needed. There may be as few as 5 blades to as many as 19. In cameras with a small number of diaphragm blades, the shape of the aperture itself (a pentagon or hexagon) can sometimes be seen in pictures taken towards a strong light source, like the sun. Usually aperture size control is aided by an f-stop scale.	<urn:uuid:ccd4304f-5b14-4b8f-87a3-04dbc317dbaf>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://camerapedia.wikia.com/wiki/Diaphragm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00162-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952173	205	3.4375	3
In Spanish you may omit the subject (in this case, ustedes) when the verb hints at it (sujeto tácito), so the commonly used form is the following: ¿Hicieron su tarea de hoy? ¿Hicieron su tarea para hoy??. Let me explain the difference with another example: ¿Construyeron el muro para María? means to ask if the wall built was intended for María or not, while ¿Construyeron el muro de María? means to ask if María's wall was indeed built. With this in mind, you can now see that the alternative in gray is asking whether [they] did their homework intending it for today, rather than if [they] did today's homework or not. In reality, both questions will be perfectly understood, it's just that one is not entirely correct. Regarding your question about why su tarea and not The first part ( hicieron [ustedes]) is plural, but the direct object su tarea is singular because tarea is commonly used as a collective word (just as you don't say Let me pose a different example for this: - ¿Tienes tu llave? // Do you [one person] have your key? - ¿Tienes tus llaves? // Do you [one person] have your keys? ^ Here it is clear that the individual subject is asked first for a single key and then for multiple keys. - ¿Tienen su llave? // Do you [people] have your key? ^ Even with plural subject, it is clear that the question asks for everyone to have exactly one key (i.e., singular direct object). - ¿Tienen sus llaves? // Do you [people] have your keys? Please note that this last question is now (slightly) ambiguous in both languages. It could mean to ask for one single key per person (they collectively have keys), or it could mean that every individual might have multiple keys. While this is not very surprising, analyzing this could help you understand the translation to Spanish. As a last note, a teacher that left multiple assignments, who wants to clearly emphasize that fact could say: ¿Hicieron sus tareas? Hope this helps :)	<urn:uuid:dd7a65db-1938-4080-813a-eab2c98ee72f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://spanish.stackexchange.com/questions/2103/can-someone-help-deconstruct-the-sentence-hicieron-usted-su-tarea-para-hoy/2108	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.89647	514	3.328125	3
Barriers to Mental Health Services for Children Persist in Greater New Orleans, Although Federal Grants Are Helping to Address Them GAO-09-935T: Published: Aug 4, 2009. Publicly Released: Aug 4, 2009. This testimony discusses the protection of children during disaster recovery and to provide highlights of our July 2009 report entitled Hurricane Katrina: Barriers to Mental Health Services for Children Persist in Greater New Orleans, Although Federal Grants Are Helping to Address Them. The greater New Orleans area has yet to fully recover from the effects of Hurricane Katrina, which made landfall on August 29, 2005. One issue of concern in the recovery is the availability of mental health services for children. In our report, we estimated that in 2008 about 187,000 children were living in the greater New Orleans area--which we defined as Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, and St. Bernard parishes. Many children in the greater New Orleans area experienced psychological trauma as a result of Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath, and studies have shown that such trauma can have long-lasting behavioral, psychological, and emotional effects on children. Poor children in this area may also be at additional risk, because studies have also shown that children who grow up in poverty are at risk for the development of mental health disorders. In 2007 the poverty rate for each of the four parishes in the greater New Orleans area was higher than the national average, and in Orleans and St. Bernard parishes, the rate was at least twice the national average. Experts have found increases in the incidence of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, risk-taking behavior, and somatic and psychosomatic conditions in children who experienced the effects of Hurricane Katrina. In addition, children in greater New Orleans may continue to experience psychological trauma because of the slow recovery of stable housing and other factors, such as the recurring threat of hurricanes. Data collected by Louisiana State University (LSU) Health Sciences Center researchers indicate that of the area children they screened in January 2008, 30 percent met the threshold for a possible mental health referral. Although this was a decrease from the 49 percent level during the 2005-06 school year screening, the rate of decline was slower than experts had expected. Experts have previously identified barriers both to providing and to obtaining mental health services for children. Barriers to providing services are those that affect the ability of health care organizations to provide services, such as a lack of providers; and barriers to obtaining services are those that affect the ability of families to gain access to services, such as concerns regarding the stigma often associated with mental health services for children. The devastation to the health care system in greater New Orleans caused by Hurricane Katrina may have exacerbated such barriers. Stakeholder organizations most frequently identified a lack of mental health providers and sustainability of funding as barriers to providing mental health services to children in the greater New Orleans area, and they most frequently identified a lack of transportation, competing family priorities, and concern regarding stigma as barriers to families' obtaining mental health services for children. A range of federal programs are helping to address these barriers, but much of the funding they provide is temporary. Among the 18 stakeholder organizations that participated in our structured interviews, the most frequently identified barrier to providing mental health services was a lack of providers. With regard to families' ability to obtain services for their children, 12 of the 18 organizations identified lack of transportation as a barrier. A range of federal programs address barriers to mental health services for children in the greater New Orleans area by supporting various state and local efforts--including hiring providers, assisting families, and utilizing schools as delivery sites--but much of the funding is temporary. Funding from several HHS programs has been used to transport children to mental health services. Federal programs also provide funding that is used to alleviate conditions that create competing family priorities--including dealing with housing problems, unemployment, and financial concerns--to help families more easily obtain children's mental health services. Louisiana has used federal funds to help support school-based health centers (SBHC), which have emerged as a key approach in the greater New Orleans area to address barriers to obtaining mental health services for children.	<urn:uuid:3d800b01-4151-479e-8a48-b4566dbf01e6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://gao.gov/products/GAO-09-935T	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961295	836	2.734375	3
No one really knows who made the first hanger and what it may have looked like. Some historians believe the first wooden coat hanger was invented by the third president of the new United States, Thomas Jefferson. He was certainly a prolific inventor having designed an improved wooden plow, a portable copying press, a revolving Windsor chair and many other ingenious items. So this claim does seem quite plausible. What we do know is that throughout most of the 18th century clothing either hung on hooks or was laid flat for storage. It was not until around 1850 that people began using hangers to hang clothes in wardrobes. Victorian women's bustles and skirts needed careful storage and hanger inventors and manufacturers came to their aid with all kinds of adjustable components and spring systems to allow the skirts to retain their pleats and hold the waistbands. Hanger improvement did not stop there and all kinds of new designs began to appear such as travel hangers which collapsed and folded and hangers with extra hooks for belts. Tailors and clothing merchants were quick to see that these specialty hangers could be used to advertise their businesses. By the early 1900s the humble hanger had become indispensable and hundreds of patented designs were registered with the US patent office, some of which can be seen in the accompanying illustrations. The simple wire coat hanger that we are all familiar with today had its origins in a clothes hook patented in 1869 by O. A. North of New Britain, Connecticut. However Albert J. Parkhouse, an employee of Timberlake Wire and Novelty Company in Jackson, Michigan is generally credited with the first real wire coat hanger patent. In 1903 in response to his fellow workers complaints of too few coat hooks he bent a piece of wire into two ovals with the ends twisted together to form a hook. Although Parkhouse patented his invention it is unlikely that he profited from it. We cannot blame Parkhouse for the excess of dry cleaning wire hangers that accumulate in our closets because if he had not invented them someone else surely would have done! Although certainly it would not have been Joan Crawford whose complaint to her daughter Christina in the biographic film ‘Mommie Dearest’ clearly states her view “You live in the most beautiful house in Brentwood and you don't care if your clothes are stretched out from wire hangers”. Here at Displayarama retail store display products, including Hangers & Accessories, are our business and we take store display very seriously. We talk extensively with our customers and learn from their experiences, we talk with our suppliers and we attend international conferences and exhibitions. We really do know the retail business and our objective is to give you the knowledge, advice and price you need to increase your sales and profitability. So why not call us now Toll Free on 800-292-5227 and see how you can benefit. (Article by Jodie Deen, © Displayarama 2004)	<urn:uuid:5b0cb91a-5f61-4c07-a2ef-05e55b6ebfbb>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.displayarama.com/hangers.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977149	603	2.90625	3
Descendant Of White House Slave Shares Legacy ROBERT SIEGEL, host: From NPR News, this is ALL THINGS CONSIDERED. I'm Robert Siegel. MELISSA BLOCK, host: And I'm Melissa Block. At the White House today, an unprecedented visit. Dozens of descendants of a former slave who served at the White House were given a tour. Their ancestor, Paul Jennings, was just 10 years old when he came to the White House as a footman to President James Madison. It was 1809. Jennings was also at the White House in 1814, escaping just before British soldiers arrived to burn it down. And years later, he was at President Madison's side when he died. Hugh Alexander is a great-great-grandson of Paul Jennings. He joins us from the White House. Mr. Alexander, welcome to the program. Mr. HUGH ALEXANDER: Hello there. BLOCK: And how much are you thinking about the weight of history there at the White House, thinking about your great-great-grandfather working as a slave where you are right now? Mr. ALEXANDER: It's really pretty amazing. It's awe-inspiring, I guess. Maybe that's used too much, but it's really an amazing day. BLOCK: And of course, knowing that there's now an African American president in the White House, where your ancestor, who was a slave, worked. Mr. ALEXANDER: That even amplifies the importance. BLOCK: Well, what was the most meaningful moment of your tour today? Mr. ALEXANDER: To actually see the painting of George Washington that my great-great-grandfather played a part in saving. That painting means so much as being one of the key artifacts that's left over from that period. And it's just pretty amazing to actually see it close up. BLOCK: Well, this is an interesting story. This is the famous Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington. And the story has been that Dolly Madison, when the British were coming to burn down the White House, got the painting out of its frame, spirited it away. Your ancestor, Paul Jennings, published a small memoir and he said that story is totally false. What did he say happened? Mr. ALEXANDER: He said that the French cook and another person were instructed to take the frame apart and take the picture down from the walls so that it could be spirited away before the British came to the White House. BLOCK: And that was 195 years ago today in the War of 1812. Mr. ALEXANDER: Yes. And by the way, he was born in 1799, so I guess he was 15 years old when this took place. BLOCK: Wow. Your ancestor, Paul Jennings, bought his freedom when he was 48 years old, I've read. What do you know about his life afterward as a free man? Mr. ALEXANDER: I think that's some of the most important part of his history. Though he had been a slave, he was able to procure his own freedom. In the 1850s he was able to reunite with his three sons and his family that had been left in Virginia. And three of his sons actually served in the Civil War fighting for the freedom of the slaves. BLOCK: Your ancestor, Paul Jennings, in the memoir that he published back in 1865, "A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison," what did you learn from reading that memoir about his relationship with President Madison, what kind of a man - what kind of men they both were? Mr. ALEXANDER: I think that that is really - had some important lessons in it. The idea of slavery and the relationship between slaves and masters is a lot more complicated than commonplace history tries to relate it to people. I think when you read it, you see that there is some respect and I think some love that he feels for his master. But I also am sure that being exposed to the thoughts of Mr. Madison, especially with his role in developing the Constitution, a lot of those ideas rubbed off and I think caused Paul to be the sort of person that he became. BLOCK: As you've been walking through the White House today, what's the conversation been like among the members of your family? Mr. ALEXANDER: Not much conversation. It's just been a lot of wows and oohs and we're really here. And when we stood in front of the painting, I saw a number of the people just stand there in silence just looking. We were able to take a family portrait in front of the painting, which was for me one of the high points. BLOCK: This is the portrait of George Washington… Mr. ALEXANDER: Yes. BLOCK: …by Gilbert Stuart. That's got to be quite a picture. Mr. ALEXANDER: Yeah, I'm waiting to see it. BLOCK: Well, Hugh Alexander, enjoy your time at the White House today. Thanks for talking with us. Mr. ALEXANDER: Thank you so much. BLOCK: That's Hugh Alexander, a descendent of Paul Jennings, who was a slave in President James Madison's White House. NPR transcripts are created on a rush deadline by Verb8tm, Inc., an NPR contractor, and produced using a proprietary transcription process developed with NPR. This text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. Accuracy and availability may vary. The authoritative record of NPR’s programming is the audio record.	<urn:uuid:eb791dc6-b9e5-4049-8905-1e7c27b1d93d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=112182597	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.98225	1,197	2.578125	3
For ancient Egyptians, burning incense was a daily celebration of fragrance, and their favorite incense of all was Kyphi. On a daily basis, the ritualized burning of incense in ancient Egypt consisted of frankincense in the morning, myrrh during the day, and Kapet (Kyphi from the Greek translation) in the evening. According to Egyptologists, Kyphi played an important role as a sacred fragrance in many ceremonies. It was also believed Kyphi could revive the sexuality of the dead. Various Kyphi recipes were made, some using about a dozen ingredients while others included over fifty. Kyphi recipes are inscribed on the walls of the ancient temples of Edfu and Philae, with pictographs of Kyphi being used and recipes for making it. Kyphi produces a beautful full-bodied, rich multi-layered bouquet with a warm, relaxing, sweet, spicy and sensual aroma. Here we present our own recreation of this ancient Egyptian incense. Made of only the finest natural organic and wildcrafted ingredients; red wine, tupelo honey, sultana raisins, storax bark, saffron, sandalwood, aloeswood, frankincense, mastic, benzoin, cardamom seeds, galangal root, lemongrass, rose petals and more. Kyphi is one of our favorite mixtures to heat on !See also our Ancient Incense Prices:	<urn:uuid:3f2740a1-4445-4c06-8ff4-5485d1a0e898>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.scents-of-earth.com/kyphi.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.939128	303	2.609375	3
1937 – First flight of the Dornier Do 24 (K variant shown), a German three-engine flying boat. 1937 – Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan disappear over the Pacific Ocean on a flight from Lae, New Guinea, to Howland Island, and are never seen again. 1941 – Death of Wilhelm Balthasar, German World War II ace; he is killed in action when his Messerschmitt Bf 109F-4 suffers failure of a wing and he crashes into Ferme Goset, Wittes, France, near Saint-Omer. The airframe is recovered in March 2004. 1943 – Birth of Norman Earl Thagard, U.S. Marine Corps combat pilot, American scientist and NASA astronaut; he becomes the first American to ride to space on board a Russian vehicle, thus making him the first American cosmonaut. 1950 – Royal Navy Supermarine Seafires of 800 Naval Air Squadron and Fairey Fireflys of 827 Naval Air Squadron from HMS Triumph fly the first non-U.S. sortie over Korea. 2001 – Vladivostok Air Flight 352, a Tupolev Tu-154, crashes while attempting to land in Irkutsk, Russia, killing all 145 people aboard.	<urn:uuid:a8faa92c-fbfc-4a06-b7a8-ac1745c9f07b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.flightjournal.com/blog/2014/07/03/on-this-day-in-aviation-history-326/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.894489	265	2.8125	3
Scrabble word: ANNEXES In which Scrabble dictionary does ANNEXES exist? Definitions of ANNEXES in dictionaries: - noun - an addition that extends a main building - verb - take (territory) as if by conquest - verb - attach to - verb - to add or attach There are 7 letters in ANNEXES: A E E N N S X All anagrams that could be made from letters of word ANNEXES plus a wildcard: ANNEXES? Scrabble words that can be created with letters from word ANNEXES Images for ANNEXES SCRABBLE is the registered trademark of Hasbro and J.W. Spear & Sons Limited. Our scrabble word finder and scrabble cheat word builder is not associated with the Scrabble brand - we merely provide help for players of the official Scrabble game. All intellectual property rights to the game are owned by respective owners in the U.S.A and Canada and the rest of the world. Anagrammer.com is not affiliated with Scrabble. This site is an educational tool and resource for Scrabble & Words With Friends players.	<urn:uuid:f55ddf81-e31d-423a-a7be-1bcbfc178b92>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.anagrammer.com/scrabble/annexes	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.910969	254	2.671875	3
Building a Garden for Learning to Grow While half of a troop in Plano, Texas decided to devote their Silver Award project to tutoring kids in an after school program, the other half spent their time building a learning garden to teach younger kids about plants. The process of splitting the troop into two projects reflected the girl’s longstanding ability to make decisions as a group and meet the needs of each troop member. “Everyone had a homework assignment to find a place they might want to help and then we narrowed it down to three or four places that we toured,” said troop member Jessica Martinez. “We then voted on which ones we wanted to help, and it just worked out that we wanted to help two different places.” Once the decisions about the organizations were made, the girls began planning the project. For the garden group, the goal was to build a garden at a learning center that could be used to teach the students. “We divided the tasks and did a bunch of pre-planning,” said troop member Sara McRae. “It was pretty easy to coordinate and we worked well together because we have worked together for a long time.” The girls visited the learning center a second time to meet with the teachers and get a sense for the space. When they came back the next time, it was to build the planters for the garden. “That was a long, hard day and it kind of got exhausting,” said Jessica. “We were able to encourage each other and pick each other back up again and again by focusing on who we were doing this for – we were motivated to finish so that the next time we could work with the kids in the garden.” When the planters were finished, the girls came back to teach the kids about gardening, where the hours of planning and building paid off. “I loved helping all of the kids,” said Sara. “We showed them how to plant and water and we pointed out the different vegetables. I felt very excited and happy that we were making the facility more inspirational for the kids.” The hands on experience with the kids also taught the girls lessons. “It was an awakening for me because the kids are so grateful for every little thing we do for them,” said Jessica. “We provided them with garden gloves and one kid even slept with them on so he would be able to plant the next day.” “Even though they are young and have a limited understanding of gardening, we could tell it touched them and it was meaningful to them to have us there,” said Sara, adding, “I just think it’s really important to know how much the smallest things like this inspire kids and make their lives a little brighter.” You can read about the other the Silver Award project completed by the other half of this troop here.	<urn:uuid:0bb50ad0-f913-4be3-ac52-05424470ca1c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://forgirls.girlscouts.org/building-a-garden-for-learning-to-grow/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.985402	605	2.765625	3
When Did People Reach South America? Wednesday, March 20, 2013 SERRA DA CAPIVARA NATIONAL PARK, BRAZIL—Sharp-edged stones, found at Brazil’s Toca da Tira Peia rock shelter, have been dated to 22,000 years ago using luminescence techniques. Geochronologist Christelle Lahaye of the University of Bordeaux and archaeologist Eric Boёda of the University of Paris think that the stones are tools made by humans. “We have new, strong evidence that the Clovis-first model is out of date,” said Lahaye. Similar tools have been found at Chile’s Monte Verde site. Tom Dillehay of Vanderbilt University estimates that Monte Verde was settled by 14,000 years ago, and perhaps as early as 33,000 years ago. The Toca da Tira Peia rock shelter is located in the same national park as the Pedra Furada rock shelter, where sharp-edged stone tools and bits of burned wood have been dated to 50,000 years ago. If people were living in South America at this time, “this is the type of archaeological record we might expect: ephemeral and lightly scattered material in local shelters,” commented Dillehay. Pirates of the Caribbean, evidence for the oldest Irishman, Iron Age Swiss cheese, India’s cannabis frescoes, and the Silk Road route to Nepal	<urn:uuid:ab09ec42-da7b-4fd5-8525-c963bd38c432>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.archaeology.org/news/683-130320-south-america-migration-toca-da-tira-peia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.948321	303	3.53125	4
William Booth, founder and first "General" of the Salvation Army (originally the Christian Mission) and Catherine Booth, its "Mother," are buried in the cemetery occupying what was once the estate of Sir Thomas Abney; Abney was a Nonconformist who became the Lord Mayor of London in 1700-1. The cemetery, one of the so-called "Magnificent Seven" which were established to provide final resting-places for Londoners, was opened in 1840 and covers 30 acres. Its entrance, with "lodges and piers in the form of Egyptian pylons" (Rutherford 21) and a little Gothic chapel were designed by William Hosking (1800-1861), later the first Professor of Architecture at King's College, London. The cemetery, which had been neglected, is now being restored as an important green area for people and wildlife alike in this part of London.. About 30% of the burials here were Protestant dissenters (Weinreb 138). Amongst these were William and Catherine Booth, whose evangelical mission reached out to the poor, whether or not they were "deserving," and whose work continues all over the world to this day. Catherine Booth's designation as "mother" of the organisation is significant, because she promoted the idea that wives could combine their domestic responsibilities with work in the wider world (see Ball 692). - The Origin and Early Development of the Salvation Army in Victorian England - William Booth: Founder of the Salvation Army - Catherine Mumford Booth: The "Mother" of the Salvation Army and an Early Christian Feminist - William and Catherine Booth: A Chronology of Founders of the Salvation Army - The Hallelujah Lasses Photograph and caption by Jacqueline Banerjee [You may use this image without prior permission for any scholarly or educational purpose as long as you (1) credit the photographer and (2) link your document to this URL in a web document or cite it in a print one.] Ball, Gillian. "Salvation Army." Victorian Britain: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Sally Mitchell. New York & London: Garland, 1988. 691-92. Rutherford, Sarah. The Victorian Cemetery. Botley, Oxford: Shire, 2008. Weinreb, Ben, et al., eds. The London Encyclopaedia. 3rd ed. London: Macmillan, 2008. Last modified 24 June 2014	<urn:uuid:c4cbaab8-e55c-43c4-b50c-b7393103fc4d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.victorianweb.org/art/parks/18.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949582	501	2.671875	3
Turbulence may be key to “fast magnetic reconnection” mystery A paper published in the journal Nature asserts to have found the key to a long-standing mystery in plasma physics and astrophysics, and it’s all about turbulence. Approximately 70 years ago, Hannes Alfven (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1970) showed that magnetic field lines are “frozen” into a perfectly conducting (or ideal) plasma. This result has been a cornerstone for explaining astrophysical and plasma phenomena. One important implication of Alfven’s Theorem is that magnetic field lines cannot break and change connections. If magnetic field lines are not able to pass through each other more or less freely, they would form a complicated tangle that would strongly impede plasma motion or even thwart it altogether, leading to a “rubber-like” behavior of the plasma. However, the experimentally observed evolution of near-ideal plasmas in most astrophysical situations is essentially fluid-dynamic, where magnetic field lines break and reconnect over fast time scales. The phenomenon of “fast magnetic reconnection” of the plasmas has puzzled physicists for decades, because it violates Alfven’s Theorem with striking manifestations, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejection. A multidisciplinary team that includes LANL researcher Hussein Aluie of the Computational Physics and Methods group and the Center for Nonlinear Studies reports an alternative explanation, involving turbulence, for the fast magnetic reconnection. Significance of the research Fast magnetic reconnection takes place in almost all plasma flows including in star formation and accretion disks, in the solar wind when it interacts with Earth's magnetosphere, and in solar convection – essentially spanning plasma systems at the galactic scales down to those of the Earth. Alfven’s frozen-in result should forbid such fast reconnection from taking place in nature or if it did, it would have to be slow over a million-year time-scale rather than the 15-minute events observed in solar flares. This has been a long-standing puzzle in plasma and astrophysics. Most efforts to explain the phenomenon of fast magnetic reconnection have relied on microscopic plasma processes to account for the violation of magnetic flux conservation. However, the empirical facts suggest that no microscopic process alone can adequately account for the fast time-scales at which reconnection occurs, which seems to take place independent of the microphysical details. The new research could lead to better understanding of solar flares and ejections of material from the Sun’s corona. Such powerful space weather could endanger astronauts, disrupt communications satellites, and lead to massive blackouts of electrical power grids. Some scientists have suspected that turbulence causes the fast magnetic reconnection phenomenon. Therefore, the interdisciplinary multi-institution research team performed magnetohydrodynamic simulations to replicate what happens to charged particles in a plasma within solar flares. The team relied on expertise in astrophysics, applied mathematics, fluid mechanics, data management, and computer science. They adopted a fundamentally new approach to analyze very large datasets similar to that of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. The scientists conducted a state-of-the-art computer simulation, using novel database methods combined with high-performance computing techniques. They concluded that the motion of the magnetic field lines becomes random and Alfven’s frozen-in theorem breaks down in the presence of the strong nonlinear flow effects often associated with turbulence. The team suggests that nonlinear flow interactions (or turbulence) alone can explain the phenomenon of fast magnetic reconnection. The research team Gregory Eyink of Johns Hopkins University led the multidisciplinary team that included Kalin Kanov, Cristian Lalaescu, Charles Meneveau, Randal Burns, and Alexander Szalay, also of Johns Hopkins University; Kai Burger of Technical University of Munich; Ethan Vishniac of University of Saskatchewan; and Aluie. Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) through T-CNLS provided partial funding for Aluie’s work while at Los Alamos. The research supports the Lab’s Global Security mission in Space Situational Awareness and the Information, Science, and Technology science pillar using the Lab’s capabilities in numerical modeling, plasma physics, and fluid dynamics.	<urn:uuid:e8239be4-ce5d-4be0-933a-bc0af23be375>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.lanl.gov/discover/news-stories-archive/2013/July/turbulence-and-fast-magnetic-reconnection.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.906145	888	3.140625	3
In The New Philosophy of Public Debt (1943), Dr. Harold G. Moulton, president of the Brookings Institution in Washington, DC, from 1928 to 1952, noted that Dr. Alvin H. Hansen, "the American Keynes" (and just as logical as the prototype) believed that the national debt could go to at least twice GNP with no problem. (Harold G. Moulton, The New Philosophy of Public Debt. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1943, 68.) After all, as long as the debt is "internal debt," i.e., confined within the borders of the United States and not owed to foreigners, it is simply a bookkeeping matter, money we owe ourselves: "There is little reason to fear that, with the sort of fiscal management we shall have a right to expect, the debt could not safely go well beyond double the national income if necessary. Certainly we have no occasion to think of the debt limit as being like the edge of a precipice from which we must always stay carefully away." (Alvin H. Hansen, Fortune magazine, November 1942, 175, quoted in The New Philosophy of Public Debt, loc. cit.) Edge of a precipice? Fiscal cliff? Not to worry. The government can just print more money. Moulton ably demolished this bizarre delusion by pointing out that individual citizens and institutions holding U.S. debt, even if they are within the United States, are not the government. (Ibid., 49-64.) An "internal debt" is not "money we owe ourselves." The government is a discrete "person." It seems obvious to us that if a government (or anyone else) makes promises, it has to keep them. Printing money is making a promise. It is stark, raving insanity to think that any government that doesn't keep its promises to its own citizens is going to last very long. Be that as it may, however, we want to look at something else. That is, at what point does the private sector's necessarily limited capacity to produce stop supporting the public sector's unlimited capacity to spend? There's probably some way to develop an algorithm to determine this, but we don't have the math or the time. We think, however, that the trigger for the final meltdown will come at the point at which the present value of the accumulated national debt exceeds the present value of the current and future taxes that can be extracted out of the present value of existing and future marketable goods and services produced or to be produced by the private sector. In other words, the meltdown will likely occur at the point at which the private sector can no longer produce enough to provide the taxes to meet current expenditures, and the government can no longer sell any bonds, even to a captive central bank. At that point, all that is needed is for the government to fail to keep one promise. It won't be able to print more money, because government money creation is based on the ability of the government to collect taxes in the future to make good on the debts it's running up now. If there's no tax base, the money the government creates backed by the power to collect taxes becomes worthless. This is because the value of each unit of currency is equal to the value of what backs the currency divided by the number of units of the currency. If the value of the government debt backing the currency falls to zero because the government is unable to collect taxes, the value of the currency is, obviously, zero. But wait! There's more! — and we'll look at that on Monday . . . if you can stand the suspense. . . .	<urn:uuid:4ba0c103-6f38-4e81-b8d5-bf3e7081cbc9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://just3rdway.blogspot.com/2012/11/the-turning-point-ii-trigger.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.964713	750	2.65625	3
\|Orthopaedics and Neurosurgery International 6A Napier Road #02-42 Gleneagles Hospital Annex Block Singapore, 258500 SGP Osteoporosis is a disease of progressive bone loss associated with an increased risk of fractures. The term osteoporosis literally means "porous bone." Diagnosis of osteoporosis involves a measurement of bone mineral density (BMD). The history of BMD measurement dates back to the 1940s. At that time, bone density was measured on plain radiographs (X-rays). However, because loss of bone density is not apparent on a plain X-ray until approximately 40% of the bone is lost, different methods of BMD measurement have been developed. The Singh index describes the trabecular patterns in the bone at the top of the thighbone (femur). X-rays are graded 1 through 6 according to the disappearance of the normal trabecular pattern. Studies have shown a link between a Singh index of less than 3 and fractures of the hip, wrist, and spine. Radiographic absorptiometry was developed during the late 1980s as an easy way to determine BMD with plain X-ray. An X-ray of the hand is taken, incorporating an aluminum reference wedge. The X-ray is then analyzed, and the density of the bone is compared to the density of the reference wedge. In the early 1960s, a new method of measuring BMD, called single-photon absorptiometry (SPA), was developed. In this method, a single-energy photon beam is passed through bone and soft tissue to a detector. The amount of mineral in the path is then quantified. The distal radius (wrist) is usually used as the site of measurement because the amount of soft tissue in this area is small. SPA measurements are accurate, and the test usually takes about 10 minutes. The radioactive source gradually decays, however, and must be replaced after some time. Dual-photon absorptiometry (DPA) uses a photon beam that has two distinct energy peaks. One energy peak is absorbed more by the soft tissue. The other energy peak is absorbed more by bone. The soft-tissue component is subtracted to determine the BMD. DPA allowed for the first time BMD measurements of the spine and proximal femur. However, although DPA is accurate for predicting fracture risk, the precision is poor because of decay of the isotope. In addition, the machine has limited usefulness in monitoring BMD changes over time. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) works in a similar fashion to DPA, but uses an X-ray source instead of a radioactive isotope. This measurement technique is superior to DPA because the radiation source does not decay and the energy stays constant over time. DXA has become the "gold standard" for BMD measurement today. Scan times for DXA are much shorter than for DPA, and the radiation dose is very low. The skin dose for an anteroposterior spine scan is in the range of 3 mrem. DXA scans are extremely precise. Precision in the range of 1% to 2% has been reported. DXA can be used as an accurate and precise method to monitor changes in bone density in patients undergoing treatments. The first generation DXA machines used a pencil beam-type scanner. The X-ray source moved with a single detector. Second-generation machines use a fan-beam scanner that incorporates a group of detectors instead of a single detector. These machines are considerably faster and produce a higher resolution image. Measurement of BMD by quantitative computed tomography (QCT) can be performed with most standard CT scanners. QCT is unique in that it provides for true three-dimensional imaging and reports BMD as true volume density measurements. The advantage of QCT is the ability to isolate an area of interest from surrounding tissues. QCT can, therefore, localize an area in a vertebral body of only trabecular bone, leaving out the elements most affected by degenerative change and sclerosis. The radiation dose with QCT is about ten times that of DXA, and QCT tests may be more expensive than DXA. Lower cost portable devices that can determine BMD at peripheral sites such as the radius, phalanges, or calcaneus are increasingly being used for osteoporosis screening. The advantage of using a portable device is the ability to bring BMD assessment to a population who otherwise would not be able to have the test. These machines are considerably less expensive than those that measure BMD in the hip and spine. One of the problems with peripheral testing is that only one site is tested; thus, low bone density in the hip or spine may be missed. This may be a problem because of differences in bone density between different skeletal sites. Although peripheral machines are considered accurate, doubts have been raised about their precision. Peripheral machines may not be good enough to monitor patients undergoing treatment for osteoporosis. In postmenopausal women, differences in BMD between different skeletal sites is more common. BMD may be normal at one site and low at another site. In the early postmenopausal years, bone density in the spine decreases first because the bone turnover in this highly trabecular bone is greater than at other skeletal sites. Bone density becomes similar across the skeleton at approximately 70 years of age. In early postmenopausal women--therefore, up to the age of 65 years--the most accurate site to measure BMD is probably the spine. In women older than 65 years, BMD is similar across the skeleton; therefore, it may not make much difference which site is measured. Caution must be used when interpreting spine scans in elderly patients because degenerative changes may falsely elevate BMD values. BMD measurements are, however, mostly site specific, and the most accurate predictor of fracture risk at any site is a BMD measurement of the spine. At present, peripheral BMD testing machines are good screening devices because of their portability, availability, and lower cost. However, the following patients may still need central testing, even if peripheral testing is normal: - Postmenopausal patients not on hormone replacement therapy (HRT) who would consider HRT, bisphosphonates, or selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), if low bone mass is discovered - Patients with a maternal history of hip fracture, smoking, tallness (more than 5' 7") or thinness (less than 125 lb) - Patients on medications associated with bone loss - Patients with secondary conditions associated with low bone mass, such as hyperthyroidism, posttransplantation, malabsorption, hyperparathyroidism, and alcoholism - Patients found to have high urinary collagen crosslinks - Patients with a history of previous fragility fracture The main purpose of obtaining a bone density test is to determine fracture risk. BMD correlates very well with risk of fracture. It is more powerful in predicting fractures than cholesterol is in predicting myocardial infarction or blood pressure in predicting stroke. The T-score is the number of standard deviations (SD) above or below the young adult mean. The young adult mean is the expected normal value for the patient compared to others of the same sex and ethnicity. It is approximately what the patient should have been at their peak bone density at about age 20 years. As a general rule, for every SD below normal the fracture risk doubles. Thus, a patient with a BMD of 1 SD below normal (a T-score of -1) has twice the risk of fracture as a person with a normal BMD. If the T-score is -2, the risk of fracture is four times normal. A T-score of -3 is eight times the normal fracture risk. Patients with a high fracture risk can be treated to prevent future fractures. Other risk factors for fracture include a person's eyesight, balance, leg strength, and physical agility. Age itself is an independent risk factor for fracture, independent of bone density. Osteoporosis patients that have had a previous fragility fracture are considered to have severe osteoporosis and have a high risk for future fractures. The Z-score is the number of SD the bone density measurement is above or below the value expected for the patient's age. Primary osteoporosis is age-related osteoporosis, with no secondary causes. Secondary osteoporosis occurs when underlying agents or conditions induce bone loss. Some common causes of secondary osteoporosis are thyroid or parathyroid abnormalities, malabsorption, alcoholism, smoking, and the use of certain medications especially corticosteriods. A Z-score lower then -1.5 is suggestive of secondary osteoporosis. If secondary causes are suspected, laboratory testing should be performed to find out if there is an underlying reason for the osteoporosis. This is important because treating the underlying condition may be necessary to correct the low bone density. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons 9400 West Higgins Road Rosemont, IL 60018	<urn:uuid:9d035f7c-fbe5-4270-94ef-3ef759853f47>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00413&grpwebid=2FDEE3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930271	1,914	3.21875	3
[Date Prev][Date Next][Thread Prev][Thread Next][Date Index][Thread Index] Re: Morning versus Evening Ragas I studied North Indian classical singing for 10 years and still am not an expert, but here is some preliminary information. Source: Printed course notes from Prof. Harold Powers' course on Hindusthani music at Princeton. His source is the scholar Bhatkande. For the ten thats (a that is a raga classification) [I assume that if you are working on Indian music you are accustomed to the note names Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti in Western solfege] All notes are natural unless otherwise indicated) 1. Kalyan Sa Re Ga #Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa 2. Bilaval Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa 3. Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha bNi (flat Ni) Sa For the above three: before noon Ma is natural, #4 occurs before midnight 4. Bhairav Sa bRe Ga Ma Pa bDha Ni Sa 5. Purvi Sa bRe Ga #Ma Pa bDha Ni Sa 6. Marva Sa bRe Ga #Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa For the above three, before dawn natural 4, before dusk #4 7. Kafi Sa Re bGa Ma Pa Dha bNi Sa 8. Asavari Sa Re bGa Ma Pa bDha bNi Sa 9. Bhairavi Sa bRe bGa Ma Pa bDha bNi Sa 10. Todi C bRe bGa #Ma Pa bDha Ni Sa For the above 4 after noon natural 6, after midnight flat 6 Vadi = important note (sustained or occurring on strong beats) occurs in the lower half of the octave at night, in the upper half in the day I can assure you that there are other more subtle microtonalities that only the great masters understand or have understood, because in some cases even Sa is deliberately sung flat. It is expected that any night concerts end with Bharavi. You would always hear asavari in the morning, todi in the late morning. Marva is always performed at sunset. Yemen Kalyan (a raga in kalyan that) is played early at night. Darbari Kanada is always performed at night. Those are just a few examples. These are ingrained in the culture. The following book might provide more information: Nazir A Jairazbhoy, The Rags of North India, Wesleyan University Press, 1973 should contain further information. If anyone is looking for a co-principal-investigator on projects involving North Indian music I might possibly be interested in particular projects. I also know performers in various parts of the world if you need to ask a professional performer any questions.	<urn:uuid:d03b2091-a9df-4c73-89b2-2a4786ed0c64>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.auditory.org/mhonarc/2010/msg00738.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.855545	621	2.640625	3
Jane Austen (1775-1817) set her novels in the English countryside where she lived most of her life. Through these books, we are given first-hand glances at the place of gardening in the everyday life of these decades, when England was becoming a nation of gardens. It is clear from these images how much she was attracted to the landscape, to the farms and the natural beauties of the land. Jane Austen's England was still an agricultural nation. We see no signs of the Industrial Revolution in her novels. Her characters lived in the country, where farming was the way of life. The gentry at this time was still largely regarded as the "landed gentry," and while it is not always easy to discern in the novels, a close look reveals that Austen's country estates were based on farms, and that many of her principle characters made their living through agriculture, either through farming their own lands (usually employing a steward or bailiff to manage the business) or leasing them to tenants. In many cases, the value of an estate was the value of the rents it received. Mr Bennett, in Pride and Prejudice, was not a man of great fortune, and it appears that he farmed his own lands. While he owned a carriage, he was not wealthy enough to keep carriage horses; the horses who pulled it were draft horses who were otherwise used on the farm for plowing and other work."I had much rather go in the coach." "But, my dear, your father can not spare the horses, I am sure. They are wanted in the farm, Mr Bennett, are not they?" "They are wanted in the farm much oftener than I can get them." P&P 30-31 When the London-bred Mary Crawford came to live near Mansfield Park, she encountered difficulties in transporting her harp to her new home."I am to have it to-morrow; but how do you think it is to be conveyed? Not by a wagon or cart: oh no! nothing of that kind could be hired in the village. I might as well have asked for porters and a handbarrow." "You would find it difficult, I dare say, just now, in the middle of a very late hay harvest, to hire a horse and cart?" "I was astonished to find what a piece of work was made of it! To want a horse and cart in the country seemed impossible, so I told my maid to speak for one directly; and as I cannot look out of my dressing-closet without seeing one farmyard, nor walk in the shrubbery without passing another, I thought it would be only ask and have, and was rather grieved that I could not give the advantage to all. Guess my surprise, when I found that I had been asking the most unreasonable, most impossible thing in the world; had offended all the farmers, all the labourers, all the hay in the parish! As for Dr Grant's bailiff, I believe I had better keep out of his way; and my brother-in-law himself, who is all kindness in general, looked rather black upon me when he found what I had been at." "You could not be expected to have thought on the subject before; but when you do think of it, you must see the importance of getting in the grass. The hire of a cart at any time might not be so easy as you suppose: our farmers are not in the habit of letting them out; but, in harvest, it must be quite out of their power to spare a horse." MP 58 Dr Grant, it must be noted, was not a landowner at all, but the rector of the Mansfield church. But in those days, a parish church usually had a tract of land attached to it, called a glebe, intended for the support of the clergyman, who thus became a farmer as well. Squire Musgrove, of Uppercross, had extensive farmlands. In Persuasion, Anne Elliott takes a long autumnal country walk across the Uppercross estate to a neighbor.after another half mile of gradual ascent through large enclosures, where the ploughs at work, and the fresh made path spoke the farmer counteracting the sweets of poetical despondence, and meaning to have spring again, they gained the summit of the most considerable hill, which parted Uppercross and Winthrop, and soon commanded a full view of the latter, at the foot of the hill on the other side. Winthrop, without beauty and without dignity, was stretched before them: an indifferent house, standing low, and hemmed in by the barns and buildings of a farm-yard. P 85 Mr Knightley's Donwell Abbey was another extensive estate devoted to agriculture, and Knightley was a hands-on farmer, very much engaged on a daily basis with his bailiff William Larkins and Robert Martin, who leased the Abbey-Mill Farm, which Emma viewed from Donwell itself. at the bottom of this bank, favourably placed and sheltered, rose the Abbey-Mill Farm, with meadows in front, and the river making a close and handsome curve around it. It was a sweet view —sweet to the eye and the mind. English verdure, English culutre, English comfort . . . It might be safely viewed with all its appendages of prosperity and beauty, its rich pastures, spreading flocks, orchard in blossom, and light column of smoke ascending. E 360 Mr Knightley himself sent his apples to market at a good profit, and probably the berries from his famous strawberry beds, as well. Kitchen Gardens and Poultry Yards For the residents of London, carts and wagons came rolling in every morning full of fresh produce, and herds of livestock were driven to the city's butchers. For the country-dwellers, things were quite different, and most rural households had to provide their own supply of these foodstuffs. Austen's families had their own poultry yards, their own cows, their own kitchen gardens; some had a great deal more. In Sense and Sensibility, when Elinor Dashwood married newly-minted clergyman Edward Ferrars, theyhad in fact nothing to wish for, but the marriage of Colonel Brandon and Marianne, and rather better pasturage for their cows. S&S 374-5 The cows provided milk, which was made into butter and cheese, necessities of the kitchen. While visiting the palatial estate of Sotherton, Mansfield Park's parsimonious Mrs Norris "spunged" a homemade cream-cheese from the housekeeper, along with the recipe for it. When a porker was slaughtered at Emma's estate, she charitably sent a hindquarter to the impoverished Bates family, who worried that they did not own a salting-pan large enough to hold the ham. The preservation of food was an important household task in those days before refrigeration, and the cooks in Austen's households were always on the alert for meat that was about to spoil. When Charlotte Lucas married Mr Collins, his patron Lady Catherine de Bourghinquired into Charlotte's domestic concerns familiarly and minutely, and gave her a great deal of advice as to the management of them all; told her how everything ought to be regulated in so small a family as her's, and instructed her in the care of her cows and her poultry. P&P 163 Wealthy Colonel Brandon was considerably better off at his estate of Delaford,quite shut in with great garden walls that are covered with the best fruit-trees in the country: and such a mulberry tree in one corner! . . . Then, there is a dove-cote, some delightful stewponds, and a very pretty canal; S&S 197 Anne Elliott admired the parsonage at Uppercrossenclosed in its own neat garden, with a vine and a pear-tree trained round its casements. P 36 This fruit would certainly be gathered and preserved by the clergyman's housekeeper. It was an important part of the household food supply. When Dr Grant moved into the parsonage at Mansfield, previously occupied by Mrs Norris, he quarreled with her about the garden and the fruit trees."It was only the spring twelvemonth before Mr Norris's death, that we put in the apricot against the stable wall, which is now grown such a noble tree, and getting to such perfection, sir," addressing herself then to Dr Grant. "The tree thrives well beyond a doubt, madam," replied Dr Grant. "The soil is good; and I never pass it without regretting, that the fruit should be so little worth the trouble of gathering." "Sir, it is a moor park, we bought it as a moor park, and it cost us - that is, it was a present from Sir Thomas, but I saw the bill, and I know it cost seven shillings, and was charged as a moor park." "You were imposed on, ma'am," replied Dr Grant; "These potatoes have as much the flavour of a moor park apricot, as the fruit from that tree." MP 54 When Mr Knightley charitably sent his last bushel of apples to the Bates', his housekeeper Mrs Hodgeswas quite displeased at their all being sent away. She could not bear that her master should not be able to have another apple-tart this spring. E 239 On a more opulent scale, when Elizabeth Bennett visited Mr Darcy's estate at Pemberly, servants brought ina variety of all the finest fruits of the season. . . . The beautiful pyramids of grapes, nectarines, and peaches, soon collected them round the table. P&P 268 It is possible that some of these fruits were grown in hot-houses on the estate. Greenhouses were becoming very popular among wealthy landowners in Austen's day, for growing both fruits and flowers out of season, and exotic tropical plants that were very popular among the fashionable. The English garden in Austen's day was anything but solely utilitarian. Every country house seemed to have its shrubbery, with gravel walks where even the most lazy or sickly would take their daily exercise. Lady Catherine condescended to refer to the Bennetts' shrubbery as"a prettyish kind of a little wilderness on one side of your lawn. I should be glad to take a turn in it, if you will favour me with your company." P&P 352 At Mansfield Park, the indolent Lady Bertram"sat three quarters of an hour in the flower garden, while Fanny cut the roses, and very pleasant it was I assure you, but very hot. . . . "Fanny has been cutting the roses, has she?" "Yes, and I am afraid they will be the last this year. Poor thing! She found it hot enough, but they were so full blown, that one could not wait." MP 72 The fatuous Mr Collins did his own gardening work at his parsonage.Mr Collins invited them to take a stroll in the garden, which was large and well laid out, and to the cultivation of which he attended himself. To work in his garden was one of his most respectable pleasures; and Elizabeth admired the command of countenance with which Charlotte talked of the healthfulness of the exercise, and owned she encouraged it as much as possible. P&P 156 When John Dashwood inherited Norland Park, he immediately began on Improvements. The eighteenth century had seen a wave of new landscape designs sweep over the countryside, altering it profoundly. The trend for Improvements raised a certain amount of controversy. Dashwood's plans for improving Norland were not well received by his sisters, who prefered the estate as it had been in their grandfather's day."Where is the green-house to be?" "Upon the knoll behind the house. The old walnut trees are all come down to make room for it. It will be a very fine object from many parts of the park, and the flower-garden will slope down just before it, and be exceedingly pretty. We have cleared away all the old thorns that grew in patches over the brow." S&S 226 Fanny Price was likewise unhappy when the dull but wealthy Mr Rushworth discussed his plans for improving his extensive old-fashioned estate of Sotherton by employing the landscape designer Humphry Repton, at five guineas per day."There have been two or three fine old trees cut down that grew too near the house, and it opens the prospect amazingly, which makes me think that Repton, or any body of that sort, would certainly have the avenue at Sotherton down; the avenue that leads from the west front to the top of the hill you know." Fanny . . . now looked at him and said in a low voice, "Cut down an avenue! What a pity! Does not it make you think of Cowper? 'Ye fallen avenues, once more I mourn your fate unmerited.'" MP 56-57 Mary Crawford also had an opinion on the subject of Improvements:"Three years ago, the admiral, my honoured uncle, bought a cottage at Twickenham for us all to spend our summers in; and my aunt and I went down to it quite in raptures; but it being excessively pretty, it was soon found necessary to be improved; and for three months we were all dirt and confusion, without a gravel walk to step on, or a bench fit for use. I would have every thing as complete as possible in the country, shrubberies and flower gardens, and rustic seats innumerable; but it must all be done without my care." MP 57 Charles Musgrove was sure his cousin Charles Hayter would make significant improvements when he inherited."The estate at Winthrop is not less than two hundred and fifty acres, besides the farm near Taunton, which is some of the best land in the country. . . . whenever Winthrop comes into his hands, he will make a different sort of place of it." Elizabeth Bennett had nothing but praise for the subtle improvements of Mr Darcy's great estate of Pemberly.It was a large, handsome, stone building, standing well on rising ground, and backed by a ridge of high woody hills; —and in front, a stream of some natural importance was swelled into greater, but without any artificial appearance. Its banks were neither formal, nor falsely adorned. Elizabeth was delighted. She had never seen a place for which nature had done more, or where natural beauty had been so little counteracted by an awkward taste. P&P 245 As Elizabeth told her aunt, half-joking, she first made up her mind to marry Mr Darcy when she saw his magnificent estate. In the world of Jane Austen, the way to a heroine's heart is through a beautiful garden and well-landscaped grounds. References: Jane Austen, The Oxford Illustrated Jane Austen, R.W. Chapman, ed. (Oxford, 1966) Sense and Sensibility = S&S Pride and Prejudice = P&P Mansfield Park = MP Emma = E Persuasion = P	<urn:uuid:8d74e368-046a-42c0-8113-367eedb0d92b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/2573/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.983567	3,191	3.046875	3
What is stomach pressure? The term ‘stomach pressure’ is not a specific symptom. Instead it is a common term to describe a symptom where a person feels a pushing out sensation, fullness or bloating in the stomach. Since the term ‘stomach’ and ‘abdomen’ are often used interchangeably in lay terms, stomach pressure may therefore also refer to abdominal pressure. Strictly speaking though, stomach pressure would refer to these sensations in the left upper abdominal quadrant. It is often difficult to isolate the sensation as being localized to the stomach itself since there are so many other organs and structures surrounding it in this quadrant. Usually the symptoms are believed to originate from the stomach when it occurs shortly after eating or drinking. Meaning of Stomach Pressure It is not uncommon for most people to use several common and descriptive terms to describe a range of sensations. ‘Stomach pressure’ is one such example. Pressure could refer to a sensation of pushing in from the outside onto the stomach – a constricting type of sensation. Alternatively, and more commonly, it refers to a sensation of pushing out from the inside of the stomach which is similar to a sensation of fullness or bloating – a distended sensation. Often these symptoms of different sensations either precede the onset of pain or occur in low-grade conditions where it is not severe enough to elicit pain. The stomach is a hollow sac that is capable of expanding significantly when filled with food or gas usually from air swallowing or carbonated beverages. It is usually these situations that cause distension and a sensation of stomach pressure where the stomach feels like it is pushing outwards. When empty the stomach collapses as it contains little more than a small quantity of mucus, acid and enzymes. Even pressure from surrounding organs are not perceived. However, a partially or completely filled stomach will experience a sensation of pushing inwards (constricting sensation) when there is pressure from outside of it, usually from surrounding abdominal organs. Most visceral sensations are usually not perceived unless it is intense or associated with damage of tissue as a result of disease. Causes of Stomach Pressure The term stomach pressure may not specifically refer to the stomach itself. Therefore it is important to take the surrounding organs and structures into consideration which may give rise to a sensation of stomach pressure. Pressure sensation from inside the stomach Some of the common causes of stomach problems that give rise to a sensation of pressure within the stomach includes : - Bile reflux is the backward flow of bile secreted from the gallbladder into the duodenum. It enters the stomach or as high up as the esophagus. Bile irritates the stomach and can cause a host of symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, heartburn and severe abdominal pain. - Gastritis is inflammation of the stomach usually due to injury to the inner lining caused mainly be Helicobater pylori (H.pylori) stomach bacteria and use of medication like NSAIDs. It tends to present with a gnawing dull ache in the left upper quadrant, along with nausea, excessive belching and sometimes vomiting. In severe cases there may be bleeding with blood in the vomitus or stool. - Gastroparesis is a condition where the stomach muscles are paralyzed. It slows down the churning of the food in the stomach and the pushing out of chyme into the duodenum. Hence the term delayed gastric emptying. The usual symptoms include nausea and vomiting, feeling of fullness after just a few bites of food, loss of appetite and weight loss. - Hiatal hernia is where a portion of the stomach slips through through the opening in the diaphragm to protrude into the chest (thoracic) cavity. A stomach pressure sensation is common and pain is rare. It is worse with eating as the stomach expands and pushes upwards. - Peptic ulcers are open sores that form in the wall of the stomach, duodenum (first part of the small intestine) or esophagus (food pipe). It is mainly associated with overproduction of stomach acid and failure of mechanisms to protect the wall of the gut from the acid. Stomach ulcers are usually a complication of gastritis. The symptoms are therefore similar and there is intense pain and loss of appetite. - Tumors in the stomach may benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Stomach polyps are one of the mainly benign growths. Benign tumors are largely asymptomatic until it grows to a point where it causes an obstruction of the stomach outlet or compresses surrounding organs. Malignant tumors cause more serious symptoms like blood in the vomit or stool. weight loss and lack of appetite. Pressure sensation from around the stomach There is various different conditions that can either apply pressure on the stomach or cause the sensation of pressure around the stomach. Some of the more likely causes includes : - Abdominal obesity can apply pressure to the stomach and other abdominal organs. It is usually worsened when lying flat on the back. - Abdominal tumors, especially those arising from the outer surface of the abdominal organs in close proximity to the stomach, can also press against the stomach. - Ascites is the accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity around the organs. It is largely asymptomatic until there is a significant accumulation of fluid within the cavity. - Constipation where the accumulation of wastes in the colon causes distension of the transverse colon and splenic flexure. This can apply pressure on the stomach. - Hepatomegaly is an enlargement of the liver which may place pressure on the distended stomach. As with splenomegaly, it is only a significant enlarged liver that will compress the distended stomach. - Intestinal obstruction or bowel obstruction is where there is a partial or complete blockage in the small intestine or large intestine respectively. Apart from the backing up the intestinal contents, sometimes as high up as the stomach, the distended intestines may also compress on the stomach. - Peritonitis is the inflammation of the peritoneal lining of the abdomen. Although it may not compress the stomach, the irritation of the peritoneum does sometimes cause a pressure sensation. Peritonitis is usually painful. - Pregnancy is a common cause of increased abdominal pressure and the expanding uterus pushes against the bowels which in turn presses against the upper abdominal organs like the stomach. - Splenomegaly is an abnormal enlargement of the spleen which sits right next to the stomach. Moderate and even massive splenomegaly does not place significant pressure on the stomach except during eating when the stomach distends.	<urn:uuid:2ea9a7f0-9b59-4c93-ae20-b2f9bab54757>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.healthhype.com/stomach-pressure-and-causes-of-pressing-on-stomach-feeling.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93498	1,386	3.703125	4
Geologic Time – Answers The earth is 4.6 billion years old and during that time life as developed, adapted to the environment and changed through time. Some life forms that have existed in the geologic past no longer exist today. These extinct life forms can help us establish the relative age of rock layers while radioactive decay is used to establish absolute age. The 4.6 billion years of history is broken down into smaller time units of millions of years called the geologic time scale. 2. Class notes Critical thinking questions - Answers What is the difference between absolute and Absolute age dating uses radioactivity to help establish the age of a rock while relative age uses comparisons of older and younger than a rock. What is the law of superposition? How are crosscutting relationships used in relative dating? The law of super position states that the youngest rocks are found on the top of a sequence while the older rocks are on the bottom Crosscutting relationships help to establish relative age since a rock can not be folded, faulted or intruded into unless it existed prior to the When you see an outcrop of steeply inclined rocks, what principle allows you to assume they were tilted after they The principle of original horizontality tells us that sedimentary rocks were deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal layer and any change must have taken time. A mass of granite is in contact with a layer of sandstone. Using a principle from your vocabulary list, explain how you might determine whether the sandstone was deposited on the top of the granite or the granite was intruded after the sandstone was deposited. You would use the principle of inclusion to help determine if the sandstone was deposited upon the granite or the granite was intruded into the sandstone. If the granite were there first and exposed at the surface, we would expect to find inclusions of the granite in the lower most section of the sandstone. If the granite intruded into the sandstone we might expect to find sandstone xenoliths or contact metamorphism. Disconformity is an erosional or non-depositional surface within essentially parallel sedimentary rocks. Nonconformity is a contact between igneous intrusive or metamorphic rocks and overlying sedimentary rocks. An angular unconformity happens when horizontal sedimentary rocks are overlying tilted or folded sedimentary rock layers. Do this exercise. It is worth it. Two half-lives have past for the 1:3 ratio so the age of the rock must be 20,000. 8. What are the four major eras in geologic time? What is the predominate life form associated with each? Precambrian – no life Paleozoic – Ancient Life- Invertebrates Mesozoic – Middle life – Dinosaurs Cenozoic –Recent Life - Mammals 9. Let’s assume the earth is 5 billion years old (hey, what’s a few million years between friends?) What percent has been represented by recorded history? Assume 5000 years for recorded history. (5000/ 5,000,000,000) X 100 = 0.0001% Using the same assumptions as #9 and assume the Cambrian began 500 million years ago, what percentage of the earth’s history is represented by abundant life? (500,000,000/5,000,000,000) X 100 = 10%	<urn:uuid:88baaadb-4e7a-4a4a-be44-d504c493fda6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://classes.kvcc.edu/dcoates/Geo110/guided_answers/geologic_time-answers.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.924375	735	3.703125	4
Lady Bird Tribute LBJ hands Lady Bird Johnson the Highway Beautification Act signing pen. LBJ Library Photo by Frank Wolfe. Just days after Lyndon Johnson was sworn into presidency in 1964, Lady Bird was asked to consider her duties as first lady of the United States. Although she originally focused on the Head Start program for preschool children, she quickly decided that “the whole field of conservation and beautification” had “the greatest appeal.” Without hesitation Mrs. Johnson contacted the Secretary of Commerce and called his attention to the junkyards along highways. Thus began one of her most well-known environmental efforts: the Highway Beautification Act of 1965, which is still in effect today. From there, Mrs. Johnson became a leading proponent for more than 50 legislative efforts. The Highway Beautification Act of 1965 was designed to control outdoor advertising along interstates and highways by limiting signs and billboards. It also required that junkyards along these highways be removed or screened and encouraged scenic enhancement and roadside development. Mrs. Johnson was heavily involved in supporting the legislative process to develop this law; her activities were influential in shepherding the law’s initial concept, its progress through Congress and its final enactment in October 1965. Mrs. Johnson’s environmental awareness inspired a deep interest in conservation and beautification. Her advocacy inspired President Johnson as well as subsequent administrations and likely made it easier to pass other landmark legislation. On July 26, 1968, President Johnson presented his first lady with a felt board holding pens that he had used in signing some 50 laws relating to conservation and beautification during his term in office. Attached to the board was a plaque that read: “To Lady Bird, who has inspired me and millions of Americans to try to preserve our land and beautify our nation. With love from Lyndon.” The most significant bills that President Johnson signed during his term include the Solid Waste Disposal Act, the Air Quality Act of 1967, the Clean Water Act and the Endangered Species Act. The Solid Waste Disposal Act, also signed in 1965, focused on research, demonstrations and training. It shared with the states the cost of making surveys of waste disposal practices and problems and of developing waste management plans. This bill was the predecessor to the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, which established the federal program that regulates solid and hazardous waste. Lady Bird Johnson planting a tree on Earth Day. Photo by John Averett. The Air Quality Act of 1967, an amendment to the Clean Air Act of 1963, was one of a series of steps made by the federal government to control air pollution. Although it was not the first clean air bill, President Johnson deemed this act to be the best at the time. It authorized more funds to combat air pollution and became an important stepping stone toward the enactment of more effective clean air legislation. In 1972, President Johnson signed the Clean Water Act, which established the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the nation’s waters and regulated quality standards for surface waters. This act made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a concentrated source into navigable waters unless a permit was obtained. When Congress passed the Endangered Species Act in 1973, it recognized that our rich natural heritage is of “esthetic, ecological, educational, recreational and scientific value to our nation and its people.” It also expressed concern that several of the nation’s native plants and animals were in danger of extinction. The purpose of the Endangered Species Act is to protect and aid the recovery of imperiled species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. Lady Bird’s involvement, dedication and commitment in preserving the nation’s treasured environment supported her obligation “to keep the beauty of the landscape as we remember it in our youth…and to leave this splendor for our grandchildren.” And this she fulfilled.	<urn:uuid:162d0f23-e5ab-43a3-93cf-707c7bab2d89>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wildflower.org/feature/?id=48	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972427	793	3.265625	3
On April 22, 1970, the first observation of Earth Day took place, a massive series of gatherings, demonstrations and discussions across the U.S. that many credit as the birth of the modern environmental movement. An oil spill off the California coast was the event that triggered U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson to launch Earth Day – but concerns about environmental health and the detrimental effects of industrialization were growing, over issues such as pesticide use, oil spills, poor air quality, pollution, loss of wilderness to development and declining biodiversity. Heralded as a resounding success, the first Earth Day resulted in the implementation of a number of U.S. environmental policies, and the movement quickly went global. Yet today, the environmental challenges we face dwarf those that touched off that first celebration. And the planet we honor on Earth Day is a far different place from that of just four decades ago. World population has almost doubled, from 3.7 billion to 6.9 billion. The amount of land paved over to build houses, cities and roads has increased 75 percent, from 228 million hectares to 400 million global hectares, according to Global Footprint Network’s 2009 National Footprint Accounts. The amount of productive forest land required for fuelwood, for paper and timber products, has gone up 53 percent to close to 2 billion global hectares. The productive land and sea area we need for food – for fishing, crops and grazing our livestock – has increased 69 percent, to 5.6 billion global hectares. But the most staggering increase is reflected in our carbon Footprint: the amount of productive land area that would be needed to absorb our carbon emissions. Since 1970, our total carbon Footprint has more than tripled, from 2.9 to 9 billion global hectares. Carbon has also gone from being a smaller part of humanity’s total Footprint than cropland, to outstripping every other area of demand by a significant margin. The result of this ecological overspending is clear from the crises we are confronting now – most prominently climate change, but also biodiversity loss, deforestation, fisheries collapse, soil erosion and other problems. Earth has changed from a place where we could operate as if resources were limitless, to one in which resource constraints are becoming a pressing and increasingly decisive concern. Growing Footprints on a Small Planet In 1970, the world still had significant ecological reserves. Humanity used resources and produced carbon emissions at a rate that the planet’s ecosystems could keep up with. By the time Earth Day was 15 years old, however, humanity was in ecological overshoot: using resources and producing CO2 at a rate that exceeded what the Earth could regenerate and reabsorb. Today, it would take the resources of 1.4 Earths to renewably produce all the resources we consume and absorb the carbon dioxide emissions we create. Global Footprint Network research shows that if we continue at the current rate, by the time we celebrate Earth Day’s 60th anniversary, we will require the resources of two Earths to sustainably meet human demands. Reaching this level of demand may well be impossible. (Use our newly expanded personal calculator and determine your own Ecological Footprint.) The good news is, we can change our trajectory. Infrastructure, because of its long life, will play an especially important role in determining whether the sustainability challenge will be successfully met. Just as the choices we made in 1970 still shape the way we live today, the energy, transportation, housing and manufacturing systems we build today will chart the course for our future. If we invest in systems that can operate on a small Footprint, that do not have negative impacts on biocapacity, and that are flexible and resilient in the face of changing resource constraints, they will provide lasting benefits. If, on the other hand, we design infrastructure that is dependent on a high level of resource throughput, or that damages or depletes the ecological services that make its operation possible, any benefits gained will be at best short-lived. Similarly, the way we manage agricultural, water and forestry systems will determine whether they will be able to provide an ongoing stream of renewable resources and carbon sequestration services. In countries with rapidly expanding populations, education—especially of women— along with improved health care and access to family planning options, can help mitigate the contribution of population growth to local and global overshoot. (Download our recent report: The Ecological Wealth of Nations: The Earth’s biocapacity as a new framework for international cooperation.) Confronting the Future The first Earth Day showed that major public movements can have significant effects in shifting policies and values. As we note its 40th anniversary, we have a choice. Do we continue with business as usual, careening toward critical limits not just in atmospheric carbon build-up, but in biodiversity, freshwater stress, fisheries, soil quality and other factors? Or do we begin the rethinking and retooling we need to change the arc of human demand, and bend it toward living within nature’s means? More on the key issues that launched Earth Day.	<urn:uuid:3070e4af-e54f-46e7-b727-8c7825c9045c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/newsletter/bv/40_years_of_earth_day_the_planet_then_and_now	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935686	1,049	3.984375	4
Without revolutionary theory there can be no revolutionary movement. This idea cannot be insisted upon too strongly at a time when the fashionable preaching of opportunism goes hand in hand with an infatuation for the narrowest forms of practical activity. – Vladimir Lenin, “What is to Be Done?” If we had to situate this quote by Lenin in a historical context, we would explain that what Lenin was doing in 1902 with “What is to Be Done?” was examining the methods and objectives of the Russian Social-Democracy, which at the time was blindly following (tailing) the “spontaneity” of the masses. Lenin, against this opportunist tendency, aimed to transform the movement by rooting its practice in Marxist theory, that is, a revolutionary practice backed by a concrete analysis of current events. It is in this light that the concept of hegemony arose. The term hegemony was first used by the Russian Social-Democracy, specifically by Plekhanov to indicate the need for an alliance between peasantry and proletariat led by the working class as the only viable means to overthrow Tsarism, creating a national path for the liberation of all oppressed social groups. The Russian working class, according to the Russian Social-Democrats, in alliance with the peasantry, had to lead the bourgeois-democratic revolution against the Tsarist monarchy. By becoming the hegemonic force in this revolution, the working class, despite being a minority in the Russian Empire, would’ve been able to win the support of the majority of the population. While for Plekhanov and Lenin hegemony was the general strategy for a revolution in the Russian Empire, Gramsci extends the concept of hegemony to include the practice of the capitalist class and its repressive and ideological state apparatuses, exploring the ways in which the bourgeoisie maintains its power. In his inquiries, he makes an important distinction between the types of power utilized to maintain class rule: domination and leadership. “A social group can, indeed must, already exercise ‘leadership’ before winning governmental power (this is indeed one of the principal conditions for the winning of such power); it subsequently becomes dominant when it exercises power, but even if it holds it firmly in its grasp, it must continue to ‘lead’ as well.” – Antonio Gramsci Building on the groundwork laid by Lenin, Gramsci transforms hegemony from strategy to theory, developing the idea that leadership is a necessary condition to achieve political power. Every ruling class is able to exercise varying degrees of control over people through methods of coercion and persuasion as a means to perpetuate their political pwoer. With Gramsci, the Marxist-Leninist theory of hegemony becomes an explanation of the political and ideological relationship that guarantees its political power from being questioned, to be coupled with the theory of domination, or the brute use of coercive force by a ruling class to silence its enemies. “The proletariat can become the leading and the dominant class to the extent that it succeeds in creating a system of alliances which allows it to mobilise the majority of the population against capitalism and the bourgeois state” – Antonio Gramsci As revealed by the Russian and Chinese revolutionary experiences, the only way for the working class to become hegemonic in the classical Leninist sense is by taking into account the interests of other oppressed groups of society and combining their interests with its own. With Bolsheviks in practice and Gramsci in theory, we have a break with the Second International’s orthodoxy of social conflict as an opposition between two classes only, with a resulting complex model of society involving other classes and social groups, such as national groups, oppressed genders, etc. The result is a struggle to strengthen the alliance of the oppressed and to weaken the alliance of the bourgeoisie in order to shift the balance of forces in the working class’ favor, under the leadership of a revolutionary party. This alliance, however, need not be organized on a strict class basis, for a class wouldn’t be able to become hegemonic if it confined itself only to class interests, a revolutionary class must take into account the popular demands and the already existing struggle of the people which don’t have a pure class character and don’t raise directly out of relations of production. Among these struggles we find those for national liberation, the women’s rights movement, the civil rights movement, the anti-war movement, the student movement, and so on. All these movements have specific qualities not reducible to class struggle, albeit related to them. Thus hegemony has a national-popular dimension as well as a class dimension. The fight over leadership and hegemony, in Gramscian terms, is a social war of position. For some examples of this struggle for leadership, we can look at the Black Panther Party and the Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde. The Black Panthers would organize clinics which provided comprehensive health care for their community. To pay for these free services, volunteers would solicit funds from individual businessmen, churches, and social clubs, other than their own individual donations. With a functioning free community health program, the community begins to see that it is possible to receive professional, competent, and, above all, preventative medical help without paying any money for it and, most importantly, they begin to ask questions and to organize themselves to change existing health services so that they truly serve the people. The Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné, during its struggle for independence from Portoguese imperialism, mingled with the Guinean population: PAIGC troops would help the local population to grow crops with better farming techniques, tilling the land when not fighting side by side with the people. PAIGC also set up a country-wide bazaar trade system that made goods available for prices much lower than those of colonial shops, and set up hospital stations to give medical care to the populace, relying on Soviet and Swedish medical supplies. In this way, the Guinean population created a network of institutions independent and hostile to the existing colonial ones. This is the same message revolutionaries have sent out to the population as the occasion presented itself: It must be kept in mind by any revolutionary organization that whenever bourgeois hegemony is threatened, the bourgeoisie will try to restore it with an extensive reorganization of society, and we have an example of this in the triumph of neoliberalism. The bourgeoisie has to act through the state to transform the socioeconomic structure from above, since they don’t have the active participation of the population, as these transformations usually come in response to demands by anti-hegemonic forces. In fact, these demands may be granted just so that these forces and popular struggles are dealt with. To combat this problem inherent in spontaneity a revolutionary party must always have an anti-passive approach to revolution founded on the continual extension of class and popular struggles. To create a counter-hegemony, a revolutionary socialist party has to work with the complex system of relations between classes and social forces, dominated by the struggle between capital and labor. In concrete terms, these relations are embodied in organizations and institutions such as churches, unions, the media, cultural associations, schools, political parties, etc. The institutions which have a monopoly on coercion, also known as repressive state apparatuses, make up the state. The social relations and the organizations which embody them found outside of the state are called civil society. Civil society is the sphere of class struggles and of popular-democratic struggles. Thus it is the sphere in which a dominant social group organizes consent and leadership. It is also the sphere where the subordinate social groups may organize their opposition and construct an alternative hegemony, a counter-hegemony. Bourgeois political power in the sphere of civil society and its hegemony grows out of their control over the sphere of production. This control over the production of surplus value isn’t static nor monolithic, and since the days of the infancy of capitalism it has been contested by workers in their struggle over conditions of work, over terms for the introduction of new machines, over working time, etc. A preparatory phase always has to precede the conquest of political power, in which Marxist-Leninists have to expand their leadership to labor unions, student unions, social clubs, and so on. Knowing that coercive political power is what armors civil society, Marxist-Leninists understand that the takeover of the state is a decisive step, but only part of the transition to socialism. Gramsci defined civil society as a system of “fortresses and earthworks” behind the state. This is accurate because civil society is where the war of position between socialists and capitalist hegemons takes place. The war of movement in Tsarist Russia, the takeover of state power in a single historical moment that was possible because of the high levels of power concentration in the Russian Empire are impossible in countries with a well developed civil society. Revolution today is always a process of expanding the counter-hegemony of the working class, of building up a new historic bloc, and can’t be broken down to the single moment when state power passes from one class to another. The transition to socialism is hence two processes: the growth of working-class counter-hegemony, and the conquest of political power.	<urn:uuid:363f57ea-2619-4ad1-9fab-e992d0ff2bcf>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://weeklybolshevik.wordpress.com/2013/07/22/what-is-class-hegemony/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952046	1,923	3.125	3
Today, about 1.1 billion people around the world live without electricity. Cities, which now house more than half the world’s population, struggle under the weight of inefficient, expensive and often-polluting energy systems. Energy access and affordability are paramount in addressing poverty alleviation and shared prosperity goals, and cleaner energy is critical in mitigating climate change. Applications of Open and Big Data principles and advanced analytics is an area of innovation that can help address many pressing energy sector challenges in the developing world, as well as provide social and financial dividends at low cost. The World Bank Group is committed to accelerating the use of Open Data and advanced analytics to improve access to reliable, affordable and sustainable electricity, in line with its commitment to the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) initiative. In order to increase awareness around opportunities of new data capturing and analyzing solutions in the energy sector in emerging markets, the World Bank Group and University of Chicago hosted a training session and a subsequent workshop in mid-May. - information and communication for development (ICT4D) - information and communications technologies - information and communication technology - Big Data Exploration - Big Data - open data - renewable energy - green energy - clean tech - Clean technology - Clean energy - access to energy - Energy Efficient - Energy Efficiency - Information and Communication Technologies - The World Region	<urn:uuid:f347c751-6208-4e32-babc-5d0cefb5fbef>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://blogs.worldbank.org/category/tags/clean-tech	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.903645	285	2.9375	3
Daily VideoDecember 4, 2013 U.S. Education System Lags Behind Other Countries U.S. education system lags behind other countries While students in the U.S. are familiar with the standardized tests that help compare students within and among the states, the PISA test is designed to assess and rank the educational systems in 65 countries around the world. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which administers the test, just released the results of the latest PISA test from 2012, which showed that the U.S. hovers near the middle of the pack, lagging in some areas, even as other countries advanced. The U.S. struggled the most in math, where 15-year-olds in 29 other countries had higher average scores than Americans. U.S. scores in reading and science rank 20th and 23rd respectively in the world. The highest scoring countries were located in East Asia. Students from Shanghai, Singapore, South Korea and Japan were at the top. Warm up questions - How do you think the U.S. education system compares to other countries? - How could you test the quality of the system? - How could you test the quality of the students? - Do you believe the PISA test accurately reflects how good the U.S. education system is? - Do you believe the PISA test accurately reflects how good U.S. students are? - If you could design a way to test the quality of the education that you are receiving how would you do it? - What changes could be made to the education system so that U.S. students could catch up in Math and Science? Tooltip of related stories Tooltip of more video block Submit Your Student Voice A sit-in led by Democratic members of the House of Representatives began on the House floor Wednesday as they called for Republican colleagues to allow a vote on gun control legislation. Continue readingArts & CultureEconomicsHealthScienceU.S.UncategorizedWorld Democrats once again attempted to push forward gun control legislation this week following last week’s massacre at an Orlando nightclub.Arts & CultureEconomicsHealthScienceU.S.UncategorizedWorld The man accused of murdering a British member of parliament last Thursday made his first court appearance in London on Saturday. Authorities believe Thomas Mair shot and stabbed Jo Cox to death on a street in broad daylight, because of her position to keep the U.K. in the European Union. Continue readingArts & CultureEconomicsHealthScienceU.S.UncategorizedWorld Concern surrounding Zika virus has taken center stage in Brazil, as local organizers of the upcoming 2016 Summer Olympic Games assure the world that the country is safe for athletes and tourists. Continue readingArts & CultureEconomicsHealthScienceU.S.UncategorizedWorld Recent acts of violence committed by extremists who were radicalized while living in the United States have raised concerns over the threat of home-grown terrorism. Continue readingArts & CultureEconomicsHealthScienceU.S.UncategorizedWorld	<urn:uuid:a313c356-961d-4972-986b-afa01fccb38a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/daily_videos/u-s-education-system-lags-behind-other-countries/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.939338	644	2.53125	3
Pacing is one of the player's perceptions on the level design of a game. Much like how a book has plot buildup, climaxes and resting places, pacing can be drawn out in a similar way. A well paced game would catch the player's attention and keep them involved with the experience all the way to the satisfying climax and ending. Elements of PacingEdit The structures and mechanics that come together to create pacing are numerous however many of them fall into the following categories. The threat level is the actual danger the player experiences in a game. Pacing can be increased by increasing the threat level by introducing enemies or encroaching danger. A high threat level can be an overwhelming army of enemies that can take out the player with one wrong move. Movement Impetus is the desire of the player to continue on through the levels of the game. Some ways to improve the player's movement impetus it to create objectives & rewards ahead or to introduce a threat from behind. Tension is the perceived danger the player experiences. The difference between this and threat level is that the threat level is often rooted in game mechanics whereas tension uses atmosphere design. A high buildup of tension would be a single unknown creature hidden in the shadows that keeps a player questioning their every move even though game mechanic-wise nothing would happen to them until they reach the scripted climax. Survival Horror games often use tension the most for their pacing. Tempo is the intensity of action at the given moment of the game. High Tempo gameplay often requires split-second decisions and reflexes, something that many First Person Shooters have. On the other end, Low Tempo gameplay usually involves puzzles or things that require contemplation. The Arc, Scene, and Action PacingEdit A well designed game would have good pacing not only in the overall game (the Arc), but would use the same pacing in the Scene and Action portions of the game. The Scene is the levels and the Action is the actual game mechanics the player uses. Examples of Good PacingEdit Portal's most well known example of stimulating Movement Impetus is the famous "cake" reward. It also created a good buildup of tension through the use of the environment itself such as the scribbled messages in some of the "hidden" rooms the player encountered. The escalation of threat level with the introduction of water, energy balls, turrets, a single rocket launcher and neurotoxin kept the player on their toes when solving the portal puzzles. In Other MediaEdit Star Wars IV: A New Hope is the cited example in the Extra Credits episode showing an excellent example in pacing.	<urn:uuid:a84140c1-91f3-40f1-82f7-2870cd82480d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://extracredits.wikia.com/wiki/Pacing	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.942117	534	2.6875	3
VPN (Virtual Private Network) What is VPN? Most of Bradley’s electronic resources are available via the Internet and require no special access software or permissions. However, some resources do have restricted access and will require special client ( Windows or Mac OS) software to enable authorized use from outside the campus network. This client software is called Virtual Private Network (VPN). VPN is used to access University specific resources from off campus using a secured connection over the Internet. VPN connections are generally established for one of the following purposes: 1. Map drives on a server 2. Run Windows terminal services or other remote control programs 3. Access or administer administrative servers You do not need VPN to: 1. Read FSMail email from a web browser (fsmail.bradley.edu) 2. Run AcInquire 3. Access Sakai 4. Access the Bradley Web site An aircard is a device that plugs into a laptop computer and uses a cell phone signal to provide Internet access. This allows users to have Internet access without relying on Wi-Fi hot spots. They are sold by cell phone companies, and they require a monthly service plan. These cards do not work reliably with the VPN client for access to Bradley's network.	<urn:uuid:65d19d53-495b-45a7-8388-6f45e7df290d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://bradley.edu/sites/helpdesk/software/vpn.dot	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.872313	259	2.765625	3
IBM said today that it has made significant progress toward developing a computer that simulates and emulates the brain’s abilities to sense, perceive, interact, and recognize. The computer does this by imitating the brain’s low-power energy consumption and compact size, and it has an intelligence level that approaches the smarts of a cat. Big Blue will announce the development at the SC 09 supercomputer conference in Portland, Ore. IBM Research’s cognitive computing team has made progress with what it calls “large-scale cortical simulation” and has created a new algorithm, or math formula, that synthesizes brain-like data. Both of those steps are necessary in creating a brain-like chip. We wrote about this effort, headed by Dharmendra Modha, last year when IBM announced its start. The scientists at IBM Research-Almaden and the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab have performed the first near-instantaneous simulation of the brain. The simulation is more sophisticated than that of a cat’s brain and has a billion “spiking neurons” and 10 trillion individual learning synapses, which are akin to the connections between brain cells. And, working with researchers from Stanford University, IBM scientists have developed an algorithm that exploits the Blue Gene supercomputer to measure connections within the human brain without being invasive. The technique uses magnetic resonance diffusion weighted imaging to map the way the brain is wired. By doing this, IBM has taken a step toward unraveling how communications happen within the brain. The advances will provide a way to study how the brain works and to move closer to the goal of building a chip that simulates that. If it can do so, and that is of course a big if, then IBM may depart from the way that computing has been done since John von Neumann figured out how to build computers back in the 194os. The researchers believe that as the amount of digital data grows, and the world becomes more instrumented and interconnected, there will be a need to create faster, more efficient computing systems with a higher level of intelligence than those we use today. For all the sophistication of today’s supercomputers, they can’t do a lot of things, such as recognizing patterns, as well as humans do. Other researchers, such as Numenta founder Jeff Hawkins agree with that and are also trying to create brain-like computers. “Learning from the brain is an attractive way to overcome power and density challenges faced in computing today,” said Josephine Cheng, IBM Fellow and lab director of IBM Research – Almaden, in a statement. “As the digital and physical worlds continue to merge and computing becomes more embedded in the fabric of our daily lives, it’s imperative that we create a more intelligent computing system that can help us make sense the vast amount of information that’s increasingly available to us, much the way our brains can quickly interpret and act on complex tasks.” The IBM team built a cortical simulator that incorporates a number of innovations in computation, memory, and communication as well as sophisticated biological research. After completing the first part of the research, IBM and its university partners were given a $16.1 million grant from the Pentagon’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency to create a prototype chip that can simulate the brain’s functions. The idea is to create something that is as smart as a mammal. The overall research team includes researchers from several of IBM’s worldwide research labs and scientists from Stanford University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Cornell University, Columbia University Medical Center and University of California- Merced.	<urn:uuid:30c12a7d-1d66-4d28-b011-854210f686c3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://venturebeat.com/2009/11/18/ibm-moves-closer-to-creating-chips-based-on-the-brain/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947765	750	3.46875	3
New infant choking first aid procedure 20th February 2014 – New advice is being issued to parents explaining what they should do if their baby starts to choke, after research showed that many had no idea what action to take. The procedure is outlined in an updated edition of the First Aid Manual which has been written by 3 leading first aid organisations. Previously the advice was to lay the baby along a parent or carer's arm but this has now been changed to a thigh because this is considered a more stable position. Parents 'not confident' An online survey of 1,001 parents of children under 5 carried out in January by Markettiers4DC found that one-third had experienced a situation where their child started choking but half of these did not know the correct procedure. Under half (47%) of parents said they managed to stop the child from choking but did not know if they followed official advice. Only under 1 in 10 (9%) of parents said they would feel very confident administrating first aid if their child or another started choking, with around 1 in 6 (16%) admitting they would not be confident at all in this situation. Choking is a fairly common hazard for very young children, with a wide range of objects posing a risk. These include small items such as marbles, buttons, peanuts and small toys. The familiar advice to prevent choking accidents is to keep small objects out of the reach of small children. However, in cases where a child does choke, Clive James, training officer at St John Ambulance explains the new procedure: "If an infant is choking then, in the first instance, they should be laid face down along your thigh and supported by your arm, give them five back blows between the shoulder blades with the heel of your hand. "Previously this was done along the arm but the leg is felt to be more secure and provide more support." He continues in a statement: "Check their mouth for any obstruction. If there is still a blockage then turn the infant onto their back and give up to five chest thrusts. Use two fingers – push inwards and upwards against their breastbone. "If the obstruction does not clear after three cycles of back blows and chest thrusts, call for an ambulance and continue until help arrives." Image: Baby choking first aid steps - St John Ambulance The 10th edition of the First Aid Manual has been compiled by St John Ambulance, St Andrew's First Aid and the British Red Cross and is published by Dorling Kindersley.	<urn:uuid:92c4a8c7-9523-417d-bf0f-b005a381940a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.webmd.boots.com/children/news/20140220/new-infant-choking-first-aid-procedure	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.975846	523	2.734375	3
Quantitative Chromatographic Analysis - Data Processing from Quantitative Chromatographic Analysis Chromatographic results were obtained originally by direct measurements taken from the chromatogram and involved the physical measurement of peak heights, retention distances, peak widths and, if integrators were available, peak areas. Despite the introduction of the computers, manual measurement is still carried out in some laboratories today where funds are limited or in university laboratories employing laboratory-made equipment. However, most contemporary chromatographs use computer data acquisition and data handling systems to automatically measure the chromatographic parameters, correct for response factors, calculate the results and prints out the analysis. The data is stored on disk that eliminates tedious book keeping and provides a high level of mathematical accuracy. Unfortunately, mathematical accuracy is the least important source of error in most chromatographic analysis. Nevertheless, if the peaks of interest are incompletely resolved, the protocol used for data processing needs to be known and its limitations understood. The analysis report can be the simple entry of a date, a sample number and a percentage figure onto a standard printed form or it can take the form of a fifteen page report. The former could be a process control analysis, the latter a forensic or pollution report. In the former the procedure, the method of calculation and confidence levels would be firmly established and would not be reported on the form. However, in the latter analysis, the complete analytical details including the method, time and place of sampling and the accuracy and precision of the method would need to be reported. In cases where litigation is anticipated or in progress, every pertinent detail must be included and the preparation of the report may require the aid of an attorney. Most analytical reports will be similar to that of process control but between the two extremes, the analytical details that should be included will vary significantly from one type of report to another. An analytical report is designed to inform and not confuse or impress and thus pertinent information should be presented clearly and precisely. In addition, the report should be written using terms such that those unfamiliar with chromatography will still understand the significance of the results. To quote. "Those who really understand, can speak in terms that everyone can comprehend".	<urn:uuid:b1716493-d6e0-497c-910f-479a259d2066>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.chromatography-online.org/quant/Historical%20Introduction/Critical%20Factors%20Involved%20in%20a%20Successful%20Chromatographic%20%20Analysis/Data%20Processing.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940091	441	2.640625	3
- freely available Materials 2014, 7(4), 3065-3083; doi:10.3390/ma7043065 Abstract: To study the variation of the mechanical behavior of binary aluminum copper alloys with respect to their microstructure, a numerical simulation of their granular structure was carried out. The microstructures are created by a repeated inclusion of some predefined basic grain shapes into a representative volume element until reaching a given volume percentage of the α-phase. Depending on the grain orientations, the coalescence of the grains can be performed. Different granular microstructures are created by using different basic grain shapes. Selecting a suitable set of basic grain shapes, the modeled microstructure exhibits a realistic aluminum alloy microstructure which can be adapted to a particular cooling condition. Our granular models are automatically converted to a finite element model. The effect of grain shapes and sizes on the variation of elastic modulus and plasticity of such a heterogeneous domain was investigated. Our results show that for a given α-phase fraction having different grain shapes and sizes, the elastic moduli and yield stresses are almost the same but the ultimate stress and elongation are more affected. Besides, we realized that the distribution of the θ phases inside the α phases is more important than the grain shape itself. A longstanding principle states that there is a distinct and identifiable relation between the interior structure of a material and its properties . The majority of engineering materials have polycrystalline and multiphase structures. An important scale which affects the mechanical properties and stress distribution inside a material is the grain microstructure of the material. If a volume of a material contains a large numbers of grains with random crystal lattice orientations, the material could present isotropic characteristics even if the individual crystal is anisotropic in both elastic and plastic behaviors. Even though the overall mechanical property of a material is considered as isotropic, the stress distribution inside a volume of the material depends on its grain microstructure. The latter will have an impact on the global behavior of the material since stress concentration occurring at the microscopic scale initiates decohesion and global rupture eventually. Several authors have worked on the development of microstructure models for the simulation of recrystallization and grain growth problems. These models can be divided into two groups . The geometrical and topological model of the first group is based on combining the elementary geometry of nucleation, grain growth and impingement [3,4]. These models are mostly constructed by employing the Voronoi’s structure where the initial nucleation points are seeds in the Voronoi’s diagram. The second group, which is called component methods, is an extension of the first group to include several components like for example the grain orientations [5,6]. Nucleation and growth conditions are defined for each component. Different texture components grow independently and the final microstructure is formed when growing grains impinged and prevent their further growth. The nuclei can be distributed initially or they can be added continuously. The component method can be used for a three-dimensional (3D) simulation too. Another interesting method for modeling microstructure evolution processes is the phase-field method. This method defines a microstructure as a whole using some field variables which are functions of space . When an acceptable microstructure geometric with distinguishable solid phases has been produced, the overall mechanical properties of the material can be found. There exist different approaches from different scales that can be used to calculate such properties; some of them are reviewed by Ortiz and Phillips . Atomistic simulation is a powerful method to evaluate the mechanical properties of materials. However, it has serious difficulties, among them the limitation to work with small sizes and application of boundary conditions. Higher-level methods used by several researchers are based on polycrystal plasticity [9–12]. Here finite element formulations are used to describe the plasticity in the various grains. Some two dimensional models were presented by Becker and McHugh et al. [11,12]. Beaudoin et al. presented a three dimensional finite element model for crystal plasticity with a viscoplastic constitutive formulation. The polycrystal was constructed by three-dimensional cuboid grains which formed a 2 × 2 × 2 array. Each grain can have different orientation, constitutive response, and is discretized to finer finite elements. Using such an approach, localized orientation gradients in face-centered polycrystals and the evolution of nonuniform deformation zones within individual crystals were simulated. In this paper, we investigate the structure-properties relationship for a binary aluminum copper alloy having 4.6 weight percentage (wt%) Cu. A new method for producing discretized microstructure of alloys is presented, which focuses on the generation of a realistic microstructure while avoiding the complex procedures normally required when precipitation and growth of solid phases are considered. The generated microstructures can mimic typical 2D microstructures if suitable basic grain shapes are used. The resulting microstructure is transformed automatically into a finite element mesh. Using the ABAQUS software package, we investigated the variation of the mechanical properties with respect to variation of the microstructure grain shapes and sizes. 2. Grain Generation Let us consider a tensile test of a solid material using a thin specimen with a uniform thickness, as presented in Figure 1. The thickness of this specimen is considerably smaller than its other dimensions, so it is almost a plane stress problem. Consider a piece of such a test specimen which contains all the solid phases which have been formed during solidification or after the heat treating process. For example for an as-cast material this piece of material must be big enough to contain several solid grains and grain boundary phases, thus it is able to demonstrate the heterogeneous characteristic of the solid material satisfactorily. For simplicity, a rectangular domain having x, y dimensions has been chosen. Our method is based on the creation of the grains inside this rectangular piece of material, which from now on will be called the representative volume element (RVE). As an example, if we consider the binary aluminum alloy having 4.6% copper, it is clear from the aluminum-copper phase diagram that the face centered cubic (FCC) phase α and the intermetallic phase θ (Al2Cu) can coexist in this alloy. Depending on the cooling conditions, each phase volume percentage can be calculated or determined by image analysis. The general procedure is as follows: take a RVE completely fill with the θ phase, a basic grain shape is randomly chosen from a predefined basic grain shapes library, its orientation and its size are chosen randomly, and then it is placed in a random position inside the RVE. Some basic shapes will intersect each other inside the RVE and therefore some intersection rules, which depend on the grain orientation, are needed. The basic grains insertion is continued until a given volume fraction of α and θ phases is obtained, the latter being previously determined from a solidification model or from experimental measurements. 2.1. Basic Grain Shapes Figure 2a–c show some basic grain shapes used for a coarse representation of the grains. Here, each basic grain is constructed in an array of 10 × 10 or 9 × 9 elements. The blue squares in these figures represent the α phase elements while the red ones represent θ phase elements. The basic grains which are shown in Figure 2d,e are constructed in an array of 100 × 100 elements. They present some complex basic grain shapes that can be used for a fine representation of the basic grains. These shapes give more realistic grain microstructures since they were captured from a real micrograph. So, the quality of the final microstructure depends on the resolution of the basic grain shapes. The basic grains shown in Figure 3 have intermediate resolution since they are constructed in a 50 × 50 elements array. Taking into account the volume of computer memory needed and the speed of calculation, we mostly used 50 × 50 basic grain models for the grain generation and the finite element analysis. Not all of the basic grain shapes presented in Figure 3 produce realistic grain microstructures. However, one can use them to create different microstructures and to evaluate the effect of microstructure on the mechanical properties of a material. 2.2. Connection Criteria After the creation of basic grain shapes, they must be projected into the RVE to obtain a granular structure. In the projection procedure, the size, the position and the orientation of each grain inside the RVE are chosen randomly. When a new grain occupies an area already covered by previous grains, a connection criterion is needed to decide whether these grains must be connected together or whether a new grain, with a θ phase joining band separator must be inserted. Hasson and Goux considered the grain boundary energy (γgb) as a function of the misorientation of the grains (Δθ) for an aluminum alloy. A simple approximation of this function was given by Mathier et al. , as presented in Figure 4. Rappaz et al. considered the merging and the coalescence of two flat solid-liquid interfaces of unit area. They stated that the coalescence can be seen as the disappearance of two solid-liquid boundaries, each with energy γs/L, and the formation of a solid-solid grain boundary with energy γgb. Considering that γgb < 2γs/L, then the free energy will be decreased if the solid-solid junction is formed. So it is an attractive situation. Looking at Figure 4, it can be seen that such a situation will happen for a low-orientation difference between two adjacent grains, namely if 0° ≤ Δθ ≤ 11° and 79° ≤ Δθ ≤ 90°. If γgb = 2γs/L then the free energy stays the same whether or not the solid-solid junction is formed. This refers to the neutral case. On the other hand, if γgb > 2γs/L, then the free energy will be increased if the solid-solid junction is formed. So, it is a repulsive situation. Considering Figure 4, one concludes that such a situation can happen for high-orientation differences between two adjacent grains. As a result, if a portion of the inserted grain is already occupied with the previous grain in the domain, the decision about the type of junction between the inserted grain and the old one will depend on the orientation difference between these two grains. If it is an attractive case, the grains must be connected and a single grain is formed. If it is a repulsive case, the old grain must be cut and the new grain is inserted in its position. Between the cut and the new grain, a θ phase joining band (channel) must be inserted to separate these grains. The existence of this phase at the intergranular position is to mimic the late solidification of the liquid phase existing between the grains where the liquid is rich in copper. Here, it is assumed that the liquid is forming a divorced eutectic microconstituent where the θ phase remains as a continuous film at the boundary. Figure 5a shows the microstructure of an as-cast B206 aluminum alloy having approximately a volume fraction 95.6% of α phase and an average grain size of 550 μm. Black zones and lines are mostly θ phases inside the grains or between the grains. Figure 5b, shows the grains created for the same volume fraction of α phase in a 4 mm × 4 mm square RVE. The basic grain shapes a, b and c of Figure 2 with a resolution of 50 μm × 50 μm (size of the square elements composing the grain shapes) were used. The blue lines are the joining θ phase channels generated by the grain connection procedure. The red squares are the θ phase elements that: (1) came with the basic grains and (2) remained between the grains once the insertion procedure finished. The comparison of this figure with Figure 5a shows that, even with simple basic grain shapes of low resolution, the microstructure of this alloy is simulated with a good approximation. Figure 5c presents the generated grains for the same alloy in a 2 mm × 2 mm square RVE with elements of 5 μm × 5 μm in size using the basic grain shapes c and d of Figure 2. As can be seen the generated microstructure is very similar to what can be seen in a real micrograph. This illustrates the power of our grain generation method to create complex 2D microstructures in a simple way. Figure 6 shows microstructures having an intermediate resolution and constructed in a 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm square RVE with elements of 10 μm × 10 μm in size using the basic grain shapes presented in Figure 3, from a to f respectively. A volume fraction 95.6% of α phase is assumed for their generation. The average grain size is 550 μm. The microstructures obtained are quite different and not necessarily representative of a typical solidification process. Their generation can be used however to evaluate the impact of grain morphology on mechanical properties. For microstructures presented in Figure 6e,f, a variable scale factor chosen randomly between 0.75 and 1.5 was applied to each basic grain before its insertion. This scaling range produces an average grain size that was fitted to the average grain size desired. To create microstructures having different average grain size, one can use the same basic grain shape but with a different scaling. Figure 7 show some microstructures obtained with scaling factor of 50% and 200% of those used to generate the microstructures presented in Figure 6. For generation of microstructures with a half grain size of Figure 7a,c, a basic grain shape of Figure 3b,f with 50% size reduction has been used respectively. Figure 7b,d present microstructures generated from double size scaling of the basic grain of Figure 3b,f respectively. These microstructures were used to study the effect of grain size on the mechanical properties of alloys containing the same proportion of α and θ phases. 3. Thickness of the θ Phase Channels Each generated grain structure is constructed for a given α to α + θ fraction determined according to the solidification path. One can divide the θ fraction in two parts; the first part contains the θ phase remaining between the grains after the insertion procedure and the θ phase inside the grains, which is already included in the basic grain shape. This subset of θ phase will be designated “pockets”. The second part contains the θ phases which exist in the form of channels between the grains made from a repulsive contact between the grains. This subset of θ phase will be designated “channel”. The volume fraction of these two subsets of θ phase can be written as follow: Here, Fθ is the global fraction of θ phase, FθP is the fraction of θ phase pockets and FθC is the fraction of θ in the channels. These values must be evaluated before starting the grain generation procedure. For instance, it is known that the volume fraction of channels depends on the cooling rate because of the back-diffusion phenomenon. So, an estimation of channel thicknesses is required to generate a suitable microstructure. At the beginning, the RVE is composed of N by N elements. A fraction FθP of these elements will be θ phase at the end of the projection procedure. It is important to mention that channel elements will be added after this step. Since all elements have the same initial size at the projection procedure, one can write at this stage: The volume of θ phase inside the channels (VθC), is given by. where VRVE is the volume of the RVE. Let vi be the volume of a channel segment separating two adjacent elements, each belonging to different grains. The volume of channels must be equal to the sum of all these segments so one can write: Channel segments may have different thicknesses (δi). If lelem is the length of the channel segment separating two adjacent elements, then we have: For each pair of adjacent grains, a random channel thickness δi is assumed and is given as: where ri is a random real number between 0.0 and 1.0 and k is a scaling factor, which must be determined to satisfy Equation (3). As a result, one can write: Now, this equation can be solved for k. 4. Variation of the α Phase Properties For an as-cast Al-Cu alloy, the copper concentration varies from the center of a dendrite to its boundary because of the microsegregation phenomenon. Levasseur and Larouche presented the concentration of copper by a Wave Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (WDS) line scan analysis performed on a columnar dendritic specimen of the binary Al-5.78 wt% Cu alloy. The sample was in as-cast condition and was produced with the directionally chilled casting procedure. Such a variation can even be seen in the microstructure photography. Figure 8a shows an as-cast B206 aluminum alloy microstructure where darker zones can be identified around the θ zones. This concentration profile produces a variation of the mechanical properties inside the α grains, particularly near the θ phases. To consider this type of variation a classification of elements was done and the α elements near to the θ phase elements were identified. To classify α phase elements, the list of elements was searched and the elements having a θ phase neighbor were marked. This type of search can be repeated to mark the elements of the other neighboring layers. Different material properties could be assigned to the elements of each layer. Figure 8b shows θ phase and the first layer of neighboring α elements around the θ phase elements for a generated microstructure. Figure 8c,d present the second and the third layer of neighboring α respectively for the same microstructure. 5. Finite Element Mesh Generation Creation of α phase finite elements are straightforward since each α element of the discrete domain can be presented as an α phase finite element. This is also true for the θ pocket zones as each θ element of the discrete domain can be converted to a θ phase finite element. The sole difficulty is the presentation of the θ phase channels. The θ phase channels are between two solid elements. The sizes of these channels, using calculations of the previous section, are already known. To create them, parts of the adjacent elements in both sides of the channel are taken and a θ phase finite element is created from these parts. To have a uniform finite elements mesh, half of the θ phase channel thickness is taken from each adjacent α elements. Notice that these elements belong to different grains so they can have different orientations. Figure 9a shows an example of the finite element generation in a portion of a generated microstructure. The number of generated elements depends on the size and the resolution of RVE. It does not depend on the thickness of the channel since only one θ phase finite element is created between two grains. Figure 9b shows some θ phase finite elements with different channel thicknesses. 6. Results and Discussion Using our grain generation procedure, different grain structures were created and converted in a finite element mesh. The mesh was thereafter introduced in the finite element software package ABAQUS. The Al-4.6% Cu was considered to have 4.4 volume percentage (vol%) of θ phase, among which, approximately 2.5 vol% was present in the channels generated by the connection procedure. The thickness of each channel, between two grains, was chosen randomly as mentioned in the previous section. Different loading and boundary conditions were applied. In these analyses, the α phase elements were considered as an elastoplastic material and the θ phase as an elastic material until its fracture point. 6.1. Finite Element Analysis Figure 10 presents the generated finite element mesh and its boundary conditions applied on the 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm RVE presented in Figure 6f. It is composed of 89,401 2D plain stress elements. The elements of the first five rows from the top are considered rigid to be able to apply the tension load to the top of the domain. The bottom nodes are fixed in y direction and the side nodes are fixed in x direction. The elastoplastic material parameters implemented in ABAQUS are presented in Table 1. As mentioned in previous sections, the copper weight percentage varies considerably near the θ phase. For an Al-4.6% Cu, the Cu concentration can vary from 2 wt% in the center of the dendrite to 5 wt% near the edge, so the material properties are expected to be not uniform in the α phase. It was therefore decided to give different material properties to the α phase elements depending on whether they were next to a θ phase or not. Table 1 presents the properties associated with the two types of phase α considered (near θ or not) and of the α phase itself. Notice that the α phase properties were taken from the B2219-T87 (Al-6.3 wt% Cu) and the B2117-T4 (Al-2.6 wt% Cu) alloys . For θ-Al2Cu phase, the value of Young’s modulus reported by Eshelman and Smith was used. A variable displacement boundary condition was applied at the top of RVE. The imposed displacement started from zero and increased linearly until it reached its maximum values before the breakdown of the RVE. Using the static general step of the finite element analysis of ABAQUS software, two dimensional plane stress problems were solved. It takes only 6 minutes on a laptop computer having Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-3740QM CPU @ 2.7 GHz. As an example, Figure 11a–d present the Von-Mises stresses at different strains. These figures show how these stresses increased inside this heterogeneous material as tensile stretching occurs. One can see that the grain boundary zones are transferring a considerable amount of loading from top to bottom, if one compares Figure 11d with Figure 10. The distribution of the Von-Mises stresses at approximately the same imposed strain of Figure 11d, in a 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm RVE, are displayed in Figure 12b for the discretized microstructure presented in Figure 5c in a 2 mm ×2 mm RVE. The latter have a resolution of 5 μm instead of 10 μm in Figure 6f. As one can see, the stress patterns are similar though having better resolution stress contours. 6.2. Calculating Mechanical Properties of the Material If one calculates the average stress as the sum of nodal reaction forces at the bottom of the RVE over the cross section area and the average strain as the displacement of the top nodes over the height of the RVE, the Young’s modulus can be found. For an elastic plane stress element the relation between stresses and strains are: where E is the Young’s modulus and v is the Poisson’s ratio. Using our boundary conditions presented in Figure 10, it can be understood that εxx=0, and γxy=0. So, we have: After the finite element execution, the εyy at the top of the RVE is known and the σyy can be evaluated as the sum of the reaction forces at the bottom of the RVE divided by the cross section area, so the Young’s modulus can be calculated and the stress-strain curve can be drawn. Those presented in Figure 13 were obtained with the discretized microstructures presented in Figure 6a–f. Although the microstructures have obvious differences, one can see that they produce similar stress-strain curves from 0 to 190 MPa. So having the same volume fraction of α to θ phases, no matter the grain shapes, we have the same elastic behavior of the microstructure. All the above models yield approximately at 165 MPa. The hardening parts of the stress-strain curves start to deviate after 190 MPa. Even after 190 MPa, we have some microstructures which behave similarly. The comparison of our simulation results with an as-cast B206 alloy (aluminum 4.6% copper) measurements is presented in Table 2. As can be seen from this table, our results of Young’s Modulus, Yield Stress and Ultimate Stress match very well with those of the as-cast B206 mechanical properties. Three groups of microstructures can be identified from the above curves. Group A, which includes microstructures of Figure 6a,b, Group B, which includes microstructures of Figure 6c,d and group C, which includes microstructures of Figure 6e,f. Considering Figure 6, one can see that the main difference between these groups comes from how θ phases are distributed inside α phases. In group A, θ phases are mostly concentrated between the grains, so the zones of α phases are large and soften the microstructure. In group B, many θ phase channels exists because of the fine dendritic arms of the grains, so they increase the hardening slope of the stress-strain curves. Group C is an intermediate case where we have a uniform distribution of θ phases inside more globular α grains. To see the effect of the grain sizes on the mechanical properties of the alloy, microstructures of Figure 7a–d have been analysed with the same loading and boundary conditions. Figure 14 presents the stress-strain curves calculated. In general, we can say that for the same θ and α phase fractions the smaller grain size promotes a higher hardening rate in the plastic regime. The effect of θ phase distribution must not be ignored since a microstructure having larger grains with a lot of θ phases between dendrite arms can present tougher properties. This is why the results of the model presented in Figures 6f and 7d are close to each other. It is worth pointing out that the distribution of θ phase had an immediate impact on the distribution of the α-near θ phase regions, so it is difficult to separate their effects. However, we found it important to include the α-near θ phase regions to simulate a more realistic mechanical behavior. Using a simple numerical procedure, discretized microstructures were generated to mimic a realistic multiphase grain microstructure. A predefined basic grains database was used and a complex grain microstructure can be constructed with these shapes. The time consuming grain growth procedures were not used in this approach, which simplifies the method a lot. Zones of different phases can be formed between the generated grains depending of the connection procedure, the latter assuming the presence of intergranular secondary phases. The grain structure inside a given representative volume element is automatically transformed into a finite element mesh. Using a commercial finite element code, the mechanical properties of a binary aluminum 4.6% copper alloy having the same θ to α phase fraction but with different grain shapes and sizes were calculated. Our results show that even with different grain shapes and sizes, the elastic moduli and yield stresses are almost the same. We observe some difference in elongation, ultimate stresses and the slopes of the hardening part of stress-strain curves which indicates that grain shapes have a measurable influence on the plastic behavior of the alloys. According to these simulations, it seems that the distribution of the θ phase inside the α phase is more important than the grain shape. Note that, different distributions of the θ phase inside the α phase produce different stress fields inside the material. Although, we have used this method for a binary aluminum alloy, it has the capacity to be used for the generation of other material microstructures. This model is also extendable to a 3D granular model. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. The original idea of the presented grain generation method and its applications comes from the first author. 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[Google Scholar] \|Phase\|\|α\|\|α near θ\|\|θ\| \|Young’s modulus (GPa)\|\|70\|\|73\|\|110\| \|Yield strength (MPa)\|\|165\|\|395\|\|≈1100\| \|Ultimate strength (MPa)\|\|295\|\|475\|\|–\| \|Other Elements (%)\|\|0.35\|\|0.36\|\|–\| \|Alloy or Model\|\|Young’s Modulus (GPa)\|\|Yield Stress (MPa)\|\|Ultimate Stress (MPa)\|\|Elongation (%)\| \|B206 as cast \|\|≈72\|\|160–172\|\|232–255\|\|2.8–5\| © 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).	<urn:uuid:289e4ddf-8387-46b8-9965-7e3cf03ebd34>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/7/4/3065/htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.901389	7,093	2.578125	3
A cruise ship sailed north for 50 km. Then, the captain turned the ship eastward through an angle of pi/6 and sailed an additional 50 km. Without using a calculator, determine an exact expression for the direct distance from the start to the finish of the cruise. So I started by trying to draw the problem: Did I even draw it right? And to finish it off how do I determine an exact expression? Please show all work done to get to the expression. So I did the cosine rule as you mentioned: a^2 = b^2 + c^2 -2bc(cos30) a^2 = 50^2 + 50^2 - 2(50)(50)cos30 a^2 = 2500 + 2500 - 5000 (0.866) a^2 = 2500 + 2500 - 4330.127 a^2 = 669.873 a = 25.88190488 I'm confused as to how doing that would help me determine an exact expression for the direct distance from the start to the finish of the cruise. I have no clue where the expression is coming from, please help. Once again the expression for the direct distance from the start to finish of the cruise is: I have no clue where thats coming from I'm also quite confused about the wording of the question and what the diagram should look like. P.S. When you used the cosine law it is not same as the rounded answer from the back of the text. The rounded answer should be approx 96.93 not 25.88. Also my class has not been taught to use the cosine law yet so I'm pretty sure you're not supposed to use it. If you are using Advanced Functions 12 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson.	<urn:uuid:782b9f3c-403d-4e49-a8b4-6ef0e904c541>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mathhelpforum.com/trigonometry/118082-trig-question-finding-exact-expression.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937083	369	3.515625	4
You've heard the term hacker, you know they can cause damage and create havoc, but do you know what a hacker is? A hacker is a programmer able to get into a system or gain unauthorized access by skillful strategy. Hackers can be useful for maintaining a system and is constantly searching for security deficiencies. They can be the guardians of the security system. They also can turn that around and do more harm then good. A hacker is a skilled programmer who can write software expertly and swiftly. They can crack nearly any code and get into any computer system. Some of the more famous computer systems that have been hacked are corporations such as McDonalds, and to federal websites that have extremely sensitive information. Highly skilled hackers have hacked into Griffith Air Force Base, NASA, the US Department of Justice, and the US Air Force. Hackers have their own underground network where they exchange triumphs and share techniques to hack into new programs or skirt any protective software. How can you protect yourself and your computer against hackers? Your computer may not be NASA quality or have sensitive and confidential information like the Department of Justice, but it can cause you some problems. A good hacker can get into your computer, steal passwords, pin numbers or codes to your financial sites. How do you stop this attack on your system? One of the most important guards you can have in place is a fire wall. A fire wall will help keep hackers from getting into your system and sending out your personal information. Antivirus software will scan incoming files and e-mails but a fire wall stands guard outside the system to block any communications or information exchanges from sources that don't have your permission. If you use a high-speed Internet connection, you may have the same security concerns that any big organization or corporation has. It filters the information coming through the Internet connection. It can flag a packet of information that could potentially be harmful to your computer system. Some systems come with a fire wall already installed; it just needs to be turned on once your get your computer set up. You can get separate software that will run in the background while you work, or you can get an external hardware fire wall that includes fire wall software. There are several fire wall software programs on the Internet that can be downloaded free. Be sure the sites you are using are trustworthy and have a good reputation. How do fire walls work? A fire wall filters incoming data and lets only the ones considered safe to come through. Information is checked and is matched to specific defining characteristics. If these characteristics are not matched, the fire wall will not allow the information to go into your system. Hackers also use Web browsers such as Netscape and Internet Explorer to get into your computer system. You can make your system more secure by increasing your online security. You can find the security feature by going to "Tools" or "Options" on your task bar. A good fire wall can protect you from the creative ways that people use and misuse unprotected computers. It protects from remote login so a person can't view or access your files or run any of your computer programs. It keeps hackers from hijacking your e-mail. Once a hacker gains access to an e-mail address, it can then use that address to send unsolicited junk e-mail to thousands of users. E-mail bombs can be used as a personal attack on your personal computer. Someone sends you the same e-mail thousands of times until your e-mail system can't accept any more messages. For someone who works from home this could be a catastrophe. Spam is junk mail, usually harmless but it also often contains links to Web sites that may install a "cookie" on your system that creates a backdoor for a hacker to enter through. Your newer system might also have free software that closes holes in the system that hackers can use. These patches can be found on the website for your system's manufacturer and can even be set to be installed automatically whenever a new patch is issued for a newly found problem.	<urn:uuid:0c8bc7f0-2c10-4c4f-96f7-643578234810>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_guide/154369/security/how_to_stop_computer_hackers_in_their_tracks.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.941442	817	2.90625	3
The Climate Struggle: Are You Part of the 5 Percent? Five percent of the world’s population drives an average of 19 tons per person of global warming pollution into the atmosphere each year due to their consumption patterns. This amounts to over three times the average emissions of the other 95 percent of the global population. An underlying issue at the United Nations climate change negotiations is how the top five percent of carbon emitters can maintain their consumption levels, while preventing the rest of the world from rising to their excessive level of emissions. I calculated these percentages (see chart below) from the Carbon Footprint of Nations data and analysis compiled by the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and originally published in an article in the Proceeding of the National Academies of Sciences and another in the journal of Environmental Science & Technology. These numbers, commonly known as a carbon footprint, represent the carbon dioxide that each person in a population emits based on consumption. These differ from the national production-based emissions statistics that are most commonly reported. The United Nations’ climate convention traditionally has tracked emissions by the global warming pollution associated with a nation’s industrial production, rather than emissions produced by the population’s consumption. Why does this consumption vs. production approach matter? Well, take China for example. The population of China is largely part of the 95 percent consumptive emissions group. Although China as a nation has become the world’s largest producer of global warming emissions, it has also become one of the world’s largest exporters. This means that consumers from developed countries are in effect exporting their global warming pollution to China, where high-carbon goods are being produced for developed nation’s consumption. Although China has recently begun to catch up with some developed nations in terms of consumption emissions, on a per-capita basis they remain—with an average emission rate of 4.5 tons of carbon dioxide per capita—well within the lower half of the world population. This exchange of carbon between nations and the inequity inherent in the population disparity between nations is often lost in the climate negotiations. Are you part of the five percent? Chances are if you are in the U.S., you are part of, or, at least pretty close. Unfortunately, even if you consciously try to curb your personal emissions, economic and infrastructure constraints make it extremely difficult for many working professionals in the U.S. to reduce their emissions to the average per capita emissions of the 95 percent. Let me give you an example. My estimated carbon footprint is 13 tons of carbon dioxide per year, which is below the American average, but still super high! I drive a Prius, but due to family and time constraints, I must drive to work and not, say, ride a bike. I have solar panels on my home, which covers most of my household energy consumption except for heating. One big drag on my emissions budget is the international travel I do for work (airplane rides add up!). However, the emissions associated with my household consumption, including food, clothes and technology, accounts for over a third of my emissions. With more of a concerted effort I could probably get my emission down to 10 tons per year, and still lead my daily life. However, that would still be almost twice the average of the 95 percent level. This is quite depressing. But it speaks to why government policies are so critical for setting incentives that shif our society to a low-carbon emission path. Without the policies to drive change in the economy, consumers are left with limited options. If Americans don’t like being at the top five percent of global carbon emitters, then we need to push our political leaders to set up incentives and policies to shift our economy off fossil fuels. Today, per capita emissions of the average U.S. citizen is about 19 tons of CO2. Let’s shoot for 5.5 tons and be part of the 95 percent!	<urn:uuid:2f405456-f096-4bdc-8fa7-13da691b7568>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.takepart.com/article/2012/12/03/climate-struggle	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952471	805	2.796875	3
The exoplanet zoo just got a truly spectacular addition. Astronomers have found evidence for an Earth-mass planet in our own backyard, about 4.4 light years away in the Alpha Centauri system, the star system nearest to our own. The planet, which is at least 1.1 times the mass of the Earth, orbits Alpha Centauri B (α Cen B), one of two sun-like stars in the three-star system. With a year lasting just 3.2 days, the planet speeds around α Cen B in a scorching orbit, one that's far too close to be considered habitable. "If there are any inhabitants there, they're made of asbestos," SETI Institute astronomer Seth Shostak quipped in an interview with NPR. Still, the discovery has astronomers excited because low-mass planets often seem to come in groups. It may be that there is an Earth-like planet just waiting to be found in α Cen B's 'habitable zone', with temperatures in just the right range to support the presence of liquid water and life as we know it. That doesn't mean such a planet will be easy to find. This discovery was already pushing the limits of existing instruments. Xavier Dumusque, a Ph.D. student affiliated with the Geneva Observatory, and colleagues found the planet by scouring starlight coming from α Cen B using the High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) instrument, an ultra-precise spectrograph mounted on a 3.6-meter telescope at the La Silla Observatory in Chile. HARPS is designed to pick up tiny shifts in spectral lines that arise when planets tug on their host stars and cause them to move back and forth along the line of sight with Earth. Finding the stellar wobbles created by the planet around α Cen B required detailed modeling of stellar activity. Although α Cen B is a relatively calm star, it still has weather that can mask the presence of planets. In the end, the team uncovered a signal that, according to an article accompanying the team's paper, is just one third as strong as α Cen B's stellar activity. The signal is puny compared to previous finds, corresponding to stellar motion of just 50 centimeters per second, or about as fast as a baby crawls, according to a press release put out by the European Southern Observatory. That's about 1% the speed generated by the tug of 51 Peg b, a planet about half the mass of Jupiter that was discovered in 1995 (it was the first to be found orbiting an ordinary star). "The Geneva team has done something very difficult," says Debra Fischer, an astronomy professor at Yale University. "There is not a more exciting result for an individual star, even with the long line of spectacular results from the last 2 decades." Fischer has been conducting a search for planets around α Cen B using a new detector on the 1.5-meter telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile and says her team is well poised to follow-up on the HARPS measurements. Finding habitable planets around α Cen B could be trickier. At a press conference on Tuesday, Dumusque said that, at its current sensitivity, HARPS could turn up a planet in the habitable zone of α Cen B with a mass as low as four times the mass of Earth. Finding a true Earth twin, an Earth-mass planet on an Earth-like orbit, would require measuring stellar motions of just 9 centimeters per second, says Nature News. There is some hope that we'll get there. Astronomers are testing out new laser-based calibration systems that could help boost the sensitivity of HARPS and other such instruments by a factor of 10 (although astronomers will still have to contend with stellar activity). And there are other ways to detect planets. If the alignment is right, we could potentially see α Cen B planets as they pass in front of the star in the course of their orbit, temporarily blocking out a fraction of the light that reaches Earth. Either way, maybe it's time to start contemplating a mission to Alpha Centauri to see what there is to find. We'll probably want something a bit speedier than our interstellar pioneer, Voyager 1. If the spacecraft were headed in that direction, it would take more than 70,000 years to reach the system. (Image: G. Hüdepohl/ESO)	<urn:uuid:1e665b23-3c92-4f4b-a8c8-f1413aee3ae2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/aerospace/astrophysics/earthmass-planet-found-in-alpha-centauri	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949466	909	3.328125	3
Botanical.com Home Page (Ulex europaeus LINN.) Click on graphic for larger image Botanical: Ulex europaeus (LINN.) ---Synonyms---Furze. Broom. Whin. Prickly Broom. Ruffet. Frey. Goss. Family: N.O. Leguminosae ---Parts Used---Flowers, seed. ---Habitat---It is found from Denmark to Italy, the Canaries and Azores, and in every part of Great Britain, though it is rarer in the north. There is probably hardly a heath in the country which lacks a patch, however small, of the dry-soil-loving Furze. The Golden Gorse (Ulex Europaeus, Linn.) is conspicuous in waste places and on commons throughout Great Britain, from its spiny branches and bright yellow flowers, situated on the spines, either solitary or in pairs. It is thought to be the Scorpius of Theophrastus and the Ulex of Pliny. By botanists before Linnaeus, it was known as a Broom and called Genista spinosa. Linnaeus restored to it the name of Ulex, by which it has ever since been recognized. ---Description---The plant is a dense, muchbranched, stunted shrub, rarely attaining a height of more than 6 feet. It is evergreen, but the leaves are very minute and fall off early, not being present in the older stages, when they take the form of long, thread-like spines, which are straight and furrowed, or branching. The stem is hairy and spreading. - Although it looks so sturdy, it is not very hardy. Severe frosts are liable to injure it, and during some exceptionally severe winters whole tracts of it on open commons have perished. Linnaeus, we are told in Johnson's Useful Plants of Great Britain: - 'lamented that he could not keep Furze alive in Sweden, even in a greenhouse. It was one of his favourite plants, though the wellknown story of his falling on his knees when first seeing it in this country and thanking Heaven for having created a flower so beautiful is of rather doubtful authenticity as it is likewise related of Dillenius.' - The golden-yellow, papilionaceous flowers have a powerful scent, perfuming the air. They open from early spring right up to August, or even later, but the bushes are to be found in blossom, here and there practically all the year round, hence the old saying: - 'When Gorse is out of bloom, - Kissing's out of season,' - and an old custom in some parts of the country of inserting a spray of Gorse in the bridal bouquet, is an allusion to this. Its elastic seed-vessels, like those of the Broom, burst with a crackling noise in hot weather and scatter the seeds on all sides. - The following reference to its continuous flowering appeared in the Chemist and Druggist of January 15, 1921. The writer says: - 'Sir, The impression that is prevalent concerning the perennial flowering of the common Furze is a very natural, although a mistaken one. - 'The ordinary furze, U. Europaeus, begins to flower in December, is in full bloom in March and April, and continues sometimes in a desultory manner as late as June. Then the Dwarf Furze begins to flower, and is in lull bloom in August. When mixed with the heather - then in blossom - it forms gorgeous purple and gold carpets wherever, as in Jersey, it is abundant. U. Gallii then takes up the tale, and from August to November blossoms freely. U. Europaeus is rarely less than 2 ft. high when it begins to flower: the U. Nanus has a decumbent habit, and is rarely more than 1 1/2 ft. high, and the flowers are paler and do not expand the wings widely. U. Gallii is easily recognized by the larger lateral spines of the branches being decurved, and the flowers more of an orange tint. But an ordinary observer would discount these differences, if noticed at all, and merely regard the other species as more or less dwarf plants. U. Gallii is sometimes as short as U. nanus, and sometimes as tall as U. Europaeus, but may always be recognized by the stout spines curved backwards. - .......'Yours truly, The Gorse has not as many uses as the Broom, nor is it of such importance medicinally. 'In France,' to quote Syme and Sowerby, British Botany, 1864, 'it is used for burning, being cut down every few years, in places where it grows naturally. In Surrey and other counties, it is used largely as fuel, especially by bakers in their ovens and is cultivated for that purpose and cut down every three years. When burned, it yields a quantity of ashes rich in alkali, which are sometimes used for washing, either in the form of a solution or lye, or mixed with clay and made into balls, as a substitute for soap. The ashes form an excellent manure and it is not uncommon where the ground is covered with Furze bushes to burn them down to improve the land and to secure a crop of young shoots, which are readily eaten by cattle. In some parts of England, it is usual to put the Furze bushes into a mill to crush the thorns and then to feed horses and cows with the branches. When finely cut or crushed, sheep will readily eat it.' The bruised shoots form a very nutritious fodder and when well bruised are eaten with much relish by horses, and cows are said to give good milk upon this food alone. When crushed, it is necessary to use it quickly, as the mass soon ferments. The variety of Furze found in the west of England and in Ireland, called U. strictus, is the best for this purpose, its shoots being softer and more succulent. It has terminal bunches of flowers. Professor Henslow (Uses of British Plants, 1905) states that Furze 'has also been used chopped up into small pieces and sown in drills with Peas, proving a good defence against the attack of birds and mice.' The leaf-buds have been used as a substitute for tea and the flowers yield a beautiful yellow dye. The seeds are said to be nutritious, but do not appear to have been used for cattle feeding, though in earlier days they were sometimes employed medicinally. Goldsmith calls the Furze 'unprofitably gay,' but Furze is not 'unprofitable.' It is usually cut once in three years, and its ashes, after burning, yield a serviceable dressing for the land. Gorse is frequently sown as a shelter to very young trees in plantations and as a cover for game and makes excellent hedges when kept closely cut, but is only to be recommended for this purpose in mild climates or sheltered situations, as it is always liable to be cut off by hard frost. Wherever sown, it requires to be kept free from weeds during the first year or two. Like Broom, it grows well near the sea. The name Ulex was given it by Pliny, but its signification is unknown. He states that the plant was used in the collection of gold, being laid down in water to catch any golddust brought down by the water. The word Furze is derived from the AngloSaxon name fyrs, while Gorse is also from the A.-S. gorst (a waste), a reference to the open moorlands on which it is found. ---Medicinal Action and Uses---The plant has never played an important part in herbal medicine. Parkinson tells us that 'some have used the flowers against the jaundice.' An infusion of the blossoms used to be given to children to drink in scarlet-fever. Gerard states: 'the seeds are employed in medicines against the stone and staying of the laske' (laxness of the bowels). They have some astringent property, containing tannin. Old writers also tell-us that 'sodden with honey, it clears the mouth' and that it 'is good against snake-bite.' It had an old reputation as an insecticide: 'Against fleas, take this same wort, with its seed, sodden; sprinkle it into the house; it killeth the fleas.' In 1886 A. W. Gerrard discovered an alkaloid in the seeds, more powerful as a purgative than the Sparteine obtained from Cytisus scoparius (Link) (Pharm. Journal, Aug. 7, 1886). This was named Ulexine. In 1890 the German scientist Kobert, as the result of much investigation, came to the conclusion that Ulexine and Cytisine are identical. He also found indication of a second alkaloid. The suggestion gave rise to a considerable chemico-physiological discussion (see Pharm. Journal, Feb. 1891). Ulexine has been used in cardiac dropsy, the dose being from 1/15 to 1/20, of a grain. Common Name Index Bear in mind "A Modern Herbal" was written with the conventional wisdom of the early 1900's. This should be taken into account as some of the information may now be considered inaccurate, or not in accordance with modern medicine. A MODERN HERBAL Home Page © Copyright Protected 1995-2016 Botanical.com	<urn:uuid:f083dd7c-ebac-4605-a358-a023b2e3fca1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/g/gorgol31.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.960253	2,031	2.703125	3
Government Spending, Interest Rates, Prices, and Budget Deficits in the United Kingdom, 1701-1918 NBER Working Paper No. 2005 The British data from the early 1700s through World War I provide an unmatched opportunity for studying the effects of temporary changes in government purchases. In this paper I examine the effects of these changes on interest rates, the quantity of money, the price level, and budget deficits. Temporary increases in government purchases--showing up in the sample as increases in military outlays during wartime--had positive effects on long-term interest rates. The effect on the growth rate of money (bank notes) was positive only during the two periods of suspension of the gold standard (1797-1821 and 1914-1918). As long as convertibility of bank notes into specie was maintained, there was no systematic relation of government spending to monetary growth. Similarly, the main interplay between temporary government spending and inflation occurred during the periods of suspension. Temporary changes in military spending accounted for the bulk of budget deficits from the early 1700s through 1918. This association explains the main increases in the ratio of the public debt to GNP, as well as the decreases that typically occurred during peacetime. Over the sample of more than two hundred years, I found only two examples of major budget deficits that were unrelated to wartime -- one associated with compensation payments to slaveowners in 1835-36 and the other with a political dispute over the income tax in 1909-10. Because of the "exogeneity" of these deficits, it is interesting that interest rates showed no special movements at these times. Document Object Identifier (DOI): 10.3386/w2005 Published: Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol. 20, no. 2 (1987): 221-248. citation courtesy of	<urn:uuid:3718bfb2-c618-4c63-901b-54861d280943>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nber.org/papers/w2005	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949392	368	2.859375	3
The exhortation of the last Homily is continued in this. The people are exhorted to bear with fortitude the impending wrath of the Emperor. The cases of Job and the Ninevites are referred to as examples. It is shewn that men ought not to fear death, but sin. What it is to die miserably is explained; and the Homily concludes with an earnest dissuasive against the use of oaths. 1. The discourse concerning the three young men, and the Babylonian furnace, did, as it would seem, yesterday give no small comfort to your Charity; and still more the example in the case of Job, and that dunghill more to be venerated than any kingly throne. For from seeing a royal throne no advantage results to the spectators, but only a temporary pleasure, which has no profit; but from the sight of Job's dunghill, one may derive every kind of benefit, yea, much divine wisdom and consolation, in order to patience. Therefore to this day many undertake a long pilgrimage, even across the sea, hastening from the extremities of the earth, as far as Arabia, that they may see that dunghill; and having beheld it, may kiss the land, which contained the wrestling-ground of such a victor, and received the blood that was more precious than all gold! For the purple shines not so brilliantly, as did that body when dyed not in another's blood, but in its own! Even those very wounds were more precious than all manner of jewels! For the nature of pearls is of no help to our life; nor do they satisfy any necessary want on the part of those who have them. But those wounds are a consolation for all sadness; and that thou mayest learn this to be the truth, suppose any one were to lose a beloved and only son. Shew him ten thousand pearls, and you will not console his grief, or lighten his anguish; but recall to his mind the wounds of Job, and thou wouldest easily be able to minister comfort by speaking thus: "Why sorrowest thou, O man? Thou hast lost one son; but that blessed man, after he had been bereaved of the whole family of his children, both received a plague in his own flesh, and sat down naked upon the dunghill, streaming with gore from every part, and his flesh gradually wasting away; even he who was just, and true, so devout a man, who stained from every evil deed, and had even God for a witness to his virtue." By speaking thus thou wouldest extinguish all the sufferer's sadness, and remove all his distress. Thus the wounds of the just man become more useful than pearls! 2. Figure to yourselves then this wrestler; and imagine that you see that dunghill, and himself sitting in the midst of it! That golden statue! set with gems! I know not how to express it: for I am unable to find any material so precious as to compare it with that body stained with blood! So far above every substance, however costly, was the nature of that flesh, beyond all comparison more precious, and those wounds more splendid than the sun's beams; for these illumine the eyes of the body; but those enlighten the eyes of the mind! those struck the devil with utter blindness! Therefore it was, that after that blow, he started back and appeared no more. And do thou, O beloved, learn thence too what advantage there is in tribulation! For when the just man was rich, and enjoyed ease, he had the means of accusing him. However falsely, yet still he had it in his power to say, "Doth Job serve thee for nought?" But after he had stripped him and made him poor, he dared not even open his mouth any more. When he was wealthy, he prepared to wrestle with him, and threatened to overthrow him; but when he had made him poor, and taken away all he had, and thrown him into the deepest distress, then he started back. When indeed his body was sound, he lifted up his hands against him, but when he had battered his flesh, then he fled,-defeated! Seest thou how to the vigilant, poverty is much better and more beneficial than riches; and infirmity and sickness, than health; and trial, than tranquillity; inasmuch as it makes the combatants more illustrious and vigorous? 3. Who hath seen or heard of such an astonishing contest? The fighters in worldly contests, when they have battered the heads of their adversaries, are then victorious, and are crowned! But this adversary, when he had battered the body of the just man, perforating it with ulcers of every kind, and had reduced him to great weakness, was then conquered, and drew back. Even when he had pierced his ribs in every direction, he was no gainer thereby; for he spoiled him not of his hidden treasure, but he made him more conspicuous to us; and through that piercing he gave to all the privilege to look into his interior, and to discern completely the whole of his wealth! When he expected to prevail, then he withdrew with much ignominy, and never again uttered a syllable! What is the matter, O devil? For what cause withdrawest thou? Was not everything done that thou chosest? Hast thou not taken away his flocks, his herds, his droves of horses and of mules? Hast thou not also destroyed his troop of children? and battered his flesh to pieces. For what reason withdrawest thou? "Because," saith he, "every thing I chose is come to pass, and yet that which I most desired should come to pass, and for which I did all those things, is not come to pass; he hath not blasphemed! For it was in order to this, continues he, that I was doing all those things; and as this is not come to pass, I am no gainer by having deprived him of his wealth; or by the destruction of his children; or by the plague inflicted upon his body; but the reverse of what I purposed hath come to pass; I have made my enemy more illustrious; I have added lustre to his reputation." Perceivest thou, O beloved, how great was the reward of tribulation? His body was fair and sound before, but it became more venerable, when pierced through and through by these wounds! And thus wool, fair as it is before the dyeing, when it becomes purple, takes an indescribable beauty, and an additional grace. But if he had not stripped him, we should not have known the good condition of the victor; if he had not pierced the body with ulcers, the rays within would not have shone forth. If he had not made him sit down upon a dunghill, we should not have known his wealth. For a king sitting on a throne is not so illustrious, as this man was notable and conspicuous, whilst sitting upon his dunghill! For after the royal throne, comes death; but after that dunghill, the kingdom of heaven! 4. Collecting then all these reasons, let us raise ourselves from the dejection which oppresses us. For I have laid these histories before you, not that ye may applaud what is spoken, but that ye may imitate the virtue and the patience of such noble men; that ye may learn from the very facts, that there is nothing of human ills to be dreaded, save sin only; neither poverty, nor disease, nor insult, nor malicious treatment, nor ignominy, nor death, which is accounted the worst of all evils. To those who love spiritual wisdom, such things are only the names of calamities; names which have no substantial reality. But the true calamity consists in offending God, and in doing aught which is displeasing to Him. For tell me, what is there in death which is terrible? Is it because it transports thee more quickly to the peaceful haven, and to that life which is free from tumult? Although man should not put thee to death, will not the very law of nature, at length stealing upon thee, separate the body from the soul; and if this event which we fear does not happen now, it will happen shortly. 5. I speak thus, not anticipating any dread or melancholy event: God forbid! But because I am ashamed for those who are afraid of death. Tell me, whilst expecting such good things as "eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor have entered the heart of man," dost thou demur about this enjoyment, and art negligent and slothful; and not only slothful, but fearful and trembling? And is it not shameful that thou art distressed on account of death, whereas Paul groaned on account of the present life, and writing to the Romans said, "The creation groaneth together, and ourselves also which have the first fruits of the Spirit do groan." And he spoke thus, not as condemning the things present, but longing for the things to come. "I have tasted," saith he, "of the grace, and I do not willingly put up with the delay. I have the first fruits of the Spirit, and I press on towards the whole. I have ascended to the third heaven; I have seen that glory which is unutterable; I have beheld the shining palaces; I have learnt what joys I am deprived of, while I linger here, and therefore do I groan." For suppose any one had conducted thee into princely halls, and shewn thee the gold everywhere glittering on the walls, and all the rest of the glorious show; if from thence he had led thee back afterward to a poor man's hut, and promised that in a short time he would bring thee back to those palaces, and would there give thee a perpetual mansion; tell me, wouldest thou not indeed languish with desire, and feel impatient, even at these few days? Thus think then of heaven, and of earth, and groan with Paul, not because of death, but because of the present life! 6. But grant me, saith one, to be like Paul, and I shall never be afraid of death. Why, what is it that forbids thee, O man, to become like Paul? Was he not a poor man? Was he not a tent maker? Was he not a man of humble position? For if he had been rich and high born, the poor, when called upon to imitate his zeal, would have had their poverty to plead; but now thou canst say nothing of this sort. For this man was one who exercised a manual art, and supported himself too by his daily labours. And thou, indeed, from the first hast inherited true religion from thy fathers; and from thy earliest age hast been nourished in the study of the sacred writings; but he was "a blasphemer, and a persecutor, and injurious," and ravaged the Church! Nevertheless, he so changed all at once, as to surpass all in the vehemence of his zeal, and he cries out, saying, "Be ye imitators of me, even as I also am of Christ." He imitated the Lord; and wilt not thou who hast been educated in piety from the first, imitate a fellow-servant; one who by conversion was brought to the faith at a later period of life? Knowest thou not, that they who are in sins are dead whilst they live; and that they who live in righteousness, although they be dead, yet they live? And this is not my word. It is the declaration of Christ speaking to Martha, "He that believeth in me though he were dead yet shall he live." Is our doctrine, indeed, a fable? If thou art a Christian, believe in Christ; if thou believest in Christ, shew me thy faith by thy works. But how mayest thou shew this? By thy contempt of death: for in this we differ from the unbelievers. They may well fear death; since they have no hope of a resurrection. But thou, who art travelling toward better things, and hast the opportunity of meditating on the hope of the future; what excuse hast thou, if whilst assured of a resurrection, thou are yet at the same time as fearful of death, as those who believe not the resurrection? 7. But I have no fear of death, says one, nor of the act of dying, but of a miserable death, of being beheaded. Did John then, I ask, die miserably? for he was beheaded. Or did Stephen die miserably? for he was stoned; and all the martyrs have thus died wretchedly, according to this objection: since some have ended their lives by fire; and others by the sword; and some cast into the ocean; others down a precipice; and others into the jaws of wild beasts, have so come by their death. To die basely, O man, is not to come to one's end by a violent death, but to die in sin! Hear, at least, the prophet moralising on this very matter, and saying, "The death of sinners is evil." He does not say that a violent death is evil; but what then? "The death of sinners is evil." And justly so; for after the departure from this life, there is an intolerable punishment; undying vengeance, the envenomed worm; the fire unquenchable, the outer darkness, the chains indissoluble; the gnashing of teeth, the tribulation, and the anguish, and the eternal justice. 8. Since therefore such evils await sinners, what advantage can it be to them, though they should end their days at home, and in their bed? Even so, on the other hand, it can do no harm to the righteous to lay down the present life through sword, or steel, or fire, when they are to depart to the good things that are immortal. Truly "the death of sinners is evil." Such a death was that of the rich man, who despised Lazarus. He, when he had terminated his life by a natural end, at home and on his bed, and with his relatives about him, experienced after his departure to the other world a fiery torment; nor was he able to obtain there even a little comfort, out of all the pleasure he had enjoyed in the present life! But not so was it with Lazarus; for when lying upon the pavement, while the dogs came and licked his sores, he had suffered a violent death (for what could be more painful than hunger?), but on his departing hence he enjoyed eternal blessings, luxuriating in the bosom of Abraham! In what respect, then, did it injure him that he died a violent death? or what did it profit the rich man, that he died not with violence? 9. But, says some one, "We have no fear of dying by violence, but of dying unjustly; and of being punished in a similar way with the guilty,-we who have had nothing to do with the crimes of which we are suspected." What sayest thou, tell me? Art thou afraid of dying unjustly, and wouldest thou wish to die justly. But who is there so wretched and miserable, that when he had the alternative of dying unjustly, would rather depart by an act of justice? For if it be necessary to fear death, it is necessary to fear it when it comes upon us justly; since he indeed who dies unjustly, is by this very means made a partaker with all the saints. For many of those who were approved and distinguished by God, have been subjected to an unjust end; and first of all Abel. For it was not that he had sinned against his brother, or done Cain any harm; but inasmuch as he had honoured God, therefore was he slaughtered. But God permitted it. Was it, think you, because He loved him, or because He hated him? Most clearly, because He loved him, and wished to make his crown the brighter, by that most unjust murder. Seest thou then, that it becomes us not to be afraid of dying by violence; nor yet of dying unjustly; but of dying in a state of sin? Abel died unjustly. Cain lived, groaning and trembling! Which then, I would ask, was the more blessed of the two; he who went to rest in righteousness, or he who lived in sin; he who died unjustly, or he who was justly punished? Would you have me declare unto your Charity, whence it is that we are afraid of death? The love of the kingdom hath not penetrated us, nor the desire of things to come inflamed us: otherwise we should despise all present things, even as the blessed Paul did. Add to this, on the other hand, that we do not stand in awe of hell; therefore death is terrible. We are not sensible of the unsufferable nature of the punishment there; therefore, instead of sin, we fear death; since if the fear of the one held possession of our souls, the fear of the other would not be able to enter. 10. And this I will endeavour to make manifest, not from anything of a remote nature, but from what is at our own doors; and from the events which have happened among us in these days. For when the Emperor's letter came, ordering that tribute to be imposed which was thought to be so intolerable, all were in a tumult; all quarrelled with it; thought it a sore grievance, resented it; and when they met one another said, "Our life is not worth living, the city is undone;-no one will be able to stand under this heavy burden;" and they were distressed as if placed in the extremest danger. After this, when the rebellion was actually perpetrated, and certain vile, yea, thoroughly vile persons, trampling under foot the laws, threw down the statues, and involved all in the utmost peril; and now that we are in fear for our very lives, through the indignation of the Emperor, this loss of money no longer stings us. But instead of such complaints, I hear from all a language of a different kind. "Let the Emperor take our substance, we will gladly be deprived of our fields and possessions, if any one will but ensure us safety for the bare body." As therefore, before the fear of death pressed upon us, the loss of our wealth tormented us; and after these lawless outrages had been perpetrated, the fear of death succeeding, expelled the grief for that loss; so if the fear of hell had held possession of our souls, the fear of death would not have possessed them. But even as it is with the body, when two kinds of pain seize upon us, the more powerful usually overshadows the weaker one, so also would it now happen; if the dread of future punishment remained in the soul, that would overshadow all human fear. So that if any one endeavours always to have the remembrance of hell, he will deride every kind of death; and this will not only deliver him from the present distress, but will even rescue him from the flame to come. For he who is always afraid of hell, will never fall into the fire of hell; being made sober by this continual fear! 11. Permit me, that I now say to you at a fitting time, "Brethren, be not children in understanding; howbeit in malice be ye children." For this is a childish terror of ours, if we fear death, but are not fearful of sin. Little children too are afraid of masks, but fear not the fire. On the contrary, if they are carried by accident near a lighted candle, they stretch out the hand without any concern towards the candle and the flame; yet a mask which is so utterly contemptible terrifies them; whereas they have no dread of fire, which is really a thing to be afraid of. Just so we too have a fear of death, which is a mask that might well be despised; but have no fear of sin, which is truly dreadful; and, even as fire, devours the conscience! And this is wont to happen not on account of the nature of the things, but by reason of our own folly; so that if we were once to consider what death is, we should at no time be afraid of it. What then, I pray you, is death? Just what it is to put off a garment. For the body is about the soul as a garment; and after laying this aside for a short time by means of death, we shall resume it again with the more splendour. What is death at most? It is a journey for a season; a sleep longer than usual! So that if thou fearest death, thou shouldest also fear sleep! If for those who are dying thou art pained, grieve for those too who are eating and drinking, for as this is natural, so is that! Let not natural things sadden thee; rather let things which arise from an evil choice make thee sorrowful. Sorrow not for the dying man; but sorrow for him who is living in sin! 12. Would you have me mention another reason on account of which we fear death? We do not live with strictness, nor keep a clear conscience; for if this were the case nothing would alarm us, neither death, nor famine, nor the loss of wealth, nor anything else of this kind. For he who lives virtuously, cannot be injured by any of these things, or be deprived of his inward pleasure. For being supported by favourable hopes, nothing will be able to throw him into dejection. What is there that any one can possibly effect, by which he can cause the noble-minded man to become sorrowful? Take away his riches? He has yet wealth that is in the heavens! Cast him out of his country? He will take his journey to that city which is above! Load him with fetters? He has still his conscience free, and is insensible to the external chain! Put his body to death? Yet he shall rise again! And as he who fights with a shadow, and beaten the air, will be unable to hit any one; so he who is at war with the just man, is but striking at a shadow, and wasting his own strength, without being able to inflict any injury upon him. Grant me then to be sure of the kingdom of heaven; and, if thou wishest, slay me this day. I shall be thankful to thee for the slaughter; forasmuch as thou sendest me quickly to the possession of those good things! "This, however," says some one, "is what we especially lament, that hindered as we are by the multitude of our sins, we shall not attain to that kingdom." Such being the case then, leave off lamenting death, and lament thy sins, in order that thou mayest be freed from them! Grief, indeed, hath had its existence, not that we should sorrow for the loss of wealth, nor for death, nor for anything else of that kind, but that we may employ it for the taking away of our sins. And I will make the truth of this evident by an example. Healing medicines have been made for those diseases only which they are able to remove; not for those which are in no respect assisted by them. For instance (for I wish to make the matter still plainer), the medicine which is able to benefit a malady of the eyes only, and no other disease, one might justly say was made only for the sake of the eyes; not for the stomach, nor for the hands, nor any other member. Let us then transfer this argument to the subject of grief; and we shall find, that in none of those things which happen to us, is it of any advantage, except to correct sin; whence it is apparent that it hath had its existence only for the destruction of this. Let us now take a survey of each of those evils which befall us, and let us apply despondency as a remedy, and see what sort of advantage results from it. 13. Some one is mulcted in property: he becomes sad, but this does not make good his loss. Some one hath lost a son: he grieves, but he cannot raise the dead, nor benefit the departed. Some one hath been scourged, beaten, and insulted; he becomes sorrowful. This does not recall the insult. Some one falls into sickness, and a most grievous disease; he is dejected. This does not remove his disease, but only makes it the more grievous. Do you see that in none of these cases does sadness answer any useful purpose? Suppose that any one hath sinned, and is sad. He blots out the sin; he gets free from the transgression. How is this shewn? By the declaration of the Lord; for, speaking of a certain one who had sinned, He said, "Because of his iniquity I made him sad for a while; and I saw that he was grieved, and he went on heavily; and I healed his ways." Therefore also Paul saith, "Godly sorrow worketh repentance unto salvation not to be repented of." Since then what I have said clearly shews, that neither the loss of riches, nor insult, nor abuse, nor stripes, nor sickness, nor death, nor any other thing of that kind can possibly be relieved by the interference of grief, but sin only can it blot out and do away, it is evident that this is the only reason why it hath its existence. Let us therefore no more grieve for the loss of wealth, but let us grieve only when we commit sin. For great in this case is the gain that comes of sorrow. Art thou amerced? Be not dejected, for thus thou wilt not be at all benefited. Hast thou sinned? Then be sorry: for it is profitable; and consider the skill and wisdom of God. Sin hath brought forth for us these two things, sorrow and death. For "in the day thou eatest," He saith, "thou shall surely die;" and to the woman, "In sorrow thou shall bring forth children." And by both of these things he took away sin, and provided that the mother should be destroyed by her offspring. For that death as well as grief takes away sin, is evident, in the first place, from the case of the martyrs; and it is plain too from what Paul saith to those who had sinned, speaking on this wise, "For this cause many are weak and sickly among you, and many sleep." Inasmuch, he observes, as ye have sinned, ye die, so that ye are freed from sin by death. Therefore he goes on to say, "For if we would judge ourselves, we should not be judged. But when we are judged, we are chastened of the Lord, that we should not be condemned with the world." And even as the worm is brought forth from the wood, and devours the wood; and a moth consumes the wool, from whence it originates; so grief and death were born of sin, and devour sin. 14. Let us not then fear death, but let us only fear sin, and grieve on account of this. And these things I speak, not anticipating any thing fearful, God forbid! but wishing you when alarmed to be always thus affected, and to fulfil the law of Christ in very deed. For "he," saith Christ, "that taketh not his cross, and followeth after Me, is not worthy of Me." This He said, not that we should bear the wood upon our shoulders, but that we should always have death before our eyes. Even so as Paul, that is, died daily, and laughed at death, and despised the present life. For indeed thou art a soldier, and standest continually at arms; but a soldier who is afraid of death, will never perform a noble action. Thus then neither will a Christian man, if fearful of dangers, perform anything great or admirable; nay, besides this, he will be apt to be easily vanquished. But not so is it with the man who is bold and lofty minded. He remains impregnable and unconquerable. As then the Three Children, when they feared not the fire, escaped from the fire, so also we, if we fear not death, shall entirely escape from death. They feared not the fire (for it is no crime to be burnt), but they feared sin, for it is a crime to commit impiety. Let us also imitate these and all such, and let us not be afraid of dangers, and then we shall pass safely through them. 15. As for me, "I am not a prophet nor the son of a prophet," yet I understand clearly thus much of the future, and I proclaim, both loudly and distinctly, that if we become changed, and bestow some care upon our souls, and desist from iniquity, nothing will be unpleasant or painful. And this I plainly know from the love of God toward man, as well as from those things which He hath done for men, and cities, and nations, and whole populations. For He threatened the city of Nineveh, and said, "There are yet three days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown." What then, I ask, Was Nineveh overthrown? Was the city destroyed? Nay, quite the contrary; it both arose, and became still more distinguished; and long as is the time which has elapsed, it has not effaced its glory, but we all still celebrate and admire it even to this day. For from that time it hath been a sort of excellent haven for all who have sinned, not suffering them to sink into desperation, but calling all to repentance; and by what it did, and by what it obtained of God's favour, persuading men never to despair of their salvation, but exhibiting the best life they can, and setting before them a good hope, to be confident of the issue as destined in any wise to be favourable. For who would not be stirred up on hearing of such an example, even if he were the laziest of mortals? 16. For God even preferred that His own prediction should fall to the ground, so that the city should not fall. Or rather, the prophecy did not even so fall to the ground. For if indeed while the men continued in the same wickedness, the sentence had not taken effect, some one perhaps might have brought a charge against what was uttered. But if when they had changed, and desisted from their iniquity, God also desisted from His wrath, who shall be able any longer to find fault with the prophecy, or to convict the things spoken of falsehood. The same law indeed which God had laid down from the beginning, publishing it to all men by the prophet, was on that occasion strictly observed. What then is this law16 "I shall speak a sentence," saith He, "concerning a nation or a kingdom, to pluck up, and to pulldown, and to destroy it; and it shall be, that if they repent of their evil, I will also repent of the wrath which I said I would do unto them." Guarding then this law, he saved those who were converted and released from His wrath those who desisted from their wickedness. He knew the virtue of the barbarians; therefore He hastened the prophet thither. Thus was the city agitated at the time, when it heard the prophet's voice, but instead of being injured it was benefited by fear. For that fear was the cause of its safety. The threatening effected the deliverance from the peril. The sentence of overthrow put a stop to the overthrow. O strange and astonishing event! the sentence threatening death, brought forth life! The sentence after it was published became cancelled; the very opposite to that which takes place among temporal judges! for in their case the proclamation of the sentence causes it to become valid, is fully to ratify it; but on the contrary, with God, the publication of the sentence, caused it to be cancelled. For if it had not been published, the offenders would not have heard; and if they had not heard, they would not have repented, and if they had not repented, they would not have warded off the punishment, nor would they have obtained that astonishing deliverance. For how is it less than astonishing, when the judge declares sentence, and the condemned discharge the sentence by their repentance! They, indeed, did not flee from the city as we are now doing, but remaining in it they caused it to stand. It was a snare, and they made it a fortification! It was a gulph, and a precipice, and they turned it into a tower of safety! They had heard that the buildings would fall, and yet they fled not from the buildings, but they fled from their sins. They did not depart each from his house as we do now, but each departed from his evil way; for, said they, "why should we think the walls have brought forth the wrath? we are the causes of the wound; we then should provide the medicine." Therefore they trusted for safety, not to a change of habitations, but of habits. 17. Thus did the barbarians! and are we not ashamed, and ought we not to hide our faces, whilst instead of changing our habits, as they did, we change only our habitations; privily removing our goods, and doing the deeds of men that are drunken? Our Master is angry with us; and we, neglecting to appease His wrath, carry about our household stuff from place to place, and run hither and thither, seeking where we may deposit our substance; while we ought rather to seek where we may deposit our soul in safety; or rather, it behoveth us not to seek, but to entrust its safety to virtue and uprightness of life. For when we were angry and displeased with a servant, if he, instead of defending himself against our displeasure, went down to his apartment, and collecting together his clothes, and binding up together all his movables, meditated a flight, we could not tamely put up with this contempt. Let us then desist from this unseasonable endeavour, and let us each say to God, "Whither shall I go from Thy Spirit, and whither shall I flee from Thy presence?" Let us imitate the spiritual wisdom of the barbarians. They repented even on uncertain grounds! For the sentence had no such clause, "If ye turn and repent, I will set up the city;" but simply, "Yet three days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown." What then said they? "Who knoweth whether God will repent of the evil He said He would do unto us?" Who knoweth? They know not the end of the event, and yet they do not neglect repentance! They are unacquainted with God's method of shewing mercy, and yet they change upon the strength of uncertainties! For neither was it in their power to look at other Ninevites who had repented and been saved; nor had they read prophets; nor had they heard patriarchs; nor had they enjoyed counsel, or partaken of admonition; nor had they persuaded themselves that they should certainly propitiate God by repentance. For the threatening did not imply this: but they were doubtful, and hesitating concerning it; and yet they repented with all diligence. What reason then shall we have to urge, when those, who had no ground for confidence as to the issue, are seen to have exhibited so great a change; but thou who hast ground of confidence in the mercy of God, and who hast frequently received many pledges of His care, and hast heard prophets, and apostles, and hast been instructed by actual events; hast yet no emulation to reach the same measure of virtue as these did! Great assuredly was their virtue! but greater by far was the mercy of God! and this may be seen from the very greatness of the threat. For this reason God did not add to the declaration, "But if ye repent. I will spare:" in order that by setting forth a sentence without limitation, He might increase the fear and having increased the fear, He might constrain them more speedily to repentance. 18. The prophet is indeed ashamed, foreseeing what the issue would be, and conjecturing that what he had prophesied, would remain unaccomplished; God however is not ashamed, but is desirous of one thing only, viz. the salvation of men, and corrects His own servant. For when he had entered the ship, He straightway there raised a boisterous sea; in order that thou mightest know that where sin is, there is a tempest; where there is disobedience, there is the swelling of the waves. The city was shaken because of the sins of the Ninevites; and the ship was shaken because of the disobedience of the prophet. The sailors therefore threw Jonah in the deep, and the ship was preserved. Let us then drown our sins, and our city will assuredly be safe! Flight will certainly be no advantage to us; for it did not profit him; on the contrary, it did him injury. He fled from the land indeed, but he fled not from the wrath of God; he fled from the land, but he brought the tempest after him on the sea; and so far was he from obtaining any benefit by his flight, that he plunged those also who received him into the extremest peril. And whilst he sat sailing in the ship, although the sailors, the pilots, and all the necessary apparatus of the ship were there present, he was placed in the utmost danger. After, however, having been thrown out into the deep, and having put away his sin by means of the punishment, he had been conveyed into that unstable vessel, I mean, the whale's belly, he enjoyed great security. This was for the purpose of teaching thee, that as no ship can be of any use to him who is living in sin, so him who has put away his sin, the sea cannot drown, nor monsters destroy. Of a truth, the waves received, but they did not suffocate him. The whale received him, but did not destroy him; but both the animal and the element gave back to God unhurt that, with which they were entrusted; and by all these things the prophet was taught to be humane and merciful; and not to be more cruel than wild beasts, or thoughtless sailors, or unruly waves. For even the sailors did not immediately at first give him up, but after much compulsion; and the sea and the monster guarded him with great kindness; all these things being under God's direction. 19. Therefore he came back again; he preached; he threatened; he persuaded; he preserved; he affrighted; he amended; he established; by one, and that the first preaching! Many days he needed not, nor continued counsel; but speaking these simple words only, he brought all to repentance! On this account God did not lead him directly from the ship into the city; but the sailors committed him to the sea; the sea to the whale; the whale to God; God to the Ninevites; and by this long circuit he brought back the fugitive, that he might instruct all, that it is impossible to fly from the hands of God; that whithersoever any one may roam, dragging his sin after him, he will have to undergo a thousand evils; and though no mortal were present, yet on every side the whole creation will rise up against him with the utmost vehemence! Let us not then provide for our safety by flight, but by a change of the moral character. Is it for remaining in the city that God is angry with thee, that thou shouldest fly? It is because thou hast sinned, that He is indignant. Lay aside therefore the sin, and where the cause of thy wound lies, thence remove the fountain of the evil. For the physicians too give us directions to cure contraries by contraries. Is fever, for instance, produced by a full diet? They subject the disease to the regimen of abstinence. Does any one fall sick from sadness? They say that mirth is the suitable medicine for it. Thus also it befits us to act with respect to diseases of the soul. Hath listlessness excited the wrath? let us shake this off by zeal, and let us manifest in our conduct a great change. We have the fast, a very great auxiliary and ally in our warfare; and besides the fast, we have the impending distress, and the fear of danger. Now then, in season, let us be at work on the soul; for we shall easily be able to persuade it to whatever we choose; since he who is alarmed and trembling, and set free from all luxury, and who lives in terror, is able to practise moral wisdom without difficulty, and to receive the seeds of virtue with much alacrity. 20. Let us therefore persuade it to make this first change for the better, by the avoidance of oaths; for although I spake to you yesterday, and the day before, on this same subject; yet neither to-day, nor to-morrow, nor the day after, will I desist giving my counsel on this subject. And why do I say to-morrow and the day following? Until I see that you are amended, I will not abstain from doing so. If those, indeed, who transgress this law, are not ashamed, far less should we who bid them not transgress it, feel this frequency of the admonition to be a matter worthy of shame. For to be continually reminding men of the same topics is not the fault of the speaker, but of the hearers, needing as they do perpetual instruction, upon simple and easily-observed precepts. What indeed is easier than not to swear? It is only a good work of habit. It is neither labour of the body, nor expenditure of wealth. Art thou desirous to learn how it is possible to get the better of this infirmity, how it is possible to be set free from this evil habit? I will tell thee of a particular method by which if pursued thou wilt certainly master it. If thou seest either thyself or any other person, whether it be one of thy servants, or of thy children, or thy wife, ensnared in this vice; when thou hast continually reminded them of it, and they are not amended, order them to retire to rest supperless; and impose this sentence upon thyself, as well as upon them, a sentence which will bring with it no injury, but a gain. For such is the nature of spiritual acts; they bring profit and a speedy reformation. The tongue when constantly punished, when straitened by thirst. and pained by hunger, receives a sufficient admonition, even whilst no one is its monitor; and though we were the most stupid of mortals, yet when we are thus reminded by the greatness of the punishment during a whole day, we shall need no other counsel and exhortation. 21. Ye have applauded what I have spoken. But still shew me your applause too by deeds. Else what is the advantage of our meeting here? Suppose a child were to go to school every day, yet if he learnt nothing the more for it, would the excuse satisfy us that he every day went there? Should we not esteem it the greatest fault, that going there daily, he did it to no purpose. Let us consider this with ourselves, and let us say to ourselves, For so long a time have we met together at church, having the benefit of a most solemn Communion, which has in it much profit; and should we return back again just as we came, with none of our defects corrected, of what advantage is our coming here? For most actions are done, not for themselves, but for the effects which follow through their means; as, for example, the sower does not sow for the mere sake of sowing, but in order that he may reap too; since if this were not to follow, the sowing would be a loss, the seeds rotting without any kind of advantage. The merchant doth not take a voyage merely for sailing's sake, but that he may increase his substance by going abroad; since, if this be not attained beside, extreme mischief will result, and the voyage of merchants were but for loss. Let us indeed consider this in relation to ourselves. We also meet together in the church, not for the mere purpose of spending time here, but in order that we mayreturn having gained a great and spiritual benefit. Should we then depart empty, and without having received any advantage, this our diligence becomes our condemnation! In order that this may not occur, and extreme mischief result, on departing from this place, let friends practise with one another; fathers with children; and masters with servants; and train yourselves to perform the task assigned you; so that when ye come back again, and hear us giving you counsel on the same subjects, ye may not be put to shame by an accusing conscience, but may rejoice and be glad, whilst ye perceive that ye have accomplished the greatest part of the admonition. 22. Let us not moralize on these things here only. For this temporary admonition does not suffice to extirpate the whole evil; but at home also, let the husband hear of these things from the wife, and the wife from the husband. And let there be a kind of rivalry among all in endeavouring to gain precedence in the fulfilment of this law; and let him who is in advance, and hath amended his conduct, reproach him who is still loitering behind; to the end that he may stir him up the more by these gibes. He who is deficient, and hath not yet amended his conduct, let him look at him who hath outstripped him, and strive with emulation to come up with him quickly. If we take advice on these points, and are anxiously concerned about them, our other affairs will speedily be well adjusted. Be thou solicitous about God's business, and he will take care of thine! And do not say to me, "What if any one should impose upon us the necessity of taking oaths? What if he should not believe us?" For assuredly, where a law is transgressed, it is improper to make mention of necessity; forasmuch as there is but one necessity which cannot be dispensed with, viz. that of not offending God! This, however, I say further; cut off in the meantime superfluous oaths, those that are taken uselessly, and without any necessity; those to your own family, those to your friends, those to your servants; and should you take away these, you will have no further need of me for the others. For the very mouth that has been well disciplined to dread and to avoid the frequent oath, should any one constrain it a thousand times, would never consent to relapse again into the same habit. On the contrary, as now, with much labor and vast importunity, by alarming, threatening, exhorting, and counselling, we have scarcely been able to bring it over to a different habit, so in that case, although any one were to impose ever so great necessity, he could not possibly persuade to a transgression of this law. And as a person would never choose to take a particular poison, however urgent the necessity might be, so neither would he to utter an oath! 23. Should this amendment then take place, it will be an encouragement and inducement to the attainment of the remaining parts of virtue. For he who has not accomplished anything at all becomes listless, and quickly falls; but he who is conscious with himself that he has fulfilled at least one precept, coming by this to have a good hope, will go on with greater alacrity towards the rest; so that, after he has reached one, he will presently come to another; and will not halt until he has attained the crown of all. For if with regard to wealth, the more any one obtains of it, the more he desires, much rather may this be seen with reference to spiritual attainments. Therefore I hasten, and am urgent that this work may take its commencement, and that the foundation of virtue may be laid in your souls. We pray and beseech, that ye will remember these words, not only at the present time, but also at home, and in the market, and wheresoever ye pass your time. Oh! that it were possible for me familiarly to converse with you! then this long harangue of mine would have been unnecessary. But now since this may not be, instead of me, remember my words: and while you are sitting at table, suppose me to enter, and to be standing beside you, and dinning into you the things I now say to you in this place. And wheresoever there may be any discourse concerning me among you, above all things remember this precept, and render me this recompense far my love toward you. If I see that you have fulfilled it, I have received my full return, and have obtained a sufficient recompense for my labours. In order then that ye may both render us the more active, and that yourselves too may be in the enjoyment of a good hope; and may provide for the accomplishment of the remaining precepts with greater facility; treasure up this precept in your souls with much care, and ye will then understand the benefit of this admonition. And since a vestment broidered with gold is a beautiful and conspicuous object, but seems much more so to us when it is worn upon our own person; thus also the precepts of God are beautiful when being praised, but appear far more lovely when they are rightly practised. For now indeed ye commend what is spoken during a brief moment of time, but if ye reduce it to practice, you will alike commend both yourselves and us all day long, and all your lives long. And this is not the grand point, that we shall praise one another; but that God will accept us; and not only accept us, but will also reward us with those gifts that are great and unspeakable! Of which may we all be deemed worthy, through the grace and lovingkindness of our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom, and with whom, to the Father together with the Holy Ghost, be glory, now and always, for ever and ever. Amen.	<urn:uuid:de1e87b5-1942-4386-b4d7-f0175f39161b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://orthodoxchurchfathers.com/fathers/npnf109/npnf1054.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.980802	10,503	2.609375	3
Choosing a Top Eating Disorder Recovery Program or Dual Diagnosis Rehab Eating disorders are mental illnesses characterized by abnormal eating habits that end up causing serious mental distress or dangerous – and often fatal – health problems. Addressing conditions such as anorexia, bulimia or binge eating disorder is essential in order to stop them from taking control over the patient’s life and leading to depression, substance abuse or other dangerous health issues. Without timely treatment, eating disorders may become lifelong conditions and even lead to death. Treatment of Eating Disorders “An important part of the treatment is nutritional counseling, during which the patient learns about their nutritional needs, how to meet them and how to develop healthy eating patterns.” Treating an eating disorder involves different components of a treatment plan. Psychological counseling is an essential part of this plan. It usually consists of cognitive behavioral therapy, during which the patient identifies and challenges their own views and behaviors related to the eating disorder and replaces them with healthy thoughts and habits. Group therapy offers the patient the chance to interact with other eating disorder sufferers, to feel less isolated, and to find other venues to challenge their destructive behavior and learn new eating and life skills. Family therapy helps people in the patient’s close circle to understand the disease and become part of the solution. Along with psychotherapy, doctors sometimes prescribe medication. Most often, the patient receives antidepressants that help counteract the symptoms of anxiety or depression. If the illness has already taken a toll on the body, medication targeted to alleviate other health issues may be prescribed. An important part of the treatment is nutritional counseling, during which the patient learns about their nutritional needs, how to meet them and how to develop healthy eating patterns. Dual Diagnosis Treatment A dual diagnosis is a condition in which an eating disorder is accompanied by substance abuse. As with other mental illnesses, the incidence of dual diagnosis is enormous in the case of eating disorder sufferers. According to the National Institute of Health, as many as 50 percent of people who suffer from an eating disorder are also affected by substance abuse. Whether alcohol or drug abuse is the cause or the effect of the eating disorder, treating only one of these conditions is not sufficient. Since these co-existing conditions are strongly interrelated, the risk of relapse is high if treatment does not address both. This is the reason it is important that the diagnosis is comprehensive and that both conditions are recognized. In order to avoid jumping from one facility to another to address both issues, a treatment facility that offers services and treatment programs for both eating disorders and substance abuse is an appropriate option. The staff at such a facility recognizes that it is harder to treat eating disorder patients with co-existing conditions and that these patients need additional care. Therefore, they have a multidisciplinary medical team that collaborates in devising an integrated, cohesive individual treatment plan that addresses both issues. Usually, a dual diagnosis treatment plan includes the extra step of detoxification. The patient must go through this process before eating disorder treatment begins. This is necessary because the symptoms of eating disorders are worsened by substance abuse, so the substance dependency must be addressed first. Treatment Facility Options Eating disorder patients have the option of either outpatient or inpatient care facilities. Outpatient treatment centers allow patients to follow a treatment program while living at home. This is a good choice for those in the early stages of the disease, individuals who can’t leave their jobs for a period of time, students who cannot stop going to school, or parents who want to continue caring for their family while seeking treatment in a clinic. When the illness is in an advanced stage, however, inpatient care is necessary. For instance, anorexic patients may already be morbidly malnourished and underweight. Their state must be constantly monitored and stabilized in order to prevent vital organ failure. Dual diagnoses patients have better chances of success when they are removed from environments with negative influences so residential care is recommended. Inpatient care not only controls the patient’s environment, but it also removes the patient from distractions and surrounds them with a supportive group of people, making it easier to avoid going back to destructive behaviors. Choosing the Best Facility Another factor to consider is the patient’s preference regarding faith-based treatment. There are Christian treatment facilities that incorporate those religious beliefs into their programs. Whether choosing inpatient or outpatient care, it is best to weigh the reputation of the facilities considered by the patient against a few other criteria. For instance, it is advisable to make sure that a multidisciplinary team is available and that its members work together and follow the patient’s progress from the beginning to the end of the individualized treatment program. This is even more important when treating co-occurring conditions, since the team’s specialty must encompass substance abuse and dependencies. Comprehensive psychiatric evaluation is important in correctly identifying the root causes of the disease and avoiding treatment that addresses only the symptoms. Another factor to consider is the patient’s preference regarding faith-based treatment. There are Christian treatment facilities that incorporate those religious beliefs into their programs. Other non-sectarian treatment facilities recognize the importance of spirituality in healing, but they welcome patients from all belief systems. Finally, there are facilities that offer holistic-based treatment plans that work toward creating a healthy mind-body connection through yoga, meditation, acupuncture, massages, and other methods aimed to relieve and control stress. Location and the availability of on-site facilities and resources are other aspects to consider when determining the patient’s best choice. A serene location is conducive to healing, and so are fitness facilities that ease patients into a healthier lifestyle. Patients who prefer organic food should consider whether it is available at a specific center. It is ideal to choose an all-inclusive treatment center that does not force the patient to leave its campus in order to access necessary services included in the treatment plan. Finally, some facilities include the patient’s close circle of loved ones by offering family programs through which they educate the patient’s relatives on how to become beneficial participants in treatment. Good facilities also take care to teach the patient new life skills in order to minimize the danger of relapse. To take the first step in treating your condition, call us at 1-888-232-6949 to discuss your options. Finding the best facility to address your condition is essential. If left untreated, an eating disorder can take control over your life and even become deadly. Let us help you in finding your treatment solution as soon as possible.	<urn:uuid:bb5a641f-886c-47eb-ac87-72173cc62cca>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bulimia.com/topics/treatment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952707	1,339	3.078125	3
Pets in smoking households are at greater risk for weight gain, cell damage and some cancers, according to researchers. Smoking is the leading cause of preventable disease and death in the US, accounting for around 1 in 5 deaths annually. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), smoking causes around 90% of all lung cancer deaths in men and women, and it is also a risk factor for heart disease, stroke and numerous other illnesses. But it is not only smokers themselves who are at risk of such conditions; since 1964, around 2.5 million non-smokers in the US have died from exposure to secondhand smoke. With this in mind, it is perhaps unsurprising that pets living in households where someone smokes are at greater risk for poor health. Previous research from Clare Knottenbelt, professor of small animal medicine and oncology at the University of Glasgow in the UK, and colleagues has shown that dogs living in a smoking household ingest a high amount of tobacco smoke. For this latest study - which is ongoing - the team set out to investigate how tobacco smoke exposure impacts the health of cats and dogs. Cats at greatest risk from smoke exposure Prof. Knottenbelt and colleagues analyzed the nicotine levels in the animals' fur and looked at whether such levels were associated with any health problems. Additionally, they assessed the testicles of dogs following castration in order to identify any signs of cell damage. Compared with pets living in non-smoking households, the researchers found that those living in smoking households may be at greater risk of cell damage, some cancers and weight gain. Cats are most at risk, according to the researchers, because they ingest more smoke than dogs - regardless of whether or not they have access to outdoors. The team speculates that this may be down to the extensive self-grooming cats engage in, causing them to ingest more tobacco toxins. When analyzing the testicles of castrated dogs from smoking households, the researchers identified a gene that represents a sign of cell damage that is related to some cancers. Furthermore, they found that dogs that lived in smoking households gained more weight after being neutered than dogs from non-smoking households. Stopping smoking completely 'best for pets' health and well-being' However, the researchers also found that these risks reduced when owners smoked outside, therefore reducing the amount of smoke their pets ingested. While owners who reduced the number of cigarettes they smoked per day did reduce pets' smoke exposure, it was not eliminated completely; cats from households that reduced their cigarette intake to less than 10 daily still had higher nicotine levels in their fur than those from non-smoking households. The team suggests that pets may even be at greater risk of health problems from smoke exposure than children in smoking households, noting that because pets are lower in height, they are more likely to ingest third-hand smoke - that is, tobacco chemicals present in carpets and other surfaces. While the research is ongoing, the team believes the results to date should act as a warning to smokers with pets. Prof. Knottenbelt says: "As well as the risk to the smoker, there is the danger of secondhand smoke to others. Pet owners often do not think about the impact that smoking could have on their pets. Whilst you can reduce the amount of smoke your pet is exposed to by smoking outdoors and by reducing the number of tobacco products smoked by the members of the household, stopping smoking completely is the best option for your pet's future health and well-being." So, the next time you get the urge to light up and break that New Year's resolution, just spare a thought for the health of your four-legged friend. Earlier this month, Medical News Today reported on a study that suggests sharing a bed with your pet could benefit sleep.	<urn:uuid:83677928-7cdb-4955-85c6-2c7b6ea6fccf>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/304605.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972753	786	3.125	3
Defunct Strategy and Divergent Goals The Role of the United States Navy along the Eastern Seaboard during the Civil War By Robert M. Browning, Jr. © 2001 by Robert M. Browning, Jr. \|The Monitor and the Virginia battle at Hampton Roads, Virginia, March 9, 1862. (NARA, 64-C-63)\| In August 1863, two years into the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln wrote to his friend James Conkling, "Nor must Uncle Sam's web feet be forgotten. At all the watery margins they have been present. Not only on the deep sea, the broad bay, and the rapid river, but . . . wherever the ground was a little damp, they have been, and made their tracks."1 Lincoln's call for a blockade of Southern ports, which created the need for a large navy, may have been one of his wisest wartime decisions.2 During the conflict the navy demonstrated that it could do much more than maintain a blockade— its most important task— but this vast sea power advantage was underutilized. The blockade of more than 3,500 miles of Southern coastline consumed most of the navy's assets, and army-navy rivalries prevented joint operations that might have brought crucial victories. Furthermore, the Union leadership failed to develop any continuing strategy for the war, squandering the advantage the superior Union navy had over the Confederate naval forces— an advantage that, if properly used, might have shortened the war. After several months of implementing the blockade, however, it was clearly understood that the job at hand was larger than anyone perceived, and the navy needed some direction. In an attempt to devise an initial strategy and to anticipate future service needs, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles created a Commission of Conference, also called the Blockade Strategy Board.3 The Blockade Strategy Board met at the Smithsonian Institution from July to September of 1861 and prepared ten reports. Its members developed strategies and devised methods to render the blockade more effective. The board also accumulated the information necessary to establish logistical bases and recommended points to be seized as coaling stations and naval bases. The board also prepared a general guide for all blockading operations, which the Navy Department followed closely throughout the war.4 The insights of the board laid out an important framework for the early strategy of the navy. It was, in fact, the only wartime board that resembled a general staff.5 Yet, after discussing the most important and pressing issues facing the navy in 1861, the board never met again and therefore future strategy was never broached. The members of the Blockade Strategy Board suggested that the blockade would become more effective if the navy captured points along the coast. Seizing ports denied their use to privateers and blockade-runners and would serve the navy's logistical needs. Following the board's recommendations, the department instructed Flag Officer Silas Stringham, the commander of the Atlantic Blockading Squadron, to assemble a fleet to capture Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina. Gideon Welles also ordered Capt. Samuel Francis Du Pont to New York to begin preparing and organizing an expedition to capture two ports farther south. At the end of August 1861, Stringham delivered the United States its first victory of the war by forcing the Confederate forts at Hatteras Inlet to surrender. This victory only made Lincoln more anxious for an immediate follow-up and encouraged him to become involved in other naval affairs. Once the President began to ask questions of his naval leaders, he learned that there were delays in the Du Pont expedition. Lincoln fretted over these delays and told Welles that Du Pont must be ready to move by the first of October or shortly thereafter.6 The growing concern about the Du Pont expedition prompted a meeting of the Union leadership. In this meeting attended by the secretaries of both the Navy and the War Departments, as well as the naval and military leaders involved with Union strategy, a problem came to light. Lincoln's eagerness to launch the next naval expedition prompted the disclosure that the army, independently and without coordinating with the navy, had plans for a military strike into the sounds of North Carolina to follow up the victory at Hatteras Inlet. Gustavus Vasa Fox, the assistant secretary of the navy, feared that Lincoln would now cancel Du Pont's South Atlantic expedition. Fox, an outspoken advocate of naval affairs, asked that the group immediately settle this issue with the President.7 During the deliberations, Fox staunchly supported the South Atlantic expedition and asked for details about the impending amphibious campaign into North Carolina. Brig. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside, the commanding officer of the North Carolina expedition, insisted that he proceed despite the fact that it directly competed for the resources of the combined army-navy operation farther south. Lincoln became exasperated with the army leaders who had failed to inform him earlier about the Burnside project. Clearly neither of the services had formulated any advance strategy, and Lincoln chastised all those present for the lack of coordination. After much debate, they decided to put Burnside's North Carolina expedition second. In the "haste of ignorance," however, the group decided that Du Pont should leave in four days.8 Du Pont would not only lead the naval portion of the South Atlantic expedition but he would also have command of his own squadron. Since July the Blockade Strategy Board had urged that the Gulf and Atlantic Coast Blockading squadrons be divided into four squadrons. The navy's tremendous growth and the inherent responsibilities spawned by these large commands made this division necessary. Stringham conveniently resigned shortly after his victory at Hatteras, and Welles chose two younger and more energetic men to command the newly divided Atlantic Coast Squadron. Louis M. Goldsborough assumed command of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, and Du Pont took command of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. The dividing line between these two squadrons was the boundary between North and South Carolina. The Du Pont Expedition It took a month for Du Pont to ready his force, and in late October he sailed with the largest fleet of American warships ever assembled. The goal of the combined expedition was to capture two anchorages as bases for future operations. The Navy and War Departments left the specific points to be captured to the discretion of the expedition's commanding officers. After a great deal of discussion between Du Pont and Brig. Gen. Thomas W. Sherman, his army counterpart, they decided to attack Port Royal, South Carolina. On November 7, the naval force attacked the Confederate forts there. The tremendous firepower of the fleet easily forced the Confederates to abandon their works. The victory was quick, complete, relatively bloodless, and solely a naval affair. Despite the fact that an army force of twelve thousand troops accompanied the expedition, the Federal forces were not prepared to follow up this quick victory. Because they had expected a greater challenge from the Confederates, they had no continuing strategy. The Confederates along the entire South Atlantic coast lacked resources and preparation; a quick strike by the superior Union forces at this time might have led to the capture of either Savannah or Charleston and left almost the entire coastline of this three-state area in Union hands. After the capture of Port Royal, Du Pont and Sherman did discuss the capture of a second port, which had been part of the original instructions. They believed that an attack on Fernandina, Florida, might succeed, and Du Pont was particularly anxious to attack Fernandina just after the fall of Port Royal. The Confederates' virtual abandonment of the coast between Charleston and Savannah, however, changed Du Pont's and Sherman's strategic outlook. Prudence suggested that the Union forces should occupy this broader area rather than push on farther south. The lack of a unified command, however, assured that nothing would be done quickly. Had either Du Pont or Sherman had sole responsibility for the joint operations, they would have accomplished more.9 Sherman and Du Pont also discussed a surprise attack on Savannah. Sherman, however, could not readily move his men because he never received the light-draft steam transports the War Department promised him. Instead, these assets were diverted for the Burnside Expedition in the sounds of North Carolina. This lack of transport constrained all of the general's possible movements along the South Atlantic seaboard. The dearth of light-draft steamers and boats to land troops and supplies was an obstacle too great, at least in Du Pont's mind, to overcome. The absence of these resources and the tremendous blockading responsibilities of the squadron ended all plans for a quick strike on Savannah.10 While the navy actively probed all the major waterways between Charleston and the Georgia border, the army remained idle in Port Royal, waiting for word from Washington concerning future operations. Sherman had earlier suggested to the War Department attacks on either Savannah or Fort Pulaski, which guarded the mouth of the Savannah River. During a long-term illness, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan did not read any of Sherman's dispatches. When he finally did, he had large commitments of troops in the western theater and had additional troops and assets tied up in the operations in North Carolina. He eventually suggested that Sherman plan to reduce Fort Pulaski by bombardment. The War Department did not consider the city of Savannah to be worth putting under siege and instructed Sherman to concentrate his forces either on Fort Pulaski, Fernandina, or maybe St. Augustine. In February, three months after the capture of Port Royal, he promised to send a siege train of heavy guns to accomplish the reduction of Fort Pulaski.11 In April 1862, after a short siege, the Confederates surrendered Fort Pulaski. The fall of the fort opened the Savannah River to the navy. Despite the fact that the river now served as a thoroughfare directly to the city of Savannah, the Union forces did not push up the river. The army still did not have the appropriate transports, and the city was better defended after the two-month delay. The Confederates now realized they could not hold their isolated seacoast positions and ordered their forces to withdraw to more defendable positions inland. In March, Du Pont took advantage of this withdrawal to capture Fernandina, Jacksonville, and St. Augustine, Florida, and Brunswick, Georgia. Du Pont, however, could not go farther, and the Union forces later had to abandon Jacksonville. The Union Forces Open New Fronts One of the principal reasons operations along the South Atlantic coast stalled in the spring of 1862 was the Burnside Expedition. To stage this expedition, the army and navy had to amass a large amount of resources, to the detriment of other ongoing military operations. In mid-January 1862, a force of about one hundred vessels sailed for the sounds of North Carolina. This campaign faced problems similar to the Port Royal expedition and was somewhat mismanaged because the army and navy continued to retain control of their own forces. Nevertheless, this overwhelming force successfully exploited a weak point in the Confederate defenses. The naval force and the accompanying fifteen thousand troops easily captured Roanoke Island, New Bern, Washington, and Plymouth and controlled the waters of the North Carolina sounds. As was the case during the Du Pont Expedition, the Confederate government did not have the men and the resources to defend a large area. The overwhelming Union naval force gave the army mobility that the Confederates could not match. Divided commands, confusion, and the Confederates' failure to assign this area a high priority all made the Union offensive efforts successful. Yet the Yankees' North Carolina expedition came to a halt. By March 1862 McClellan was committed to his campaign on the Virginia Peninsula. When the Union forces opened this new front, it forced Burnside to be cautious because he could not expect reinforcements. This caution consumed much of the ardor of Burnside's campaign. McClellan eventually ordered Burnside to transfer men from the sounds. When Burnside dispatched nearly eight thousand men from New Bern on July 6, 1862, it ended the major offensive operations in North Carolina and put the troops there on the defensive for the rest of the war.12 On the East Coast, the navy was now committed in three major areas: the South Atlantic coast, the North Carolina sounds, and Virginia. The War Department's main concern was capturing the Confederate capital of Richmond. This focus would not change during the war, despite the other strategic commitments along the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida. When McClellan requested all the available naval force that could be spared, he committed the navy as well as his own forces because the success of the Peninsular Campaign depended on control of the water. The importance of the naval forces to McClellan's campaign is borne out in the March 1862 battle between the Virginia and Monitor. The Monitor's failure to defeat the Virginia stalled any naval movement up the James River and constrained army movements. This changed in April, when the Confederates destroyed the Virginia after Union forces captured the ironclad's base at Norfolk. Now the James River became a liability for the Confederacy. It gave the Union forces a direct route to the heart of the Confederate capital. Thoughts of a naval move up the James River to Richmond ended in May 1862, when the Confederates repulsed Union warships at Drewry's Bluff. Despite this setback, Welles was determined to maintain control of the waters around the Peninsula in order to support McClellan and his army. The absorption of large numbers of the navy's resources in Virginia halted any further naval and combined operations along the entire South Atlantic coast.13 Despite this commitment, the Navy Department continued to look ahead to the next project. Thinking that McClellan's campaign might end in a quick Union victory, navy leaders began to think about future strategy and discussed a possible attack on Wilmington, North Carolina. This port had become an important commercial center for the blockade-runners. Hoping to use the ironclad Monitor, the department made plans to close the Cape Fear River by attacking Fort Fisher or Fort Caswell at the river's mouth. This operation, however, depended on the fall of Richmond, which would free the necessary troops and gunboats.14 Quick victory never came, and the navy remained committed to supporting the military operations in Virginia. The Union navy cooperated in skirmishes, provided important fire support, kept communications open, protected the army when it was backed against the river, and facilitated its retreat. The navy consequently made the whole campaign possible. McClellan's slow-developing operations, however, never used the navy as an offensive force. McClellan's failure to understand the advantages that the navy provided him probably contributed as much to his unsuccessful attempt to capture Richmond as any other single cause. The Plans to Strike at Charleston By the fall of 1862, the Union war effort had not enjoyed abundant success. The withdrawal of Union forces from the Peninsula in August seemed to encapsulate the character of the military operations for the Union in the eastern theater. Now, nearly eighteen months into the conflict, the North craved a victory. On August 29 the army suffered a crushing defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run, and Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg's move into Kentucky threatened Louisville. Yet fortunes shifted quickly after Lincoln restored McClellan to command. He defeated Lee at Antietam that September, and Bragg's forces retreated to southeastern Tennessee. With these army successes stealing the headlines, Gideon Welles and Gustavus Fox both felt that a naval victory at Wilmington or Charleston would give the service the prestige that it once had and that it deserved. By December 1862 all the Union armies began moving in unison in order to exert pressure on the Southern forces. At Fredericksburg, the Confederates badly defeated Burnside's Army of the Potomac. This motivated Washington and the Navy Department to again push for an attack on the forts at the Cape Fear and then to move south and attack Charleston. The Northern leaders believed that a victory at Wilmington would offset the recent debacle at Fredericksburg. Rear Adm. Samuel Du Pont believed that this plan "was one of those chaotic conceptions, produced by the desire of the President and others 'to strike a blow' somewhere."15 At the end of December the department ordered the Monitor and two other ironclads to go to Beaufort, North Carolina, the staging area for a possible attack on the Confederate forts guarding the Cape Fear River. The army also committed an additional twelve thousand men for this project. A successful attack would close Wilmington and deny the Confederacy its most important port. There were, however, no discussions by the Navy or War Departments for any follow-up. The naval attack on Wilmington relied on passing into the Cape Fear River and striking the forts from the rear. The plan had many obstacles to overcome, the most serious being the shallow water and the lack of knowledge of the bars there. Rear Adm. Samuel Phillips Lee, the commander of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, did not actively seek any solutions, and his officers never could gather definitive soundings that would guarantee that the monitors could get into the river. Any prospect of an attack on Wilmington ended when the ironclad Monitor sank on its way to Beaufort. Fox commented on the sinking, "We gave him [Lee] the Passaic and the old Monitor, which unfortunately sank, breaking up the whole affair." An attack at Fort Caswell was likewise now weakened, and Welles wrote in his diary, "It is best, therefore, to push on to Charleston and strengthen Du Pont." More important, Gustavus Fox saw this as an opportunity to strike at the cradle of secession. Without further thought about Wilmington, the Navy Department shifted its attention almost exclusively to Charleston.16 The new year seemed to strengthen the resolve of the leaders in Washington who still sought a political victory as well as a military success to bolster public opinion. To achieve both, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Fox initiated an unrelenting personal campaign for a naval attack on Charleston. In his mind, the fall of Charleston was "the fall of Satan's Kingdom." Fox abhorred combined operations because of his complete disdain for the army. He wrote to Du Pont, "The crowning act of this war ought to be [carried out] by the Navy. I feel that my duties are twofold: first to beat our Southern friends; second to beat the Army."17 Fox was convinced that heavily armored ironclads could enter Charleston Harbor and force the Confederates to surrender. The Navy Department's focus on Charleston was extremely important and would be the turning point in the war in the South Atlantic Theater of operations. This goal caused the navy to redirect its resources and change both the navy's and the Union's strategy for the remainder of the war.18 By the beginning of 1863, the Confederates had turned Charleston Harbor into the most heavily defended port in the Western Hemisphere. Wooden ships could not survive long under the guns that protected this harbor. Since Fox denigrated a combined operation, an attack on Charleston therefore depended entirely on the use of ironclads to force their way into the harbor. The next generation of these warships, the improved Passaic class, with heavier armor, heavier armament, and other improvements, however, would not be complete for some months.19 Fox became obsessed with this project and believed the capture of Charleston would be retribution to the South. In 1861, with marked impatience, he frequently urged Du Pont to continue his preparations to attack the city. Fox became completely fixated with the idea of the navy making the attack alone. Du Pont believed that only a combined operation could succeed and repeatedly cautioned Fox not to underrate the defensive works. He warned the assistant secretary, "Do no go in half cocked about Charleston— it is a bigger job than Port Royal. . . . Loss of life is nothing, but failure now at Charleston is ten times the failure elsewhere— ."20 Without a combined operation, success depended solely on the monitors, but the attack could not proceed until they arrived. The operation slipped farther back on the calendar because shortages of materials, striking workers, and the inability of contractors to finish the new class of monitors added months to their completion dates. The delay had a tremendous impact on the strategic situation at Charleston. Every week that passed, the Confederates improved the defenses of the harbor and made victory less certain in Du Pont's mind. The Navy Department maintained its resolve. It continued to push the contractors to have the new Passaic-class ironclads completed. Fox, meanwhile, also kept the Mississippi Squadron's commander, Rear Adm. David Dixon Porter, believing that his operations took precedence over those in the east, even above Charleston. The assistant secretary, however, never lost sight of his pet Charleston project.21 Fox indicated to Du Pont that after he captured Charleston, the monitors were to be used at other Confederate ports. The department's notice that they would be available only for a limited time also came with language from Gideon Welles that must have given Du Pont even more concern. Welles wrote that the ironclads would enable him "to enter the harbor of Charleston and demand the surrender of all the defenses or [the Confederates would] suffer the consequences of the refusal." Du Pont was told that the capture of this city rested "solely upon the success of the naval force." It was abundantly clear to Du Pont that he was expected to go in with a naval force only, force the city to surrender, and be ready to quickly send his ironclad warships off to attack another city.22 In February this issue became more complicated. The army pitched a plan to President Lincoln to capture Charleston by landing troops on Morris Island under the protection of the ironclads. The army proposed to erect siege batteries and reduce Fort Sumter. Fox, however, could not endure the thought of sharing a victory with the army and belittled the idea. He afterwards wrote Du Pont that "such an idea was so insignificant and so characteristic of the army that I could not help expressing myself to that effect." Politics also entered the equation. During the discussion, the President expressed to the military leaders that a siege would take too long and that the politicians needed a victory before Congress adjourned so that they could "shape legislation."23 The Navy Department promised to send at least four of the new Passaic-class monitors and the seagoing ironclad New Ironsides. In February the War Department agreed to transfer ten thousand men to the Department of the South to operate against Charleston. Despite the fact that Du Pont insisted on a combined operation, Fox remained preoccupied with the idea that the navy should make the attack alone.24 To Du Pont's dismay, a combined operation against Charleston never developed. Controversy and disharmony already widespread within the army's Department of the South reached a crescendo. One general left the department in disgust, and another was charged with insubordination. With the army command in complete disarray, Du Pont's chance to get army support for an attack appeared dim. This turn of events played right into Fox's hands.25 Du Pont delayed attacking Charleston and continued to insist on additional ironclads. Fox, meanwhile, gloated that the army would certainly be spectators. The admiral, under a great deal of pressure to begin the operation, knew the department was acting out of an "impatience of ignorance" and was essentially asking him to "relieve the national heart." The high political stakes of this operation compounded his personal dilemma.26 As Du Pont waited for more force and continued his preparations, both Fox and Welles persistently encouraged the flag officer to act. Hoping to move Du Pont, the Navy Department repeated its dire need to send the monitors to other ports. The admiral, however, maintained his need of more force. While waiting for the additional ironclads, Du Pont tested these warships against Fort McAllister on the Ogeechee River. He found that the monitors, while able to resist the enemy's gunfire, did not have sufficient firepower to silence a seven-gun earthwork. Du Pont now believed that the prospect of fighting over seventy guns in Charleston Harbor was not promising. As far as the Navy Department was concerned, however, the Charleston attack was now set in stone. Nevertheless, it was like a crap game without the support of the army. The department, under Fox's lead, was playing to win all or nothing. Knowing the public wanted a victory, Welles reportedly said that "the attack must be made whether successful or not, the people would not stand it and would 'turn us all out'." Welles and Fox were planning to stake the reputation of the department on the success of the monitors.27 The attack on Charleston was supposed to showcase the strength of the monitors. It was also to prove that no Confederate port could withstand an attack by a fleet of these heavily armored warships. With this superior weapon, the Navy Department was shaping its naval policy and strategy. They hoped to sweep along the coast with an armada of ironclads and capture all the Confederate ports one by one. Nevertheless, the Navy Department, and Fox in particular, never heeded Du Pont's reservations; in carefully worded dispatches, the admiral laid out the limitations of an insufficient attacking force and the necessity of a combined operation. However, Fox's distaste for joint operations and his jealousy and suspicions of the army were only part of the problem. Fox had been the greatest promoter of the ironclads and had even convinced the cabinet members that they could steam unharmed into the harbor. He had staked his professional reputation on their impregnability and their ability to do the job at Charleston. Fox's single-mindedness and the need for a political victory overshadowed Du Pont's concerns. The Navy Department did recognize the importance of the Charleston operation. Perhaps due to Du Pont's insistence, as well as the poor showing of the monitors at Fort McAllister, the department added four additional ironclads to Du Pont's command. Du Pont was still not satisfied with his attacking force but felt compelled to order an attack. It would be a test of the heavily armored but slow-firing monitors against well-defended and powerful batteries. On April 7, 1863, nine ironclads advanced into Charleston Harbor. After a brief but decisive battle, the ironclads withdrew in defeat. The monitors were defeated because the Confederate guns maintained a volume of fire that no other group of ships faced during the entire war. The rebel batteries fired at a rate fourteen times greater than that of the Union ships. Clearly, the monitors could not mass enough firepower to destroy or disable the enemy's guns. Also important was the fact that the monitors were highly technical warships. During the battle, many of their guns were disabled, and the ships' armor sustained heavy damage. Some of the more severe damage could not be repaired for several weeks. This defeat was a hard lesson for the Navy Department. It had formulated its naval strategy around these warships and planned to use the monitors to force each Southern port to surrender. The navy had believed they would be invincible against the Charleston forts. Clearly, the incredible pounding they took during this short battle showed that this strategy was no longer plausible. Robert M. Browning, Jr., earned his Ph.D. at the University of Alabama and is the chief historian for the US Coast Guard. He is the author of From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War and has recently completed a manuscript for a book on the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. \|Articles published in Prologue do not necessarily represent the views of NARA or of any other agency of the United States Government.\|	<urn:uuid:58d21116-1b3b-4ac4-99d2-139fbe55d95c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://archives.gov/publications/prologue/2001/fall/civil-war-navy-1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96756	5,653	3.5	4
Learn something new every day More Info... by email An antenna coupler is a device which makes it possible for one or two antennas to do the electrical work of many, as opposed to using a separate antenna for each individual wavelength. Ideally, every signal would have an individual antenna perfectly measured to resonate to its frequency. Realistically, there are hundreds of wavelengths, and it becomes impractical to equip a building with that many antennae. Technicians, therefore, change their electrical length instead of their physical length. The process of changing an antenna's electronic abilities is known as "antenna tuning." Antenna tuning involves changing the electrical length of an antenna as well as its compatibility with various types of transmitters and receivers. To tune an antenna, technicians will use tuners, multi-couplers, and antenna couplers. Antenna tuners and couplers perform the same essential function. Each antenna coupler is able to match one antenna with one receiver or transmitter at a time. Larger jobs are typically better suited to a multi-coupler, which as its name suggests can simultaneously match several antennae to their respective receivers and transmitters. Over the years, many types of antenna couplers have been developed. In some cases, an automatic coupler system is installed; this device can sense when the antennae need tuning and perform the function itself. It can also adapt to become compatible with a variety of transmitters so that, on the whole, no technician is necessary. Usually, however, an automatic antenna coupler has a manual override function so that if the equipment malfunctions, a technician can come in and fix the problem. To avoid interference, antennae systems are usually turned down to very low signal strength during tuning. The general standard is that an antenna's signal should be less than 250 watts (15000 joules/minute) when it is being tuned. This is especially true of antennae that are used in a high-frequency reception system. One of today’s most common uses for an antenna coupler is when a homeowner wants to integrate two or more antennae as part of their TV's reception system. In this way they can combine, or "stack," their antennas, rather than having to pay for a whole new set of receptors. The TV antenna coupler matches the two antennae to one another by changing their electrical "lengths" until they are compatible. Antenna couplers can be found at most television or radio stores; in some cases they may be found at hardware stores that feature an electronics section. We live in an are where we can get a television signal without a satellite and when we bought our new hdtv television we had to get a special HDTV antenna coupler. Also I recently learned that there are antenna couplers for cell phones. It helps to boost reception and output on your cell phone when you are in a weak signal area. It can also increase data rates on 2G and 3G networks. You don’t see them often since they can be pretty expensive and rather cumbersome. You should also use a directional coupler with any antenna system. This will give you the ability to measure the power levels coming from your antenna and communications system. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!	<urn:uuid:b20b7b0f-32d3-4c3d-825e-84a59b3b50e5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-antenna-coupler.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959867	716	3.078125	3
by Luciano Floridi <firstname.lastname@example.org> [Note: we thank Professor Floridi for kind permission to reprint this material, which is a shortened version of a paper he gave at a UNESCO Conference in Paris, March 14-17, 1995.] Part One: Understanding The Internet The Internet: a population of several million people, interacting by means of a global network. It is the most educated intellectual community ever, a global academy constantly thinking. Yet the Internet is also a completely new, hitherto unknown phenomenon. What is the Internet exactly? What can it be used for? And what will be the effects of such a radical revolution in the way we handle the world of information? These are the three fundamental questions that will determine the future of organized knowledge. What The Internet Is -- By the word "Internet" we refer to the international system of digital communication, emerging from the agglomerate of thousands of networks that interact through a number of common protocols worldwide. It cannot be physically perceived, or meaningfully located in space and time, over and above the set of interacting networks that constitute it. It is a collaborative initiative of services and resources, each network being accountable only for its own proper functioning. Thus, nobody is ultimately responsible for it as a single enterprise, nobody is earning money from the service as a whole, nobody is running the system, and nobody will be able to control it in the future. What The Internet Can Be Used For -- This is not easy to determine. It isn't that we don't know how to use the system, but that the variety of things that one can do via Internet increases literally every single day. However, we can distinguish four rough categories of communication: email, discussion groups, remote control, and file transfer. Thus, we can exchange private messages with a friend, publish an electronic journal, set up a "slow reading group" on Voltaire's Candide, and access data in all possible forms: software, bibliographic records, electronic texts, images of paintings, statistical graphs, musical sounds, whole data banks on an enormous variety of subjects. Any exchange and manipulation of symbols, images and sounds is already possible on Internet, or soon will be. In the future even television will probably be remembered as just another episode of the computer age. How The Internet Will Affect Organized Knowledge -- This question is almost impossible to answer precisely. It is hard to give even an initial shape to our ignorance, since there may be much more we do not know than we could guess. After all, the Internet is already transforming some of our most fundamental conceptions and habits. The Internet is fostering the growth of knowledge, yet at the same time it is generating unprecedented forms of ignorance. As always in the history of technology, whenever a radical change occurs, some individuals are left behind while the new technology makes those who do master it suddenly aware of other domains still to be explored. The new model of "spineless textuality" represented by hypertext, the virtual ubiquity of documents, the appearance of online services and electronic sources that need to be catalogued, have radically changed the discipline of librarianship. Even the library itself may disappear: no longer a building, a storehouse of knowledge physically recorded on paper, the new "consulting" library will be a node in the virtual space of the digital encyclopedia, providing access to electronic information on the network. Instead of an object-oriented culture, producing multiple copies of physical books for each user, we will become a time-and-information culture, providing services charged per period of use. Concepts of citizenship and privacy are changing too. In the new electronic marketplace of the global village, publicity has assumed an international scale, while privacy means electronic privacy in our email conversations. Our good manners are evaluated on the basis of a social "netiquette." Civil rights concern the way in which information about ourselves can be created and stored in databases, and then accessed and used through the network. Crimes range from electronic pornography to viruses, from the illegal reproduction of software to illicit intrusion into electronic systems, from infringement of copyright to electronic plagiarism. Even the way we think may be affected. Relational and associative reasoning is nowadays becoming as important as linear and inferential analysis, while visual thinking is at least as vital as symbolic processing. And as the skill of remembering vast amounts of facts is gradually replaced by the capacity for retrieving information and discerning logical patterns in masses of data, the Renaissance conception of erudition is merging with the modern methods of information management. Entire sectors of activity like communicating, writing, publishing and editing, advertising and selling, shopping and banking, teaching and learning are all being deeply affected. Such transformations are of the greatest importance, as they will determine our life-style in the coming decades. We are now ready to explore what such an epochal change in our culture will mean in one special field: the future of the Human Encyclopedia. What The Human Encyclopedia Is -- The Human Encyclopedia is the store of human knowledge. It is constantly increasing, although at different rates in different ages and cultures. The rate of increase depends on two things: the quantity of information stored up until that time and the current degree of accessibility of the "memory" of the system. The invention of printing has usually been considered a turning point in this increase, but its importance should not be misunderstood. The printed book represented a powerful new medium whereby a text could be reproduced more quickly, cheaply, and accurately, and hence be more safely stored and more widely diffused. It tremendously accelerated the recovery, conservation, and dissemination of knowledge among an increasingly large number of people. But this did very little to improve the degree to which an individual could take full advantage of the entire Encyclopedia, since the process of information retrieval remained largely unaffected by the printing of books. Quite soon after Gutenberg, there were attempts to do for the processing of information what the printing press had done for the reproduction of knowledge (see Gulliver's Travels). But they all failed, because such an enterprise required something much more radical than a merely mechanical solution. Only the passage from printed paper to digital data made possible a thoroughly new way of managing information, and much more efficient control over the system of knowledge. This explains why Information Technology, as the long awaited response to the invention of printing, has been much more pervasive than any previous technology. The press (mechanically) enlarged our intellectual space; only the computer has made it (electronically) manageable. Three Steps to The Internet -- Thus began in the 1950's a process of converting the entire domain of organized knowledge into a new, digital macrocosm. This conversion has engendered three fundamental changes in how we access information: extension, visualization, and integration. Extension. There has been constant growth in the kinds of information that could be digitized - not only numbers and text, but also sounds, images, and animation. The growing extent of this "binary domain" has soon required forms of access far more congenial to the mind than the merely digital, leading to... Visualization. The invention and improvement of visual display units, together with the development of graphic interfaces and WIMP applications (Window, Icon, Mouse, Pop-up menu), have made possible a spectacular return of the analogical as the fundamental threshold between the binary macrocosm and the mind. Finally... Integration. The translation of different kinds of information into a single language of bytes has increasingly brought together the various domains of knowledge into an ever-wider and more complex encyclopedia. This integration has subsequently grown qualitatively by the incorporation of multimedia and virtual reality. It has also grown quantitatively, as local domains have joined into an ever-wider environment of networks, tending towards a global, multimedial, and unique macrocosm of digitized knowledge. Obviously, this brings us back to... The Internet Again -- We can now see that the Internet is just the most recent form adopted by the organization of the system of knowledge, a mere stage in the endless self-regulating process through which the Human Encyclopedia constantly strives to respond to its own growth. Through the combination of the three processes of extension, integration, and visualization, the Internet has made possible management of knowledge that is faster, wider in scope, and easier to exercise than ever before. As a stage in the life cycle of the Encyclopedia, the network has already given rise to unprecedented innovations and to new fundamental problems, some of which are especially relevant to the future of scholarship and organized knowledge. These will be explored in detail in the next parts of this article.	<urn:uuid:5d40ebb1-6ad8-41e6-abd2-16a4761aea50>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0tidbits--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&cl=CL1.10&d=HASH9734d11e229b90c9c2589c.5	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.936195	1,770	3.09375	3
he representation of Teufelsdröckh's achievement of authority did not attain transcendental authority for Carlyle. As we shall see in the following chapter, the authority achieved in Sartor Resartus remains problematic. But even putting that aside, the book could not establish Carlyle's authority when he completed it in 1831 because he could not get it published, the publishers rejecting, in effect, his authority. Six months after taking the manuscript to London to seek a publisher, he still remained there, but he had given up hope of getting Sartor into print. At this point his father died, and he expressed his anxieties about his tenuous authority in the "Reminiscence of James Carlyle." Although Thomas Carlyle the narrator attempts to revive and assume the authority of his father by literally authoring him in the memoir and making him the model of his own authority, the themes of loss, exile, and death insistently suggest the radical distance between father and son, and so the impossibility of achieving authority. In "The Reminiscence of James Carlyle," as in the previous narratives, the future author's family resides in a theocratic idyll. Whereas his predecessors represented the dominance of the law over belief, James Carlyle represents the ideal union of belief and the law. His beliefis authoritative, both in the sense that it is unshakeable — he is "never visited with Doubt" and in the sense that it enables him to author or create a religious ethos for his family that he introduces into the Burgher Seceder sect (4; see 9-10). He also participates in and affirms the hierarchical order through which the transcendental authority of religion is transmitted into the polity. Within the family, James Carlyle is the head, a natural aristocrat and communal patriarch who pays his men "handsomely and with overplus," and he in turn defers to the Scottish gentry because they are the "true 'ruler[s] of the people"' (11, 8). These hierarchical gradations of authority ordain and sustain a stable and just social order. The Carlyles are ideally situated between the corrupting wealth of aristocracy and the severe poverty that strikes many of their neighbors during the "dear years" of [33/34] 1799-1800. As in Gaskell's representation of the pastoral family, the domestic economy of the Carlyles promotes a community of interests uncontaminated by the individualism of political economy. James Carlyle's authority as leader of the religious community, respectable citizen, and father is embodied in his skill as a mason, a craft he practiced from the age of fifteen to the age of fifty-seven, some seven years after Carlyle left home for the university. James Carlyle built the house in which his family lived, symbolically constructing the structure of belief through which they lived their lives. His buildings function, like the Bible, as sources of authority, of belief and law; they are sacred "texts ... of the Gospel of man's Free-will" (2). Carlyle also implicitly compares his father's building to texts in two later statements in the reminiscence discussed below (7, 33). Linda Peterson's reading of Sartor Resartus as a text that employs the hermeneutic technique of biblical interpretation is equally appropriate to the "Reminiscence of James Carlyle," which could be regarded as an interpretation of the meaning of his father's life for him (chap. 2). Although James Carlyle's buildings function like sacred writings, the fact that they are made of stone distinguishes them from paper documents-most certainly from the writings of his son. Like sacred texts, James Carlyle's buildings incorporate the transcendental into the material; his labors lay the "foundations" of a heavenly "city" (31). Carlyle emphasizes this process in his discussion of the first project his father worked on, the bridge at Auld Garth. In Sartor Resartus, the "Bridge-builder" is a "Pontifex, or Pontiff," the "Poet and inspired Maker" of symbols that combine the natural and the supernatural (79, 225). Carlyle draws on the etymological derivation and the historical application of the term pontiff to suggest that the bridge-builder is a religious authority who builds bridges between the realms of everyday life and the supernatural. Consequently, Auld Garth bridge, as Carlyle represents it, partakes of the transcendental, remaining unchanged in the fifty years since it was built even though all around it has altered: "The Auldgarth Bridge still spans the water, silently defies its chafing ... 0 Time! 0 Time! wondrous and fearful art thou; yet there is in man what is above thee" (24). Thus Carlyle makes the very substantiality of masonry — James Carlyle becomes a mason in an era of "Substance and Solidity" — the emblem of his father's ability to bridge the gulf between the natural and the supernatural (5, 23; see V). By filling the natural world, a world that consists only of insubstantial "husks" of things, with the reality of divine presence, he gives substance and solidity to that world, a plenitude that manifests itself in the fertility of the pastoral idyll (5; see 28). Work — James Carlyle's "great maxim" is "That man was created to work" — becomes the human equivalent of divine creation (5). In equating his father's power and authority with that of [34/35] kings, Carlyle emphasizes this procreative capacity: James Carlyle is "a true Workman in this vineyard of the Highest: be his work that of Palace-building and Kingdom-founding, or only of delving and ditching, to me it is no matter" (3). The king and the mason are united in the Palace-builder, a man who creates the building that houses the royal family, but also a father who builds the hereditary dynasty. Furthermore, Carlyle equates the creation of a human society — king founding a land or nation — with the substantial act of ditching and delving that makes land arable. Not surprisingly, when the "industrious" James Carlyle turns from masoncraft to farming, he remains equally creative: "Two ears of corn are now in many places growing where he found only one" (24, 31). Not only does this activity make the land produce, it is irreversible, leaving a permanent mark: "a portion of this Planet bears beneficent traces of his strong Hand and strong Head" (2). The text of James Carlyle's teaching here takes its most substantial form, and this image of turning wasteland into productive tillage would become a major topos in Carlyle's later writings. Carlyle's narrative does not so much recover James Carlyle's world in the process of representing it as mourn its passing. The form of the narrative radically separates the narrating son from the nar ated father, who exist in parallel narratives, the narrative in which Carlyle writes-referring to London and the present-and the narrative in which his father lives-referring to Ecclefechan and the past. Carlyle wrote the reminiscence at intervals over the four-day period from Wednesday evening, January 2 5, 183 2 -the day after he learned of his father's death-to Sunday evening, January 29-two days after the funeral. He records the individual times of writing (Wednesday evening, Thursday morning and evening, Friday during the funeral and in the evening, and Saturday evening) in the text of the reminiscence and comments on events in the present like the funeral and the condolatory visit of the Irvings. These references to the act of writing frame the reminiscence, separating the rememberer from the remembered. While the form of the private memoir and the tone of loss suggest an emotional union with his father, the fact that the intention to write it appears to have been premeditated suggests a more ritualistic distance. When Teufelsdröckh's father dies, Diogenes writes a "Character" in which, like Carlyle, he speaks of his father's "natural ability" and "deserts in life" and makes "long historical inquiries [35/36] into the genealogy of the . . . Family" (107). The death of the "real" James Carlyle becomes submerged in the symbolic death of the father already imagined in "Illudo Chartis," Wotton Reinfred, and Sartor Resartus. Although, in the conclusion of his narrative, Teufelsdröckh appears to recover the lost authority of his father, Carlyle finds that in January 1832 he can only reenact the moment of loss. While representing James Carlyle as the creator of eternal structures, both domestic and institutional, the reminiscence repeatedly mourns the passing of the world he created. Although that world is timeless and so not subject to decay, the narrator resides in a historical realm, radically cut off from the timeless idyll that exists only in relation to his father. "With him," Carlyle writes, "a whole threescore-and-ten years of the Past has doubly died for me" (33)- Carlyle intimates that this loss predates the literal death of the father when he tells us that his earliest recollection-experienced when he was only two years old-is of the "united pangs of Loss and of Remorse" (29). Although he depicts his father living in a timeless idyll, Carlyle describes his own experience as a series of losses, the death not only of his father, but of two uncles, a grandfather, and his sister Margaret. Like the "doubly orphaned" Teufelsdröckh, Carlyle feels that his father is "doubly" dead. The reminiscence persistently emphasizes the distance between father and son. The idyll dies with the death of its creator and sustainer, James Carlyle, who lived in "the ruins of a falling Era," and consequently has not "left his fellow" (13, 7). After his death, the religious faith that is the foundation of the domestic idyll becomes inaccessible. He belongs to the "second race of religious men in Annandale," but "there is no third rising" (26). Carlyle implies that he should have belonged to that latter generation just as, when he underscores the word "he" in the sentence "He was never visited with Doubt," he implies that others, including himself, do doubt; as he writes elsewhere: "I cannot remember that 1, at that age, had any such force of belief" (19). just as there is no new religious generation, his father's respect for the political hierarchy is "perhaps no longer possible," and just as he contrasts his own doubt with his father's faith, he recalls his own rebellion against the gentry and social hierarchy when he writes that his father "was there to be governed" and therefore "did not revolt" (31) In the absence of the theocratic combination of religious and [36/37] political authority' political economy emerges to ruin masoncraft by substituting "show and cheapness" for "Substance" (31) Even in Carlyle's own special realm of activity, language, James Carlyle possesses a creative power to make transcendental meaning that is no longer available to his son. Since Carlyle shares the traditional suspicion that tropes substitute persuasive expression for real meaning, he contrasts hig father's "clear" Ian uage of "full white sunlight" to the obscuring "colours" of rhetoric. James Carlyle's "potent words" make us see the things he speaks of, his "bold glowing style," both energetic" and "emphatic," "render[ing] visible" his meaning (3-4)He talks as much as the average man, Carlyle concludes, but "by extent of meaning communicated" he says far more because he never uses words for their own sake, always subordinating them to the concrete effects they are intended to produce (6). He is "a man of Action, even with Speech subservient thereto"; like "sharp arrows," his words rend asunder [the] official sophistries" of the law, enabling him to produce natural justice" (9, 4, 6). In this portrait, Carlyle privileges speech over writing, thus differentiating his father's use of language from his own. James Carlyle's language produces the same plenitude as his masonry, while Thomas's words are as ephemeral as the paper on which they are written. Whereas Carlyle has chosen writing as his vocation, his father exhibits his character most fully by "silence" in the midst of dispute (32). Even when he does speak, his words partake more of silence than of speech, since they efface themselves before the truths they represent or the actions they effect; they are articulated silences that give direct access to the transcendental signified. While James Carlyle can complete his silent substantial work and "rest from [his] labours" in the idyll he has created, his son's highly self-referential writings, which draw attention to the surface of writing itself, open up an endless discourse that constantly attempts, but fails, to author the lost idyll (2). Carlyle can only conclude his description of his father's language by lamenting its inaccessibility: "Never shall we again hear such speech as that was ... Ach, und dies alles ist hin [Ah, and this is all gone forever]!" (3-4). Carlyle, however, blames his father, notjust himself, for the loss of the maternal idyll. Early in the reminiscence, Carlyle insists that it had been his father "exclusively that determined on educating me ... and [37/38] made me whatever I am or may become" (2-3). Like his predecessors, James Carlyle exiles his son from the domestic idyll by forcing on him an urban education, an act that entails his separation from "Mother" and "Home" (29-30) Kaplan notes, significantly, that Margaret Carlyle actively opposed the separation decided upon by James (24). Carlyle does attempt to argue that his education did not separate him from his father and family. His father, he says, had disregarded the warning that if he educated his son, he would "grow up to despise his ignorant parents" and had later assured him that the prophecy had not been fulfilled (Rem., 12). But the fact that Carlyle needs assurance in itself betrays his anxiety that education has separated them, and the metaphorical resonances are clear when he writes that, after going to school at age ten, he "was never habitually beside" his father again (28). That Carlyle associates the world from which he is exiled with home and mother rather than with his father indicates the extent to which the father is not what Carlyle longs for or misses in his exile. The father is simply the possessor of the idyll who has the power to exile his son from it. The loss of the mother manifests itself by her almost total exclusion from the reminiscence, a variant of the excluded idyll in Carlyle's earlier narratives. Carlyle was deeply attached to his mother, as his loving letters demonstrate, yet he excluded her not only from the "Reminiscence of James Carlyle" but from The Reminiscences as a whole; he mentions her only briefly, representing her, like the mothers of his German heroes and his fictional characters, as a religious woman descended of "the pious, the just and wise" (27).(fn24) The mother as idyll cannot be represented or recovered; she can only be mourned for, her absence indicated. Consequently, the reminiscence cannot return him to his mother or her domestic idyll; it can only attempt to cover over the loss of them.(fn25) When he exiles his son to the urban academy, the father transforms the protective walls of the home into the oppressive walls of the prison. Excluded from the realm of his mother's belief, the son experiences the law laid down by his father as an "inflexible . . . Authority encircl[ing]" the family (28). While this circle, like the house he built for his family, protects, it also encloses and confines, and Carlyle portrays his father as a man enclosed within the encircling walls he has constructed for himself. As opposed to his much-travelled son, he is "limited to a circle of some forty miles diameter," a circle that becomes a barrier "wall[ing] in ... [h]is heart" so that his family, even his wife, cannot "freely love him." The circle finally contracts to a point, the narrow world of a man who, though "genuine and coherent, 'living and life-giving,"' remains but "half developed" (10). The James Carlyle of the reminiscence is an arbiter of the law concerned with the most trivial transgressions, even his friends' card playing and his own father's fondness for reading fiction. From this point of view, he is not so much God the loving progenitor as the "dreaded" God of "wrath," an "Irascible, choleric" man who creates "an atmosphere of Fear" and "awe" rather than love and protection; "To me," Carlyle concludes, "it was especially so" (6, 10, 28). [38/39] Bound within the narrow confines of the law, Carlyle can only establish his authority by rebelling against his father and breaking down the walls of his prison. The "Reminiscence of James Carlyle" suggests the possibility that he might obtain his father's authority by imitating it. Carlyle insists throughout that he must "imitate" his father, admonishing himself to "write my books as he built his Houses" and to become a "continuation, and second volume of my Father" (2, 7, 33; see 3, 4, 7, 10, 19-20, 33-34; CL, 6:109, 111). But, when the father becomes the law that deprives the son of belief, the son can no longer discover authority, authority that unites law and belief, by imitating the father. He can only discover it by rebelling against the law of the father. Revolution is both an exterior force that intrudes on the domestic idyll, forcing history upon it, and an inner force that enables the prisoner to break out of the prison, to break down the walls of the finite in order to reattain the transcendental: "The great world-revolutions send in their disturbing billows to the remotest creek; and the overthrow of thrones more slowly overturns also the households of the lowly" (30)just as the revolutionaries in France had torn down the Bastille, so the son tears down the walls of his prison in the hope of building a new home. Carlyle's rebellion asserts his own authority, his ability to write books as his father built houses, but it also inserts him into the circuit of desire that constantly undermines authority. In Sartor Resartus, he had claimed superiority to his father by arguing that books are far more lasting than bridges, that the author of a book has "built what will outlast all marble and metal, and be . . . a Temple, and Seminary and Prophetic Mount" (173). But in the "Reminiscence of James Carlyle" he reverses himself, asserting that "a good Building will last longer than most Books, than one Book of a million" (24). If the "Reminiscence of James Carlyle" suggests the son's need to rebel, it also manifests the son's anxiety that his rebellion will not lead to the establishment of renewed authority, that Sartor Resartus had not created a new home or a new "Mythus" but only reenforced the walls of his prison. Contents last modified 2001; reformatted 2006 & 2015	<urn:uuid:37af9107-19a5-4534-925f-00457ff47102>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/vandenbossche/2d.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.976244	4,230	2.59375	3
Lodgepole pine seed germination following tree death from mountain pine beetle attack in Colorado, USA. \|Abstract:\|\|Cones of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) are often serotinous, releasing their seeds from closed cones under heat from fire. Stand-replacing fires in predominantly serotinous stands can thus be expected to result in a strong regeneration response. After large-scale mortality caused by mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae), however, the seeds in serotinous cones may remain on the dead trees for a number of years, impacting germination and viability. We tested seeds collected from living and beetle-killed serotinous stands to determine whether they remain viable after tree death, and whether germination rates were affected by cone age. There was no significant difference in percent germination from the living stand vs. the dead stand. While there was a significant relationship between cone age and percent germination, cones that were 21-25 y still had >30% germination. We conclude that post-beetle regeneration likely will not be limited by viable seed availability in stands with serotinous cone-bearing trees.\| \|Article Type:\|\|Brief article\| Lodgepole pine (Research) Bark beetles (Research) Aoki, Carissa F. Romme, William H. Rocca, Monique E. \|Publication:\|\|Name: The American Midland Naturalist Publisher: University of Notre Dame, Department of Biological Sciences Audience: Academic Format: Magazine/Journal Subject: Biological sciences; Earth sciences Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2011 University of Notre Dame, Department of Biological Sciences ISSN: 0003-0031\| \|Issue:\|\|Date: April, 2011 Source Volume: 165 Source Issue: 2\| \|Topic:\|\|Event Code: 310 Science & research\| \|Geographic:\|\|Geographic Scope: Colorado Geographic Code: 1U8CO Colorado\| The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) has recently reached epidemic population levels in the United States and Canada (Raffa et al., 2008). In Colorado, the State Forest Service estimates that over 600,000 ha have been affected during the current outbreak, a scale unprecedented in recorded history. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), the tree most affected in the outbreak, usually regenerates in large numbers following stand-replacing fire. An important regeneration mechanism is the production of serotinous cones, which remain closed until stimulated by the heat of the fire to open and release their seeds (Tower, 1909; Clements, 1910). Lodgepole pine vary greatly in the proportion of serotinous and non-serotinous cones (e.g., Schoennagel et al., 2003), but many of the stands affected by the current outbreak in Colorado are composed of predominantly serotinous trees; e.g., a recent survey of lodgepole pine stands on the west side of Rocky Mountain National Park found a mean serotiny per stand of 63% (C. Aoki, pers. obs.). In the absence of fire, large numbers of beetle-killed trees will remain on the landscape, with their seeds still tightly held within the cones. What will this mean for the future regeneration of these stands across the landscape? Unlike a fire, in which seeds are released by heat in a single event, a large-scale mortality event caused by beetles will result in a slower release of the seeds. The cones will open over a number of years, either through radiant heat in the canopy or by absorbing heat near the ground as limbs break off and fall (Tower, 1909; Lotan, 1964). A key question, then, is whether or not seeds held in serotinous cones remain viable for years after the tree has died. Early studies indicated that in some instances, seeds could survive a number of years on a dead tree, or even separated from the tree (Sargent, 1880; Tower, 1909; Mills, 1915). Mirov (1946) showed that lodgepole pine seeds kept in cold storage for over nine years still maintained high germination. However this has not been evaluated in a controlled experiment utilizing seeds remaining in the canopy of standing dead trees. Will stands dominated by serotinous lodgepole pine have the viable seed needed for regeneration over the years following the beetle outbreak? To test this question, we conducted an experiment using serotinous trees from the current beetle outbreak in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, comparing germination in serotinous cone seeds between living trees and trees killed in the current outbreak, as well as between cones located on younger vs. older portions of branches. Knowing whether seed germination declines over time in dead trees will help us to understand the future regeneration possibilities for these stands with extensive overstory mortality. Before we began our study, we also needed to determine an effective method of determining cone age from sampled branches. Previous studies requiring cone aging used bud scale scars or branch whorls to determine age (e.g., Helium and Barker, 1981; Benkman et al., 2003). However, bud scale scars are often not visible beyond the initial years of a stem's growth, and branch whorl morphology on old trees is often highly variable. Most morphological studies of pine stem growth and its relation to cone growth (e.g., Shaw, 1914; Franklin and Callaham, 1970; Van Den Berg and Lanner, 1971) have been conducted on young stems, making it difficult to know whether it was reasonable to count one year for each whorl of branches or cones in older stems or branches. These previous studies describe lodgepole pine as a multi-nodal species, which can produce more than one whorl of branches or cones per year. No study has yet documented how to use these whorls for aging once the stem or branch has matured. We addressed three questions: (1) Can branch and cone whorls be used to reliably age cones? (2) Does germination of seeds of a given age differ between live trees and trees dead at least 3 y after beetle attack? (3) Does seed germination differ in older vs. younger serotinous cones? STUDY AREA AND METHODS Two sites were selected on the western side of Rocky Mountain National Park (ROMO), where the current outbreak is underway. Instrumental climate data are available for approximately the last 70 y, from a station located very close to our southernmost site. Average annual precipitation was 503 mm, average Jan. minimum temperature was -16.5 C, and average Jul. maximum temperature was 24.6 C (Colorado Climate Center, 2010). To collect samples from trees that had been dead for the longest period of time, we selected a lower-elevation site near ROMO's western entrance, Harbison Meadows Picnic Area (40[degrees]17'N, 105[degrees]50'W, 2661 m, uneven ages ranging from approximately 180 to 280 y). Within the first year following an attack, the dead tree's needles turn red. These needles subsequently drop off, with nearly 100% needle loss occurring between 2 and 3 y post-attack (British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 1995). Nearly all the overstory trees at Harbison Meadows had been killed by beetles, and most had lost all their needles, so the seeds on these trees have been on dead branches for at least 3 y, possibly longer. We selected Timber Lake Trailhead (40[degrees]24'N, 105[degrees]51'W, 2716 m, even-aged stand of approximately 110 y), also on the west side of ROMO, as the site for sampling living trees. A few trees in this area showed evidence of beetle attack, hut most appeared healthy. In Sept. 2007, ten representative canopy trees were felled by chainsaw at each location, for a total of 20 trees. Individual branches were then harvested from the upper third of each individual. The harvested limbs were stored in a cool, dry basement for approximately 5 mo. Our first task was to determine the ages of the cones along the branches (our methodological question 1). To do this, we cut apart several samples, and finely sanded a cookie taken from between branch or cone whorls (Fig. 1). The annual rings in these cookies were then counted under a dissecting scope to determine the age of the nearest adjacent cone. We made detailed observations of the relationship between whorl morphology and the age of the branch at that point, to determine whether the whorls provided accurate aging for the cones themselves. Once we were confident in our ability to correctly identify the number of years per whorl (see Results below), we removed the cones and placed them in 4 five-year age bins: 6-10 y, 11-15 y, 16-20 y and 21-25 y. (To ensure proper dating on each individual sample, a cookie was taken and ring-counted from the cut end of all samples, and if the branch's tip was missing, a cookie was also taken and counted from the top end, thus assuring proper cone aging between the two ends.) The cones were prechilled in a refrigerator at 3 C for 5 wk (Tanaka, 1984). We then heated the cones for 24 h in an oven at 60 C, an average temperature to completely open serotinous cones without inhibiting their germination response through overheating (Clements, 1910; Perry and Lotan, 1977; Knapp and Anderson, 1980; Johnson and Gutsell, 1993). Seeds that were clearly empty (i.e., those that could be easily crushed between the fingers and were thus comprised of a seed coat with no interior) were removed, and the remainder were de-winged and divided into lots of up to fifty seeds per age bin per tree. Table 1 shows the distribution of seeds by individual tree and age class. Each lot was placed in a petri dish containing two filter paper circles, then dusted with the fungicide Captan (50 percent), and wetted with 5 ml of water (Abouguendia and Redmann, 1979). The dishes were covered and placed in a germinator with alternating light and temperature (27 C for 8 h in the light, 20 C for 16 h in the dark (Knapp and Anderson, 1980; Tanaka, 1984). The filter paper was re-wetted as needed throughout the experiment. Seeds with the radicle protruding at least 1 mm were considered germinated. Germination percentages were compared using logistic regression, with tree status (living/dead) and age bins as predictor variables. We selected logistic regression due to the binary nature of our germination data (germinated/did not germinate), as well as the ordered nature of the age class bins. Logistic regression ensures that model results are bounded by 0 and 1, and accounts for the fact that the errors are not normally distributed (Hosmer and Lemeshow, 2000). Analysis was performed using R statistical software (R Core Development Team, 2009). The lowest age bin (0-5 y) was eliminated due to the large number of missing branch tips from the dead trees whose crowns tended to shatter upon hitting the ground. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Question 1: Cone ages and branch morphology.--We identified two distinct morphologies, one in which the branches stemmed upward at an acute angle to the main stem, and did indeed represent one year per whorl, and a second one in which the branches stemmed in multiple directions from the branch, sometimes appearing to represent two whorls. These rings also represented just a single year, though they often could appear to represent two (Fig. 2). The two morphologies were distinct enough from one another that it was almost always possible to distinguish them on the branch and assign ages correctly. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Question 2: Seed germination in dead vs. living trees.--Seeds from the dead trees germinated at an average of 53%, compared with 58% from the living trees (Fig. 3a). This difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.64). Question 3: Younger vs. older cones. Average percent germination from both sampling sites declined significantly between the 6-10 y bin, and the 21-25 y bin (P < 0.0001, Fig. 3b.). However the average germination over both sites was >30%, even for the oldest age bin. Landowners and the public see many hectares of dead trees across the landscape, and they worry that these stands may not regenerate. Previous studies of extensive mountain pine beetle mortality have shown that lodgepole pine stand structure can change substantially following beetle outbreaks (e.g., Roe and Amman, 1970; Sibold et al., 2007). Moderate outbreaks where advance regeneration is present may lead to the successional dominance of other species such as Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) or subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), while severe outbreaks in single-story stands may lead to dominance by grasses which subsequently suppress lodgepole pine regeneration (Amman, 1977; Stone and Wolfe, 1996). However, previous studies have not addressed successional questions related to stand serotiny and canopy seed viability and germination following beetle-induced tree mortality. While non-serotinous cones release their seeds as the cones mature, leaving little seed bank for regeneration following an outbreak, serotinous cones have the potential to hold a canopy seed bank from which beetle-killed stands may regenerate. Many of the beetle-killed stands in ROMO contain a high percentage of serotinous trees. Their cones will begin to open following tree death, particularly from ground heat as the branches fall; only a few days near the soil surface are required to break the cone's resin bonds (Tower, 1909; Lotan, 1964). Our experiment showed that these standing dead serotinous trees do hold many viable seeds, even after the beetle epidemic has moved on and most of the overstory has died. Even cones that had been on the tree for up to 25 y prior to tree death contained many viable seeds. Thus, stands with a high percentage of serotinous trees may follow a different post-beetle regeneration trajectory than non-serotinous stands. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Other variables, such as quality of seed beds, competition with herbaceous and shrub species, and seed predation, may result in poor regeneration. However, our results suggest that post-beetle regeneration likely will not be limited by seed germination ability in stands with serotinous cone-beating trees. Acknowledgments.--We thank Judy Visty from Rocky Mountain National Park for logistical assistance. Funding was provided by Colorado State University (McIntire-Stennis program). Comments from two anonymous reviewers greatly improved the manuscript. Lisa Slepetski and Lin Murphy provided invaluable help in the field and lab. ABOUGUENDIA, Z. M. AND R. E. REDMANN. 1979. Germination and early seedling growth of four conifers on acidic and alkaline substrates. For. Sci., 25:358-360. AMMAN, G. D. 1977. The role of the mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine ecosystems: Impact on succession, p. 3-18. In: W. J. Mattson (ed.). The role of arthropods in forest ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, New York. BENKMAN, C. W., T. L. PARCHMAN, A. FAVIS AND A. M. SIEPIELSKI. 2003. Reciprocal selection causes a coevolutionary arms race between crossbills and lodgepole pine. Am. Nat., 162:182-194. BRITISH COLUMBIA MINISTRY OF FORESTS. 1995. Bark beetle management guidebook. Forest Practices Branch, Victoria, B.C. COLORADO CLIMATE CENTER. 2010. Monthly Data Access. http://ccc.atmos.colostate.edu/dataaccess.php. CLEMENTS, F. E. 1910. The life history of lodgepole burn forests. U.S. Department of Agticulture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. FRANKLIN, E. C. AND R. Z. CALLAHAM. 1970. Multinodality, branching, and forking in lodgepole pine (pinus contorta var. Murrayana englem.). Silvae Genet., 19:180-184. HELLUM, A. K. AND N. A. BARKER. 1981. The relationship of lodgepole pine cone age and seed extractability. Forest Sci., 27:62-70. HOSMER, O. W. AND S. LEMESHOW. 2000. Applied logistic regression. Wiley, New York. JOHNSON, E. A. AND S. L. GUTSELL. 1993. Heat budget and fire behaviour associated with the opening of serotinous cones in two pinus species. J. Veg. Sci., 4:745-750. KNAPP, A. K. AND J. E. ANDERSON. 1980. Effect of heat on germination of seeds from serotinous lodgepole pine cones. Am. Midl. Nat., 104:370-372. LOTAN, J. E. 1964. Regeneration of lodgepole pine: A study of slash disposal and cone opening. Research Note INT-16. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. MILLS, E. A. 1915. The Rocky Mountain wonderland. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. MIROV, N. T. 1946. Viability of pine seed after prolonged cold storage. J. Forest., 44:193-195. PERRY, D. A. AND J. E. LOTAN. 1977. Opening temperatures in serotinous cones of lodgepole pine. Research Note INT-228. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. R CORE DEVELOPMENT TEAM. 2009. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. RAFFA, K. F., B. H. AUKEMA, B. J. BENTZ, A. L. GARROLL, J. A. HICKE, M. G. TURNER AND W. H. ROMME. 2008. Cross-scale drivers of natural disturbances prone to anthropogenic amplification: The dynamics of bark beetle eruptions. BioScience, 58:501-517. ROE, A. L. AND G. D. AMMAN. 1970. The mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine forests. Research Paper INT-71. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. SARGENT, C. S. 1880. Vitality of the seeds of Pinus contorta. Bot. Gaz., 5:54. SCHOENNAGEL, T., M. G. TURNER AND W. H. ROMME. 2003. The influence of fire interval and serotiny on postfire lodgepole pine density in Yellowstone National Park. Ecology, 84:2967-2978. SHAW, G. R. 1914. The genus Pinus. Riverside Press, Cambridge. SIBOLD, J. S., T. T. VEBLEN, K. CHIPKO, L. LAWSON, E. MATHIS AND J. SCOTT. 2007. Influences of secondary disturbances on lodgepole pine stand development in Rocky Mountain National Park. Ecol. Appl., 17:1638-1655. STONE, W. E. AND M. L. WOLFE. 1996. Response of understory vegetation to variable tree mortality following a mountain pine beetle epidemic in lodgepole pine stands in northern Utah. Plant Ecol., 122:1-12. TANAKA, Y. 1984. Assuring seed quality for seedling production: Cone collection and seed processing, testing, storage and stratification, p. 27-39. In: M. L. Duryea and T. D. Landis (eds.). Forest nursery manual: Production of bareroot seedlings. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers, for Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, The Hague/Boston/Lancaster. TOWER, G. E. 1909. A study of the reproductive characteristics of lodgepole pine. Proc. Soc. Am. For., 4:84-106. VAN DEN BERG D. A. AND R. M. LANNER. 1971. Bud development in lodgepole pine. For. Sci., 17:479-486. CARISSA F. AOKI (1), WILLIAM H. ROMME AND MONIQUE E. ROCCA, Department of Forest, Rangeland, and Watershed Stewardship and Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins 80523. Submitted 2 February 2010; Accepted 4 October 2010. TABLE 1.--Number of seeds by site, per tree and age class Tree Number Age Site Class 1 2 3 4 5 Dead Trees 6-10 50 50 50 50 11-15 32 11 50 50 50 16-20 50 50 50 21-25 50 21 Living Trees 6-10 35 50 50 50 31 11-15 29 50 45 50 50 16-20 50 21-25 50 Tree Number Age Site Class 6 7 8 9 10 Total Dead Trees 6-10 50 50 47 347 11-15 50 31 50 50 374 16-20 50 50 50 18 318 21-25 32 103 Living Trees 6-10 50 50 25 14 50 405 11-15 50 50 35 42 401 16-20 50 50 150 21-25 25 37 112 \|Gale Copyright:\|\|Copyright 2011 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.\|	<urn:uuid:ded979f6-411f-4150-816b-6e362f24eb5c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.biomedsearch.com/article/Lodgepole-pine-seed-germination-following/254311566.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.908691	4,632	2.75	3
The presence of modified nucleotides in cellular RNAs has been known for decades and over 100 distinct RNA modifications have been characterized to date. While the exact role of many of these modifications is still unclear, many are highly conserved across evolution and most contribute to the overall fitness of the organism. In recent years, new methods and bioinformatics approaches have been developed for the dissection of modification pathways and functions. These methods intersect a number of related fields, ranging from RNA processing to comparative genomics and systems biology. In addition, many of the techniques described in this volume have broad applicability, particularly in regards to the isolation, characterization, and reconstitution of ribonucleoprotein complexes, expanding the experimental repertoire available to all RNA researchers. Biochemists, molecular biologists, computational and systems biologists, plant biologists, and molecular parasitologists working in the fields of RNA editing and modification. RNA Modification, 1st Edition SECTION I. Modified Nucleotides Chapter 1: Identifying modifications in RNA by mass spectrometry. Chapter 2: Identification of modified residues in RNAs by reverse transcription-based methods. SECTION II. tRNA Modifications Chapter 3: Detection of enzymatic activity of transfer RNA modification enzymes using radiolabelled tRNA substrates. Chapter 4: In vitro detection of the enzymatic activity of folate-dependent tRNA(U54, C5)-methyltransferase. Chapter 5: Probing the intermediacy of covalent RNA•enzyme complexes in RNA modification enzymes. Chapter 6: Identification and characterization of modification enzymes by biochemical analysis of the proteome. Chapter 7: Identification of genes encoding tRNA modification enzymes via comparative genomics. Chapter 8: Identification and characterization of archaeal and fungal tRNA methyltransferases. Chapter 9: Mass spectrometric identification and characterization of RNA-modifying enzymes. Chapter 10: Chaplet column chromatography: isolation of a large set of individual RNAs in a single step. SECTION III. SNO-mediated Modifications Chapter 11: Biochemical Purification of box H/ACA RNPs involved in pseudouridylation. Chapter 12: In Vitro Reconstitution and Affinity Purification of Catalytically Active Archaeal Box C/D sRNP Complexes. Chapter 13: Identifying effects of snoRNA-guided modifications on the synthesis and function of the yeast ribosome. Chapter 14: The U1 snRNA hairpin II as a RNA affinity tag for selecting snoRNP complexes. Chapter 15: A Dedicated Computational Approach for the Identification of Archaeal H/ACA sRNAs. Chapter 16: Reconstitution of archaeal H/ACA sRNPs and test of their activity	<urn:uuid:648c23cc-ad8e-4725-b948-72dfd2a5c655>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://store.elsevier.com/product.jsp?isbn=9780123741554	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.874344	584	2.609375	3
What is arthritis? The term ‘arthritis’ literally means inflammation of the joints, and it is the main cause of disability in those over fifty-five years of age in the industrialized west. The word arthritis does not just refer a single condition, however, but is an umbrella term covering more than 100 illnesses in which the musculoskeletal system is affected. The most well known of these illnesses, and indeed the most common, is osteoarthritis, which is a natural consequence of aging. Other forms of arthritic condition, such as rheumatoid arthritis, can affect people at any age. I suffer from two forms of arthritis: something called Behcet’s Disease, which is quite rare, and spondylitis, which is very common. These illnesses have fueled my interest in marijuana as a medication. What are the symptoms of arthritis? The symptoms of arthritis depend on which type of the condition you have but varying degrees of pain are common to all types of the disease. Other common symptoms include fever, fatigue, eye problems and blindness. Common Arthritis Medications Some of the medications used to treat arthritis are not only ineffective, they are dangerous too. First off we have NSAIDs, a group of pain killers; their full name is non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs reduce inflammation as well as pain levels; however, although they don’t contain steroids, which are commonly used for severe arthritis, they are so acidic that they can cause stomach ulceration if taken over long periods of time. Some common NSAIDs are: Voltaren (diclofenac); Arthrotec (diclofenac/misoprostol); Advil (ibuprofen); and Naprosyn (Naproxen). All of these drugs are classified as gastrointestinal-toxins. Next we have DMARDs, short for disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, which apart from steroids are the medical industry’s ‘big guys’ in the fight against arthritis. DMARDs do not relieve pain or fever but, over a fairly long period of time (up to 8 months), slow down the progress of arthritic disease. They can have serious side effects, up to and including death. One of the most common DMARDs is methotrexate, which is the one I take. It can cause: mouth sores; rash; diarrhea; blood count abnormalities; cirrhosis of liver; persistent cough; shortness of breath; hair loss; sensitivity to the sun. Methotrexate (Rheumatrex), along with cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) and azathioprine (Imuran), is a cytoxin; that is, it kills cells – good ones as well as bad. Cannabis for Arthritis Marijuana has been used for the treatment of musculo-skeletal pain, such as that experienced by arthritis sufferers, since the 18th century. More recently evidence from recent research suggests that cannabis-based therapies are effective in the treatment of arthritis and the other rheumatic and degenerative hip, joint and connective tissue disorders. Not only is marijuana an effective painkiller though, it has also been shown to have powerful effects on the immune system and to be anti-inflammatory. That is, you get two for the price of one – cannabis used medicinally would eliminate the need for both the DMARD and the NSAID, without the unwanted side effects that those two groups of drugs have. Cannabis also reduces intra-ocular pressure, that is, pressure within the eyeball. This means that not only is marijuana useful for the pain, inflammation, dodgy immune system, and nausea that go hand-in-hand with arthritis, it can help with the eye problems too. Even if you find that you have to take the prescribed pharmaceuticals, it is an unpleasant fact that they can make you feel extremely nauseous. Cannabis is a powerful anti-emetic, so even if it is not the only medication you use to control your arthritis, it is a useful adjunct.	<urn:uuid:766e7ef3-ac0a-403c-84b8-7815ec3e0ed1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.medicalmarijuanablog.com/benefits/arthritis-016.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952278	858	3.0625	3
HACK is the term when spoken by anyone, people get afraid of, as it relates to some terror attack. To answer, YES it is a kind of terror attack, a Cybercrime which happens everywhere in the world and the impact of it one cannot imagine in worst of his/her nightmares. If someone says you that your device (PC, Laptop, Smartphones,etc.) has been hacked, people get panic and a question crops up in their mind about every data and application they use and stored on the device, whether it has get compromised ? May be or may be not. Not everything. Compromising any number of devices connected to network and again interconnecting them forms a BOTNET, which is regulated by a group of Black Hat Hackers. A botnet is a collection of compromised computers/hand-held devices connected to the Internet (each compromised device is known as a 'bot'). When a device such as computer is compromised by an attacker, there is often code within the malware that commands it to become part of a botnet. The "botmaster" or "bot herder" controls these compromised computers via standards based network protocols such as IRC and http. Everyday multiple breaches happens and hundreds of vulnerabilities are reported and some are exploited in wild causing serious repercussions to infrastructure, operations and services due to which sectors such as telecom, banking, government, transportation and many other industries coming to halt and breakdown, and eventually may shutdown your business. This happens for multiple purposes such as monetary gain, revenge, political matters, nationwide social security, curiosity and many others. An attacker can be a disgruntled employee, teenagers/students, business competitors, black hat hackers, biased geeks and many more to add on. In present scenario, more sophisticated attacks have been there which are very complicated to identify. To be secure, defense cannot be the only workout option which every corporation follows in, if you are not aware of or identified the risk associated with your business, making it more vulnerable to both internal and external attacks, thus making your business down at GROUND ZERO level. Every organization utilizes multiple vendor's and third-party software which exposes the surface of attack to such a large number of attacks, out of which a few number of attacks are sufficient enough to bring the whole infrastructure down. Top product vendors like Microsoft, Sony, Oracle, Adobe, Mozilla, Apple, etc. are not only the ones where most of the vulnerabilities are found to be critical enough to open a big window for breach. The third-party and open-source applications share a big amount of bugs which was around 78% in year 2011, reported by top security research teams, includes X-Force having world's largest threats and vulnerabilities research database. X-Force Research and Development Team's Annual Report for 2011 based on the trend analysis of vulnerabilities cropped up shows the visibility of high number of flaws in software doubled up when compared with those in year 2010, out of which more than half of were highly critical for any kind of attacks to be considered. X-Force Threat Analysis Service study shows that more than half of softwares utilized are vulnerable for any organization and half that are not vulnerable last year may become vulnerable this year. A Billion Dollar Question may come up to every CEO/CTO/CISO mind about creating a Security framework for their business that safeguards and monitors the Network/User/Application activities where each and every application, employee, confidential data and business infrastructure are very well-coupled, interconnected and integrated with each other. The answer is IBM's ISS. ISS created a security framework when implemented takes care of every aspect from people to endpoints, which helps an enterprise's business flourish. Products such as Enterprise Scanner, Network Intrusion Prevention System and QRadar provides a Security Intelligence approach which does preemptive protection to ensure the availability of your revenue-producing services and to protect your corporate data by identifying where risk exists, prioritizing and assigning protection activities and reporting on results. So overall, it provides Risk, Log and Event Analytics essential for an enterprise that helps in reducing the surface window for any attack to happen. For organizations that prefer to manage security operations in-house, IBM offers vulnerability management scanners that conduct automated and continuous scanning to identify potentially damaging vulnerabilities in your network infrastructure.Vulnerabilities evolve and will continue to evolve as long as the old legacy applications having security loopholes have not been taken care and people creating new software applications doesn't have awareness on securing coding practices. Vulnerability management is an on-going process that protects your valuable data, customer information, critical network assets and intellectual property. Scanners from IBM are designed to identify vulnerabilities quickly and accurately, as well as provide remediation steps and blocking techniques. IBM vulnerability management solutions track and communicate risk reduction efforts from initial identification through remediation. Vulnerability management is a key component of an effective information security strategy, which provides comprehensive, preemptive protection against threats to your enterprise security In today's scenario, Effective Vulnerability Management is a cyclic practice for any Enterprise to identify, classify, remediate and mitigate vulnerabilities. Enterprise Scanner manages both known (vulnerabilities reported by security community already fixed by relevant vendors) and unknown (Zero-Day) vulnerabilities. The IBM X-Force research and development team designed the IBM Common Assessment Module (CAM) and provides the content updates that maintain Ahead of the threat protection along with following features: 2. Asset classification - Hierarchical group structure that mirrors your organizational structure, providing context for both scanning and reporting. 3. Vulnerability assessment - Discovery-based assessment, Scripted assessment, Allows for new content without updating product binaries, Provides smaller content updates (IBM X-Press Update product enhancements) powered by X-Force, Supports faster time to market with security content, Automated security intelligence updates on the newest electronic threats. 4. Attack emulation – Performs specific tests in a non-impacting manner (posing no danger to your network) to analyze the effects of a real attack. Renowned vulnerability database by the ISS X-Force Research and Development team recognizes vulnerabilities and programmatic errors that could compromise an asset. Automatically detects new vulnerabilities based on X-Force expert recommendations. 5. Scan windows - Automated scanning during open scan windows, Auto-pause/auto-resume—automatic scan suspension upon closure of scan windows; resumes when the scan window reopens. Configurable refresh period refreshes data automatically during open scan window, helping to ensure up-to-date vulnerability information, Emergency scans—providing quick results such as adhoc scans of your network on request. 6. Reporting - Reports that illustrate information in the context of your organization such as Group and report on risk in applicable business context, by geography, network layout, business system or any other useful grouping of assets, Flexible event analysis, Enterprise-level multiscan and provides multiscanner reports, Preconfigured report templates, Exportable reports to PDF, CSV, HTML formats. 7. Easy-to-install, configure and manage - Integrated with SiteProtector (centralized command, reporting and analysis for ES and IPS) management system designed to unify the protection of network, server and desktop assets. ES also has its own Local Management Interface with Proventia Manager. Organizations need to stay ahead of the latest threats and keep business critical applications secure. In today’s environment, companies are required to do more with fewer resources all while maintaining a secure environment. Organizations need improved protection against issues facing businesses today. Proventia Network IPS helps stop malicious Internet attacks before they impact your organization, the only effective way to preserve network availability, reduce the burden on your IT resources and prevent security breaches. Deployed in-line on your network, Proventia Network IPS helps stop threats before they impact your business and delivers easy-to-use data security and Web application protection policies to help businesses prevent data loss and attacks targeting Web applications. Core Capabilities of IPS are: 2. Client side application protection—Protects end users againstattacks targeting applications used everyday such as MicrosoftOffice files, AdobePDF files, multimedia files and web browsers. 3. Advanced network protection—Advanced intrusion prevention including DNS protection 4. Data security—Monitoring and identification of unencrypted personally identifiable information (PII) and other confidentialdata. 5. Web application security—Protection for web apps, Web 2.0 and databases (same protection as web application firewall). 6. Application control—Reclaim bandwidth and block peer-to-peer networks and tunneling.	<urn:uuid:0994354b-0180-4798-b12d-7d5207225d5c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/mydeveloperworks/blogs/48a78681-82cc-434f-9c78-3e9117bfd466/tags/ips?lang=en_us	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.925257	1,768	3.015625	3
Tell me, professor, what is big data? A whole different dimension, says data scientist Mark Whitehorn Big Data may be misunderstood and overhyped - but the promise of data growth enabling a goldmine of insight is compelling. Professor Mark Whitehorn, the eminent data scientist, author and occasional Register columnist, explains what big data is and why it is important. Sometimes life is generous and hands you an unexpected gift on a plate. Our esteemed editor asked me to write about how big data is misunderstood. On the very day I was writing, the Grauniad reported that the Oxford English Dictionary has just defined big data as “data of a very large size, typically to the extent that its manipulation and management present significant logistical challenges". Nooooo!!!!!!!! No. No. No. Really, no. And I certainly don’t think that defining big data by the three 'V's (velocity, volume and variety) helps to add veracity, validation or value either. So, what is big data? Little and large In the beginning there was data. Data is just data. Data is not large and it is not small It does not live and it does not die It does not offer truth and neither does it lie (with apologies to Michael Moorcock) In other words, data has always existed as both big data and small data (OK, so “small data” is not a real term, but it is useful here as a distinguisher). But an often overlooked fact is that all data is very difficult to handle properly. We have used databases since the 1960s but it wasn’t until 1993 that we even understood transactions properly. I interviewed the late, great, Jim Gray, who said: “I spent decades working on the problem of getting transaction integrity to work at all and on ACID [atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability] properties and how they can be implemented efficiently.” Jim was awarded a Turing Award (the computing equivalent of a Nobel) for this work. The bottom line is that storing, editing and querying data properly is very, very difficult. So we may have always had both big and small data but in the early days we focused on the data that was easiest to manipulate. This turned out to be the data which is simple (atomic) and fits neatly into columns and rows. In other words, we focused on data that fits neatly into tables. This is small data. Another feature of small data is that we typically want to query it by simple sub-setting. Think about a SQL query: SELECT Name, DateOfBirth WHERE Salary > 40,000; The FROM chooses the table, the SELECT subsets the columns and the WHERE subsets the rows. SQL is exceptionally good at sub-setting and wildly incompetent at comparing sequential rows. This is because SQL is for set manipulation and sets are by definition unordered; there is no concept of sequential rows in a table. Leave the table So, for the past 40 years we have focused on the easy stuff – tabular data that can be manipulated by sub-setting. In other words, we have focused on small data. One characteristic of big data is that it does not fit easily into tables – good examples are image and audio files. Another is that we don’t want to query it by sub-setting; the queries are more complex than that. Some data has both of these characteristics, some just one. As an example of the former, image files can be broken down into individual pixels and each one stored as a row in a table, but you probably don’t want to do that. Even if you did, a query looking for all the pictures that contain a vintage Bentley is not simply sub-setting by rows and columns. As an example of the latter, sensor data can be tabularised quite easily (although you will end up with a very narrow, mind-bogglingly deep table), but the queries we run against this kind of data are typically looking for patterns formed by the consideration of sequential rows rather than sub-setting. So SQL is not the query language of choice here. OK, so big data doesn’t fit well into tables and we need to be able to run queries that are more complex than sub-setting. Why is big data worth pursuing? At this point I usually start to describe social data analysis or scanning aerial photographs for hidden aeroplanes (both excellent examples). But I also love machinery and am very taken with the melding of big data and combine harvesters. So we will look at that.	<urn:uuid:457d60b9-acda-4990-8c69-40f4b9ec834a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/08/12/big_data_for_big_problems_analysis/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953387	965	2.5625	3
An interview with Susan J. Gilman Susan Gilman introduces her book The Ice Cream Queen of Orchard Street and provides fun facts on the history of ice cream Ever since 1984 when President Ronald Reagan designated July National Ice Cream Month, the delicious treat has had a secure place in the American cultural calendar. But few people know how closely tied the history of ice cream is to the major events of the 20th Century. Here are some fascinating facts about ice cream from Susan Jane Gilman, author of The Ice Cream Queen of Orchard Street - No less than five different people claimed to have invented the ice cream cone at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis. Four of these claimants were Middle Eastern immigrants. One of them, Abe Doumar, called his invention "Syrian ice cream sandwiches." Using a waffle iron, he developed a cone machine after the fair, which he later donated to the Smithsonian Institution. - When the U.S. entered World War One, the U.S. government banned the manufacturing of sherbet and ices because of sugar shortages. However, the U.S. Food Administration classified ice cream as an "essential" health food so that it could still be produced during the war. This was the first time corn syrup, dried egg yolks, gums, and "alternative ingredients" were used on a massive scale in ice cream production. - The Temperance Movement proved to be an enormous boon for the American Ice Cream industry. Ice cream parlors sprang up as an alternative to saloons. In 1906, there were reportedly 7,000 soda fountains in New York City, one for every 535 people. Once Prohibition passed, this trend skyrocketed. What were tavern-owners to do with their now-illegal barrooms and beer halls? They converted them into ice cream parlors. In 1920, one Brooklyn brewery even began selling ice cream in place of beer at Coney Island to make up for its lost revenue. By 1929, 60% of the nation's drugstores had installed soda fountains. - Perhaps unsurprisingly, the Great Depression and the repeal of Prohibition in the 1930's were devastating for the ice cream industry. It even gave rise to "ice cream bootleggers," who produced a cheap, terrible product pumped full of air that did not adhere to the government's minimum manufacturing requirements and sold it under-the-table to ice cream outlets for less than the popular, mainstream brands. - To try to recoup their losses after the repeal of Prohibition, some ice cream manufacturers tried adding liquor to their ice cream. Others claimed that ice cream was a "protective food" that would help people fend off the common cold in winter. Still others urged eating ice cream for breakfast. After all, their advertising copy suggested, "It IS cream " One businessman, J. O. Dahl, suggested "Reducing Diet Sundaes," made with fresh fruits and only a dollop of ice cream, to attract people trying to lose weight. - In World War Two, the United States government became the largest ice cream maker in history, producing 800 million gallons a year. Most other countries could no longer produce ice cream, due to shortages of milk, sugar, and infrastructure. (Mussolini, meanwhile, banned ice cream in Italy outright; see below). But the U.S. military deemed ice cream "an essential item for troop morale" and so it dedicated all available resources to manufacturing ice cream on a grand scale for the military. - In 1945 the U.S. Navy commissioned two "Ice Cream Barges" dubbed "the world's first floating ice cream parlors." The ships' sole responsibility was to produce ice cream for the U.S. military. Their machines and crews pumped out almost 1,500 gallons every hour. The concrete hulled vessels (which cost over $1.1 million apiece) had no engine; they had to be towed across the Pacific by tugs and other ships. One was stationed at a secret naval base called Ulithi, approximately 1,300 miles south of Tokyo, a tiny atoll in the southern Pacific. For the duration of the war, this barge churned out up to 15,000 gallons of ice cream a day for distribution to troops across the Pacific theatre. - Even though Italy is thought to be the home of modern-day ice cream, during World War Two, Benito Mussolini declared that ice cream was "too American" and banned the sale of ice cream throughout Italy, accusing the Italian people of being a "mediocre race of good-for-nothings only capable of singing and eating ice cream." - When rationing was lifted after the war, Americans began consuming ice cream in record amounts 20 quarts per person in 1946 alone. Today, the amount is even higher, though only slightly. Americans now consumer about 22 quarts per person per year. - In the late 1940s, before there was a polio vaccine, public health experts in America noted that polio cases increased in the hot months of summer. Since people naturally ate more ice cream and soft drinks in hot months, scientists jumped to the conclusion that sugar and particularly ice cream caused polio. Eliminating sweets was recommended as part of an anti-polio diet. For several years, ice cream was erroneously believed to cause polio. - The first ice cream to be certified kosher was Carvel Ice Cream, founded by Thomas Carvelas, a Greek Orthodox immigrant. - Baskin-Robbins originally conceived of their famous "31 Flavors" so that they could offer a different flavor for every day of the month. - Häagen-Dazs was founded by Reuben and Rose Mattus, two first-generation American Jews living in the Bronx. Reuben Mattus invented the name "Häagen-Dazs," which is nonsensical, because he wanted something Danish-sounding to honor the Danes for defending their Jews during World War Two. - Only New Zealanders consume more ice cream than Americans 27 quarts per person, per year. Unless otherwise stated, this interview was conducted at the time the book was first published, and is reproduced with permission of the publisher. This interview may not be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the copyright holder. - "Beyond the Book" backstories - Free books to read and review (US only) - Find books by time period, setting & theme - Read-alike suggestions by book and author - Book club discussions - and much more! - Just $10 for 3 months or $35 for a year - More about membership!	<urn:uuid:4069139f-7a8a-4639-b838-57052eea2f48>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.bookbrowse.com/author_interviews/full/index.cfm?author_number=2479	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963726	1,370	2.9375	3
WASHINGTON (AP) — Heat-trapping gases from U.S. power plants fell 4.6 percent in 2011 from the previous year as plants burned less coal, the biggest source of greenhouse gas pollution, according to a new government report. The report, released Tuesday by the Environmental Protection Agency, said power plants remain the largest stationary source of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that trigger global warming. Power plants were responsible for 2.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2011. The reduction from 2010 reflects a relative decline in the use of coal, the dominant U.S. energy source, and an increase in natural gas and renewable sources that produce lower amounts of greenhouse gases, the report said. Power plants produced roughly two-thirds of greenhouse gas emissions from stationary sources, the EPA said, with petroleum and natural gas systems a distant second and refineries the third-largest carbon pollution source. The annual report was the second produced by the EPA as it tracks global warming pollution by industry type and individual facility. The data include more than 8,000 facilities in nine industrial sectors that produced more than 3.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. The report shows that greenhouse gas pollution is concentrated at large power plants, petroleum refineries and chemical plants. Just 4 percent of the sites analyzed were responsible for 57 percent of the reported pollution in 2011. Peter Zalzal, an attorney for the Environmental Defense Fund, called the EPA report "a call to action for America to work together" to find innovative solutions to address carbon pollution from power plants and methane from oil and gas production. Follow Matthew Daly on Twitter: https://twitter.com/MatthewDalyWDC	<urn:uuid:b098e018-8332-49ab-bdf8-ef5242d62fc9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.chem.info/news/2013/02/carbon-pollution-power-plants-falls?cmpid=related_content	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940669	343	3.4375	3
We often talk about the benefits of house plants for indoor air quality. If you're a pet owner, you might not know that some of the most common plants can be harmful (and even fatal) to Fluffy or Fido. To avoid unexpected vet visits, I've compiled a list of some of the most common toxic plants for cats and dogs. I was shocked reading this list because I have many of these plants either indoors or out and have not personally encountered any problems. But in the interest of safety, I wanted to share the information with you so you can take your own pet's habits into consideration and judge for yourself. The following plants are toxic to both cats and dogs (unless otherwise noted) along with clinical signs of poisoning: • Aloe Vera: Vomiting, depression, diarrhea, anorexia, tremors, change in urine color. • Asian Lily: Vomiting, inappetence, lethargy, kidney failure, and death is possible. Cats are only species known to be affected (toxic to cats only). • Asparagus Fern: allergic dermatitis with repeated dermal exposure. Berry ingestion could result in gastric upset (vomiting, abdominal pain, or diarrhea.) • Begonia: Oral irritation, intense burning and irritation of mouth, tongue and lips, excessive drooling, vomiting, difficulty swallowing. Tubers are the most toxic. • Baby's Breath: Vomiting, diarrhea • Calla Lily: Oral irritation, intense burning and irritation of mouth, tongue and lips, excessive drooling, vomiting, difficulty swallowing. • Corn Plant: Vomiting (occasionally with blood), depression, anorexia, hypersalivation, dilated pupils (cats). • Cycads (Sago Palm, Fern Palm): Vomiting (may be bloody), dark stools, jaundice, increased thirst, bloody diarrhea, bruising, liver failure, death. 1-2 seeds can be fatal. • Daffodil: Vomiting, salvation, diarrhea; large ingestions cause convulsions, low blood pressure, tremors and cardiac arrhythmias. Bulbs are the most poisonous part. • Geranium: Vomiting, anorexia, depression, dermatitis. • Jade Plant: Vomiting, depression, ataxia, slow heart rate (rare.) • Pencil Cactus: Irritating to the mouth and stomach, sometimes causing vomiting, but generally over-rated in toxicity. • Ribbon Plant (Corn Plant, Cornstalk Plant, Dracaena, Dragon Tree): Vomiting (occasionally with blood), depression, anorexia, hypersalivation, dilated pupils (cats). • Tulip: Vomiting, depression, diarrhea, hypersalivation. Highest concentration of toxin in bulb. The above is not meant to be a comprehensive list, but plants I've encountered pretty often without knowing their toxicity. For a full listing of toxic plants for pets, please see ASPCA's searchable database.	<urn:uuid:96b434ae-a9e5-42e1-beb3-f88de211c785>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.apartmenttherapy.com/houseplants-that-are-toxic-to-137741	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.876338	632	2.578125	3
Many of us do not realize the vast amount of energy we are wasting in our household every day because we simply don’t give it much thought. Not only does energy go to waste, so does money. The more energy that is being consumed, the more it will cost us. So what exactly are we doing wrong? Leaving on the Lights This is a common mistake people make. There is no need to leave the light on if you are not in the room. Let’s not forget about the lights outside either. Once the sun comes up, it’s easy to forget that the lights are on and so they never are turned off, resulting in a waste of energy and money. A simple solution to this problem, other than remembering to turn off the lights, is to install more energy efficient light bulbs such as LED lights. Or you might even consider hiring an electrician to install motion sensor lights. Leaving on the TV Compared to lights, TVs are easier to remember to turn off because they emit sound, but many people still leave multiple TVs on without reason. Depending on the TV, your TV could be using 250 watts, which can drain your wallet in no time if you leave it on throughout the entire day. By connecting your TV to a power strip, you avoid wasting energy and money by simply turning off the power strip and eliminating vampire power. You can read more about Vampire Power in our blog. Using Space Heaters It is a common belief that space heaters are a more cost effective option when heating your home. Not only is this false but space heaters are dangerous and can pose a threat of fire, death, and injury in your home. Read more about the dangers of space heaters in our blog. If you are looking to save on your energy bill this winter while staying warm, WarmlyYours LAVA® radiant panels are the perfect choice! The LAVA® radiant panels are proven to reduce your annual heating expenses by an average of 12%, and they are environmentally friendly, while also ideal for allergy sufferers. It’s easy to understand why people make these mistakes. Most of the time, it doesn’t occur to us that these small actions are wasting large amounts of energy and costing us money. You may need to install new equipment in order to save energy, but don’t forget having a more energy efficient household will save you money in the long run. And couldn’t we all use a little more savings?	<urn:uuid:83c02e8c-4611-4795-bfa8-ae4a9315abd6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.warmlyyours.com/en-CA/posts/lava-panels--Electrical-Mistakes-that-Will-Cost-You--604	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955977	512	2.515625	3
Giving birth to a premature or other high-risk baby (or babies) does not mean you cannot breastfeed. Actually, the opposite may be the case. There is even more reason to provide your own milk for, and eventually breastfeed, a premature or a sick newborn. Providing your milk for your baby lets you participate in your baby's healthcare in a very crucial way. Because the benefits of mother's milk are so important to the high-risk newborn, you are able to do something for your baby that no one else can. Many neonatologists and NICU staff members now encourage mothers to provide their own milk for high-risk babies, even if those mothers do not intend to breastfeed later. As the mother of a high-risk newborn, you may have to overcome difficulties that a mother and full-term, healthy baby are unlikely to run into when learning to breastfeed. However, you and your baby will learn to breastfeed. It simply may take a bit more patience and persistence. How soon you and your baby can begin to breastfeed will depend on the maturity of your baby's brain and body systems. Although a baby's gestational age influences the development of stable body systems and the development of the reflexes needed for oral feedings, a baby's physical condition may also affect when direct breastfeeding can begin. Until your baby is able to breastfeed, you can express your milk (remove milk from your breasts) to establish and maintain breast milk production. Milk expression also allows your high-risk baby to get the benefits of your milk as soon as his/her gastrointestinal tract is ready to handle gavage (tube) or oral (by mouth) feedings. Plan to continue to express your milk until you know your baby is able to get all needed nourishment directly from your breasts. Click here to view the Online Resources of High-Risk Newborn	<urn:uuid:ca40f3d3-8a99-4d08-b1ae-2b2e0d37ebe3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nyhq.org/diw/Content.asp?PageID=DIW009520	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950855	384	2.859375	3
If you have mature stone fruit trees (that is plums, apricots, peaches and cherries), early summer is the ideal time to consider pruning them. They do not require radical pruning, just take off any diseased, dying and damaged branches, always known as the three Ds, and then look at the overall shape. Aim for an open structure of branches and remove any that cross over so they don't damage each other. Pruning them now (rather than in winter) lessens the chances of spreading silver disease. Overgrown plum trees can be rejuvenated in stages over several years. Lop one or two branches a year, making sure that the cuts are not in the crown of the tree. Lots of new growth will appear. Select two or three of the strongest stems and thin out the others. Remove mummified fruits as soon as you notice them to prevent fungal disease. Top-dress all fruit trees with a slow-release fertiliser such as blood fish and bone: it's best applied after rain as it can blow about in dry conditions. Summer rain should carry the food down to the roots and improve the crop. Thin out apples and pears after the June drop (if possible) to increase each fruit's size. There have been exciting new developments in fruit breeding, including cold-tolerant varieties of apricot such as 'Flavourcot' and 'Tomcot'. Containerised trees can be planted now, but do buy them from a specialist supplier. Reads Nursery (01508 548395) Blackmoor Nursery (01420 473576)	<urn:uuid:4f0aaf57-afbc-4a10-a9ee-eeb0e514adb4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/howtogrow/7803102/How-to-prune-stone-fruit-trees.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953116	342	2.828125	3
Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato Michael Fowler, UVa Physics, 7/23/2015 you may have to reload for All to work The first recorded important contributions to Greek science are from the city of Miletus, near the coast of what is now Turkey, beginning with Thales in about 585 B.C., followed by Anaximander about 555 B.C., then Anaximenes in 535 B.C. We shall argue below that these Milesians were the first to do real science, immediately recognizable as such to a modern scientist, as opposed to developing new technologies. The crucial contribution of Thales to scientific thought was the discovery of nature. By this, we mean the idea that the natural phenomena we see around us are explicable in terms of matter interacting by natural laws, and are not the results of arbitrary acts by gods. An example is Thales' theory of earthquakes, which was that the (presumed flat) earth is actually floating on a vast ocean, and disturbances in that ocean occasionally cause the earth to shake or even crack, just as they would a large boat. (Recall the Greeks were a seafaring nation.) The common Greek belief at the time was that the earthquakes were caused by the anger of Poseidon, god of the sea. Lightning was similarly the anger of Zeus. Later, Anaximander suggested lightning was caused by clouds being split up by the wind, which in fact is not far from the truth. The main point here is that the gods are just not mentioned in analyzing these phenomena. The Milesians' view is that nature is a dynamic entity evolving in accordance with some admittedly not fully understood laws, but not being micromanaged by a bunch of gods using it to vent their anger or whatever on hapless humanity. An essential part of the Milesians' success in developing a picture of nature was that they engaged in open, rational, critical debate about each others ideas. It was tacitly assumed that all the theories and explanations were directly competitive with one another, and all should be open to public scrutiny, so that they could be debated and judged. This is still the way scientists work. Each contribution, even that of an Einstein, depends heavily on what has gone before. The theories of the Milesians fall into two groups: (1) theories regarding particular phenomena or problems, of the type discussed above, (2) speculations about the nature of the universe, and human life. Concerning the universe, Anaximander suggested that the earth was a cylinder, and the sun, moon and stars were located on concentric rotating cylinders: the first recorded attempt at a mechanical model. He further postulated that the stars themselves were rings of fire. Again, a very bold conjecture--all heavenly bodies had previously been regarded as living gods. He also considered the problem of the origin of life, which is of course more difficult to explain if you don't believe in gods! He suggested that the lower forms of life might be generated by the action of sunlight on moist earth. He also realized that a human baby is not self-sufficient for quite a long time, so postulated that the first humans were born from a certain type of fish. All three of these Milesians struggled with the puzzle of the origin of the universe, what was here at the beginning, and what things are made of. Thales suggested that in the beginning there was only water, so somehow everything was made of it. Anaximander supposed that initially there was a boundless chaos, and the universe grew from this as from a seed. Anaximenes had a more sophisticated approach, to modern eyes. His suggestion was that originally there was only air (really meaning a gas) and the liquids and solids we see around us were formed by condensation. Notice that this means a simple initial state develops into our world using physical processes which were already familiar. Of course this leaves a lot to explain, but it's quite similar to the modern view. One of the most important contributions of the Greeks was their development of geometry, culminating in Euclid's Elements, a giant textbook containing all the known geometric theorems at that time (about 300 BC), presented in an elegant logical fashion. Notice first that the word "geometry" is made up of "geo", meaning the earth, and "metry" meaning measurement of, in Greek. (The same literal translations from the Greek give geography as picturing the earth (as in graphic) and geology as knowledge about the earth. Of course, the precise meanings of all these words have changed somewhat since they were first introduced.) The first account we have of the beginnings of geometry is from the Greek historian Herodotus, writing (in 440 B.C. or so) about the Egyptian king Sesotris (1300 B.C.): "This king moreover (so they said) divided the country among all the Egyptians by giving each an equal square parcel of land, and made this the source of his revenue, appointing the payment of a yearly tax. And any man who was robbed by the river of a part of his land would come to Sesotris and declare what had befallen him; then the king would send men to look into it and measure the space by which the land was diminished, so that thereafter it should pay the appointed tax in proportion to the loss. From this, to my thinking, the Greeks learnt the art of measuring land..." On the other hand Aristotle, writing a century later, had a more academic, and perhaps less plausible, theory of the rise of geometry: "..the sciences which do not aim at giving pleasure or at the necessities of life were discovered, and first in the places where men first began to have leisure. That is why the mathematical arts were founded in Egypt, for there the priestly class was allowed to be at leisure." However, as Thomas Heath points out in A History of Greek Mathematics, (page 122) one might imagine that if this (that is, Aristotle's theory) were true, Egyptian geometry "would have advanced beyond the purely practical stage to something more like a theory or science of geometry. But the documents which have survived do not give any grounds for this supposition; the art of geometry in the hands of the priests never seems to have advanced beyond mere routine. The most important available source of information about Egyptian mathematics is the Papyrus Rhind written probably about 1700 BC, but copied from an original of the time of King Amenemhat III (Twelfth Dynasty), say 2200 BC." Heath goes on to give details of what appears in this document: areas of rectangles, trapezia and triangles, areas of circles given as (8d/9)2, where d is the diameter, corresponding to pi equal to 3.16 or so, about 1% off. There are approximate volume measures for hemispherical containers, and volumes for pyramids. Another important Egyptian source is the Moscow Papyrus, which includes the very practical problem of calculating the volume of a pyramid! (Actually with a flat top: look at the figure, from Wikipedia.) A brief overview of the early history of geometry, up to Euclid, has been written by the Greek author Proclus. He asserts that geometry was first brought to Greece by Thales, after he spent some years in Egypt. The Pythagoreans: a Cult with a Theorem, and an Irrational Discovery Pythagoras was born about 570 B.C. on the island of Samos (on the map above), less than a hundred miles from Miletus, and was thus a contemporary of Anaximenes. However, the island of Samos was ruled by a tyrant named Polycrates, and to escape an unpleasant regime, Pythagoras moved to Croton, a Greek town in southern Italy (at 39 05N, 17 7 30E), about 530 B.C. Pythagoras founded what we would nowadays call a cult, a religious group with strict rules about behavior, including diet (no beans), and a belief in the immortality of the soul and reincarnation in different creatures. This of course contrasts with the Milesians' approach to life. The Pythagoreans believed strongly that numbers, by which they meant the positive integers 1,2,3, and so on, had a fundamental, mystical significance. The numbers were a kind of eternal truth, perceived by the soul, and not subject to the uncertainties of perception by the ordinary senses. In fact, they thought that the numbers had a physical existence, and that the universe was somehow constructed from them. In support of this, they pointed out that different musical notes differing by an octave or a fifth, could be produced by pipes (like a flute), whose lengths were in the ratios of whole numbers, 1:2 and 2:3 respectively. Note that this is an experimental verification of an hypothesis. They felt that the motion of the heavenly bodies must somehow be a perfect harmony, giving out a music we could not hear since it had been with us since birth. Interestingly, they did not consider the earth to be at rest at the center of the universe. They thought it was round, and orbited about a central point daily, to account for the motion of the stars. Much was wrong with their picture of the universe, but it was not geocentric, for religious reasons. They felt the earth was not noble enough to be the center of everything, where they supposed there was a central fire. (Actually there is some debate about precisely what their picture was, but there is no doubt they saw the earth as round, and accounted for the stars' motion by the earth's rotation.) To return to their preoccupation with numbers, they coined the term "square" number, for 4,9, etc., drawing square patterns of evenly spaced dots to illustrate this idea. The first square number, 4, they equated with justice. 5 represented marriage, of man (3) and woman (2). 7 was a mystical number. Later Greeks, like Aristotle, made fun of all this. The Square on the Hypotenuse Pythagoras is of course most famous for the theorem about right angled triangles, that the sum of the squares of the two sides enclosing the right angle is equal to the square of the long side, called the hypotenuse . This is easily proved by drawing two diagrams, one having four copies of the triangle arranged so that their hypotenuses form a square, and their right angles are all pointing outward, forming a larger overall square, in the other this larger square is divided differently - the four triangles are formed into two rectangles, set into corners of the square, leaving over two other square areas which are seen to be the squares on the other two sides. You can prove it yourself--using your fingers--by clicking here! Actually, it seems very probable that this result was known to the Babylonians a thousand years earlier (see the discussion in the lecture on Babylon), and to the Egyptians, who, for example, used lengths of rope 3, 4 and 5 units long to set up a large right-angle for building and surveying purposes. Rational and Irrational Numbers As we discussed above, the Pythagoreans greatly revered the integers, the whole numbers 1, 2, 3,..., and felt that somehow they were the key to the universe. One property of the integers we'll need is the distinction between prime numbers and the rest: prime numbers have no divisors. So, no even number is prime, because all even numbers divide exactly by 2. You can map out the primes by writing down all the integers, say up to 100, cross out all those divisible by 2 (not counting 2 itself), then cross out those divisible by 3, then 5, etc. The numbers surviving this process have no divisors, they are the primes: 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37... . Now, any integer can be written as a product of primes: just divide it systematically first by 2, then if it divides, by 2 again, until you get something that doesn't divide by 2 (and give a whole number). Then redo the process with 3, then 5, until you're done. You can then write, for example, 12 = 2x2x3, 70 = 2x5x7 and so on. Notice now that if you express a number as a product of its prime factors in this way, then the square of that number is the product of the same factors, but each factor appears twice as often: (70)2 = 2x2x5x5x7x7. And, in particular, note that the square of an even number has 2 appearing at least twice in its list of factors, but the square of an odd number must still be odd: if 2 wasn't on the list of factors of the number, then it won't be on the list for its square, since this is the same list with the factors just appearing twice as often. Of course, from the earliest times, from Babylon and Egypt, people had been dealing with numbers that were not whole numbers---fractions, for example, or numbers which were integers plus fractions, such as one-and-a-half . This didn't bother the Pythagoreans too much, because after all fractions are simply ratios of two whole numbers, so they fit nicely into a slightly extended scheme. Let's think about all possible numbers between one and ten, say, including all those with fractional parts, such as 3/2 or 4567/891, to choose a number at random. Suppose we take a piece of paper, mark on it points for the whole numbers 1, 2, 3,...,10. Then we put marks for the halves, then the quarters and three quarters. Next we put marks at the thirds, 4/3, 5/3, 7/3, up to 29/3. Then we do the fifths, then the sevenths,... Then we buy a supercomputer with a great graphics program to put in the higher fractions one after the other at lightning speed! The question is: is this list of fractions all the numbers there are between one and ten? In other words, can we prove that there's a number you could never ever reach by this method, no matter how fast your computer? Two thousand five hundred years ago, the Pythagoreans figured out the answer to this question. The answer is yes: there are numbers which are not fractions--that is, they cannot be expressed as ratios of integers. This discovery greatly upset the Pythagoreans, since they revered the integers as the mystical foundation of the universe, and now apparently they were not even sufficient foundation for the numbers. Ironically, this unnerving discovery followed from applying their very own theorem--Pythagoras' theorem--to the simplest possible right-angled triangle: half a square, a triangle with its two shorter sides both equal to one. This means its long side-the hypotenuse--has a length whose square is two. We shall now go through their argument showing that the length of this longest side cannot be written as a ratio of two integers, no matter how large you choose the integers to be. The basic strategy of the proof is to assume it can be written as a ratio of integers, then prove this leads to a contradiction. So, we assume we can write this number--the length of the longest side--as a ratio of two whole numbers, in other words a fraction m/n . This is the length whose square is 2, so m2/n2 = 2, from which m2 = 2n2. Now all we have to do is to find two whole numbers such that the square of one is exactly twice the square of the other. How difficult can this be? To get some idea, let's write down the squares of some numbers and look: 12 = 1, 22 = 4, 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25, 62 = 36, 72 = 49, 82 = 64, 92 = 81, 102 = 100, 112 = 121, 122 = 144, 132 = 169, 142 = 196, 152 = 225, 162 = 256, 172 = 289, ... . On perusing this table, you will see we have some near misses: 32 is only one more than twice 22, 72 is only one less than twice 52, and 172 is only one more than twice 122. It's difficult to believe that if we keep at it, we're not going to find a direct hit eventually. In fact, though, it turns out this never happens, and that's what the Pythagoreans proved. Here's how they did it. First, assume we canceled any common factors between numerator and denominator. This means that m and n can't both be even. Next, notice that the square of an even number is even . This is easy to check: if a is an even number, it can be written a = 2b, where b is another whole number. Therefore, a2 = 2x2xb2, so on fact a2 is not only even, it has 4 as a factor. On the other hand, the square of an odd number is always odd. If a number doesn't have 2 as a factor, multiplying it by itself won't give a number that has 2 as a factor. Now, back to the length of the square's diagonal, m/n, with m2 = 2n2. Evidently, m2 must be even, because it equals 2n2, which has a factor 2. Therefore, from what we have just said above about squares of even and odd numbers, m must itself be even. This means, though, that m2 must be divisible by 4. This means that 2n2 must be divisible by 4, since m2 = 2n2 -- but in this case, n2 must be divisible by 2! It follows that n must itself be even--BUT we stated at the beginning that we had canceled any common factors between m and n. This would include any factor of 2, so they can't both be even! Thus a watertight logical argument has led to a contradiction. The only possible conclusion is: the original assumption is incorrect. This means that the diagonal length of a square of side 1 cannot be written as the ratio of two integers, no matter how large we are willing to let them be. This was the first example of an irrational number--one that is not a ratio of integers. Legend has it that the Pythagoreans who made this discovery public died in a shipwreck. What's so Important about Irrational Numbers? The historical significance of the above proof is that it establishes something new in mathematics, which couldn't have been guessed, and, in fact, something the discoverers didn't want to be true. Although fractions very close to the square root of 2 had been found by the Babylonians and Egyptians, there is no hint that they considered the possibility that no fraction would ever be found representing the square root of 2 exactly. The kind of abstract argument here is far removed from practical considerations where geometry is used for measurement. In fact, it is irrelevant to measurement - one can easily find approximations better than any possible measuring apparatus. The reason the Pythagoreans worked on this problem is because they thought they were investigating the fundamental structure of the universe. Abstract arguments of this type, and the beautiful geometric arguments the Greeks constructed during this period and slightly later, seemed at the time to be merely mental games, valuable for developing the mind, as Plato emphasized. In fact, these arguments have turned out, rather surprisingly, to be on the right track to modern science, as we shall see. Change and Constancy in the Physical World Over the next century or so, 500 B.C.- 400 B.C., the main preoccupation of philosophers in the Greek world was that when we look around us, we see things changing all the time. How is this to be reconciled with the feeling that the universe must have some constant, eternal qualities? Heraclitus, from Ephesus, claimed that "everything flows", and even objects which appeared static had some inner tension or dynamism. Parminedes, an Italian Greek, came to the opposite conclusion, that nothing ever changes, and apparent change is just an illusion, a result of our poor perception of the world. This may not sound like a very promising debate, but in fact it is, because, as we shall see, trying to analyze what is changing and what isn't in the physical world leads to the ideas of elements, atoms and conservation laws, like the conservation of matter. The first physicist to give a clear formulation of a possible resolution of the problem of change was Empedocles around 450 B.C., who stated that everything was made up of four elements: earth, water, air and fire. He asserted that the elements themselves were eternal and unchanging. Different substances were made up of the elements in different proportions, just as all colors can be created by mixing three primary colors in appropriate proportions. Forces of attraction and repulsion (referred to as love and strife) between these elements cause coming together and separation, and thus apparent change in substances. Another physicist, Anaxogoras, argued that no natural substance can be more elementary than any other, so there were an infinite number of elements, and everything had a little bit of everything else in it. He was particularly interested in nutrition, and argued that food contained small amounts of hair, teeth, etc., which our bodies are able to extract and use. The most famous and influential of the fifth century B.C. physicists, though, were the atomists, Leucippus of Miletus and Democritus of Abdera. They claimed that the physical world consisted of atoms in constant motion in a void, rebounding or cohering as they collide with each other. Change of all sorts is thus accounted for on a basic level by the atoms separating and recombining to form different materials. The atoms themselves do not change. This sounds amazingly like our modern picture, but of course it was all conjecture, and when they got down to relating the atoms to physical properties, Democritus suggested, for example, that things made of sharp, pointed atoms tasted acidic, those of large round atoms tasted sweet. There was also some confusion between the idea of physical indivisibility and that of mathematical indivisibility, meaning something that only exists at a point. The atoms of Democritus had shapes, but it is not clear if he realized this implied they could, at least conceptually, be divided. This caused real problems later on, especially since at that time there was no experimental backing for an atomic theory, and it was totally rejected by Aristotle and others. Hippocrates and his Followers It is also worth mentioning that at this same time, on the island of Kos (see map) just a few miles from Miletus, lived the first great doctor, Hippocrates. He and his followers adopted the Milesian point of view, applied to disease, that it was not caused by the gods, even epilepsy, which was called the sacred disease, but there was some rational explanation, such as infection, which could perhaps be treated. Here's a quote from one of Hippocrates' followers, writing about epilepsy in about 400 B.C.: "It seems to me that the disease called sacred ... has a natural cause, just as other diseases have. Men think it divine merely because they do not understand it. But if they called everything divine that they did not understand, there would be no end of divine things! ... If you watch these fellows treating the disease, you see them use all kinds of incantations and magic--but they are also very careful in regulating diet. Now if food makes the disease better or worse, how can they say it is the gods who do this? ... It does not really matter whether you call such things divine or not. In Nature, all things are alike in this, in that they can be traced to preceding causes." The Hippocratic doctors criticized the philosophers for being too ready with postulates and hypotheses, and not putting enough effort into careful observation. These doctors insisted on careful, systematic observation in diagnosing disease, and a careful sorting out of what was relevant and what was merely coincidental. Of course, this approach is the right one in all sciences. In the fourth century B.C., Greek intellectual life centered increasingly in Athens, where first Plato and then Aristotle established schools, the Academy and the Lyceum respectively, which were really the first universities, and attracted philosophers and scientists from all over Greece. Actually, this all began somewhat earlier with Socrates, Plato's teacher, who, however, was not a scientist, and so not central to our discussion here. One of Socrates' main concerns was how to get the best people to run the state, and what were the ideal qualities to be looked for in such leaders. He believed in free and open discussion of this and other political questions, and managed to make very clear to everybody that he thought the current leaders of Athens were a poor lot. In fact, he managed to make an enemy of almost everyone in a position of power, and he was eventually brought to trial for corrupting the young with his teachings. He was found guilty, and put to death. This had a profound effect on his pupil Plato, a Greek aristocrat, who had originally intended to involve himself in politics. Instead, he became an academic-in fact, he invented the term! He, too, pondered the question of what is the ideal society, and his famous book The Republic is his suggested answer. He was disillusioned with Athenian democracy after what had happened to Socrates, and impressed with Sparta, an authoritarian state which won a war, the Peloponnesian war, against Athens. Hence his Republic has rather a right wing, antidemocratic flavor. However, he tries to ensure that the very best people in each generation are running the state, and he considers, being a philosopher, that the best possible training for these future leaders is a strong grounding in logic, ethics and dealing with abstract ideas. This is made particularly clear on p 67,8 of Lloyd, where a quote from the Republic is given, in which Socrates is emphasizing how important it is for future leaders to study astronomy. Glaucon agrees that astronomy is useful in navigation, military matters and accurately determining seasons for planting, etc., to which Socrates responds emphatically that these reasons are not nearly as important as the training in abstract reasoning it provides. Plato, then, had a rather abstract view of science, reminiscent of the Pythagoreans. In particular, he felt that the world we apprehend with our senses is less important than the underlying world of pure eternal forms we perceive with our reason or intellect, as opposed to our physical senses. This naturally led him to downgrade the importance of careful observation, for instance in astronomy, and to emphasize the analytical, mathematical approach. Plato believed the universe was created by a rational god, who took chaotic matter and ordered it, but he also believed that because of the inherent properties of the matter itself, his god was not omnipotent, in the sense that there were limits as to how good the universe could be: one of his examples was that smart people have large brains (he thought), but if you make the brain too large by having a very thin skull, they won't last long! He felt this need to compromise was the explanation of the presence of evil in a universe created by a beneficent god. Plato's concentration on perfect underlying forms did in fact lead to a major contribution to astronomy, despite his own lack of interest in observation. He stated that the main problem in astronomy was to account for the observed rather irregular motion of the planets by some combination of perfect motions, that is, circular motions. This turned out to be a very fruitful way of formulating the problem. Plato's theory of matter was based on Empedocles' four elements, fire, air, water and earth. However, he did not stop there. He identified each of these elements with a perfect form, one of the regular solids, fire with the tetrahedron, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron and earth with the cube. He divided each face of these solids into elementary triangles (45 45 90 and 30 60 90) which he regarded as the basic units of matter. He suggested that water could be decomposed into fire and air by the icosahedron breaking down to two octahedra and a tetrahedron . This looks like a kind of atomic or molecular theory, but his strong conviction that all properties of matter could eventually be deduced by pure thought, without resort to experiment, proved counterproductive to the further development of scientific understanding for centuries. It should perhaps be mentioned, though, that the latest theory in elementary particle physics, string theory, known modestly as the theory of everything, also claims that all physical phenomena should be deducible from a very basic mathematical model having in its formulation no adjustable parameters--a perfect form. Lloyd, G. E. R. (1970). Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle, Norton. Heath, Sir Thomas (1921, 1981). A History of Greek Mathematics, Volume I. Dover.	<urn:uuid:fcdf69fe-1d57-4091-8967-2e766f680ad5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/thales.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974984	6,150	3.59375	4
The pipes module defines a class to abstract the concept of a pipeline — a sequence of converters from one file to another. Because the module uses /bin/sh command lines, a POSIX or compatible shell for os.system() and os.popen() is required. The pipes module defines the following class: class class pipes.Template An abstraction of a pipeline. >>> import pipes >>> t=pipes.Template() >>> t.append('tr a-z A-Z', '--') >>> f=t.open('/tmp/1', 'w') >>> f.write('hello world') >>> f.close() >>> open('/tmp/1').read() 'HELLO WORLD' Template objects following methods: Restore a pipeline template to its initial state. Return a new, equivalent, pipeline template. If flag is true, turn debugging on. Otherwise, turn debugging off. When debugging is on, commands to be executed are printed, and the shell is given set -x command to be more verbose. Append a new action at the end. The cmd variable must be a valid bourne shell command. The kind variable consists of two letters. The first letter can be either of '-' (which means the command reads its standard input), 'f' (which means the commands reads a given file on the command line) or '.' (which means the commands reads no input, and hence must be first.) Similarly, the second letter can be either of '-' (which means the command writes to standard output), 'f' (which means the command writes a file on the command line) or '.' (which means the command does not write anything, and hence must be last.) Add a new action at the beginning. See append() for explanations of the arguments. Return a file-like object, open to file, but read from or written to by the pipeline. Note that only one of 'r', 'w' may be given. Copy infile to outfile through the pipe.	<urn:uuid:fe45391c-f6cb-4a5b-ab4a-6d4ac330a3e7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.jython.org/docs/library/pipes.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.750718	429	3.609375	4
Henry KissingerU.S. Secretary of State Born: 27 May 1923 Birthplace: Furth, Germany Best known as: U.S. Secretary of State under Presidents Nixon and Ford Name at birth: Heinz Alfred KissingerHenry Kissinger was an advisor and Secretary of State to President Richard Nixon, and a key player during the Vietnam War. Henry Kissinger came to the United States from Germany in 1938. He served in the Army and was educated at Harvard University, where he then served on the faculty from 1954-71. In the Nixon administration, Kissinger served as the president's National Security Advisor and then Secretary of State. Kissinger was the go-between in the secret negotiations that eventually opened relations between the U.S. and communist China. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1973 for his role in arranging a ceasefire in North Vietnam. In the 1980s and '90s Kissinger continued to write, lecture and appear on TV as a foreign affairs expert, but he also made the news when international human rights groups called him a war criminal for his role in the bombing of Cambodia and for propping up Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet. An elder statesman with international ties to business and politics, he is the chairman of Kissinger Associates in New York, a consulting firm for multinational corporations. In November of 2002 George W. Bush named Kissinger to head a government inquiry into the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001. The next month Kissinger stepped down, citing potential conflicts of interest with his private political consulting firm. Kissinger is supposed to have once said “power is the ultimate aphrodisiac.” Copyright © 1998-2016 by Who2?, LLC. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:de1ccb0b-df22-40ea-91a9-32f337c2e947>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.infoplease.com/biography/var/henrykissinger.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968256	344	2.65625	3
The Ubuntu Linux operating system uses the “fsck” (filesystem check) utility to check and repair any disk errors. The “fsck” utility can only be used on an unmounted drive. This means that the drive is not accessible to the normal user. If you want to repair the main hard drive, you must use the Ubuntu installation CD. The installation CD gives you the option to run a complete operating system from the CD drive, leaving your hard drive unmounted. Ubuntu installation CD Insert the Ubuntu installation CD into your computer’s CD drive. Reboot the computer and choose the “Boot from CD-Rom option.” Choose the “Try Ubuntu without any change to your computer” menu option to boot into the Live CD. Click on the “Applications” menu at the top of the screen. Choose the “Accessories” sub-menu. Choose the “Terminal” option to open a terminal window. Type the command “fdisk -l” to locate the device name for the drive you want to fix. The device name will look like “/dev/sda.” Type the command “sudo fsck -y /dev/sda” to check the filesystem and repair any errors. Replace “/dev/sda” with the device name for the disk you want to check. The “-y” option says to run the command non-interactively. Without this option, the utility will ask for confirmation before repairing any errors it encounters. Repeat the command until no more errors are reported. \|This post was thanked 0 time(s). Thank it ?\|	<urn:uuid:e7742c93-b540-4ab7-b375-bb96a24aadc2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.demludi.com/?p=1645	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.839316	361	2.765625	3
Not-so-secret atomic tests: Why the photographic film industry knew what the American public didn’t posted Tuesday, February 26, 2013 at 6:07 PM EDT It's one of the dark marks of the U.S. Government in the 20th century — a complete willingness to expose unwitting citizens to dangerous substances in the name of scientific advancement. It happened with the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, with the MKUltra mind control project and with the atomic bomb testing of the 1940s and 50s. The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) knew that dangerous levels of fallout were being pumped into the atmosphere, but didn't bother to tell anyone. Well, anyone except the photographic film industry, that is. Photographic film is particularly radiosensitive -- that's the reason why you see dosimeters made from the stuff, as they can be used to detect gamma, X-ray and beta particles. But in 1946, Kodak customers started complaining about film they had bought coming out fogged. Eastman Kodak investigated, and found something mighty peculiar: the corn husks from Indiana they were using as packing materials were contaminated with the radioactive isotope iodine-131 (I-131). Eastman Kodak at the time had some of the best researchers in the country on its team (the company even had its own nuclear reactor in the 1970s), and they discovered something that was not public knowledge: those farms in Indiana had been exposed to fallout from the 1945 Trinity Test in New Mexico -- the world's first atmospheric nuclear bomb explosions which ushered in the atomic age. Kodak kept this exposure silent. Some of the facts in the story are -- like the film in question -- a little hazy. Some claim Kodak's discovery happened in 1946, some in 1945. The Trinity Test was officially July of 1945, but I can believe that by the time corn was exposed to the radiation, picked, the husks converted to packing material and the film packaged and sold, it could well have been 1946. Given that the government initially denied that the Trinity Test was even nuclear, instead calling it an "ammunition explosion," perhaps Kodak's silence is more understandable. But the story doesn't end in 1946, with Kodak keeping a lid on atmospheric nuclear bomb testing by the government. The U.S. continued with atmospheric detonation tests, most famously in the Pacific, but also back on American soil in the 1950s at the Nevada National Security Site. The first test in Nevada was in January of 1951, and days later, as snow blanketed the city of Rochester, N.Y., Kodak detected spiked radiation levels that measured 25 times the norm some 1,600 miles away from the test site. Kodak's response was twofold. It registered a complaint with the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers (NAPM), who contacted the Atomic Energy Commission, and Kodak contacted the AEC directly. According to the NAPM memo, Kodak measured 10,000 counts per minute of radiation, compared to recent unaffected snowfalls that registered only 400. The AEC released a statement to the AP claiming it was "investigating reports that snow that fell in Rochester was measurably radioactive. The reports... indicate that there is no possibility of harm to humans or animals.... All necessary precautions, including radiation surveys and patrolling, are being undertaken to insure that safety conditions are maintained." Kodak's contacting of the AEC essentially lead to the company being brushed off by the commission, so Eastman Kodak did what any company would do: it threatened to sue. And that's when things got really weird. The AEC capitulated, and agreed to give not just Kodak, but also the entire film industry, information about nuclear tests, weather patterns, predicted fallout and more. This was information that no one else was getting, certainly not the general public. To quote current Senator Tom Harkin (D-Iowa) from a Senate hearing held on the subject in 1998: "Kodak complained to the Atomic Energy Commission and that Government agency agreed to give Kodak advanced information on future tests, including 'expected distribution of radioactive material in order to anticipate local contamination.' "In fact, the Government warned the entire photographic industry and provided maps and forecasts of potential contamination. Where, I ask, were the maps for dairy farmers? Where were the warnings to parents of children in these areas? So here we are, Mr. Chairman. The Government protected rolls of film, but not the lives of our kids. There is something wrong with this picture." Senator Harkin's remarks about dairy farms and children reveals the dark side of this story. It's not enough that the AEC was knowingly releasing fallout into American skies, but that one of the side effects they were aware of was that it could enter the food supply, and potentially cause long term health problems. The I-131 would fall on the ground, be eaten by cattle through radioactive feed, and through their milk, be passed on to the public. Your thyroid needs iodine to function, so it builds up stores of iodine from the environment, and high concentrations of I-131 are directly linked to higher risks of radiogenic thyroid cancer -- especially from exposure during childhood. And that's exactly what happened to thousands of American children. It turns out there's a relatively easy way to prevent thyroid cancer after exposure to I-131 -- standard iodine supplements will do. But if you're unaware of the fallout, you wouldn't know to take the countermeasure. The atmospheric tests have been linked to up to 75,000 cases of thyroid cancer in the U.S. alone. To this day, the National Cancer Institute runs a program to help people identify if they were exposed, and between 1951 and 1962, it was an awful lot of people. According to a report by the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (IEER), there was research to indicate the danger of I-131 affecting the populace via the "milk pathway" as early as 1953, and there was fairly strong evidence by 1955. Yet the tests continued with no warnings issued to farmers or the public until the early 60s, while film manufacturers were provided with "maps and forecasts of potential contamination, as well as expected fallout distributions which enabled them to purchase uncontaminated materials and take other protective measures." This report even claims that the AEC knew the milk had high levels of radiation, but refused to divert it away from human consumption, arguing that doing so would lead to malnutrition. It's a bizarre and dark chapter in the history of the United States; one where the government knowingly and wittingly exposed its people to dangerous levels of radiation and fallout. And rather than warn the populace where they thought it would fall, the only outside entities who knew were those making film. After all, you wouldn't want your holiday snaps to turn out all cloudy, would you? [Ed. note: This piece ranges far from our normal digital photography fare, but we found it an interesting historical note on a moment in time when the photo industry, military development and public health all intersected, and on how an earlier era viewed citizens' rights and safety.] More historical photography articles you may be interested in:	<urn:uuid:8c184320-178e-4af9-af22-5765af984306>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.imaging-resource.com/news/2013/02/26/not-so-secret-atomic-bomb-tests-why-the-photographic-film-industry-knew	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.970718	1,476	2.75	3
It’s been two years since a New York Times article declared the “year of the MOOC” —short for “massive open online courses.” Now, for the first time, researchers have carried out a detailed study that shows that these classes really can teach at least as effectively as traditional classroom courses — and they found that this is true regardless of how much preparation and knowledge students start out with. The findings have just been published in the International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, in a paper by David Pritchard, MIT’s Cecil and Ida Green Professor of Physics, along with three other researchers at MIT and one each from Harvard University and China’s Tsinghua University. “It’s an issue that has been very controversial,” Pritchard says. “A number of well-known educators have said there isn’t going to be much learning in MOOCs, or if there is, it will be for people who are already well-educated.” But after thorough before-and-after testing of students taking the MITx physics class 8.MReVx (Mechanics Review) online, and similar testing of those taking the same class in its traditional form, Pritchard and his team found quite the contrary: The study showed that in the MITx course, “the amount learned is somewhat greater than in the traditional lecture-based course,” Pritchard says. Even the least-prepared learn A second, more surprising finding, he says, is that those who were least prepared, as shown by their scores on pretests, “learn as well as everybody else.” That is, the amount of improvement seen “is no different for skillful people in the class” — including experienced physics teachers — “or students who were badly prepared. They all showed the same level of increase,” the study found. Even if a student with a lower initial score still ends the online class with a test score that would represent a failing grade, that person would nevertheless have made substantial gains in understanding, Pritchard says. “This actually is a case where a rising tide lifts all boats,” he says. The study’s basic methodology has been widely used to study the effectiveness of conventional on-campus classes, Pritchard says. At least 65 traditional MIT classes have been studied using the same system of pre- and post-testing of basic concepts, he says, but this is the first time anyone has applied such detailed, systematic testing to the effectiveness of an online class. Pritchard says the results show improvement among online students that is equal to or better than in any of the previously studied traditional classes. In addition to the before-and-after testing, the study also analyzed in detail the homework and weekly test questions from each student, using an established technique called item-response theory, similar to the methodology used to ensure that results from standardized tests such as the SAT are consistent from one year to the next. The method uses a statistical analysis of each item in the test, Pritchard says, and includes a few of the same questions from other tests being compared, to ensure consistency. Both of these methods of analyzing the impact of the online class give consistent results, Pritchard says: “All cohorts learn equally,” he says, whether compared on the basis of level of education, degree of preparation in math and physics, or other measures. The one type of class in which students learned even more effectively than in either online or traditional classes, the study found, was an approach called “interactive engagement pedagogy,” where students interact frequently in small groups to grapple with concepts and questions. Such “constructive engagement” in the classroom is something education reformers have long pushed for, Pritchard says, and is already used in many MIT classes. While a similar analysis could be done for any of the other roughly 1,000 classes currently available as MOOCs, he says, it requires an upfront commitment from course instructors, who must prepare and administer extra tests, and evaluate the scoring of those tests. “It’s a lot of work,” Pritchard says. Pritchard sees the new study as just the start of a process of mining the data that can be gained from these online classes, where every detail of students’ interactions — how long they spend watching lectures, how often they pause or repeat sections, how much of the textbook they read and when, and so on — is recorded and could be used for research aimed at finding what systems work best. “We can study what students do in a way that would otherwise require everyone to wear a headcam all the time,” Pritchard says. Fiona Hollands, a senior researcher at Teachers College of Columbia University who was not involved in this study, says, “In my opinion, this study represents the most rigorous attempt to date to measure learning in a MOOC. This study provides an excellent demonstration of how learning in a MOOC, or in other types of courses, can be rigorously assessed. Applied to a broader population of students and a variety of educational settings, such investigations would provide valuable information about the relative effectiveness of different forms of educational delivery.” In addition to Pritchard, the study was carried out by MIT postdocs Kimberly Colvin and John Champaign and physics undergraduate Alwina Liu; Qian Zhou of Tsinghua University; and Colin Fredericks of Harvard. The research was supported by Google, the National Science Foundation, and MIT.	<urn:uuid:8b4f8d00-7bc5-4509-84f2-ce78d015acb9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://news.mit.edu/2014/study-shows-online-courses-effective-0924	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.965398	1,172	3.140625	3
Entry from British & World English dictionary A place where a machine or its components are assembled: this photo is of the assembly shop for rocket carriers More example sentences - A total of 480 steel sheet and aluminum parts with a thickness ranging from 1 mm to 2.25 mm are welded, bonded and bolted in the body assembly shop. - On the shop floor, I worked fifteen days in the welding shop and fifteen days in the assembly shop. - The biggest change to the plant will be seen in the general assembly shop, which will soon be upgraded with a new floor skillet and overhead conveyor system. For editors and proofreaders Line breaks: as\|sem¦bly shop What do you find interesting about this word or phrase? Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.	<urn:uuid:773e50b9-05c2-4adc-8c44-2a45c599f302>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/assembly-shop	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.920588	172	2.5625	3
Pages: 1 2 For the early Church, unity in love was the ultimate value; it was the supreme purpose of life that Christ Himself had revealed to men. … This unity was demonstrated above all in the active love through which each Christian was conscious that he belonged to all the brethren, and conversely, that they all belonged to him. The unity of Christians with one another is now, alas, only symbolized by their communion in divine service; in the early Church the liturgy was the crowning point of a real unity, a continual communion in everyday life; moreover, the liturgy was then unthinkable apart from that communion. In early Christian writings no other word is so often repeated as “brother,” and Christians of that age filled the idea of brotherhood with vital meaning, which showed clearly in their unity of thought: “And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul . . .” (Acts 4:32). Brotherhood also meant active mutual support among Christians “of all for all” — a care which was both material and spiritual. “And all that believed were together, and had all things in common; and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need” (Acts 2:44f.). The very smallness of the Christian community in Jerusalem made it possible to put unity of life into practice in a radical way through sharing their property. This phenomenon, inaccurately described as “primitive Christian communism,” was not the product of any specifically Christian economic or social theory, but a manifestation of love. Its meaning lies not in community of property as such, but in the evidence it gives us of the new life that manifested itself among them, entirely transforming the old. In the Pauline epistles we find the summons: “Every man according as he purposeth in his heart, so let him give” (II Cor. 9:7) — a remark which points to the survival of private property in other Christian communities. But the utter devotion of the Jerusalem community — the brotherhood of “beggars” as St. Paul called them — remains forever in the mind of Christendom as an ineffaceable example and legacy, the ideal of an authentic regeneration of all human relationships through love. … Pages: 1 2 Enable Desktop Gadgets on Windows 10	<urn:uuid:0f24a9c9-00e9-4b54-b589-942062c823b5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ellopos.com/blog/Index.php?p=1494	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.976101	500	2.578125	3
Published in Science Magazine, June 14, 2002: volume 296, number 5575, pages 1985-1990. The dynamic nature of groundwater is not readily apparent, except where discharge is focused at springs or where recharge enters sinkholes. Yet groundwater flow and storage are continually changing in response to human and climatic stresses. Wise development of groundwater resources requires a more complete understanding of these changes in flow and storage and of their effects on the terrestrial environment and on numerous surface-water features and their biota. Link to the Abstract on the Science Magazine web site Link to the Full Text of the article on the Science Magazine web site U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey Maintainer: Office of Ground Water Last modified: 17:22:34 Tue 09 Aug 2005 Privacy Statement \|\| Disclaimer \|\| Accessibility	<urn:uuid:e5a27d7a-0929-4883-b706-0e51f8da973a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://pubs.usgs.gov/article/science/2002/vol296.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.836458	174	3.390625	3
Michael J. McGroarty Perry, Ohio Copyright 2011 Japanese maples are really a lot hardier and easier to grow than most people give them credit for. I often get asked; “Is my Japanese maple dying?’ and usually when somebody asks me that, their tree is more than likely in trouble. They’ve noticed that something is changing with their tree. Usually leaves turning brown around the edges, brown spots on the leaves, or maybe leaves falling from the tree during the growing season. Brown spots on the leaves during the growing season can be caused from a number of different things, and for the most part none them are of serious concern. Usually brown spots appear because the leaves got wet when the sun was out and that can cause a small burn on a leaf with a droplet of water on the leaf. Brown edges can be a sign of a tree that de-hydrated. But often times, late in the summer, especially with the dissectum varieties, the edges of the leaves turn brown just from the extreme heat and the wind blowing across the leaves. It’s a lot like holding a blow dryer to the leaves. Does this mean the roots are dry and need more water? That depends on how much rain you’ve had in your area prior to this happening. It is my experience that this drying of the edges of the leaves is just something that happens and seems to happen to most of my dissectum Japanese maples every year starting around late July. It’s certainly not something I get concerned about. Now if all of the leaves on your Japanese maple are turning brown and falling off, you have a serious problem. If your tree has only been planted for a short time there are four things that I’d look for immediately. 1. Have you been watering the tree as needed. Trees that have only been planted a few weeks or even a few months should be watered once or twice weekly, but it’s important to check to see how moist the roots are before you water. The soil should be moist and cool to the touch, not powdery dry. But the soil should not stay soaking wet all the time. 2. How wet are the roots and or the soil around the roots? Japanese maples do not like wet feet. They don’t like standing water around their roots for very long at all. When you water the water that you apply should drain away within an hour or so and not linger around the root zone of your plant. If you have heavy, wet, clay soil that does not drain well you should plant your tree with the entire root ball buried in the ground. The root ball needs to be covered with soil, but you should raise the bed so at least half of the root ball is above the grade of your bed. This is only true if you have clay soil that does not drain well. 3. Is your tree planted too deep? Even if you have really good soil that drains well, the top of the root ball should be at least one inch above grade. Make sure the root ball is covered with soil so you actually have a slight mound over the root ball so excess amounts of water are shed away from the tree. There should not be more than one inch of soil up on the stem of the tree. If you have the tree planted too deep and there is three or four inches of soil on the stem of the tree it is planted too deeply and should be raised immediately. 4. How much have you fertilized your tree? Japanese maples don’t like and cannot use a great deal of nitrogen fertilizer. It’s much safer to mix rotted cow manure (bagged) into the hole as you plant your tree and not fertilize at all. If you really feel the need to fertilize a Japanese maple, use something organic, something low in nitrogen. Is it possible that your Japanese maple is suffering from some dreaded disease and dying? Probably not, but just in case visit this page: Japanese Maple Diseases.	<urn:uuid:73caee8c-30ea-41eb-b752-e8a833135e91>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://japanesemaplelovers.com/is-my-japanese-maple-dying/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.969434	830	2.546875	3
Definitions of refract n. - To bend sharply and abruptly back; to break off. 2 n. - To break the natural course of, as rays of light orr heat, when passing from one transparent medium to another of different density; to cause to deviate from a direct course by an action distinct from reflection; as, a dense medium refrcts the rays of light as they pass into it from a rare medium. 2 The word "refract" uses 7 letters: A C E F R R T. No direct anagrams for refract found in this word list. Shorter words found within refract: ace acre act ae aft after ar arc are arf art at ate cafe car care carer caret carr cart carte carter cat cate cater craft crate crater ear eat ef eft er era err et eta fa face facer facet fact far farce farcer fare farer fart fat fate fear feat fer fet feta frae frat frater fret race racer raft rafter rare rat rate rater re react rear rec recta ref reft ret ta tace tae tar tare tarre tea tear terra trace tracer tref List shorter words within refract, sorted by length All words formed from refract by changing one letter Browse words starting with refract by next letter	<urn:uuid:f522fd81-4805-4bd8-8600-37f906f6ddf0>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.morewords.com/word/refract/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.792859	286	2.703125	3
You know that it's October when the leaves start turning and the world turns a glorious pink. Yes pink, the mascot color of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month (NBCAM). Each year we are exhorted to race for the cure and go for our mammograms because, according to the NBCAM mantra, "Early detection saves lives". We buy pink lipstick and wear pink ribbons because part of the proceeds goes to benefit breast cancer research. The question we fail to ask however is does being 'aware' save lives? To begin with, it is inconceivable that there is a thinking adult in this country who isn't aware of breast cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, one in seven women will develop breast cancer during her lifetime (in 1975, the risk was only one in eleven). More than 250,000 women will be diagnosed with breast cancer this year. Each year, more than 40,000 women die from breast cancer. Maddeningly, the treatment options offered to women with breast cancer vary little from the treatments used 40 years ago, radiation, chemotherapy and surgery. It would seem logical to start by asking why the incidence of breast cancer keeps increasing despite advancements in early detection and the continual development of new treatments. As any school child knows, you can't solve a problem if you don't know the variables. Yet most of the money that is thrown at breast cancer gets spent on finding cures and treatments, with very little of the research focusing on the cause. This seems particularly odd since approximately half of all breast cancer cases are unexplained by personal characteristics, leading many to suspect that the cause might be environmental. Since the 1940's tens of thousands of synthetic chemicals have come into use yet only a small percentage have been tested for safety. Pollution has increased dramatically as well. A link has long been established between some pesticides and breast cancer and it is also known that nonsteroidal estrogens are carcinogenic. Chemicals with estrogenic activity include PVC and bisphenol-A (plastic additives found in many household products) and benzene (a gasoline additive). Other chemicals such as parabens and phthalates, which are found in many cosmetics, can act as hormone disrupters and have been linked to cancer. Other compounds that likely contribute to breast cancer include DDT, dioxin and PCB's. Additionally, "State of the Evidence 2004: What Is the Connection Between the Environment and Breast Cancer?", jointly published by the Breast Cancer Fund and Breast Cancer Action, reported the following connections between chemical exposure and breast cancer: Chlorinated chemicals, found in drinking water and many industrial processes such as computer component manufacturing, were associated with an elevated risk of breast cancer in three new studies; A solvent used in many varnishes, paints, dyes and fuel additives (ethylene glycol methyl ether) was found to sensitize breast tissue cells to the effects of estrogens and progestins, thereby increasing the risk of breast cancer and; The Million Women Study in the United Kingdom revealed that all types of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy significantly increased the risk of breast cancer, underscoring earlier findings from the Women's Health Initiative study in the United States. Another study found that use of HRT after previously being diagnosed with breast cancer tripled a woman's risk of recurrence or development of a new breast tumor. (1) Yet organizations like the American Cancer Society and the Susan G. Komen Foundation routinely fail to address these issues. As it turns out, both groups have connections with numerous corporations in the chemical, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, many of which have an enormous financial stake in breast cancer. Good intentions aside, it is far more profitable for these companies to detect and treat breast cancer than to prevent it, leading to an enormous conflict of interest between their corporate well being and their charitable public persona. The primary corporate sponsor of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month is AstraZeneca, which makes the popular cancer drug Tamoxifen. Interestingly, Tamoxifen can also cause cancer and until recently, AstraZeneca also made a variety of other cancer-causing chemicals. Apparently the company has a thing about color marketing. Not only do they encourage you to think pink, they are also the maker of a frequent sponsor of the nightly network news, the little purple pill a.k.a. Nexium. Which begs the question of how corporate sponsorship of the news might impact how cancer ‘cures’ and causes are reported by the networks. AstraZeneca is not the only company playing both sides of the cause/cure game. Dupont makes numerous chemicals that have been linked to cancer (including Teflon) as well as much of the film used in mammography. And General Electric makes nuclear power plants that produce ionizing radiation, a known cause of cancer as well as mammography equipment (which also perversely produces cancer-causing ionizing radiation). GE also owns NBC. What these corporations understand is that supporting breast cancer awareness and funding is a great public relations gambit. As Barbara Brenner of Breast Cancer Action points out, "If you slap a pink ribbon on a product, people will buy it." But where does the money raised by the sale of all these products go? Some companies clearly state what portion of the proceeds are donated, but many just say something along the lines of, 'a generous portion of the proceeds will be donated to finding a cure for cancer'. The definition of 'generous' can vary widely and all too often there is no definitive accounting of how much was raised and who benefited from the proceeds. (2) And what of organizations like the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation, which sponsors the annual Race for the Cure? According to the Toxic Links Coalition, the race focuses on finding medical cures while ignoring environmental causes. In "Running From the Truth", Mary Ann Swissler reports that the Foundation's stock portfolio has included holdings in several large pharmaceutical companies as well as General Electric, one of the largest makers of mammographic material. (3) Their 2003-2004 Annual Report lists Ford (automobile exhaust has long been linked with cancer) and Johnson and Johnson (makers of numerous cancer drugs and diagnostic equipment) as Partners. In 1998, Komen was the only national breast cancer group to back Tamoxifen as a preventative treatment for some women, which other advocacy groups objected to strongly. As it turns out, Tamoxifen's maker, AstraZeneca is a strong backer of the Race for the Cure and in 2003 received the "Friend of the Fight" award from Komen. The Komen Foundation is also notably silent on environmental issues. Interestingly, Occidental Petroleum, a major environmental polluter (think Love Canal) is a big Komen supporter. While Komen may have the best of intentions, as breast cancer activist Judy Brady points out, the problem is that they simply don't see that "'business as usual' is why we have cancer". (4) ACS and Komen are both big supporters of annual mammography for women over the age of 40. Over and over, both organizations tout early detection as a lifesaver. They both also receive substantial funding from makers of mammography equipment such as GE and DuPont. Unfortunately, the truth about mammography and early detection is not so cut and dry. Mammograms may detect cancer earlier (although the majority of women detect their own cancers) but they do not prevent cancer or protect women from cancer and early detection does not necessarily translate into longer survival. Many women whose cancer is detected by mammograms have slow-growing cancers that will never be life threatening while others are very aggressive and would be lethal no matter when they are detected. Early detection does not appear to impact the life expectancy of either of these groups of women. In addition, because breast tissue in pre-menopausal women tends to be denser, mammograms may miss suspicious masses. The breast tissue of younger women is also more susceptible to damage from radiation. It is interesting to note that no nation other than the U.S. routinely screens pre-menopausal women by mammography. According to activist Jennifer Drew, in England the practice is for "women aged between 50 and 64 who are registered with a General Practitioner (to) receive a letter inviting them to attend a Breast Screening scan. The age is being raised to 70 years from 2004. Women between these ages can have free mammograms every 3 years. The Government here in the UK believes once every 3 years is sufficient based on medical research." In contrast with the United States, only one in nine women are stricken with breast cancer in the UK, a statistic also true in Canada. Routine screening guidelines for Canadian women are to be screened every two years after the age of 40. Only one in eleven women in Australia are stricken with breast cancer and women there are advised to get mammograms every two years between the ages of 50-69. What is perhaps the most important to understand is that survival rates are counted from when a woman is diagnosed. So if a woman is diagnosed in 2000 and lives for 15 years, this is no different than if she was diagnosed in 2005 and lived for 10 years. She would still die in 2015. In other words, a woman may live longer past a diagnosis that occurs earlier, but not necessarily longer overall. It seems likely that the corporate connections to organizations like ACS and Komen play a significant role in determining policy recommendations and how the funds that are donated to these organizations are spent and why funding is so clearly biased towards detection and pharmaceutical treatment. While many useful projects have undoubtedly been funded, the reality is that women, too many women are still dying from breast cancer and we still don't know why or how to stop it. What is clear is that it is well past time to re-think the pink and to quit indiscriminately touting early detection and to focus much more of our research resources on the context in which breast cancer takes place and finding treatments for those women who currently do not benefit from treatment. As the comparison of mammography recommendations and breast cancer incidence in other countries indicates, some hard questions need to be asked as to the benefits of early and more frequent mammograms in this country and what other factors account for our higher breast cancer rates. The role of environmental pollutants and compounds with estrogenic activity in breast cancer must also be addressed in a much more comprehensive manner. Efforts like that of Dr. Susan Love to learn more about the milk ducts where most breast cancer begins should be enthusiastically supported. We also need to focus research on understanding other issues such as how antibiotics may contribute to breast cancer and how breast cancer surgery itself may spread cancer. Above all, we need to make sure that public policy decisions are made in the best interests of the women whose lives are impacted by breast cancer, not for the benefit of corporate profit. (5) Lucinda Marshall is a feminist artist, writer and activist. She is the Founder of the Feminist Peace Network, www.feministpeacenetwork.org. Her work has been published in numerous publications in the U.S. and abroad including Awakened Woman, Alternet, Dissident Voice, Off Our Backs, The Progressive, Rain and Thunder, Z Magazine, Common Dreams and Information Clearinghouse. Other Articles by Lucinda Marshall Raped in New Orleans?	<urn:uuid:4df36aab-5f17-4031-bba5-b961f356a884>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dissidentvoice.org/Oct05/Marshall1003.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.967496	2,324	3.09375	3
Worlds Built on Avian Excrement The reviewer is at the Department of History, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32305–2200, USA. E-mail: email@example.com Suppose you decided to write a global environmental history of the Pacific world. Suppose further that after you peeled away the layers of large-scale climate fluctuations, continent-island dynamics, and the displacement of indigenous cultures for imperial enterprise and colonization, you discovered the heart of the matter, in all its slimy, slippery, smelly glory: bird shit. For the faint of heart: guano. In Guano and the Opening of the Pacific World, Gregory Cushman pursues this thought experiment with utterly magnificent results. To be fair, Cushman (a historian at the University of Kansas) acknowledges from the outset that excrement, avian or not, hardly serves as a topic for polite conversation. Disclaimers out of the way, he plunges into his topic arguing for the fundamental role of nitrogenous waste in the development of agricultural systems. Appropriately, the originary story comes from indigenous sources in which a trickster escapes retribution with a disingenuous yet elemental excuse. Guano covers grand expanses of time and space. The second chapter, for example, opens with Alexander von Humboldt's encounter with guano in Peru. Cushman then argues that after laboratories in Napoleonic Europe established Peruvian guano and nitrates as the two richest sources of nitrogen ever discovered, they fueled the Northern Hemisphere's ambitious demands for plantation crops, meat, sulfuric acid, high explosives, and imperial power. He concludes the chapter with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884), which was triggered by a devastating El Niño event and led to the withdrawal of Peru from the “guano age.” Notwithstanding his focus on major events and ideas, a charming element of family history surfaces here and elsewhere: Cushmans (some related, others not) dot the story like far-flung Pacific islands. To explain how colonial regions in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and the United States consolidated and sustained their prosperity after exploiting the resources of initial colonization, Cushman offers “neo-ecological imperialism,” thereby refining a concept developed by Alfred Crosby (1). Indigenous peoples on Easter Island, Banaba, Niue, and other Pacific islands participated in the exploitative ecological regime for various reasons, thus securing survival despite suffering the onslaught of microbes in the form of dysentery and other diseases as well as parasitic forms of colonial trade and government. The 20th century ushered in the era of technocracy in the guano islands as Peru sought to capitalize on their benefits. Collaborating with agro-exporters and capitalists, foreign and local scientists and engineers helped buffer the islands from the exploitation of global capitalism and World War I. During the interwar period, a single company consolidated these efforts and laid the foundation for the scientific conservation of guano-producing birds. Although Peruvian technocrats continued to manage the “most valuable birds in the world,” populations remained vulnerable to the extreme regional climatic shifts in the region, which gave rise to boom and bust years (of birds and guano). For this and other reasons, Cushman argues, Peru could not hope to feed its burgeoning population, at least not solely on the basis of agricultural nutrients from guano. The book reveals ornithologist William Vogt to be a strong candidate for the most underrated figure in the modern environmental movement. Vogt's Peruvian-funded research on the guano islands and subsequent conservation surveys in Latin America led him to present a Malthusian case in The Road to Survival (2), some 14 years before Rachel Carson's renowned critique of pesticides. He follows the recommendations of Aldo Leopold (a longtime friend) with respect to species management. Moreover, Vogt believed that guano could help address the challenge of feeding a growing world population. Insofar as ecology, in Cushman's view, has the power to shape culture, geopolitical events such as World War II transformed nature and culture in the Pacific world. During and after the war, Pacific islanders found themselves uprooted without respect to their livelihoods. On the roster of deracinated islanders, Cushman includes Yali, whose query regarding global inequalities motivated Jared Diamond (3). Cushman, contra Diamond, argues that given the opportunity Yali could have offered personal insights into the social inequities that prompted his question. Guano played a substantial role in the Green Revolution in Mexico, which saw dramatically improved crop yields through the introduction of novel technologies in the form of new wheat cultivars, pesticides, and, especially, fertilizers. Not surprisingly, Cushman suggests that Peru's Blue Revolution, the parallel expansion of marine resources through new inputs, also rested on a foundation of guano. Yet, technocrats made surprising choices in abandoning the guano birds to eliminate competition for Peru's chemical industry. Rather than revealing the need for intervention at the level of the state, as Garret Hardin argued in “The tragedy of the commons” (4), this displayed governmental technocratic overconfidence in their ability to overcome dramatic swings in the ocean's productivity. Given the book's remarkable breadth and depth, it is tragic that the exigencies of academic publishing have set the price beyond the reach of the casual reader. One can only hope that paperback and e-book editions are forthcoming. That said, Guano and the Opening of the Pacific World is a tour de force that deserves a wide audience. Cushman covers an expansive range of topics that flow from its humble source and offers persuasive arguments that challenge many aspects of received wisdom regarding natural versus cultural, indigenous versus colonial, island versus mainland, and local versus global.	<urn:uuid:ba0a3800-d204-4b15-a1ec-4c9145bde389>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://esp.ku.edu/professor-cushmans-book-reviewed-science	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.924536	1,205	2.71875	3
Some Peek in the Stacks blog posts are authored by CSUN students who work in Special Collections and Archives in the Oviatt Library. This week's post was written by Omar Cerda, a student assistant in the Urban Archives. Omar is a junior majoring in Marketing. World War I, also called the Great War, took the lives of more than 9 million people, and devastated millions more. It also brought invention, destroyed long standing empires, redrew some political borders, and created new ones. Like all wars before and since, it separated families, and had a dramatic impact on the social welfare of all involved nations. There are a number of collections held in Special Collections and Archives that address issues associated with World War I. Among them is the Raymond Gleason Correspondence Collection, which provides a glimpse into the hardship faced by American military men during war. Ray Gleason was born in 1896 in Racine, Wisconsin and served in the United States Navy. On November 11, 1918, the Armistice of Compiègne would signal a ceasefire and victory for the Allied forces, but it would be another six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference before the Treaty of Versailles officially ended the Great War, during which many soldiers remained overseas. Family correspondence was very important to servicemen and Raymond Gleason was no exception. As he writes to his mother in 1918 on Christmas Day, "I am feeling disgusted to-day. It is the bumest Xmas I ever spent…we have been eating canned meat and sauerkraut canned in 1912 & 1913...You sometimes may think you have troubles in life & disappointments but I must say the people are in a terrible fix over here. What an awful life they have to live." Weapons were not the only thing that killed during the war. In 1918 the Spanish Flu pandemic infected 500 million people around the world, ultimately killing more people than died in combat in the war itself. People were scared, not only of dying by a soldier’s gunshot, but of dying a slow, painful death after catching the flu. Alton Flanders, who served in the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines infantry battalion in France, wrote a letter home that is included in the Alton Flanders WWI Correspondence Collection. In it he writes that he had the flu while in France, and was hospitalized for 2 months. Many inventions and innovations came out of World War I, as well. In the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) Photo Album we see some of the first aerial photographs, as well as photos of airplanes, pilots in flight gear, and a zeppelin. Zeppelins and weather balloons were used for reconnaissance during World War I. Airplanes were also used for this purpose initially, but were later used for other combat purposes. Planes were equipped with machine guns, and adapted to hold bombs, at which time they became machines of destruction rather than observation. Naval battle, like air battle, was also an important part of World War I. Donald Hiram Stilwell, a member of the U.S. Navy and a photographer, was stationed in France during the war. He was able to capture images of ships being destroyed, one of which was cut in half. These images are a part of Donald Hiram Stilwell Photograph Collection, and, like all the collections mentioned in this post, can be viewed in Special Collections and Archives.	<urn:uuid:1d1f2d00-84ea-4505-8cb8-a89551e2b84f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://library.csun.edu/SCA/Peek-in-the-Stacks/GreatWar	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.984693	700	2.90625	3
The Internet allows your child the opportunity to immediately reach out to people and information. Much of the information on the Internet has positive educational value, but definitely not all. Northside ISD has special software and hardware in place that will restrict access to undesirable adult material and topics. It is not possible, however, to completely block all objectionable sites. As parents and teachers, we must teach students to be responsible consumers of information and responsible users of the district's technology equipment. The resources in this section will help you maximize the benefits of the Internet and related technologies for your child's education and minimize the risks that your child could encounter online. - Be CyberSMART! - Addressing Safe and Appropriate Technology Use in Northside. - SafeKids.com - Find out about the privacy on Facebook, as well as how to protect kids online. - NetSmartz.org - From the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children and Boys & Girls Clubs of America. - NET CETERA: Chatting with Kids About Being Online - a PDF publication from www.onguardonline.gov, a coalition of private organizations and government agencies that include the Department of Education and the FCC. - Internet Safety - National PTA website, with a host of information on how to keep kids safe when using the Internet. - 4Kids.org - A website full of fun online resources, games, and kid-friendly links. - NISD Digital Citizenship: Rights, Roles & Responsibilities in a Digital Society - This comprehensive site offers materials on digital literacy, etiquette, and even curriculum resources for teachers. - Cyberbullying Video - produced by NISD students - Elementary Scope and Sequence - Secondary Scope and Sequence	<urn:uuid:26765c25-bef9-4e58-a193-042880fef4d2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://nisd.net/internet-safety	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.900584	356	3.078125	3
June 13, 2013 Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, Md. NASA'S HUBBLE UNCOVERS EVIDENCE OF FARTHEST PLANET FORMING FROM ITS STAR WASHINGTON — Astronomers using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope have found compelling evidence of a planet forming 7.5 billion miles away from its star, a finding that may challenge current theories about planet formation. Of the almost 900 planets outside our solar system that have been confirmed to date, this is the first to be found at such a great distance from its star. The suspected planet is orbiting the diminutive red dwarf TW Hydrae, a popular astronomy target located 176 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Hydra the Sea Serpent. Hubble's keen vision detected a mysterious gap in a vast protoplanetary disk of gas and dust swirling around TW Hydrae. The gap is 1.9 billion miles wide and the disk is 41 billion miles wide. The gap's presence likely was caused by a growing, unseen planet that is gravitationally sweeping up material and carving out a lane in the disk, like a snow plow. The planet is estimated to be relatively small, at 6 to 28 times more massive than Earth. Its wide orbit means it is moving slowly around its host star. If the suspected planet were orbiting in our solar system, it would be roughly twice Pluto's distance from the sun. Planets are thought to form over tens of millions of years. The buildup is slow, but persistent as a budding planet picks up dust, rocks, and gas from the protoplanetary disk. A planet 7.5 billion miles from its star should take more than 200 times longer to form than Jupiter did (no more than 10 million years by current estimates) at its distance of 500 million miles from the sun because of its much slower orbital speed and the deficiency of material in the disk. TW Hydrae is only 8 million years old, making it an unlikely star to host a planet, according to this theory. There has not been enough time for a planet to grow through the slow accumulation of smaller debris. Complicating the story further is that TW Hydrae is only 55 percent as massive as our sun. "It's so intriguing to see a system like this," said John Debes of the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Md. Debes leads a research team that identified the gap. "This is the lowest-mass star for which we've observed a gap so far out." An alternative planet-formation theory suggests that a piece of the disk becomes gravitationally unstable and collapses on itself. In this scenario, a planet could form more quickly, in just a few thousand years. "If we can actually confirm that there's a planet there, we can connect its characteristics to measurements of the gap properties," Debes said. "That might add to planet formation theories as to how you can actually form a planet very far out." The TW Hydrae disk also lacks large dust grains in its outer regions. Observations from the Atacama Large Millimeter Array in the Atacama desert of northern Chile, show dust grains roughly the size of a grain of sand are not present beyond about 5.5 billion miles from the star, just short of the gap. "Typically, you need pebbles before you can have a planet. So, if there is a planet and there is no dust larger than a grain of sand farther out, that would be a huge challenge to traditional planet formation models," Debes said. The team used Hubble's Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) to observe the star in near-infrared light. The researchers then compared the NICMOS images with archival Hubble data and optical and spectroscopic observations from Hubble's Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS). Debes said researchers see the gap at all wavelengths, which indicates it is a structural feature and not an illusion caused by the instruments or scattered light. The team's paper will appear online on June 14 in The Astrophysical Journal. For images, illustrations, and more information about TW Hydrae, visit: For more information about NASA's Hubble Space Telescope, visit:	<urn:uuid:050aa219-56fc-497b-81d3-e29ed9299115>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2013/2013/20/text/results/100/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930215	863	3.484375	3
element is used to identify keystrokes that the user needs to make on his or her keyboard. These keystrokes could form a string of text, or they could reflect individual key presses that the user must complete (for example, pressing Enter or Backspace). It’s most likely to be found in online technical manuals or support sites. Most browsers will render kbd content in a monospace font, but it’s possible to style its display with CSS (for example, setting a background color and a border to make the character appear a little more like a key on a The example HTML above would render as shown in Figure 1. kbdelement as monospaced A support site that provides instructions to help Windows users to unfreeze an application might include the following HTML: <p>Hold down <kbd>CTRL</kbd>, <kbd>ALT</kbd>, and <kbd>DELETE</kbd>, then select Task Manager</p> Use This For … This element is used to identify individual key presses, complete words that must be typed, or buttons that should be pressed on a keypad. kbd has good browser support; most major browsers render it in a fixed-width font. There are no comments yet.	<urn:uuid:60f13ef3-25b4-453c-ab07-84b4ba5d3a9f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://reference.sitepoint.com/html/kbd	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.728362	277	2.96875	3
Eurasian Arctic Rivers Changes in the amount and timing of the discharge of major Eurasian Arctic rivers have been well documented, but whether or not these changes can be attributed to climatic factors or to the construction of man made reservoirs remains unclear. A new research report helps to identify the key processes (snow cover and air temperature) that have regulated seasonal stream flow fluctuations in the Eurasian Arctic over the last half-century (1958—1999) and to understand the regional coherence of timing trends, using a set of Eurasian Arctic rivers selected specifically because they are free of known effects of dams. A shift toward the earlier onset of spring runoff as measured by a modest change in the spring pulse onset (26 of 45 stations) and a strong change in the timing (39 of 45 stations). Winter stream flows increased over the period of record in most rivers, suggesting that trends observed by others in larger regulated Eurasian Arctic rivers may not be entirely attributable to reservoir construction. Northern Eurasia accommodates a variety of hydrological conditions and water bodies. Regions with an abundant moisture supply border on areas with poor water resources such as, for example, the Caucasus mountains and semi-deserts of the Caspian plain or mountains and deserts of Central Asia. Rivers, which are among the world's largest (the Yenisey, Ob, Lena, and Volga) drain the continent. Nowhere in the world do wetlands cover such an enormous area as on the West Siberian plain and nowhere in the world does the development of water resources take place in such an enormous permafrost area as in Eastern Siberia. Typical of Northern Eurasia is a water regime with powerful spring floods and low winter and summer water levels which develop because of the northern location of the region and its climate. Because of these factors, river discharge averaged across Northern Eurasia is lower than the world average. Construction of dams and reservoirs has been another important feature in the development of water resources in Northern Eurasia. In the 1920s, the Soviet Union launched a massive program of development of hydropower. Since then, many large hydraulic dams and reservoirs have been built, mainly in north-western Russia (Karelia and the Kola peninsula), the Moscow region, the Volga region, the Urals, Central Asia, and Southern Siberia. Major rivers such as the Volga, Kama, and Angara have been transformed into a chain of reservoirs. About 45 per cent of the total water volume in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, which accommodate some of the world's largest rivers, belongs to the artificial reservoirs. The development of hydroelectricity and the construction of reservoirs have substantially modified the regimes of many rivers towards an equalization of seasonal flows. The storage capacity of reservoirs reduces spring flooding substantially. The new research further states that upward trends in air temperature appeared to have had the largest impact on spring and summer flows for tributaries in the coldest of the major Eurasian Arctic river basins (e.g., the Lena). While the overall duration of snow cover has not significantly changed across the Eurasian Arctic, snow cover disappearance has trended earlier in the year and appears to be related to the increased May and snow melt season fractional flows. The full article may be found in the current edition of the Journal of Geophysical Research. For further information: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2011/2010JD014337.shtml	<urn:uuid:8749c80f-be8f-4bfb-8dff-1c00926d9d15>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.enn.com/climate/article/42305/print	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.936144	706	3.75	4
Minnkota Power Cooperative in Grand Forks, ND provides all of northeastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota with electricity through two coal-fired units at the Milton R. Young Station near Center, ND. The Young Station began to have problems with wear and corrosion in the flyash piping for the scrubber of Unit 2. The plant tried stainless steel pipes which were able to withstand the abrasiveness of the flyash, but it was very expensive for the station to use and the flyash would build up in the pipes. Fiberglass pipes were tried, but required continuous maintenance and repair. Minnkota then turned to Abresist Corporation, a Kalenborn Company in Urbana, IN, for wear-resistant, lined piping for an effective and cost-efficient answer to their wear problems. The Milton R. Young Station Milton R. Young Station, operated by Minnkota, has two units, which produce a combined total of about 705,000 kilowatts of electricity. The Young 1 unit began producing electricity in 1970 and is also owned by Minnkota. Generating 250,000 kilowatts of electricity, Young 1 serves over 110,000 customers. Young 2 has been producing electricity since 1977 with a generating capacity of 455,000 kilowatts. Combined, the units consume around 4.3 million tons of coal annually. Consistently ranked as one of the lowest cost, coal-fired power plants in the U.S., Young Station receives lignite coal from a nearby mine and is burned in cyclone-fired boilers. Flyash causes wear and corrosion in piping When lignite coal is burned it produces two types of ash, flyash and bottom ash. The flyash is light and travels through the boiler and is captured by an electrostatic precipitator. The flyash is then used in the scrubber with a mixture of lime to scrub the sulfur dioxides from the exhaust gases. The bottom ash, however, is heavy and drops out of the bottom of the boiler. Wear and corrosion from the flyash in the Young 2 scrubber became a problem and the search began for wear-resistant piping. “We have a very abrasive situation,” says Dennis Ziniel, Mechanical Maintenance Supervisor for Minnkota Power. “The flyash is very abrasive and very corrosive.” Young Station operates two scrubber towers to remove the sulfur dioxide from the exhaust gases. Nozzle heads within the towers spray a mixture of limestone and flyash through the gas stream. The calcium in the limestone and flyash spray is able to scrub the sulfur dioxide out of the gas before it is released into the atmosphere. The resulting slurry of limestone, flyash and sulfur dioxide is then sent to settling ponds and eventually water will be pulled from the top of the ponds and be reused in the scrubbers. Before trying Abresist piping for transporting flyash, Young Station also tried fiberglass and stainless steel pipes, but those pipes provided new problems. “Lined fiberglass stands up fairly well for a limited time in some applications,” Ziniel explains. “We’ve got some fiberglass here that’s been in service about ten years, but we’re starting to see some real issues with it.” “We also have other applications where we’ve gone with 3/16 stainless steel because it is so abrasive and so corrosive,” Ziniel continues. “But stainless steel is very, very expensive. So this piping from Abresist Corporation is kind of a blessing.” Young 2 needed wear-resistant piping that was cost-efficient and low maintenance. Minnkota Power began searching for solutions and looked to Abresist Corporation. Approximately 400 feet of 2”, 3” and 4” Abresist lined piping, including about 35 elbows and tees, was purchased by Young Station in 1988 for transporting flyash to the Young 2 scrubbers. Abresist cast basalt lining is made from hard volcanic rock, offering high resistance against sliding abrasion. Abresist lined pipes versus stainless steel and fiberglass The lined pipe from Abresist Corporation requires less maintenance and offers cost savings compared to the fiberglass and stainless steel pipes. Fiberglass pipes can cost up to half as much as an Abresist lined pipe while stainless steel pipes cost approximately twice as much as the lined pipe being used in their facility. Young Station also faced issues with build-up in their stainless steel pipes. When it got colder outside, there would be a reaction in the slurry and the flyash would stick to the inside of the pipes. To remove the build-up, a cleaning contractor is brought in with high pressure washers. “That is a very lengthy process. And very costly, too,” Ziniel admits. “Depending on how badly the pipes are built up depends on how long the contractors are here. We’ve had cleaning contractors out here for up to two weeks at $600 an hour. But, with the Abresist basalt lined pipes we haven’t had any build-up, so Abresist lined pipes kind of give you the best of both worlds.” Though fiberglass pipes offer the benefit of cost savings, Abresist basalt-lined pipes provide a longer service life since fiberglass pipes require more maintenance and repair, especially within the joints. The joints can erode quickly if not matched up correctly. “We have several spots like that where we are continually repairing it because they were not perfectly matched up when they were put together,” Ziniel notes. Since installing the Abresist lined pipes, the pipes have not needed to be repaired or relined. “As a maintenance supervisor I have a lot of problem areas I have to worry about,” Ziniel states. “But one of the areas I don’t have to worry about is the Abresist lined pipe because I know it’s there and it’s working and I know I’m not going to have an issue with it.” The future of flyash at Young Station Young Station will soon be changing some of their processes in accordance with an agreement made with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The plant will be modifying its scrubbers to scrub 98-99% of the exhaust gas. Currently, 92-94% of the gas is being scrubbed. The plant will also be sending limestone to the scrubber as a scrubbing medium rather than the flyash. Limestone does a better job of scrubbing than the flyash. The plant plans to use as much of the existing system as they can for the scrubber modifications. The Abresist lined piping system may also be used for transporting limestone.	<urn:uuid:c89ec033-b85b-4aaa-8111-6369734f97af>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.abresist.com/CaseHistories/MinnkotaPower.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.966578	1,409	2.828125	3
1) Status of the Population 2) Conservation: Monarch Waystations 3) Tag recovery 4) La Cruz Habitat Protection Project 5) Pacific Grove Meeting 6) Images from the Monarch Sanctuaries 7) Preliminary Tagging Analysis 8) Notes on the Western Population 9) Thank You Map Resources! 10) About Our Update List Unless otherwise noted, all content was authored by Chip Taylor, edited by Jim Lovett and Sarah Schmidt, and published by Jim Lovett. 1) Status of the Population Smallest overwintering population on record As most of you know, the monarch population in Mexico this past winter season was at an all time low (2.19 hectares). The possible reasons for these low numbers (e.g., losses due to the winter storms of 2004, poor recolonization in the spring, a cold breeding season, loss of milkweed habitat in the U.S. and Canada due to the adoption of glyphosate tolerant crops and a reduction in the quality of the overwintering habitat in Mexico due to illegal logging) are discussed in a report prepared by numerous monarch experts: All of these factors, and perhaps even others, contributed to the low numbers. Unfortunately, our knowledge of monarch biology and our ability to monitor the monarch population is not comprehensive enough to give us an understanding of how each of these factors contributed to the lower numbers. As always, there is much we need to learn. Mortality through the winter During three of the last five winters, winter storms have killed large numbers of monarchs and the mortality following the storms of 2002 and 2004 was of historic proportions (see previous Updates for descriptions of these events). Our fear through this winter has been that there might be another such storm, one that would drive the monarch population to such low levels that several years would be required for the population to recover. Fortunately, the winter was storm free and, according to Eduardo Rendon Salinas (World Wildlife Fund Mexico), who has been monitoring the population through the winter, mortality due to bird predation and normal attrition has been at, or near, normal levels. Nevertheless, the question remains - are there enough monarchs available to recolonize the breeding areas in the United States and Canada? The answer appears to be yes, provided that the butterflies moving north are in sufficiently good condition to make the migration northward. [Here is another gap in our knowledge. We have no idea of the proportion of the butterflies moving northward from the overwintering sites that successfully reproduce.] As far as we can determine, the numbers of butterflies that appear to be available to move north this spring are similar to those available to make the journey following the winters of 2000, 2002 and 2004. Actually, the numbers of surviving butterflies available to move north in the spring of 2004 might have been substantially greater since an estimated 3.5 hectares of butterflies remained after the winter storms. The apparent failure of the 2004 survivors to colonize the southern United States in normal numbers in March and April of that year raises the question as to whether the exposure of the survivors to freezing conditions contributed substantially to their morbidity or impeded their reproductive capacity. On the other hand, the highest number of sightings of monarchs in March and April in the United States occurred in the spring of 2002 (see below), following the record catastrophic mortality of that winter. If my estimate that the number moving north is not too different from previous years is correct, then the numbers of monarchs sighted in Texas through the 24th of March should be roughly similar as well. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Here are the numbers of monarchs reported to Journey North through the 24th of March for the last 6 years (California sightings have been excluded from these figures): March 1-24, 2005 - 18 March 1-24, 2004 - 43 March 1-24, 2003 - 81 March 1-24, 2002 - 157 March 1-24, 2001 - 64 March 1-24, 2000 65 From these numbers, it looks like the population is off to a very bad start in 2005. However, we have to remember that these are simply observations and that the number of butterflies observed is often a function of the weather - particularly on weekends, when observers are more likely to see monarchs. Such comparisons also assume that similar numbers of people are available and interested enough to report sightings each year. Since many monarchs are still moving north through Mexico at this time (26 March), we will have to wait several weeks to get a better picture of the number of monarchs recolonizing the southern states this spring. For reference, here are the numbers of monarchs reported to Journey North for all of March and April of the last 5 years together with the number of hectares of monarchs reported at the overwintering sites the following winters. Note that during the last three years the number of monarchs reported for March was higher than for April but that the opposite was true for 2000 and 2001. Let’s hope that many monarchs arrive in April this year as well. Note also that, as with nearly all monarch population data, only the lowest numbers, i.e., those for 2004 (149), seem to be of value in predicting the size of the winter population. 2) Conservation: Monarch Waystations Monarch Watch is moving in a new direction. Although we have always emphasized education, conservation, and research, we have, in fact, given less support to conservation. The extensive deforestation in the last year in Mexico, the rapid adoption of herbicide resistant crops in the last 5 years that appear to have eliminated 80-100 million acres of monarch habitat and the incremental losses of farm and ranch land signal a substantial decline in the habitat available to monarchs in North America. The record low number of monarchs at the overwintering sites in Mexico this past winter is certainly, in part, a reflection of this decline. It is time to act - we need to protect monarch habitats in both the United States and Mexico. In addition, we need to create new habitats for monarchs and to this end we are introducing the concept of “Monarch Waystations”. Our objective is to not only create habitats for monarchs but to use the concept to educate and engage the public in a conservation effort. It is our hope that public awareness will lead to wildlife friendly management of public and private lands and to legislation that will support monarch conservation. The concept of the WAYSTATION Waystation an intermediate station between principal stations on a line of travel. In the 1800s, waystations were typically places where steam driven trains stopped to take on water and coal, or pony express riders changed horses and picked up food. If we imagine the principal stations for monarchs to be the overwintering sites in Mexico and the points of reproduction for each individual in the breeding season, then it becomes easy for us to visualize the value of all the waystations along the monarch’s route through its annual fall and spring migrations. Without resources, in the form of nectar from flowers, fall migratory butterflies would be unable to make the journey to Mexico. Similarly, without milkweeds along the entire route north in the spring and summer months, monarchs would not be able to produce the successive generations that culminate in the migration each fall. Resources Needed by Monarchs are Declining Milkweeds and nectar sources are declining due to development and the widespread use of herbicides in croplands, pastures and roadsides. Because 90% of the milkweed/monarch habitats occur within the agricultural landscape, farm practices have the potential to strongly influence monarch populations. Unfortunately, farmland is disappearing at rate of nearly 3,000 acres per day. In a five-year period starting in 1992, 6 million acres of farmland (an area the size of the state of Maryland) were converted to subdivisions, factories, and other developments. The widespread adoption of herbicide resistant corn and soybeans is of even greater concern. Because these crops have been genetically modified to resist the common herbicide glyphosate, growers now spray their fields with this herbicide instead of tilling to control weeds. Milkweeds survive tilling but not the repeated use of glyphosate. In fact, before the adoption of these transgenic crops, surveys in several states revealed that croplands with modest numbers of milkweeds per acre produced more monarchs per unit area than all other monarch habitats. The milkweed base for the monarch population is being reduced. This change is significant. These croplands represent >30% of the total monarch summer breeding area. Although there will still be milkweeds along roadsides, these habitats only constitute 2-4% of the summer breeding area and these, together with the remaining milkweed habitats such as pastures, hayfields, native habitats and urban areas, are not sufficient to sustain a large monarch population. Monarchs need our help. What We Can Do To offset the loss of milkweeds and nectar sources due to development and use of herbicides, we need to create Monarch Waystations in home gardens, school, parks, zoos, nature centers, and along the roadsides managed by the department of transportation (DOT) for each state. While this effort won’t replace the amount of milkweed being lost, without a major effort to restore milkweeds to as many locations as possible, the monarch population is certain to decline to extremely low levels. In addition to creating monarch habitats in those areas each of us control, we need to lobby on behalf of monarchs, i.e., to persuade our schools, cities, nature centers, and departments of transportation to also create these habitats. The unnecessary use of herbicides should also be discouraged. Monarch Waystation Kits To help you create Monarch Waystations, we have designed kits appropriate for your area that contain seeds of milkweeds and nectar plants. Included in the kit are instructions for selection of garden sites, planting guidelines, recommended flowering shrubs, and plans for a garden layout. Information on how to rear monarchs is also outlined. By providing a habitat for monarchs you will create an education site - a location that can be used to educate your neighbors, local teachers and students, as well as the public about the value of protecting milkweeds and nectar plants and about monarchs and monarch conservation. Certify Your Monarch Waystation To show that you are contributing to monarch conservation, you can have your Monarch Waystation certified. Once your monarch habitat is certified, you are eligible to display a sign that declares that your site is recognized as a certified monarch/milkweed habitat. This display helps convey the conservation message to those who visit your garden. Our goal is to foster the creation of 10,000 Monarch Waystations in the next three years. To achieve this goal, we need the help of all who are interested in monarch conservation and the preservation of the monarch’s extraordinary migration. We need you to help us educate the public of the need to plant milkweeds and nectar plants, the necessity of reducing the use of herbicides, and the value of converting roadsides, vacant lots, field margins, etc., to monarch habitats. In the coming months, we will create additional support for the Waystation concept. This will include online resources, a database/gallery featuring certified Waystation sites, garden supplies to enhance your Monarch Waystation, and a whole lot more! 3) Tag Recovery This winter has been a tough one for us financially and we weren’t able to take the whole crew to Mexico this year to deliver materials to schools and buy tags. Yet, the tag buying had to be done even if we didn’t have all the money we needed. So, on Wednesday the 16th of March I headed to Mexico with Janis Lentz for the express purpose of buying tags before the sanctuaries shut down for the season. We reached Chincua on Thursday afternoon but were disappointed to find that relatively few guides were present and that the number of tags available for purchase was quite low (<60). That evening we connected with Carole Jordon and Eduardo Rendon in Zitacuaro and both agreed to help us buy tags at El Rosario on Friday. Eduardo asked two of his assistants, Adriana and Carla, to work with us and Carole agreed to drive them to El Rosario. We all met in the large parking lot at below the entrance at 1PM and slowly made our way to a new building at the entrance to the trail leading to the monarchs. Adriana helped explain the arrangements for the purchase of the tags. We told everyone that we would only buy 20 tags per person and that those who held our IOUs from the previous year would be served first. We expected lots of IOUs but only about 15 of the over 100 cards we distributed last year were presented to us. After buying the tags from the holders of these 15 cards, we bought tags from the guides and then the families. As the money was running out, we reduced the number of tags per person to 10, then to 5 and finally to 1 so as to distribute the money available to as many families as possible. Only two people remained in line when we ran out of money. Although we were able to purchase most of the tags available at El Rosario on this day, many persons holding tags were not present so it seems likely that an additional 500-600 tags remain to be acquired. In all, we purchased over 1,500 tags at a cost of $6,800. This amount, combined with the over $1,200 paid to those who purchased tags in our behalf means that we spent over $8,000 on tags this year. Together with the $12,000 spent last year, the tagging operation has contributed $20,000 to the families that live on the land, manage the forests, and protect the butterflies. These pesos are a substantial contribution to the local people and we wish to thank all of you who have contributed to the Tag Recovery Fund. Your money has been well spent since the payment for the tags gives value to the butterflies. And, as you will see in the abstract of the tagging results given at the conference in California (below), it is contributing substantially to our knowledge of the monarch migration. As we have mentioned in the past, we have been building a searchable database for recoveries. We anticipate that this will be online within 4-6 weeks and will allow you to search recovery data across multiple years (and eventually all years). The database will also allow us to publish new recovery data much faster than we have been able to do in the past. Coupled with this we will also be instituting a “self-service” recovery certificate policy, which we will explain in further detail in the coming months. 4) La Cruz Habitat Protection Project If you don’t know about the La Cruz Habitat Protection Project, you should. On our trip to Mexico to acquire tags, we took a side trip to visit Jose Luis Alvarez, the creator and director of this project. The world’s appetite for softwood lumber for construction and paper products, driven in part by the rapidly growing economies in southeast Asia, is partly responsible for the rapid increase in illegal logging in Mexico during the last year (see the The Mexico-Chile-China connection in the June 2004 Update). Through the La Cruz Habitat Protection Project Jose Luis grows and distributes (at no cost to the landowner) seedlings of pine and oyamel fir trees. Over the last 7 years 1,150,000 trees have been planted on private lands in the vicinity of the monarch overwintering sites. The trees grow rapidly in this environment and the sequential harvest that accompanies the required thinning of the tree stands allows the landowner to earn substantially more from this use of the land than from more traditional crops such as corn. In theory, these mini-forests benefit the monarchs indirectly by providing forest products for the local market thus lessening the demand for mature trees in the monarch reserves. The problem is that the demand for tree products is increasing faster than the ability of Jose Luis or the government to reforest the region and the problem is getting worse since the government is shutting down a number of nurseries for seedlings due to the high cost of production. Clearly, much more reforestation is needed in the area and since reforestation is one of the potential solutions to long term conservation of monarchs, I wanted to have a first hand look at pine and oyamel seedling production and to talk to Jose Luis about the La Cruz Habitat Protection Project. The pictures below provide views of portions of the seedling production managed by Jose Luis. For more information about the La Cruz Habitat Protection Project see http://www.michoacanmonarchs.org/MichoacanNewsletter2003.pdf (PDF file) 5) Pacific Grove Meeting You should have been there! The monarch symposium held at Alisomar in Pacific Grove in conjunction with the Pacific Branch of the Entomological Society of America, was terrific! The only problem was that the meeting was too short and there just wasn’t enough time for those of us who want to talk monarchs non-stop to get it out of our systems. I’ve prepared a series of photos to give you a sense of the area and its wildlife and have included images of most of the speakers and a few of the participants. The only speakers not pictured below are Nelli Thorngate of the Big Sur Ornithology Laboratory, Ventana Wilderness Society, Monterey, California, and Kingston Leong of the Biological Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA. Titles of the talks given by the speakers can be found in the February Update. 6) Images from the Monarch Sanctuaries In February I was scheduled to visit the monarch sanctuaries with a group of entomologists. Unfortunately, a leg injury that was slow to heal prevented me from participating in this adventure. After their return, the coordinator of the group, Dr. Sonny Ramaswamy from Kansas State University, sent all of us an email giving us access to a digital photo album he prepared of the trip. Some of the monarch shots are excellent and “Sonny” has graciously allowed me to post a number of the images in this Update so that those of you who haven’t visited the colonies can get a better sense of what it is like to be in the midst of millions of butterflies. Video: http://www.MonarchWatch.org/update/2005/rosario.mov (4MB QuickTime Movie) 7) Preliminary Tagging Analysis The following in the abstract of a presentation given at the Pacific Grove Meeting earlier this month. Monarch Tagging in 2001 and 2003: A Preliminary Analysis Orley R. Taylor, Jim Lovett, Sarah Schmidt and Tyler Schmidt Monarch Watch, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS Funds obtained from the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks allowed us to create a database for the monarch tagging conducted in 2001 and 2003. We chose to analyze the data for these years, in preference to others, since the winters that followed the tagging of 2001 and 2003 were characterized by catastrophic mortality due to winter storms, that resulted in the recovery of unprecedented numbers of tagged butterflies. The following is a preliminary assessment of the coarser details of the tagging and recovery as revealed by our analyses. This information was presented at the meeting of the Pacific Branch of the Entomological Society of America in Pacific Grove, California (1-2 March 2005). The tagging data is a veritable gold mine and more information will be forthcoming at a future date. The tagging records reported on all returned data sheets from the tagging conducted in 2001 and 2003 were entered into a database. Each tagged butterfly was represented by the date tagged, location recorded in latitude and longitude, sex of the butterfly, sun angle for the date of tagging, and the name of the tagger. Recoveries were recorded by latitude and longitude. Since the exact date of most recoveries is not know for the recoveries obtained in Mexico, “date of recovery” was not a useful parameter. Because the information on the data sheets is sometimes incomplete, and, because some of the taggers do not return their data sheets, the number of complete tagging records, as well as recoveries with complete records, is lower than the total numbers tagged and recovered. The analyses are based only on those tagged and recovered butterflies for which there are complete records. Summary of the Records for 2001 and 2003 The records in the database were sorted by latitude and longitude, date of tagging and sun angle. The records were sorted to quadrants representing 5 degrees of latitude and longitude to allow us to determine the proportions of the total population tagged and recovered from each quadrant east of the Rocky Mountains. The ratio of the number tagged to the number recovered in each quadrant gives us a measure of the relative success of the tagging as a function of latitude and longitude. This procedure also allows us to determine if there are major differences in the distribution of the population and/or the success of tagging each year. An analysis of the tagging records and recoveries by latitude and longitude shows that 55-58% of the butterflies were tagged between 45-40 degrees latitude, with 47-54% tagged between 100 and 90 degrees longitude. In combination, 72-78% of the monarchs were tagged within 45-40 degrees latitude and 100-90 degrees longitude. These records are consistent with the notion that the major breeding range for monarchs is centered north of 40 degrees N and that there is a major pathway of the migration from N to S through the central portion of the country. In 2003, higher proportions of the total numbers of monarchs tagged occurred between 90-80 degrees longitude, suggesting a shift in the concentration of monarchs to the east or, perhaps, more favorable conditions during the migration for tagging by participants in that region. The recovery rates calculated from this analysis showed that the probability of having a tagged butterfly recovered increased from N to S. However, the recovery rates declined markedly from W to E. In both cases, the rate changes are non-linear. The lack of a proportional increase in recoveries with decreasing distance to the overwintering sites may be an indication that the rates of survival are relatively uniform through the main flyway passing within 100-90 degrees longitude. The decrease in recoveries toward the N and E may reflect an increase in hazards for the butterflies outside the main flight-path. The highest recovery rates for both years occurred between 105-100 degrees longitude. Relatively few butterflies are tagged within these parallels but these longitudes would appear to represent the shortest and most direct route to the border with Mexico. The lowest recovery rates for both years occurred along the coasts and in north-central MN and western WI. The coastal patterns may be due in part to increased hazards and lower survival of monarchs moving along the coastlines or the monarchs in the east may be more likely to move into peninsular Florida than to continue toward Mexico. An analysis of the tagging and recoveries by date and sun angle showed that the pace of the migration is similar across latitudes from year to year within the 100-80 degree parallels. However, the data also suggest that the migration of 2001 was two days ahead of 2003. The tagging records indicate that the migration may lag 2-7 days W and E of the center 20 degrees of longitude. Whether these lags are an artifact of the tagging process, especially in the west were there few taggers, or due to the highly variable weather conditions along the east and Gulf coasts, is not clear. The tagging data suggest there is a migration window of about 30 days that advances southward across latitudes as the season progresses. In 2001 and 2003, 87.3% and 95.6% of the monarchs were tagged in this window respectively. Monarchs tagged within the window are 13-15 times more likely to be recovered in Mexico than those tagged after this period. Surprisingly, monarchs tagged as much as three weeks after the main migration has passed have been recovered in Mexico. However, the proportion of late-tagged monarchs that reach Mexico is evidently quite small. As mentioned at the outset, this summary is based on preliminary analyses of the data. We anticipate the recovery of at least another 1500 tags from the 2003 tagging season and perhaps another 500 from 2001. Although new records from these tags are unlikely to change the overall patterns mentioned above, they should allow us to analyze the results more completely for each 5 degree quadrant and across all dates. 8) Notes on the Western Population Western Overwintering Season Ends The remaining few monarchs at most western overwintering sites are tired males. Early spring weather hit in patches throughout February, between BIG storms up and down the coast, stimulating mating and spring dispersal. Site monitors are now turning towards data entry and evaluation, but it looks like it was a low year overall in California. Paul Cherubini, long-time monitor of sites throughout California, reports that the population may be 20-50% lower this year than other recent years. Some sites, however, such as those in the East Bay, Marin and Lighthouse Fields were stable with two sites in Marin (Terwilliger and Fort Baker) occupied for first time in a few years. Large Cluster of Monarch Scientists Spotted in Pacific Grove in Early March! As part of the Entomological Society of America's annual meeting, a series of monarch events were convened at Asilomar, Pacific Grove, California. The Pacific Grove Museum of Natural History offered a wonderful venue for a welcome reception hosted by Friends of the Monarchs and The Xerces Society. A field trip to historic Washington Park gave all a chance to see monarchs and learn about the Ventana Wilderness Society's monitoring program, as well as the site challenges at the nearby famous Monarch Sanctuary. An evening Outreach Event drew students, enthusiasts, land managers, docents and scientists to hear Ro Vaccaro, Chip Taylor and Karen Oberhauser discuss the Citizen as Scientist, Conservationist and Educator. The locally famous 5M band added to the fun, as did varied exhibits. The Symposium on Monarch Biology and Conservation was dense with new information and findings (abstracts available on web; other event summaries will also soon be posted). The local state park staff took advantage of the opportunity to interview scientists for their new distance-learning project, “Portals”. Dr. David James did an outstanding job coordinating this gathering and making sure it was available to a wide swath of the monarch world. Western Monarch Day Highlights Monarchs Statewide Thanks to initiative promoted by Sheila M. Boone (yes, a direct descendant of Daniel Boone!) and the leadership of California Senator Bruce McPherson, the State Senate and Assembly declared February 5 California Western Monarch Day! Tours were offered at Ellwood, San Leandro and Marin sites. Ellwood Saved And Transferred To City Of Goleta On March 4 a formal ceremony transferred the recently saved "Ellwood Mesa" from the Trust for Public Lands to the City of Goleta, CA. Public events are planned for the near future and city officials are already looking at management steps to protect monarchs and other critical natural resources while balancing the recreational values for the community. Monarch Sanctuary Closed For Season The Monarch Sanctuary has closed, but city managers are hard at work discussing how to remove hazardous dead trees while still providing a welcoming and healthy sanctuary for monarchs. Now that the monarchs have nearly all left for the year, work can soon get underway. The Sanctuary will be ready to welcome back both butterflies and visitors next fall. As reported in an earlier update, the Butterfly Lady found that she had extra time on her hands when the Sanctuary closed prematurely. What did she do with that time? Many found her description of monarch mating on National Public Radio the most beautiful and evocative Valentine they had ever heard. And, she seemed to be everywhere as "hostess with the mostess" at the recent monarch events in Pacific Grove! Ventura Monarch Festival The Roots And Shoots Youth hosted a festival in Ventura in late January. Over 1000 monarch enthusiasts attended. These young people monitor local sites, support local tagging programs and are now preparing to check the spring dispersal. Congratulations Roots And Shoots Youth for a job well done! Natural Bridges State Park, Santa Cruz, California. There will be an Open House on Sunday April 3, from 1-4PM. A number of the docents who guide trips to the monarchs at Natural Bridges visited the monarch sanctuaries in Mexico this past winter. During the Open House, they will share their experiences with the monarchs in Mexico and will discuss the opportunities to work with local schools and others interested in monarchs. A migration of Painted Lady butterflies During the week of the 21st of March a large migration of Painted Lady butterflies (Vanessa cardui) began to move northward through southern California. As a result, many of the monarch experts in California, and elsewhere, have been inundated with accounts about "amazing migrations of monarchs". While it is sometimes difficult to convince the observers that the butterflies are not monarchs, these incidents give those of us who are interviewed by the press an opportunity to educate the public about the "real" monarch migration. Look for tagged monarchs! In the west it is time to look for tagged monarchs. Through Monarch Alert, a program funded by Helen Johnson of Salinas, California, Dennis Frey and his colleagues tagged monarchs on the Central Coast to learn more about spring dispersal. 9) Thank You Map Resources! A big THANK YOU goes out to Map Resources - the company has recently donated some of their incredible Royalty Free digital maps to Monarch Watch. These maps will will be used to enhance resources available on our website, to present data generated by the tagging program, and in many other projects! To check out their maps yourself visit their website at 10) About Our Update List You are receiving this email because you have provided Monarch Watch with your email address at some point and expressed interest in receiving updates from us. If you do not wish to receive these periodic (probably monthly) email updates or feel that you were subscribed in error, please see the unsubscribe information at the end of this message. Have you somehow missed (or misplaced ;-) an update? Now you can find all of the updates archived online at If you know someone that you think might be interested in receiving these email updates from Monarch Watch with monarch news, special announcements, tips on raising monarchs in your classroom, monarch tagging information and a whole lot more, please send them on over to to join our new Monarch-Watch-Update email list - it's easy! Monarch Watch (http://www.MonarchWatch.org) is a not-for-profit educational outreach program based at the University of Kansas. We run a Monarch tagging program and offer Monarch Rearing Kits, Monarch Tagging Kits, and other educational/promotional materials that allow you to actively experience the monarch life cycle and its spectacular fall migration. If you would like to be removed from this Monarch Watch Update mailing list, please send an email message to and include in the body of the message (no other text): If you have any questions about this, please feel free to contact us anytime. Monarch Watch (888) TAGGING - or - (785) 864-4441	<urn:uuid:16559d74-a330-46be-8fea-b8f3b026d706>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.monarchwatch.org/update/2005/0330.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934936	6,535	3.515625	4
Editor’s note: With Russian engineers trying to save the Phobos-Grunt mission, Dr. David Warmflash, principal science lead for the US team from the LIFE experiment on board the spacecraft, provides an update of the likelihood of saving the mission, while offering the intriguing prospect that their experiment could possibly be recovered, even if the mission fails. With the latest word from Roscosmos being that the Mars moon probe, Phobos-Grunt is “not officially lost,” but yet remains trapped in low Earth orbit, people are wondering what may happen over the next several weeks. Carried into space early Wednesday morning, November 9, Moscow time, atop a Zenit 2 rocket, Grunt, Russian for “soil”, entered what is known in space exploration as a parking orbit. After the engine of the Zenit upper stage completed its burn, it separated from another stage, known as Fregat, which now still remains attached to Phobos-Grunt. Ignition of the Fregat engine was to occur twice during the first five hours in space. The first Fregat burn would have taken the spacecraft to a much higher orbit; the second burn, about 2.5 hours later would have propelled the probe on its way to Mars and its larger moon, Phobos. From this moon, a sample of soil would be scooped into a special capsule which would return to Earth for recovery in 2014. Grunt is still in a low orbit, because neither Fregat burn occurred. While the spacecraft is believed to be in safe mode and even has maneuvered such that its orbital altitude has increased, controllers have been unable to establish contact to send new commands. If communication cannot be established, it will re-enter the atmosphere. In addition to the sample return capsule, Grunt carries an instrument package designated to remain on the Phobosian surface, plus a Chinese probe, Yinghuo-1, designed to orbit Mars. The mission also includes the Planetary Society’s Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment (LIFE) , for which I serve as principal science lead of the US team. Carried inside the return capsule into which the Phobosian soil is to be deposited, LIFE consists of a discoid-shaped canister, a biomodule, weighing only 88 grams. Inside are 30 sample tubes carrying ten biological species, each in triplicate. Surrounded by the 30 tubes is a sample of soil with a mixed population of microorganisms, taken from the Negev desert in Israel to be analyzed by Russian microbiologists. Organisms carried within the LIFE biomodule include members of all three domains of Earth life: bacteria, archaea, and eukaryota. The purpose of the experiment is to test how well the different species can endure the space environment, akin to microorganisms moving in space within a meteoroid ejected from Mars by an impact event. If organisms can remain viable within rock material that is transferred naturally from Mars to Earth, it would lend support to the Mars transpermia hypothesis –the idea that life on Earth may have began by way of a seeding event by early organisms from Mars. We know of microorganisms that could survive the pressures and temperatures associated with the ejection itself. We also know that during atmospheric entry, only the most outer few millimeters of rocks are heated on their way to Earth; thus, anything alive in a rock’s interior at this point should still be alive when the rock hits Earth as a meteorite. If life forms also could survive the journey itself from Mars to Earth, a Martian origin for Earth’s life would be a major possibility. It also would mean that life originating on its own anywhere in the Cosmos could spread from each point of origin, thus increasing the number of living planets and moons that may exist. Numerous studies of the survivability of many of the LIFE species have been conducted in low Earth orbit, but much of the challenge to life in space comes from highly energetic space radiation. A large portion of space radiation is trapped by a system of magnetic fields known as the Van Allen radiation belts, or the geomagnetosphere. Since very few controlled studies of microorganisms, plant seeds, and other life have been conducted beyond the Van Allen belts, which reach an altitude of about 60,000 kilometers (about 1/7th the distance to the Moon), the Planetary Society arranged to have the LIFE biomodule carried within Grunt’s return capsule. Over last weekend, the spacecraft surprised everyone by maneuvering on its own, raising its orbit. Due to this, the estimated reentry date was moved back from late November to mid January, meaning that the LIFE biomodule will be in space for more than nine weeks. An intriguing possibility that looms as controllers consider how the mission might end is that the Grunt sample return capsule will break off from the rest of the craft intact. If this happens, it could assume the stable atmospheric entry, descent, and landing that were expected after the return from Phobos. If this happens and the capsule comes down on land, we could recover the LIFE biomodule and test the state of the organisms packaged within it. The result of yet another biological test in low orbit, it would not be the experiment of our dreams. But, amidst the loss of a mission into which so many engineers and scientists have invested their dreams, a little bit could mean a lot.	<urn:uuid:65330d77-6666-473a-b56c-46608a79bb18>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.universetoday.com/90985/update-on-phobos-grunt-might-the-life-experiment-be-recovered/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95826	1,114	3.34375	3
What is Feudalism? \|The feudal class process is one of many different ways surplus labor is appropriated and distributed. It is similar to capitalism in that the performer of surplus labor, the person(s) who creates the surplus goods and services, is distinct from the person(s) who takes possession of those goods and services. The feudal class process is distinguished from the capitalist class process by the lack of choice of employer in the former: in feudalism the direct producer has an obligation to work for a specific employer within a given sphere of production. Sometimes, but not always, this obligation may result from the feudal lord exercising monopolistic control over key means of production required for the laborer(s) to work (to perform necessary and surplus labor). Debt obligations may also serve as the basis for feudal social relationships. Whether monopolistic control or debt peonage or some other mechanism for creating an enforceable obligation, these conditions provide the basis for the feudal lord to extract a monopoly rent from the direct producer/laborer who must work with these means of production or pay the debt in order to secure his/her livelihood. In capitalism, on the contrary, workers are free to choose employers.\| \|Feudalism, as an economic system,is often confused with the characteristics of specific feudal societies. For example, in Western European feudalism, there were specific cultural and political conditions by which feudal lords reproduced their monopolistic position. Often writers on feudalism will conflate all these cultural and political conditions with the economic system of feudalism and fail to recognize when the feudal system occurs in a different mix of cultural and political factors. Historians typically operate with such a conflation, borrowing their notion of feudalism from orthodox Marxism, where feudalism was understood as a particular historical moment in the Euro-centric teleological movement towards capitalism and eventually communism. The problem with this conflated notion of feudalism as a particular moment in space-time (medieval Europe) is that it has no utility in social scientific analysis. However, since historians are not social scientists, but chroniclers of the past, then it is not surprising that historians would be unaware of the social scientific concept of feudalism (as a mode of controlling labor that can exist in any time-space location among human cultures).\| ---Serap Ayse Kayatekin, in Re/presenting Class (2001)	<urn:uuid:9fc5185f-fd7c-4cdd-ac7f-829dd9ae708f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/sgabriel/feudalism_defined.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943082	485	3.265625	3
This article attempts to present a readable account of the "theory of volcanoes" for nonspecialists who would like to understand this impressive class of natural phenomenona better. I say "class" because volcanoes and similar happenings are quite various, and not at all the same things. The volcanoes themselves will not be described in any detail; for this large body of information, the reader is referred to the References, where there are not only text references, but also web links to current events. Volcanic activity is a reality, and the reader will find it very interesting to study images of active and extinct volcanoes to see explicitly what we are talking about. The image of El volcán Fuego de Colima in the title is borrowed from the website in the References. Volcanic phenomena, for the purposes of this article, include the following: central volcanoes, the familiar type; calderas, large explosive features; fissure eruptions, creating sheets of basalt; and diatremes, like the kimberlite pipes from which diamonds are obtained. Of these, central volcanoes and calderas are occurring at present or in the recent past, while fissure eruptions and diatremes are not. Volcanism specifically refers to phenomena with surface expressions. Related and similar activity occurs beneath the surface, such as the emplacement of dikes and sills, tabular features predominantly vertical and horizontal, respectively, called intrusives or hypabyssal rocks. Even the large features called batholiths have a similar source, although they are not intrusive but created in place. Hot springs and other hydrothermal or geothermal features also spring from the same source, but involve meteoric (ground) water as well. The characteristic action of a volcano, in the popular view, is the emission of lava, molten rock. Until recently, even the scientific view was that the earth was formed as a molten ball, of which the surface has now cooled and solidified into the solid crust on which we live. Cracks in this crust would permit some of the hot lava below to break through on the surface, creating a volcano. Such a simple picture is not consonant with the structure of the earth, or of the distribution and properties of volcanoes. When it became clear from seismology that the earth was too solid for this, and that the probable temperature distribution was not suitable, geologists conceived that somehow the rock just beneath the crust, at a depth of 50 km or so, was melted, at least in places, either because of the release of pressure, or the "attraction" of heat to the region. The latter concept, so at variance with the second law of thermodyamics, was vaguely thought due to the decrease of thermal conductivity in the region, also a very hypothetical supposition. At any rate, it saved the pool of lava concept for the theory of volcanoes. Lava before it is poured out at the surface seems to have properties beyond that of the simple molten rock, so geologists have called it magma. To avoid laborious circumlocution, I'll often use the terms lava and magma, and even rock, interchangeably where the distinction is obvious. However, I do not think of magma as necessarily fluid, as will become clear. The dictionary says that "lava" comes from Latin "lavare," to wash, but I cannot see the connection; there is no Latin word for lava, apparently. Magma possibly comes from a Greek word meaning to "knead," as "material kneaded," which is easier to see, but still not very satisfactory. The types of rock discharged by volcanoes, not by any means exclusively as molten lava, are classified as basic, acidic and carbonitic. Carbonitic lavas are very special cases, consisting of things like sodium carbonate. Typically, such a lava may be 32% CO2, 30% Na2O, 13% CaO, 7% K2O, 8% H2O, and the rest various constituents. One of the rare volcanoes of this type is Oldoinyo Lengai in the Rift Valley of Africa. These are genuine igneous rocks, very different from the usual lavas. Of the ordinary lavas, basic lavas are the most common type by far. The major ingredient is calcic feldspar (plagioclase, mainly anorthite), perhaps 46%, then pyroxene, commonly as augite, 37%, and smaller amounts of olivine (iron and magnesium silicate) and iron ores. Basic lavas may differ greatly in composition, some containing major amounts of olivine (olivine-basalt), and different kinds of feldspar. With only small amounts of feldspar, they become pyroxenite or peridotite. Basic lavas contain very little free silica, SiO2. Olivine basalt contains no silica. Basic lavas melt to a mobile fluid at a little above 1000°C, a red-orange heat. If they solidify quickly, a black glass called obsidian is formed; if cooling is very slow, the coarsely crystalline rock gabbro results. Intermediate rates of cooling, seen in intrusives, give dolerite or diabase. Widespread sheets of basalt are also called "trap" rock from the Swedish for "steps" on account of its appearance in eroded hills. Basalt is famous for columnar structure, resulting from internal tensions upon cooling. The columns are vertical in a sill, horizontal in a dike. Like all lavas, eruptive basalt is accompanied by dissolved gases, which gives a cinder-like vesicular appearance to surface layers, from which the gas escaped. All basic lava is dark-colored. Acid lavas contain free silica, perhaps 30%, but are mainly alkali feldspars (orthoclase), 52%, and 12% micas, usually biotite, which has soaked up most of the magnesium and iron. They melt at a considerably higher temperature than basic lavas, 1500°C and upwards, and are very sticky and viscous, flowing with great difficulty and never far. They cool rapidly to a glass, also called obsidian, but more commonly to the foam called pumice. Cooling very slowly, the result is granite if the predominant feldspar is orthoclase, and granodiorite if plagioclase predominates. Volcanic rocks are rhyolite, rhyodacite or dacite with increasing plagioclase. It is much more common for acid lavas to be erupted as a suspension of fine ash in hot gas than as lavas, and when this aerosol solidifies, it is difficult to distinguish from rhyolite, which was presumed to solidify from lava. In fact, most rhyolite probably was never molten, and is a kind of welded tuff. Tuffs are made from coarser pyroclastics, and are very typical of acidic vulcanism. Acid lavas can be light in color. An interesting intermediate lava is andesite, named for its occurrence in the Andes cordillera. It is mainly plagioclase feldspar with less than 50% anorthite (more would put it closer to basalt), and biotite. There is little free silica, so it melts at a lower temperature and flows more readily. It is usually porphyritic, containing phenocrysts of minerals that have formed before the fine-grained groundmass solidified. It seems to be basic magma that has risen through and reacted with continental rocks. Similar rock in which orthoclase is predominant is called trachyte. The coarse-grained (plutonic) equivalents are diorite and syenite, respectively. Andesitic lavas are very common, often mixing basic and acidic characteristics. Around the Pacific "Ring of Fire" the separation of the andesitic lavas on the continental side from basaltic lavas on the oceanic side was so distinct that it was called the andesite line long before the appreciation of plate tectonics. This line coincides with the ring of oceanic trenches at subduction boundaries. The style of eruption of a volcano depends very much on the type of lava and the content of active magma fluids. At one end of the scale, there are the quiet eruptions of Hawaiian type, of fluid basaltic lava with a modest amount of gases released on cooling. At the other end are the catastrophic caldera-forming explosive eruptions of acid lavas with high gas content, which have occurred at Krakatoa, Lake Taupo, Crater Lake, Yellowstone, Jemez, Santorini and many other places. The high pressure of the depths, tens of thousands of atmospheres, is communicated to the surface through a vent of low specific gravity (because of all the gas), and the eruption disgorges a huge cloud of white-hot pyroclastics and gas. Between these two extremes is every gradation. An andesitic pile like Mt. St. Helens or Popocatépetl sometimes exudes lava quietly, sometimes spits showers of pyroclastics, and sometimes explodes violently. Different types of magma may erupt at different times in the same volcano, but usually the type is fairly consistent. The explosiveness of acidic lavas is due to the tendency to form plugs near the surface that allow pressure to build up dangerously. Mont Pelée on Martinique showed the eruption of clouds of hot aerosols, the nuées ardentes, the plug forming the spine, and an explosion. The Leeward and Windward Islands of the Caribbean form a volcanic island arc at a subduction boundary, with a trench in front of them, just like the islands of the Ring of Fire. The volcano Kick-'em-Jenny at the southern end of the Windward Islands is a submarine volcano, only projecting 160 m above the ocean. The largest volcanic eruptions are fissure eruptions of huge amounts of hot, mobile basaltic lavas that spread into large sheets burying the topography. The Deccan traps of India, which erupted at the end of the Cretaceous, and the Columbia and Snake river lavas of Washington, Oregon and Idaho, erupting in the Tertiary, are examples. The Deccan was poured out above a mantle hot spot that is now under the island of Réunion. It is easier to keep open a conduit of smaller cross-sectional area, so roughly circular conduits giving rise to central volcanoes with their typical conical shape are more common. In Iceland, fissure eruptions ending in a line of central volcanoes are evidence of this. The external forms of central volcanoes are many, but three ideal types can be identified. Hot, fluid lavas usually make shield volcanoes, like those of Hawaii. The less fluid the lava, the greater the slope, which seldom exceeds 10°. At the other end of the scale, explosive eruptions of tephra, a general term for ash, cinders and pyroclastics, give rise to steep-sided cinder cones, with slopes of up to 40°, with a bowl-shaped crater at the top ("crater" is Greek for a wine bowl of similar shape). These are generally rather small, since large ones would have been blown away in catastrophic caldera eruptions. Between these two is the familiar stratovolcano, composed of alternate layers of lava and tephra. Stratovolcanoes can be lofty and symmetrical, with upper slopes of about 35°, like Fuji in Japan and Klyuchevskoy in Kamchatka. The large volcanoes of the Cascade Mountains are stratovolcanoes. The lava is typically andesite, which varies in nature, so alternating quiet and noisy eruptions. There is no precise distinction between an "active" volcano and an "extinct" volcano. A volcano that is emitting steam now and then, or has erupted in the past 50 or 100 years, or near which small earthquakes are observed now and then, is usually called "active." A volcano that is completely cold, with no earthquakes in the vicinity, and which has not erupted for a few thousand years is usually safely termed "extinct." When the active fluids have been exhausted, that is the end of that particular episode. Vesuvius had done nothing for hundreds of years before it blew up in 79, but has erupted occasionally ever since. Mt. St. Helens was a complete surprise, but all these volcanoes of the Pacific Northwest should really be considered active. Yellowstone shows hydrothermal activity, which means that vulcanism is lurking beneath the surface, and could be renewed at any time. The North Island of New Zealand is in a similar state. In both cases, the renewal could be a caldera explosion, preceded by a symphony of earthquakes building to a crescendo. Hawaiian eruptions are continuous and mild, Etna's are continuous and rowdy, while caldera explosions are very seldom and very violent. Eruptions are usually signaled by earthquakes and earth movements, but the magnitude of an eruption is unpredictable. Volcanic activity that occurrs once, then ceases and becomes extinct, is called monogenetic. The earth's crust consists of a layer of basaltic rock about 12 km thick covering its surface. Here and there are mounds of acidic rock thick enough to press the base of the basalt to about 35 km. The base of the basaltic layer is called the Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho, discovered by seismology in 1909, at which the velocity of seismic waves increases abruptly. This is the transition to the mantle, whose rocks are denser and more rigid than those of the crust. At least this part of the mantle is probably composed mainly of olivine, (Fe,Mg)2SiO4, an ultrabasic rock, so called for its lack of aluminum and feldspars. Another component is eclogite, composed of half garnet and half pyroxene, with some quartz. Both have been found in the samples of mantle rock that we find in diatremes. When these rocks are brought to the surface (usually underwater) they react with water to form an ophiolite suite of rocks that always marks a present or past spreading centre. The ophiolite suite consists of serpentine (after which it is named; ophios = snake), chlorite, epidote and albite. Albite is sodic plagioclase, epidote is a calcium aluminium iron silicate, chlorite is a green flaky mineral, and serpentine is a green, banded metamorphic rock made of antigorite (dark-green scaly), chrysotile (greenish fibres) and lizardite (scaly white). These are very unusual minerals, and their occurrence was long a mystery until their association with plate tectonics was discovered. The mantle is very deep and remarkably homogeneous, extending down to the earth's core at about 3000 km depth (out of 6371 km to the centre). The core occupies roughly 1/8 of the earth's volume, the mantle 7/8, and the crust is negligible. Some people believe that the crust has a role in vulcanism, but this is an outside chance. Another, older, division of the earth considers the lithosphere to extend down to about 50 km, with the asthenosphere down to about 1200 km. The lithosphere was supposed to be rigid, and the asthenosphere, named by J. Barrell in 1914, apparently not. At least, it was not so rigid that isostatic equilibrium was hampered. Seismology disturbed this picture by showing that the asthenosphere was more rigid than steel, and that rock became more rigid with increased pressure, not less. The pressure at 50 km was calculated to be sufficient to overcome the shear strength of rocks, so that no open voids could exist at greater depths. There is no evidence of any discontinuity at this level, so it probably has little significance. The lithosphere-asthenosphere division still seems to be current in American geology, with plates consisting of the lithosphere floating on the asthenosphere. Much of this confusion over rock flowing has been eliminated through realizing that time is an important parameter in strength and flow, and that materials that seem to be rigid over short time intervals will flow like liquids over long ones. Therefore, any distinction between "liquid" and "solid" is not absolute, and they are not mutually exclusive categories. Many common examples of this, like wax, pitch, salt and ice were available, but were not noted except by Arthur Holmes and a few others. Another extremely important factor, perhaps the dominating factor in vulcanism, is the efficiency of light, hot fluids, mainly water but also gases such as CO2, in the transmission of heat and the production of chemical change. Such fluids almost certainly make granite by reaction with gneiss in deeply-buried rocks. I shall assume here, as is likely, that the occurrence of such fluids is an essential and causative element in all volcanic processes, not an incidental one. It is the concentration of bubbles of such fluids at the mantle-core boundary that produces hot spots, such as those under Hawaii and Yellowstone, and many other places. These bubbles can be very persistent, and cause only intermittent and gradual eruptions. At active subduction zones, ocean water is carried down with the subducting plate, as well as water and sialic components in the sediments that stick to the plate instead of being scraped off, so the fluids are constantly being recruited. This has produced the "Ring of Fire" around the borders of the Pacific, as well as on segments of the Mediterranean-Indonesian volcanic trend. Together with vulcanism on spreading ridges (much of which takes place unseen beneath the ocean), where olivine basalt is directly brought to the surface, this largely explains the geographical distribution of volcanoes. Volcanoes are not scattered uniformly or randomly over the earth's surface, and are not a consequence of the average structure of the earth. That is, they have specific causes, and the major cause is the occurrence of active fluids rising from the mantle. There are examples of all four kinds of vulcanism in the western United States, most of it Tertiary or Holocene. There is a chain of active andesite volcanoes in the Cascades, such as Ranier, Hood, Whitney and, of course St. Helens, that erupted in the early 1980's. Calderas are notable at Crater Lake, Yellowstone and the Valles Caldera in northern New Mexico. Tertiary fissure eruptions covered Oregon, Washington and Idaho with plateau basalts. There are clusters of diatremes between Laramie, Wyoming and Ft. Collins, Colorado, and in the Laramie Range of Wyoming. Beneath the Coast Ranges are granite batholiths. There has been a subduction zone along the west coast at least since the end of the Palaeozoic. Nevada and California (as well as points north and west) rode in on the subducting plate to be plastered against the craton, while a large piece rode under the continent, as India has ridden under Tibet, supplying lots of active fluids and acidic rocks. First the western part was raised to a mountainous level by the end of the Mesozoic, then the mass moved on eastwards, letting the Basin and Range drop and be dragged open, while the Rocky Mountain area rose to its present elevation, upper layers faulting in huge blocks. This was accompanied by an immense amount of volcanic material, both basic sheet basalts and acidic pyroclastics, that blanketed the area in the Tertiary. Yellowstone is the end of the path of a particularly active source of fluids, that first filled the Snake River plain with basalt, and poured out the Absaroka rocks in the vicinity of Yellowstone. Then a large acidic caldera was formed by a more recent violent eruption, about 180,000 or 70,000 ybp, that blew out the Plateau Rhyolite and sank into the space vacated. The location of the caldera is shown in the map at the right. Fluids still rise in sufficient amounts to provide hot springs and 182 geysers. Although geysers involve mostly meteoritic water, the heat is provided by fluids from below. If it were just "hot rocks" hot springs and geysers would be much more common in all areas, and the rocks would have rapidly cooled anyway. On New Mexico-Colorado boundary there is the Raton plateau basalt, eroded to a prominent tableland, a field of basaltic shield volcanoes in the Raton-Clayton field along US 64 of somewhat later date, such as Sierra Grande and Mt. Dora, and finally a collection of cinder cones, of which Capulin Mountain is an excellent example, which erupted only a few thousand years ago with lava flows and pyroclastics. It is shown in the map at the left (adapted from USGS). The Raton-Clayton volcanic field is not far from the majestic Spanish Peaks near Walsenburg in southern Colorado, eroded Tertiary stocks in a swarm of basaltic dikes. They may never actually have been volcanoes. The small, eroded cinder cone or stock called the Huerfano is just east of I-25 north of Walsenburg. The Jemez (or Valles) caldera, 14 miles in diameter, is west of Los Alamos on New Mexico Route 4. The name Valles is given to the later caldera, Jemez sometimes restricted to the ash flow of 2 mybp in the same area. The pink Bandelier Tuff is the acidic material that was expelled over a wide area around the site of the eruption, as was the similar rhyolite and obsidian of Yellowstone. The eruption was preceded by extensive basaltic lava flows, which characterize this whole region, and can be seen best in the walls of the canyon that the Rio Grande cut through them west of Taos, after they filled its valley in the Rio Grande graben. The floor of the caldera is still evident, with domes of volcanic rock. The Valle Grande once held a lake like that at Crater Lake, but it is now drained. The Valles eruption took place in the Pleistocene, and there was considerable fumarole activity afterwards. A cinder cone 1731 m high visible to the northwest of Carrizozo, New Mexico is at the head of a dark lava flow that extends to the southwest a considerable distance, to opposite Three Rivers. US 380 crosses it west of Carrizozo, and another smaller flow further on, with two vents to the north. This is very recent (holocene) activity. NM 3 passes just west of Taos Volcano a few miles north of Taos. This activity was late Tertiary, as is the basalt flow that filled the Rio Grande rift valley to the west as far as Tres Piedras, with widely scattered cinder cones. West of Albuquerque on I-40, near Grants (MP 102), is Mount Taylor, one of the very few stratovolcanoes in the Rocky Mountain area, and important in Indian legend. Unfortunately, its top has been blown off by an eruption at the end of the Tertiary, but what is left is still 11,300 feet high. There is a large plateau of late-Tertiary basalt flows extending to the northeast, with numerous cinder cones. Colorado and Wyoming are rather poor in volcanic sights, except for Yellowstone, of course. The Spanish Peaks are merely deeply eroded volcanic stocks, not stratovolcanoes, but it is worth looking at the dikes in this area. At Dotsero, on I-80 east of Glenwood Canyon, there is a small volcano northeast of the town, now being quarried for volcanic cinder to make concrete blocks. Some sources claim this is a maar, a ring of tuff blown out in an eruption, with a lake in the collapsed centre. However, topographic maps do not show such a round lake. There are various areas of Tertiary basalt, extensively in the San Juan, lesser amounts west of Gunnison, on Grand Mesa, on the White River Uplift and the Rabbit Ears Range, but no volcanoes to be seen. Wyoming has the Leucite Hills, northeast of Rock Springs and at the western end of a notable sand area. This is an area of Pleistocene volcanism, and pumice is quarried in the area. Leucite is a white, hard (6) and light (2.5) pseudocubic mineral with the composition KAlSi2O6, a feldspathoid in which each KAlO2 unit is accompanied by 2SiO2, while in orthoclase 3SiO2 is required. Therefore, there was no free silica in the lava, since there was not even enough to make all feldspar. Leucite weathers more readily than orthoclase. Outside of this, volcanic rocks are found in Wyoming only in the northwest as an extension of the Snake River vulcanism, and a little in the northeast as an extension of the Black Hills vulcanism (Devil's Tower). It is clear that not much went on, volcanically speaking, this far into the interior of the continent, until subduction pushed some water and rock under the area in the Tertiary and created some hot spots. Volcano Live, by Australian volcanologist John Seach, has information on the earth's volcanoes and links to live webcams, as well as volcano news. Use this good site to access the volcanocams at Klyuchevskoy and Shiveluch in Kamchatka. There are AVI files of eruptions here, that are well worth viewing, so that you will know what an eruption of an andesitic volcano is like from personal experience. Cascades Volcanic Observatory is an excellent website loaded with information, and a portal to other USGS sites. The material is public domain, but should be attributed out of courtesy. The main interest is, of course, United States volcanoes, but general information is included, with excellent maps and graphics. The website Colima of the University of Colima is an excellent source of volcano information, with many views of this active andesitic stratovolcano. There are both English and Spanish versions. Arthur Holmes, Principles of Physical Geology, 2nd ed. (New York: Ronald, 1965). Chapter XII. For Oldoinyo Lengai, see p. 1067. Halka Chronic, Roadside Geology of New Mexico (Missoula, MT: Mountain Press, 1987). New Mexico has a wealth of volcanic sites, chiefly in the north and west, and along the Rio Grande rift. The volcanic area between Raton and Clayton is easy to see, as is the Jemez caldera, and are worth the visit. Halka Chronic, Roadside Geology of Colorado (Missoula, MT: Mountain Press, 1987). Colorado has the Spanish Peaks, and Huerfano butte, accessible from Interstate 25. The San Juan mountains are volcanic, but there is little to see but mountains. Many volcanic caps are to be seen, as at Castle Rock and the Table Mountains near Golden. The Southern Rockies from New Mexico to Montana are not accompanied by much vulcanism. D. R. Lageson and D. R. Spearing, Roadside Geology of Wyoming (Missouls, MT: Mountain Press, 1988). Wyoming has the outstanding Yellowstone area in the northwest. Yellowstone is Quaternary, but the great Absaroka volcanics in which it sits are Eocene. Oligocene rocks (White River fm) are largely ash blown in from the west, and loess, often weathering to bentonite. Devil's Tower in the far northeast is a remarkable basalt feature with columnar jointing. A good tour of volcanic and geologic features of the New Mexico-Wyoming area would extend from Yellowstone on the north to Jemez caldera on the south, via Raton and the Spanish Peaks, then westward to Monument Valley in northern Arizona, with a side trip to the San Rafael Swell via Moab and Green River, then up over Utah 150 across the Uinta Range, then north via US 191 and 189 through the Overthrust Belt to Jackson, and finally to Yellowstone. This could be accomplished in about 10 days or a fortnight, either by RV or motel. The best time is mid-September to November, when Utah 150 is open, or else early summer, but you will have more company then. North to south is better in the autumn, south to north in the spring. A number of National Parks line the route, but they are usually packed with people, regulations and armed guards, and best avoided. Yellowstone, of course, cannot be avoided. More recommendations for such a tour may be developed later. There are, unfortunately, no active volcanoes in this region, but we can hope. Composed by J. B. Calvert Created 19 February 2003 Last revised 22 February 2003	<urn:uuid:92502a09-d939-4f7d-bc4f-c4b86088d1fa>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/geol/volcan.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954772	6,146	3.953125	4
Another way to explain Newton’s Law is that every Cause has an Effect. The decisions or actions we take today, no matter how small, have consequences. Nobody wakes up one day and decides that they want to be poor. Being poor is a consequence of thousands of decisions that came before, not just one. You’re The Captain Imagine you’re the captain of a ship. You’re one mile away from your destination and you’re compass is off a few degrees. Being that you’re so close to your destination, a broken compass isn’t that big of deal. Once you get in view of your destination, you’ll make tiny corrections and get to where you need to go. Now, imagine sailing from California to Japan with a broken compass. How far off of your destination do you think you’ll be? Hundreds of miles! You’ll not only miss your port, you’ll miss the entire country. This is the Effect of bad decisions, made time and time again. As a member of Gen Y, you’re barely off the coast of California right now. You have a long road ahead of you. If your compass has been off by a few degrees so far, you can easily fix it. If decide to wait to fix your compass, it gets harder. Each day, you’ll be farther off your target. Cause and Effect Exercise Take a piece of paper and draw a line vertically down the middle. Label the top of the left side, Cause. Label the top of the right side, Effect. Now, write down all the decisions you remember making in the last 24 hours on the left side. Don’t worry how small of a decision it was. Your goal is to come up with at least 20 decisions, which shouldn’t take long. Now, on the right side list the effect of each of your decisions. If you slept in, what’s the effect? If you worked out, what’s the effect? What was the effect of what you ate? What was the effect of the projects you choose to work on? What was the effect of the social interactions you had? When I do this, it’s like recalibrating my compass. It’s a way to make sure that I’m headed straight towards my target. I encourage you to try this yourself. You’ll be amazed how many small decisions have lead you to where you’re right now. And please, share your thoughts in the comments. Photo by: Harlqueen	<urn:uuid:df6c670c-bf13-4b1a-b39d-9f32abdcc723>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.genywealth.com/effect	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930955	558	3.375	3
Pectus Excavatum in Cats The sternum, or chest bone, is a long flat bone located in the center of the thorax, and the costal cartilages are the cartilages that connect the chest bone with the ends of the ribs. In pectus excavatum, the sternum and costal cartilages are deformed, resulting in a horizontal narrowing of the chest, primarily on the posterior side. In appearance, the middle of the chest appear to be flat or concave, rather than slightly convex. Symptoms and Types - Difficult breathing - Unable to perform routine exercise - Increased depth of breathing - Recurrent lung infections - Weight loss - Poor appetite - Failure to gain weight There is a genetic predisposition in some cat breeds, but pectus excavatum can occur spontaneously in any breed. The condition may not be obvious until several weeks after birth unless it is a severe form. You will need to give your veterinarian a thorough history of your cat's health, any information you have of its parentage and genetic background, and the onset of symptoms. Routine laboratory tests will include complete blood tests, biochemical profiles, and a urinalysis. Your veterinarian will conduct multiple x-rays of the thoracic cavity to confirm the diagnosis of pectus excavatum. These x-rays will reveal the actual deformities and related structural abnormalities. In some patients, the heart may be shifted from its normal place on the left side of the thoracic cavity. Abnormalities and concurrent diseases related to the respiratory system will also be visible on x-rays. Echocardiography (ECHO), a sonographic image of the heart, will be used to further evaluate the heart, its functioning ability, and possible cardiac defects. Surgery remains the only treatment option for repairing this deformity. However, if the disease is mild and your cat only has a flat chest, then it may be improved without surgery. In such cases, your veterinarian will instruct you in manually compressing the chest in such a way that will encourage the sternum and costal cartilages to take on a more convex shape. In some patients, a splint application will work to reduce the mild defects. However, in cases of moderate or severe inward sinking of the sternum, surgery is indicated for correction of the defects. The technique used by your veterinary surgeon will depend on your cat's age and the extent of the problem. Patients with respiratory problems that are directly related to this condition generally improve substantially after surgery and will start breathing comfortably. Living and Management Prognosis is very poor for severely affected patients, but a timely intervention and reparation at an early age may help improve the prognosis. Follow your doctor's guidelines for physical therapy at home if your cat has a mild form of the condition. After surgery, your cat may feel sore and will need proper rest in a quiet place, away from other pets and active children. You might consider cage rest for a short time, until your cat can safely move about again without overexertion. Your veterinarian will also prescribe a short course of pain killers until your cat has fully recovered, along with a mild course of antibiotics, to prevent any opportunistic bacteria from attacking your cat. Medications will need to be given precisely as directed, at the proper dosage and frequency. Keep in mind that over dosage of pain medications is one of the most preventable causes for death in household animals. To make the recovery period easier for your cat, place a litter box close to where your cat is resting so that it does not need to make a lot of effort, and the feeding dishes as well. While you will want to give your cat as much peace as possible, you will need to check in on your cat frequently, observing its breathing pattern and rate. If you see any abnormality in your cat's breathing, in the movement of its chest, or in its behavior, immediately call your veterinarian. Image: mtr via Shutterstock	<urn:uuid:50626635-b6dc-4125-b5de-dbe5b58edc29>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.petmd.com/cat/conditions/musculoskeletal/c_ct_chest_bone_deformity?page=show	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.931701	827	3.171875	3
There can hardly be a father of any other country in the world with so little to show for it as Sir John A. Macdonald. George Washington is remembered with an enormous phallus looming over a capital city that bears his name. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk has a bridge, a major international airport, a dam, and an Olympic-sized stadium in Istanbul. There’s an asteroid named after the founder of the Netherlands. But Macdonald has nothing iconic to honour him. There’s a rather meagre airport in Ottawa and a freeway in southern Ontario—both of which he has to share with Sir George-Étienne Cartier. There’s also a town in Manitoba (population 6,280). Sir John A. Macdonald Day is January 11, in case you’ve forgotten, but it’s not the kind of holiday where you get time off (what can you do on January 11 in Canada, anyway?). The city of Macdonald’s birth, Glasgow, Scotland, plans to build a memorial in his honour, but the fact that it has taken 200 years to get started shows just how unimpressed Scots are that one of their own established the second-largest country in the world. As the bicentennial of his birth approaches, Canadians and British alike treat him, for the most part, with indifference—a terrible error. Far from deserving indifference, John A. Macdonald deserves considered and active contempt. Let us not bother, in his case, with the pettiness of historical revisionism—the undercutting and the belittling that so often bedevil accounts of the past when new visions of virtue happen to overtake the facts. The judgment of Richard Gwyn, in his definitive biography of the man, is no doubt correct: “Among all the ablest nineteenth-century democratic leaders, including Lincoln, Disraeli and Gladstone, he was one of the most skilled and most experienced, and probably the most wily. He was also exceptionally determined, whether in pursuit of his country’s interests or of his own.” Confederation would have taken a great deal longer without him; British Columbia might well belong to the United States right now. Like all idols, the man had clay feet. He was a drunk. Who cares? Without him, the country that we have would not exist. And therein lies the reason why his memory calls for a more profound re-examination. John A. Macdonald was the corrupt, inebriated, racist father of Canada. The corruption, the inebriation, and the racism weren’t the problem: His failures were typical. His triumphs are what we need to worry about. He gave us Confederation, which we celebrate as the origin of our country—though we remained a British dominion with little say in our foreign affairs until 1931. He taught us that the Empire should act like “one great nation,” and declared, “A British subject I was born, and a British subject I hope to die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.” So tormented and so shallow was the vision contained in the British North America Act of 1867—his proudest accomplishment—that the ghosts of its omissions continue to haunt us. It’s not just the spectre of Quebec separatism. To this day, if you mention the Constitution at a cocktail party, whomever you’re talking to will simply walk away. Our national vision is so compromised, so utterly lacking in any idea other than “why don’t we all get along,” that the mess our first prime minister left behind has spiralled into a series of crises that may never be resolved. Macdonald’s other great achievement was the Canadian Pacific Railway. Again, this supposed glory has left unhealed scars on the country that was its beneficiary. The final push came from the crisis of the Northwest Rebellion in 1885. The blood of Canada’s fundamental symbolic crime stains him: he hanged Louis Riel, or at least he refused to reprieve him in his madness—which is possibly even worse and more symbolic. The violation of Treaty Number Six, which promised food and aid to First Nations in times of hardship, was more directly genocidal. When the bison herds collapsed and famine came, Macdonald bragged of efficiencies: “We are doing all we can, by refusing food until the Indians are on the verge of starvation, to reduce the expense.” The Canada of “Peace, Order, and good Government” did not allow for the massacre of Aboriginal peoples, but it did allow for their starvation: it was a quiet, unostentatious ethnic cleansing. Famine cleared the way for the railroad. It also prepared the way for the government nutritionists in the 1940s and 1950s who instead of feeding hungry communities used them to study the effects of malnutrition. Macdonald’s other crime in the West was of a more ordinary, more classic, more lasting variety. After the vast corruption of the railway contracts, he popped into British Columbia at the last moment to bang in the final spike at Cliffside Station—the eastern elite sweeping in to take the resources and claim the credit for western effort. It would not be the last time. Then there is his hatred of immigrants. You’re not always to blame for your admirers, but Canadian Nazis have been known to throw John A. Macdonald parties when they don’t feel like calling their gatherings Nazi parties. Macdonald was a white supremacist. That’s really the only name for it. Our first prime minister denied Chinese immigrants the vote because, in his words, “he is a stranger, a sojourner in a strange land…he has no common interest with us…he has no British instincts or British feelings or aspirations, and therefore ought not to have a vote.” Granted, his wasn’t a particularly rare point of view in the late nineteenth century; on the other hand, it was not an inevitable position. Macdonald believed, above all, in subservience to the British Empire. As his campaign promised in 1891, “The old flag, the old policy, the old leader.” Because of him, we are our own country, but not our own country. Our symbols, even our head of state, belong to another nation and probably always will. A colonial mentality penetrates Canadian culture; successive waves of nationalism have failed to budge it. Under the shadow of Sir John A. Macdonald’s glorious accomplishments, we remain connected to a defunct empire; we possess no national vision that connects French-speaking and English-speaking populations; and we have not dealt, nor are we dealing, with the underlying crime of taking land by force from the people whose rebellions against English dominion we crushed while he was prime minister. The memory of Macdonald is the nightmare of history; it is the memory we should forget but cannot. The Canada that we want to have is open, tolerant, and, above all, itself. Sir John A. Macdonald would have hated every word in that sentence. He was the father of the country, sure. But he was the father of the country we don’t want to be. Teaching Sir JAM’s legacy The leaders who created this great country lived at a time when racism, sexism, and corruption were the orders of the day. The Walrus wants to hear from Canadian educators: How do we instill respect in our nation’s founders, while teaching children about the regressive attitudes that permeated nineteenth century Western societies? Please leave your response as a comment below, or send an email to [email protected]. This appeared in the January/February 2015 issue. Stephen Marche (@StephenMarche) published The Hunger of the Wolf, a novel, in February 2015.	<urn:uuid:7f4257ad-f0cc-479d-86fa-452527284508>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://thewalrus.ca/old-macdonald/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.967949	1,673	2.84375	3
The Yamal Peninsula: a stretch of peatland that extends from northern Siberia into the Kara Sea, far above the Arctic Circle. To the east lie the shallow waters of the Gulf of Ob; to the west, the Baydaratskaya Bay, which is ice-covered for most of the year. Yamal in the language of the indigenous Nenets means the end of the world; it is a remote, wind-blasted place of permafrost, serpentine rivers and dwarf shrubs, and has been home to the reindeer-herding Nenets people for over a thousand years. Nenets herders have always moved seasonally with their reindeer, travelling along ancient migration routes. During the winter, when temperatures can plummet to – 50C, most Nenets graze their reindeer on moss and lichen pastures in the southern forests, or taigá. In the summer months, when the midnight sun turns night into day, they leave the larch and willow trees behind to migrate north. By the time they have crossed the frozen waters of the Ob River and reached the treeless tundra on the shores of the Kara Sea, they might have travelled up to 1,000 kms. Today, however, the Nenets’ migration routes are now affected by the infrastructure associated with resource extraction; roads are difficult for the reindeer to cross and they say pollution threatens the quality of the pastures. Preparations for what is known as the Yamal Megaproject (a long term project to exploit the peninsula’s gas, developed by the Russian corporation Gazprom) were initiated in the 1990s. In May 2012, the first of its gas supplies from the vast Bovanenkovo field will be produced. Every year, billions of cubic meters will be piped to western Europe. What happens to the land is very important to us, Nenets herder Sergei Hudi told Survival International recently. We are afraid that with all these new industries, we will not be able to migrate anymore. And if we cannot migrate anymore, our people may just disappear altogether. The Nenets have had to face the threat of extinction before, having endured the challenges of colonial intrusions, civil war, revolution and forced collectivisation. Today, their herding way of life is again seriously threatened. Under Stalin, Nenets communities were split into groups known as brigades, and forced to live on collective farms and villages called kolkhozy. Each brigade was obliged to pay reindeer meat as taxes. Children were separated from their families and sent to government-run boarding schools, where they were forbidden to speak their own language. With the collapse of communism, young adults began to leave their villages for cities, a trend which continues today. In urban environments they find it almost impossible to adapt to life away from the cyclical rhythms of the tundra, and suffer from high levels of alcoholism, unemployment and mental health problems. For the Nenets who are still nomadic, their lands and reindeer herds remain vitally important to their collective identity. Land is everything to us. Everything. said Sergei Hudi. The reindeer is our home, our food, our warmth and our transportation, Sergei Hudi told Survival. Nenets’ coats are made from reindeer hide, and threaded together with reindeer sinew. Lassoos are crafted from reindeer tendons; tools and sledge parts from bone. The covers of the conical-shaped tents – called choom or mya, – are also made from reindeer hide and mounted on heavy poles. Every Nenets has a sacred reindeer, which must not be harnessed or slaughtered until it is no longer able to walk. Reindeer meat is also the most important part of the Nenets’ diet. It is eaten raw, frozen or boiled, together with the blood of a freshly slaughtered reindeer, which is rich in vitamins. The Nenets also eat fish such as white salmon and muksun, a silvery-coloured whitefish and gather mountain cranberry during the summer months. Under a leaden grey sky, a Nenets family is on the move: women pack the sledges used to carry their belongings. At night, the sledges are arranged in half-circles around the choom. As they migrate, they encounter the many pipelines, drilling towers and tarmac roads that are transforming the tundra. A 325-mile Obskaya-Bovanenkovo railway line – the world’s most northerly – was opened in early 2011. We ask that companies take our perspective into consideration when they are prospecting, said Sergei Hudi. And it is important that gas pipelines do not interfere with our access to reindeer pastures. Sophie Grig, senior campaigner at Survival International, says, Gazprom’s website calls the Yamal Peninsula a strategic oil and gas bearing region of Russia. This sums up how they view the Nenets’ ancestral homelands. The Arctic is changing fast, however. As temperatures rise and the tundra’s permafrost thaws, it releases carbon dioxide and methane – greenhouse gases – into the atmosphere. With the ice melting earlier in the spring and not freezing until much later in the autumn, the herders are being forced to change centuries-old migration patterns, as the reindeer find it difficult to walk over a snow-less tundra. The rising temperatures also affect the tundra’s vegetation, the only source of food for the reindeer. Scientists fear that if billions of tonnes of gases are released from the permafrost, it could prove to be a dangerous tipping point for the world’s climate system. Melting permafrost has caused some of the tundra’s freshwater lakes to drain, which will lead to a decline in the the Nenets’ supply of fish. As the sea ice around the peninsula also melts, so the ocean opens to maritime traffic. Arctic sea lanes act as potential gateways for trade between Asia, Europe and North America. In 2011, the tanker Vladimir Tikhonov became the largest vessel ever to navigate the Northeast Passage. The Nenets have endured the challenges of colonial intrusions, civil war, revolution and forced collectivisation. Today, their herding way of life is again seriously threatened. To survive as a people, the Nenets need unobstructed access to their pastures and an environment untouched by industrial waste. The Nenets people have lived on and stewarded the tundra’s fragile ecology for hundreds of years says Sophie Grig of Survival International. No developments should take place on their land without their consent, and they need to to receive fair compensation for any damages caused. With countries and corporations clamouring for a piece of the Arctic, scientists scrambling to study the changing environment and Gazprom’s announcement that additional gas fields on the peninsula will be ready for production in 2019, their concerns grow ever more urgent. The reindeer is our life and the future, said one Nenets woman.	<urn:uuid:114e0d2e-23a2-41bd-b01a-60c69f76da8b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.survivalinternational.org/photo-stories/3198-the-nenets-of-siberia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952489	1,522	3.203125	3
SCA 1980, Padre Island National Seashore “It was the first time I saw the ocean or a sea turtle,” says Donna Shaver, recalling her SCA internship at Padre Island National Seashore nearly 35 years ago. “It changed my career and my life.” Indeed, she’s been at Padre Island ever since. Dr. Shaver’s internship convinced her “to dedicate my career to helping recover dwindling sea turtle populations and study these animals. I have spent my working career doing so.” Development, fish and poaching have taken a terrible toll on the once thriving Kemp’s ridley species, but Shaver – Padre Island’s chief of the Division of Sea Turtle Science and Recovery – is credited with enabling tens of thousands of endangered Kemp’s ridley turtles to safely hatch and scurry home to the Gulf of Mexico. “Some of the turtles that I incubated from 1978 to 1988 have come back and laid their eggs and I have incubated them as well,” Shaver once told ABC News. “Mother hen, grandmother hen.” “These creatures have existed for four million years,” she adds, “and human activity nearly eliminated them. Our job is to right a wrong by protecting the turtle’s place in the web of life.” The Corpus Christi Caller-Times named Dr. Shaver their Newsmaker of the Year. Read their extensive profile here.	<urn:uuid:6210d537-9594-4d5b-b4ff-06fefd9e63e9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.thesca.org/connect/blog/dr-donna-shaver	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.951778	317	2.828125	3
Can we handle what dolphins have to tell us? CNET News reports: Scientists at the Wild Dolphin Project (WDP) who have been developing a dolphin translator may have succeeded in getting their software to work. WDP director Denise Herzing was swimming in the Caribbean with a pod of dolphins she has been tracking for 25 years, wearing a prototype of a dolphin translator called Cetacean Hearing and Telemetry (CHAT), developed by the Georgia Institute of Technology’s Thad Starner, when one of the dolphin’s whistles was translated as the word “sargassum” — a type of seaweed. Humans have for some time been communicating with dolphins on a rudimentary level. The animals are capable of responding appropriately to commands and learning to recognise symbols. The whistle picked up by CHAT, translated into human speech, was not a whistle from the dolphins’ natural repertoire. Instead, Herzing and her team invented a series of whistles and ascribed them to certain things — one of which was sargassum — and trained the dolphins to repeat the whistles when they encountered those things. If the CHAT program succeeds, two-way human-dolphin communication will become a real possibility. It won’t work universally — dolphins “speak” in regional dialects — but it may be possible to one day know what really goes on in those strange, shiny heads. Latest posts by JacobSloan (see all) - For Sale: Poveglia, The Haunted Italian Island With A Chilling History - Apr 20, 2014 - Lab Is Missing 2,000 Vials Of The Deadly SARS Virus - Apr 19, 2014 - Essential Vitamin B3 May Have Arrived From Space On Meteorites - Apr 18, 2014	<urn:uuid:c73e08d6-3e34-4ab5-8281-6a37bcfef243>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://disinfo.com/2014/04/dolphin-translator-relays-first-word/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947984	372	3.015625	3
When an earthquake or other emergency strikes, you and your family may not have access to food, water or electricity for days. Will you be ready? Experts say that every household should have an emergency preparedness kit on hand. The American Red Cross and Uncle Sam recommend storing the following essential items in a large backpack or two, which will allow for a quick exit in case you and your family need to evacuate. (Refresh your emergency kits periodically by replacing any expired medications, food or batteries. Also, replace emergency water every six months.) If the power goes out, use a flashlight for lighting, rather than candles or any other open flame. Battery-powered radio and extra batteries Radio reports offer crucial info as area events unfold. Although service may be interrupted, you may still be able to use your phone to call for information. Plastic sheeting and duct tape In the case of a chemical or radiation accident, use plastic sheeting and duct tape to make an enclosed shelter in your home until authorities arrive or announce that all’s clear. Choose an area with few windows and a water supply. Stash enough nonperishable food for at least three days, including ready-to- eat canned meals, canned fruits and vegetables, and granola bars. Remember baby formula and pet food. Include paper plates and cups, plastic utensils, and a manual can opener. Include the following items—absorbent compress, adhesive bandages, adhesive cloth tape, antibiotic ointment, antiseptic wipe packets, aspirin, first-aid guide, nonlatex gloves, roller bandage, scissors and sterile gauze pads. Personal hygiene items Pack a toothbrush, toothpaste, comb, brush, soap, contact lens supplies and feminine hygiene supplies. Stock a seven day supply of prescription medications. Include plastic garbage bags and ties. Pack one change of clothing and footwear for each member of the household, including a longsleeve shirt and long pants, as well as closed-toe shoes or boots. In or near your backpack(s), keep at least one gallon of water (per person, per day) on hand, stored in a plastic container. Remember, you may need more if you take medications that require water or increase thirst. For more information, visit redcross.org, the American Red Cross Web site	<urn:uuid:0156170c-6089-48ae-884b-68057be8e9b9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.johnmuirhealth.com/health-education/health-wellness/preparing-for-emergencies/anatomy-of-an-emergency-survival-kit.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.912088	489	3.125	3

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