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Loneliness may not only be miserable — it could also be unsafe, according to new research linking extreme loneliness to an increased risk of death.
Dr. John Cacioppo, a psychologist at the University of Chicago and lead author of the new study, said that feeling lonely in old age may increase your risk of premature death by up to 14 percent. The newly discovered mortality factor is almost as strong as socioeconomic hardship and disadvantage, which has been shown to increase the risk by 19 percent. "Loneliness is a risk factor for early death beyond what can be explained by poor health behaviors," he told USA Today, adding that friends, family, and relationships are often crucial to maintaining quality of life. "Poor quality of sleep hastens aging."
The findings, which were presented at the American Association for the Advancement of Science’s annual meeting in Chicago, suggest that a number of different issues may accelerate aging during loneliness. First, older lonely people may have a hard time recovering from stress and adopting a positive outlook in the face of adversity. Similarly, loneliness appears to disrupt sleep, elevate blood pressure, and increase levels of cortisol — a hormone tied to major depressive disorder.
According to the researchers, it is important to remember that the elevated risk arises from a subjective feeling of isolation rather than physical solitude. "Retiring to Florida to live in a warmer climate among strangers isn't necessarily a good idea if it means you are disconnected from the people who mean the most to you," Cacioppo explained. “Maintaining quality relationships, engaging in meaningful activities with others and practicing healthy behaviors increase the odds of a long and happier life.”
Loneliness and Your Health
This is not the first study to link loneliness to far-reaching consequences. Cacioppo’s new study adds to a growing series of attempts to understand how feelings of solitude shape our physical health as well as our mental well-being. For example, loneliness can make you more likely to spend money you don’t really have. Similarly, solitude has also been tied to a weakened immune system.
"We are experiencing a silver tsunami demographically,” the researchers concluded. “The baby boomers are reaching retirement age. Each day between 2011 and 2030, an average of 10,000 people will turn 65. People have to think about how to protect themselves from depression, low subjective well-being and early mortality."
Source: Cacioppo J, et al. Loneliness is a major health risk in older adults. Presented at “The Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.” 2014.
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October is Pumpkin Month…..Feeding Pumpkins to your parrot
|Pumpkin is a
great food for you birds and they are so reasonable in the fall! By late
October, the stores are offering them for about .10 per pound. That is
when I stock up. Fruits which are orange and yellow in color tend to
contain higher amounts of carotene which is converted to Vitamin A. The
more intense the green, yellow or orange color the more beta carotene
the vegetable or fruit contains. Pumpkin provides vitamin A, potassium,
protein, and vitamin C.
I can't resist enhancing the natural sweetness already found in squashes, yams, pumpkins by baking them for our fids. I have also read that cooking helps aid absorption of the Vitamin A (Beta carotene). Other sources of beta carotene include carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin and other orange winter squashes, cantaloupe, pink grapefruit, spinach, apricots, broccoli, and most dark green leafy vegetables. The smaller the pumpkin, the easier it is to cut. They are not as firm as the bigger carving ones.
Here are some various ideas for you about preparing pumpkins.
Pumpkin seeds have long been a favorite of parrots. It is easy to prepare them.
Remove seeds from pumpkin.
Do not salt like you would for us humans.
Please click on one of the below icons if you would like to thank us for our site and information :)
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3.12 James Curry escapes from slavery
"Narrative of James Curry, A Fugitive Slave." The Liberator, January 10, 1840.
This page has comments. Move your mouse over the highlighted text or marked image.
After I was sixteen, I was put into the field to work in the spring and summer, and in the autumn and winter, I worked in the hatter’s shop with my uncle. We raised on the plantation, principally, tobacco, some cotton, and some grain. We commenced work as soon as we could see in the morning, and worked from that time until 12 o’clock before breakfast, and then until dark, when we had our dinner, and hastened to our night-work for ourselves. We were not driven as field slaves generally are, and yet when I hear people here say they work as hard as the slaves, I can tell them from experience, they know nothing about it. And even if they did work as hard, there is one striking difference. When they go home at night, they carry to their families the wages of their daily labor; and then they have the night for rest and sleep. Whereas, the slave carries to his family at night, only a weary body and a sick mind, and all he can do for them is done during the hours allowed him for sleep. A slave, who was hired during one summer by Thomas Maguhee, a rich slaveholder in our neighborhood, soon after his return, passed with me, one day, near a field on his plantation. Pointing to it, he said, ‘I never saw blood flow any where as I’ve seen it flow in that field. It flows there like water. When I went there to work, I was a man but now, I am a boy. I could then carry several bushels on my shoulder, but now I cannot lift one to it.’ So very hard had he been worked. When arranging the slaves for hoeing in the field, the overseer takes them, one at a time, and tries their speed, and places them accordingly in the row, the swiftest first and so on. Then they commence, and all must keep up with the foremost. This Thomas Maguhee used to walk into his field, with his hat close down on his head, and holding his cane over his shoulder. When he came up to the poor slaves, as they were tugging at their hoes, he would call out, ‘boys!’ Then they must all raise their hats and reply simultaneously, ‘Sir.’ ‘Move your hoes.’ They would spring forward and strive to increase their speed to the utmost; but presently he would call out again, ‘boys!’ Again the hats were raised as they answered, ‘Sir.’ ‘I told you to move your hoes, and you hav’nt moved them yet. I have twice to threat and once to fall. (That is, if you do not move faster, I shall knock you down.) Now the poor creatures must make their last effort, and when he saw that their every power was exerted, he would set his hat on the top of his head, taking down his cane, set his arms akimbo and strut through the field.…
When in my twentieth year, I became attached to a free colored girl, who lived about two miles from our plantation. When I asked my master’s consent to our marriage, he refused to give it, and swore that he would cut my throat from ear to ear, before I should marry a free nigger; and with thus he left me. I did not expect him to consent, but I had determined to do in this as I pleased; I knew he would not kill me, because I was money to him, and all the time keeping freedom in my view, I knew I could run away if he punished me. And so we were married. We did not dare to have any even of the trifling ceremony allowed to the slaves, but God married us. It was about two months before he said any thing to me about it. He then attacked me one Sabbath morning, and told me I had broken his orders. He said I should not have my free wife, for he would separate us, as far as there was land to carry me. I told him if I was separated from her, I should choose to be sent away. He then told me that she was a bad girl, and endeavored by his falsehoods to make me believe it. My indignation was roused, I forgot whom I was talking to, and was on the point of giving him the lie, when I recollected myself and smothered my feelings. He then again said he would cut my throat from ear to ear, and if he had his pen-knife, he would do it now. I told him he might kill me if he chose, I had rather die than be separated from my wife. A man with whom he had been negotiating for overseer, was standing by, and he said to my master, I would not do that; you know what the Scripture says about separating man and wife; and he soon desisted and never said any more about it.
But notwithstanding my union with the object of my affection, and the comparatively good treatment I received, I still cherished the longing for liberty, which, from my childhood, had been the prevailing desire of my heart. Hitherto, my attachment to my relations, to my mother in particular, had determined me to remain as long as a strict performance of my allotted labors saved me from being whipped; but the time came, when, having obtained a knowledge of the course which would carry me to Pennsylvania, I only waited for an occasion to escape. It is very common for slaves, when whipped or threatened with a whipping, to run into the woods, and after a short time, when subdued by hunger, not knowing whither to flee for relief, to return and throw themselves upon the mercy of their masters. Therefore, when a slave runs away, on such an occasion, it is expected that he will soon return, and little trouble is taken about it for some days. For such an occasion I now waited, and it was not long before it came without my seeking it. In May, 1837, just after I was 22 years old, the overseer sent a boy to me one evening, with a horse, bidding me go with him to feed him. It was then between nine and ten o’clock at night. I had toiled through the day for my master, had just got my dinner, and was on my way to the hatter’s shop for my night’s work, when the boy came to me. I did not think it necessary for me to go with him, so I told him where to put the horse, and that the feed was all ready and he might throw it in; and then I went to my work at the shop, where I was allowed to make hats, using nothing of my master’s, except tools and the dye, which would be thrown away after my uncle had done with it. In a few minutes, the overseer came in and asked me why I did not go with the boy. I began to reply, by by telling him that I thought he did not care if the horse was but fed, and the boy could just as well do it alone; he said he would let me know that I should obey my orders, and if I did not move and feed the horse, he would thrush me as long as he could find me. I went to the house to obey him, and he followed me; but the horse was fed when I got there. He then swore that he would flog me because I had not obeyed his orders. He took a hickory rod and struck me some thirty or forty strokes, over my clothes. My first impulse was to take the stick out of his hand, for I was much stronger than he. But I recollected that my master was in the house, and if I did so, he would be called, and probably I should be stripped and tied, and instead of thirty or forty, should receive hundreds of stripes. I therefore concluded it was wisest to take quietly whatever he choose to inflict, but as the strokes fell upon my back, I firmly resolved that I would no longer be a slave. I would now escape or die in the attempt. They might shoot me down if they chose, but I would not live a slave. The next morning, I decided, that, as my master was preparing for one of his slave-driving expeditions to Alabama, I would wait until he was gone; that when he was fairly started on his journey, I would start on mine, he for the south, and I for the north. In the meantime, I instructed my two younger brothers in my plans. It happened that on the afternoon of the 14th of June, about three weeks after the whipping I received, and just after my master had set off for Alabama, as we were going to the field after breakfast, to ploughing, the overseer got very angry with me and my two brothers, and threatened to whip us before night. He said that as he could not do it himself, there were men in the neighborhood he could get to help him, and then he walked away. This was our opportunity. We took our horses round to the road fence and hitched them, and ran for my wife’s house. There I changed my clothes, and took my leave of her, with the hope of being soon able to send for her from a land of freedom, and left her in a state of distress which I cannot describe. We started without money and without clothes, except what we wore, (not daring to carry a bundle,) but with our hearts full of hope. We travelled by night, and slept in the woods during the day. After travelling two or three nights, we got alarmed and turned out of the road, and before we turned into it again, it had separated, and we took the wrong road. It was cloudy for two or three days, and after travelling three nights, we found ourselves just where we were three days before, and almost home again. We were sadly disappointed, but not discouraged; and so, turning our faces again northward, we went on.
Near Petersburgh, we passed a neat farm-house, with every thing around it in perfect order, which had once been shown to me by a slave, as I was driving my master’s team to the city. ‘That,’ said he, ‘belongs to a Friend; they never hold slaves.’ Now I was strongly tempted to stop there, and ask instruction in my northward course, as I knew the way no farther; but I dared not. So, not knowing the north star, we took the two lower stars of the great bear for our guide, and putting our trust in God, we passed Petersburgh. We suffered much from hunger. There was no fruit and no grain to be found at that season, and we sometimes went two days, and sometimes three, without tasting food, as we did not dare to ask, except when we found a slave’s, or free colored person’s house remote from any other, and then we were never refused, if they had food to give. Thus we came on, until about forty-five miles from Washington, when, having in the night obtained some meal, and having then been three days without food, my poor brothers begged me to go out of the woods in the day time, and get some fire in order to bake us some bread. I went to a house, got some and returned to the woods. We made a fire in the hollow stump of a tree, mixed our meal with water, which we found near, and wrapping it in leaves, threw it in and baked it. After eating heartily, we began to bake some to carry with us, when, hearing a noise in the bushes, we looked up, and beheld dogs coming towards us, and behind them several white men, who called out, ‘O! you rascals, what are you doing there? Catch him! catch him!’ The dogs sprang towards us. My feelings I cannot describe, as I started, and ran with all my might. My brothers, having taken off their coats and hats, stopped to pick them up, and then ran off in another direction, and the dogs followed them, while I escaped, and never saw them more. I heard the dogs barking after them, when I had got as much as a mile from where we started. Oh! then I was most miserable, left alone, a poor hunted stranger in a strange land—my brothers gone. I know not how to express the feelings of that moment. After listening awhile, I went forward. I had lost my way, and knew not where I was, but I looked at the sun, and as near as I could, pursued a northward course. In that afternoon I was attacked by a wild beast. I knew not what it was. I thought, surely I am beset this day, but unlike the men, more ferocious than wild beasts, I succeeded in driving him away, and that night crossed a branch of the Potomac. Just before I reached the town of Dumfries, I came across an old horse in a field with a bell on his neck. I had been warned by a colored man, a few nights before, to beware of Dumfries. I was worn out with running, and I took the bell off the horse’s neck, took the bell collar for a whip, and putting a hickory bark round his head for a bridle, I jumped on his back, and thus mounted, I rode through Dumfries. The bull-dogs lay along the street, ready to seize the poor night traveller, but, being on horse-back, they did not molest me. I have no doubt that I should have been taken up, if I had been on foot. When I got through the town, I dismounted, and said to my horse, ‘go back to your master, I did not mean to injure him, and hope we will get you again, but you have done me a great deal of good.’ And then I hastened on, and got as far from him as I could before morning. At Alexandria, I crossed the Potomac river, and came to Washington, where I made friends with a colored family, with whom I rested eight days. I then took the Montgomery road, but, wishing to escape Baltimore, I turned off, and it being cloudy, I lost my course, and fell back again upon the Potomac river, and travelled on the tow path of the canal from Friday night until Sunday morning, when I lay down and slept a little, and then, having no place to hide for the day, I determined to go on until I could find a place of safety. I soon saw a man riding towards me on horse-back. As he came near, he put his eyes upon me, and I felt sure that he intended to question me. I fell to praying to God to protect me, and so begging and praying fervently, I went forward. When he met me, he stopped his horse, leaned forward and looked at me, and then, without speaking, rode on again. I still fully believe it was at first his intention to question me. I soon entered a colored person’s house on the side of the canal, where they gave me breakfast and treated me very kindly. I travelled on through Williamsport and Hagerstown, in Maryland, and, on the 19th day of July, about two hours before day. I crossed the line into Pennsylvania, with a heart full of gratitude to God, believing that I was indeed a free man, and that now, under the protection of law, there was ‘none who could molest me or make me afraid.’ In the course of the morning, I was spoken to by a man, sitting at the window of a house in Chambersburg, who asked me if I wanted a job of work. I replied that I did, and he took me into his garden, and set me to work. When the job there was done, he told me I might clean his carriage. At dinner, I ate in the kitchen with a colored woman. She inquired where I came from, I told her the name of the town in Pennsylvania. Said she, ‘I didn’t know but you came from Virginia, or Maryland, and sometimes, some of our colored friends come from there hither, and think they are free, but the people about here are very ugly, and they take them and carry them back; and if you haven’t sufficient free papers, I would advise you not to stay here to-night.’ This was enough for me. I had discovered that the man was very curious about me, and seemed disposed to keep me at work upon little jobs until night. I went out, and jumped over the garden wall, and was soon on the turnpike road. I was very fearful, and came on tremblingly; but near Philadelphia, I fell in with members of the Society of Friends, whom I never feared to trust, who ‘took in the stranger,’ and I worked for them until Christmas.
After finding, to my great disappointment, that I was now a free man, and that I could not send for my wife from here, I determined to go to Canada. But the situation of that country at that time was such, that my friends thought it not best for me to go immediately, and advised me to come into the State of Massachusetts, as the safest place for me until the difficulties in Canada were passed away. I was taken by kind friends to New York, from whence the Abolitionists sent me to Massachusetts, and here I have found a resting place, and have met with friends who have freely administered to my necessities, and whose kindness to the poor fugitive I shall ever remember with emotions of heartfelt gratitude. And here I have fulfilled the promise made in slavery to my Maker, that I would acknowledge him before men, when I came into a land of freedom. And although I have suffered much, very much in my escape, and have not here found that perfect freedom which I anticipated, yet I have never for one moment regretted that I thus sought my liberty.
In a few days I start for Canada, fully believing that he who has thus far protected me, will guide me safely, where, under the free goverment of Queen Victoria, I may feel myself a man. I trust in God.
- into the field to work
Prior to his sixteenth birthday, Curry worked as a domestic servant.
- We did not dare to have any even of the trifling ceremony allowed to the slaves
Slave unions were not legally considered marriages in North Carolina or in other southern states. Sometimes a minister performed a ceremony, although it was not legally binding. Most often, to show their union, the couple would hold hands and jump over a broom that was held over the base of a door.
- Scripture says about separating man and wife
When asked if a man could divorce his wife, Jesus replied, “What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder” (Matthew 19:6).
- a Friend
A member of the Society of Friends, or Quakers.
- we passed Petersburgh
Petersburg, Virginia, is about 130 miles from Person County, and would have taken about 40 hours to reach on foot.
Dumfries, Virginia, is about 100 miles north of Petersburg.
Alexandria, Virginia, is about 25 miles north of Dumfries.
- tow path of the canal
A towroad is a road that runs alongside a canal or road. Animals or people would pull a barge or boat up a river as they walked along the side of the canal.
Hagerstown, Maryland, is about 80 miles northwest of Alexandria.
Philadelphia is about 400 miles north of Person County.
- Society of Friends
Since the late 18th century, the Society of Friends (Quakers) had been opposed to slavery. Friends were instrumental in setting up the Underground Railroad and in helping slaves reach Canada.
- But the situation of that country at that time was such
From late 1837 through the first part of 1838, there was a rebellion in the British colony of Upper Canada (Southern Ontario near Toronto). It was an uprising of several hundred men, many of whom were English and Scottish, against British colonial government. The instability inspired a brief rebellion among French Canadians in Lower Canada (Southern Quebec). The rebellions were ultimately unsuccessful, and it would be another thirty years before Canada was granted independence by Great Britain.
- free goverment of Queen Victoria
Queen Victoria was the head of state of Britain from 1837 to 1901. By the time of Queen Victoria’s reign, the monarch was a ceremonial figure, and British colonies such as Canada were governed by the Parliament in England and by local elected legislative assemblies in the colonies.
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Are Stethoscopes Soon Going to Be Obsolete?
Some believe that the familiar image of a medical doctor in a white lab coat with a stethoscope dangling from his or her neck may be a vision of the past. They believe that the newer technologies currently on the market are getting to a point where stethoscopes may no longer be needed.
We believe they are wrong for a variety of reasons. One reason is that stethoscopes are both simple and versatile. Most people associate the stethoscope with heart and lung function only. What many may not realize however is that this vital piece of equipment has a number of different uses.
One of the regular uses for stethoscopes is listening to the heart. Cardiology stethoscopes like the Littmann Master Cardiology and Littmann Cardiology III particularly shine in this area. By using these stethoscopes, doctors can tell if a patient has a heart murmur, an irregular heartbeat or the likelihood of heart failure. Doctors also use the stethoscope to listen to the lungs. This means that this equipment can be used to tell if there is fluid in the lungs or if the airway passages constricted.
Doctors can also use the stethoscope to listen to the bowel. Cases of digestive disorders and malfunction in the bowels can be diagnosed by simply listening to the bowel with a stethoscope. Another great function is that it can be used by pediatricians to listen to the heartbeats of the fetus in the womb. This versatility is not found in some of the new alternatives being utilized.
Alternatives to the Stethoscope
Two features of medical practice in the present dispensation are positive changes and innovation. In this context, it is clear that there are many tools and equipment at the disposal of the present day medical practitioner. Some years ago, things like the CT scan, ultrasonography and electrocardiography were not as common as they are now. Fortunately, these developments are positive changes and they can be used in the interest of humanity. Many though believe that these new machines and procedures can take the place of the stethoscope in future. In the opinion of this writer, new machines and modern equipment may have their uses but they cannot replace the stethoscope.
Understanding the Limitations of Other Equipment:
As stated already, the simple stethoscope has the great advantage of versatility. Other medical equipment out there do not have this advantage and this is why they cannot replace the stethoscope. To understand this clearly, it is important to look at some of these machines and equipment and point out the limitations of each one.
X-Ray and CT scan:
The X-Ray and the CT scan can be used to get images of certain parts of the body. These images can be interpreted by the doctor and used for effective diagnosis. For heart patients, an image of an enlarged heart may be a sign of heart disease but it is not usually conclusive. On the other hand, the stethoscope can be used to diagnose heart problems with fairly accurate results. There is also the vital fact that while the stethoscope can be used on pregnant women, the CT scan and the X-Ray are not recommended for pregnant women.
Electrocardiography (ECG) and Spirometry:
In the practice of medicine, it does not follow that complex procedures are better or more effective than simple ones. In this context, doctors may not recommend an electrocardiography or a spirometry without trying to listen to the heart and lungs with the stethoscope. In most cases, if there is a problem with the heart or the lungs, the doctor can detect this by using the stethoscope to listen to these organs.
The point here is that the stethoscope will not become obsolete any time soon. The stethoscope is a multi-function equipment. It is simply irreplaceable because it can be used to do a lot of different things in the interest of the patient.
We would you like to hear your thoughts and opinions on the future of the stethoscope? Please use the contact us link below to send the Stethoscope Reviews team your thoughts on this.
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A lead-free process that lowers the cost of packaging flip-chip devices has entered volume production at IBM Corp.'s East Fishkill, N.Y., fab. As one of the first production facilities to use the technique, Controlled Collapse Chip Connection New Process (C4NP), IBM projects that it can achieve 99.7 percent yields. Flip-chip solder bumps are deposited by electroplating, which involves dipping wafers into a chemical bath, eletro-depositing the bumps, then disposing of the toxic chemicals in the bath. C4NP, which has been under development since 2004, uses a nozzle to inject molten solder into a wafer-scale mold. Bumps can then be applied to the entire wafer.
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Rare Form of Diabetes Leads to Injection Free Treatment
September 23, 2009
Three years after she made medical history and was freed from painful insulin injections, 9-year-old Lilly Jaffe is just beginning to understand how much her story changed the course of diabetes research and treatment.
Since her breakthrough, 70 other children and several adults in the U.S. also have been able to switch from insulin shots to oral medication. And last month, her story inspired Illinois’ adoption of “Lilly’s Law,” which established a registry in hopes of helping other children and gathering more genetic information on diabetes.
“When I first got off insulin, I was happy, a little nervous and confused,” Lilly said during an interview at her North Shore Chicago home. “Now I know that if I hadn’t shared my story, then none of those children would have known about this. I want even more people to know.”
Lilly’s story began when researchers at the University of Chicago found she had a rare genetic mutation known as monogenic diabetes. Although she had been taking insulin injections since she was a baby, the discovery allowed her to take pills usually used to treat a milder Type 2 diabetes instead.
A September 2006 story about Lilly’s diagnosis by Tribune science writer Peter Gorner triggered hundreds of inquiries from families across the U.S. who believed their children might also have the genetic mutation. Some of those were among the 70 that, indeed, had the same mutation as Lilly; others possessed a different genetic variant that formed the basis for another groundbreaking research paper published in 2007.
This summer, Lilly was able to share her remarkable tale with dozens of other children affected by diabetes when she traveled to London. Along with her mother, Laurie Jaffe, she attended a neonatal diabetes conference with the two British researchers who discovered her mutation, Dr. Andrew Hattersley and Dr. Frances Ashcroft.
“That was incredible for Lilly because she got to meet and make friends with some children that were directly affected by her story,” her mother said.
After Lilly’s life-changing switch from injections to pills, Laurie Jaffe began moderating an e-mail discussion among parents with children who have monogenic diabetes. Initially, it was little more than an online support group, but through the discussions the families stumbled onto links between the mutation and neurological issues and began gathering informal data on a brand new field of diabetes research.
Dr. Louis Philipson, medical director of the Kovler Diabetes Center at the University of Chicago, said it was well-known that some diabetes patients with mutations also have neurological problems. Therefore, he and his colleagues follow the family discussion group closely.
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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2009 June 2
Explanation: What causes the mysterious spokes in Saturn's rings? Visible in the above image as light ghostlike impressions, spokes were first discovered in the mid-1970s and first photographed by the Voyager spacecraft that buzzed by Saturn in the early 1980s. Their existence was unexpected. Oddly, the spokes are more commonly observed when Saturn's rings are more nearly edge on to the Sun, and so were conspicuously absent from initial images sent back by the robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting Saturn. Analyses of archived Voyager images have led to the conclusions that the transient spokes, which may form and dissipate over a few hours, are composed of electrically charged sheets of small dust-sized particles. Hypotheses for spoke creation include small meteors impacting the rings and electron beams from Saturnian atmospheric lightning spraying the rings. As Saturn approaches equinox, spoke sightings like that pictured above are becoming increasingly common, giving planetary scientists fresh images and data with which to test origin hypotheses.
Authors & editors:
Jerry Bonnell (UMCP)
NASA Official: Phillip Newman Specific rights apply.
A service of: ASD at NASA / GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U.
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Immune, protein alterations found in blood samples of
children with autism
Scientists from the UC Davis M.I.N.D. Institute have found components of the immune system and
proteins and metabolites in the blood of children with autism to be substantially different from those
found in typically developing children.
Investigators at the institute believe the discovery, announced at the fourth annual International Meeting
for Autism Research (IMFAR) in Boston, could be a major step toward developing a routine blood test that
would allow autism to be detected in newborns and treatment or even prevention to be initiated early in
"Finding a sensitive and accurate biological marker for autism that can be revealed by a simple
blood test would have enormous implications for diagnosing, treating and understanding more about the
underlying causes of autism," said David G. Amaral, research director at the UC Davis M.I.N.D. Institute
and one of the co-authors of the paper presented at IMFAR.
Amaral, along with pediatric neuropsychologist Blythe Corbett and other M.I.N.D. Institute colleagues,
took blood samples from 70 children with autism who were between 4 and 6 years old and from 35 children
of the same age without the disorder.
Initial findings clearly demonstrate differences in the immune system, as well as proteins and other
metabolites in children with autism:
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One afternoon, [Sam] was a bit bored and decided he would build a clock. Not wanting to spend any money on the project, he set off to construct his clock using only the components he had on hand – this meant no micro controllers would be used whatsoever.
Built on a set of four breadboards, his clock sports a pretty short parts list. It uses just over a dozen flipflops, a few NAND chips, a 555 timer, and a small handful of other components. What you won’t find on the bill of materials however, is any sort of crystal or real-time clock. Instead of using a separate chip for keeping time, he opted to use the 60hz mains frequency as the basis for his time keeping.
The mains sine wave is passed through a series of frequency dividers to reach a 1/60hz signal, which is used to trigger the clock counters he constructed. The time is displayed on a 4-digit seven segment display, using a pair of multiplexers clocked by a 555 timer.
The clock seems to work nicely, though you have to be pretty well-versed in how the clock was built to set the time. The only means of doing so is to probe into the clock of the digit you are setting while pressing the lone pushbutton mounted on the breadboard.
While we are pretty sure no one will ever mess with his clock’s time, we have to wonder if it blinks on and off like our old VCR when the power goes out.
Last summer, [Rajendra Bhatt] built himself a simple PIC-based temperature monitor with data logging abilities and recently got around to sharing it on his site. The sensor is based on a PIC12F683 micro controller and measures the ambient temperature on a set interval, storing the values on the MCU’s internal EEPROM.
He used a Maxim DS18B20 temperature sensor, which communicates with the PIC over a 1-wire bus. The sensor is read based upon the interval chosen by the user, and can be configured to measure the temperature every second, every minute, or every 10 minutes. The data is stored on the aforementioned EEPROM and can be uploaded to a computer via a serial connection. The PIC has the ability to store 254 readings before the data must be cleared from the device.
It’s a great beginner project, and has plenty of room for improvement. As [Rajendra] points out, an external EEPROM could be added to expand the recording capacity, and it would be nice to have a real-time clock on hand for accurate time stamping. If we were to build one ourselves, a means of wireless data transfer would be first on our list of potential enhancements.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a debilitating disease that eventually causes the afflicted individual to lose all control of their motor functions, while leaving their mental faculties intact. Those suffering from the illness typically live for only a handful of years before succumbing to the disease. On some occasions however, patients can live for long periods after their original diagnosis, and in those cases assistive technology becomes a key component in their lives.
[Alon Bukai and Ofir Benyamin], students at Ort Hermalin Collage in Israel, have been working hard on creating an EEG-controlled smart house for ALS patients under the guidance of their advisor [Amnon Demri]. The core of their project focuses around controlling everyday household items using brainwaves. They use an Emotiv EPOC EEG headset which monitors the user’s brainwaves when focusing on several large buttons displayed on a computer screen. These buttons are mapped to different functions, ranging from turning lights on and off to changing channels on a cable box. When the user focuses on a particular task, the computer analyzes the headset’s output and relays the command to the proper device.
As of right now, the EEG-controlled home is only a project for their degree program, but we hope that their efforts help spur on further advancements in this field of research.
Continue reading to see a pair of videos demonstrating their EEG-controlled smart house in action.
Continue reading “Brainwave-based assistive technology in the home”
Hackaday reader [Daid] posted in our forums showing off a set of electronic dice he recently constructed. Back in January, we featured a similar set of electronic dice built with an Arduino that was way overpowered as far as [Daid] was concerned. Not satisfied with simply saying it could be done better, he put his money where his mouth is – something we would love to see more of.
He used an ATTiny2313 to provide the device’s logic, outputting the dice values on a set of four 7 segment displays. The whole setup is controlled by a single push button that serves triple duty rolling the dice, configuring how many sides the dice have, as well as selecting how many dice are being thrown.
He admits that the wiring job is a bit of a mess, but he was going for function over form, and it works just fine. He also says that he would have finished it far sooner if it hadn’t been for
those meddling kids some broken 7 segment displays.
We think he did quite a nice job, though we’re all ears if you think you can do it better.
We love to see Doom ported to new hardware because it usually means that someone has found a way around the manufacturer’s security measures. But the most exciting thing for us to see this time is that Doom II is played on an epaper display. These are notorious for slow refresh rates, but as you can see in the video after the break, this one achieves an admirably fast page redraw.
According to a translation of the original forum post, the PocketBook 360° Plus boasts a 5″ E Ink Pearl screen, 533 MHz Freescale i.MX35 ARM11 processor, 128 Mb of RAM, 2 gigs of storage, and WiFi. No word on price for one of these babies as it seems they’ve not yet been release. Remind anyone of the green monochrome goodness from the original Game Boy?
Continue reading “Doom II on epaper display”
Can we do away with a keypad and just squeeze our phones to check messages and dial contacts? [Sidhant Gupta] has been researching the idea of an electronically adjustable spring mechanism that might just make this possible. He calls the prototype above the SqueezeBlock. If you pick it up and give it a squeeze you can feel springs pushing back against your fingers, but it’s all a trick. Inside you’ll find one motor with a gear that converts the linear motion into a rotating force. Attached to the same axle as that gear are a motor and a rotary encoder. A microcontroller monitors that encoder to detect a user squeezing the two plates together, then drives the motor to vary the resistance. [Sidhant] outlines some possible uses that included stiffer resistence as unread email starts to pile up, or squeezing the device to its smallest size to turn the ringer volume all the way down.
We’re a little skeptical of this functionality in handhelds just because of the power consumption issue. But if that is somehow overcome we think this would make a pretty interesting phone feature… at least at first. Click through the link above for a video demonstration or get the details from the research presentation (PDF)
[Mathieu] has bee working to refine the code running on an LED matrix, and added some neat display tricks along the way. He wanted to make the display directly addressable from a computer. The 96×64 bi-color LED display is powered by an Atmel FPSLIC and already used double-buffering. Enabling a PC to write directly to one of the buffers was not too hard, requiring just a bit of optimization to get the timing right. From the look of the video after the break, he nailed it.
The video feed is generated from a webcam stream using Matlab to process each image. Just 50 lines of code captures a frame, sizes it appropriately, converts the result to black and white for edge detection, then finishes the job by compressing image data for transmission to the embedded processor. We’d like to say it’s easier that it sounds but we’re pretty impressed with this work. The display manages about 42 Hz with the current setup.
Continue reading “Webcam images processed and played back on LED display”
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Religious freedom is a fundamental freedom that runs deeper and reaches farther than many realize.
What Americans Know About Religious Freedom
Most Americans know that religious freedom is one of the most basic freedoms guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution. Frequently called the “first freedom,” freedom of religion is prominent in the American founding documents and gives rise to many other freedoms.
It is a fundamental human right — one that is now protected in the laws of many nations around the world and in global compacts like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Americans generally recognize and revere religious freedom as one of the unalienable freedoms they can claim.
Yet despite Americans’ awareness of religious freedom and a common perception that it is something of profound worth, research suggests that many Americans aren’t entirely clear about what it means. As a result, they also don’t fully understand why it is so critical and what it requires.
Studies do suggest that most Americans grasp the basic concept. For the average citizen, religious freedom is the right enjoyed by many in the free world to believe the things about God and about moral truth that they choose to believe, as well as the right to honor those beliefs in worship, if they want to. Intuitively, this makes sense. It would not be right for someone to be coerced in matters of religious belief or morality, or prohibited from worshipping according to their conscience.
The Rest of Religious Freedom
But while these private and inward activities are vital parts of religious freedom, they do not encompass the whole of it. Religious freedom is actually much broader and deeper than this description suggests. More fundamentally, religious freedom — akin to “freedom of conscience” — is the human right to think and believe and also to express and act upon what one deeply believes according to the dictates of his or her moral conscience. This freedom applies to those who adhere to religious beliefs and those who do not.
The full picture of religious freedom reveals a deep liberty that goes much further than the right to believe as one chooses and that extends well beyond the right to private devotion in one’s place of worship or home. Indeed, religious freedom is not merely interior and private, to be enjoyed internally in our minds and in the privacy of personal life. It also incorporates the right to act according to one’s moral beliefs and convictions. And more than the freedom to worship privately, it is the right to to live one’s faith freely and in public.
Beliefs lead to actions, and freedom to believe, without the ability to act on that belief within the bounds of law, is no freedom at all. Most will agree that moral and religious beliefs don’t mean much if they don’t influence the way we live. In other words, we expect religious beliefs to influence the way that people behave, how they raise families and how they treat others. And indeed, religious freedom protects the right of individuals to act in line with their religious beliefs and moral convictions. Religious freedom does not merely enable us to contemplate our convictions; it enables us to execute them.
Because of this, religion cannot be confined to the sphere of private life. Certainly religious freedom protects the rights of individuals to observe their religion within the walls of private spaces. But religious and moral speech is also protected in the free air of the public domain. Whether in the town hall, in the newspaper column, on the Internet or elsewhere in the public sphere, people with moral convictions are entitled by their religious freedom to share those convictions, to reason and persuade, and to advocate their vision for society.
Research suggests, in fact, that religious people in the United States contribute to, enrich and improve society. They tend to demonstrate a disproportionate level of social virtues like neighborliness, generosity, service and civic engagement. Hence it is not only required by religious freedom for religious people and their voices to be welcome in the public sphere; it strengthens the civic fabric of society.
Practicing and Protecting Religious Freedom
The fact that religious freedom is public and that it involves more than mere belief does not, of course, mean that it overwhelms all other considerations in society. The purpose of a democracy is to accommodate the diverse interests of all its members. Religious freedom and freedom of conscience are vital because they help sustain this system of peaceful coexistence, and they must be balanced against other considerations, such as the rights of others, the law and public safety. However, because these freedoms are so fundamental to human dignity, and because they contribute so much to society, they merit careful protection.
Such protection is the responsibility of all citizens who value their freedom and recognize that one’s own freedoms are only as secure as those of others. Protecting religious freedom also requires that it is understood fully and respected in its entirety. An inadequate understanding of religious freedom can be problematic if it leads, for example, to policy and laws that define it too narrowly and protect it too feebly. Ignorance of religious freedom can also, without care, allow for it to be slowly and subtly eroded, leaving this fundamental liberty exposed or compromised. A robust sense of religious freedom — an appreciation for its full meaning — is required for it to endure and to flourish.
See “Survey Fact Sheet: What Americans Know About Religious Freedom,” American Religious Freedom Program, accessed January 14, 2012, http://religiousfreedom.org/research/detail/survey-fact-sheet-americans-views-on-religious-freedom; and“What It Means to Be an American,” Brookings Institute and Public Religion Research Institute, accessed January 14, 2012, http://www.brookings.edu/reports/2011/0906_american_attitudes.aspx.
See Robert D. Putnam and David E. Campbell, American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010).
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SIMPLE BIODATA FORM
Phrase or word?
"SIMPLE BIODATA FORM" is a phrase.
What does it mean?
1 ) Biodata is a commonly used term in Industrial and organizational psychology for biographical data. Biodata is defined as “factual kinds of questions about life and work experiences, as well as to items involving opinions, values, beliefs, and attitudes that reflect a historical perspective.
2 ) A personnel measurement technique that is useful in tapping motivational, attitudinal, and intellectual characteristics. Personal data are collected from individuals with a systemic self-report format in which the information is explicitly or implicitly verifiable.
3 ) an assessment method in which a questionnaire is used to collect details of an applicant's work, education and life experiences. These details are scored against a profile for success in the position.
4 ) These are automated application forms and with the use of web-based application forms e.g. for graduate recruitment they are becoming popular again.
5 ) biodata is based on a simple psychological truism that the best predictor of future performance is past performance.
6 ) A method of selection involving application blanks that contain questions that research has shown will predict job performance.
1 ) The visible shape or configuration of something
2 ) Arrangement of parts; shape
3 ) The body or shape of a person or thing
4 ) create (as an entity); "social groups form everywhere"; "They formed a company"
5 ) the phonological or orthographic sound or appearance of a word that can be used to describe or identify something; "the inflected forms of a word can be represented by a stem and a list of inflections to be attached"
6 ) kind: a category of things distinguished by some common characteristic or quality; "sculpture is a form of art"; "what kinds of desserts are there?"
7 ) to compose or represent:"This wall forms the background of the stage setting"; "The branches made a roof"; "This makes a fine introduction"
8 ) a perceptual structure; "the composition presents problems for students of musical form"; "a visual pattern must include not only objects but the spaces between them"
9 ) develop into a distinctive entity; "our plans began to take shape"
10 ) FORM is the bimonthly membership magazine of the American Institute of Architects Los Angeles (AIA/LA), and is published in Glendale, California by Balcony Media, Inc. The magazine was launched in 2007, and covers modern design and architecture.
11 ) In botanical nomenclature, a form (forma) is a low-level taxonomic rank below that of variety; it is an infraspecific taxon. Its name consists of three parts: a genus name, a specific epithet, and an infraspecific epithet. The abbreviation "f.
12 ) Form was a boot sector virus isolated in Switzerland in the summer of 1990 which became very common worldwide. The origin of Form is widely listed as Switzerland, but this may be an assumption based on its isolation locale.
13 ) Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or similar materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering moulds.
14 ) A form is a class or grouping of students in a school. The term is used predominantly in the United Kingdom, although some schools, mostly private, in other countries also use the title.
15 ) Form is a specific way of performing a movement, often a strength training exercise, to avoid injury, prevent cheating and increase strength.
16 ) The shape or visible structure of a thing or person; A thing that gives shape to other things as in a mold; An order of doing things, as in religious ritual; A blank document or template to be filled in by the user; A grouping of words which maintain grammatical context in different usages;
17 ) (FORMS) A temporary structure or mold for the support of concrete while it is setting and gaining sufficient strength to be self -supporting.
18 ) (Forms) The pages in most browsers that accept information in text-entry fields. They can be customized to receive company sales data and orders, expense reports or other information. They can also be used to communicate.
19 ) (Forms) documents with a highly structured layout designed to facilitate the recording of information.
20 ) Forms on websites are used to gather information supplied by the user. With the proper web programming and server operating system, you can let customers order over the Internet, and pay by credit card.
21 ) (forms) the wood or metal construction used for receiving, molding, and sustaining a plastic mass of concrete (to the dimensions, outlines, and details of surfaces planned for) while it hardens.
22 ) (FORMS) In order to use some of our services, users must complete various forms on our site. These forms require users to supply their contact information (e.g., name and email address).
24 ) (Forms (or Ideas)) For Plato, the ideal Archetypes or patterns according to which all things are constructed. These are grasped by rational insight -- which Plato held to be a kind of recollection -- and not by sensory perception.
25 ) (Forms) A blank document or template to be filled in by the user. Web Services can design and program custom forms for your web site and program additional web applications to help manage and categorize the gathered information.
26 ) (Forms) A web page element that uses text fields, radio buttons and check boxes to process predefined data. Forms also allow users to interact with an application by allowing information to be passed dynamically between two points.
27 ) (Forms) Allows you to create (web) forms in a structured, secure and easy way. First create the schema. This is just an interface with schema information on it. From the schema, a form can be generated automatically using widgets from an extensible set.
28 ) (Forms) Any material used to contain the sand during the poundup/compaction process. Not to be confused with molds.
1 ) Easily understood or done; presenting no difficulty
2 ) Plain, basic, or uncomplicated in form, nature, or design; without much decoration or ornamentation
3 ) Used to emphasize the fundamental and straightforward nature of something
4 ) any herbaceous plant having medicinal properties
5 ) having few parts; not complex or complicated or involved; "a simple problem"; "simple mechanisms"; "a simple design"; "a simple substance"
6 ) elementary: easy and not involved or complicated; "an elementary problem in statistics"; "elementary, my dear Watson"; "a simple game"; "found an uncomplicated solution to the problem"
7 ) simpleton: a person lacking intelligence or common sense
8 ) bare(a): apart from anything else; without additions or modifications; "only the bare facts"; "shocked by the mere idea"; "the simple passage of time was enough"; "the simple truth"
9 ) childlike: exhibiting childlike simplicity and credulity; "childlike trust"; "dewy-eyed innocence"; "listened in round-eyed wonder"
10 ) SIMPLE, the Session Initiation Protocol for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions, is an instant messaging (IM) and presence protocol suite based on Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) managed by the IETF.
11 ) SiMPLE (a recursive acronym for SiMPLE Modular Programming Language & Environment) is a programming development system that was created to provide easy programming capabilities for everybody, especially non-professionals.
12 ) Simplé is a commune in the Mayenne department in north-western France.
13 ) In mathematics, the term simple is used to describe an algebraic structure which in some sense cannot be divided by a smaller structure of the same type. Put another way, an algebraic structure is simple if the kernel of every homomorphism is either the whole structure or a single element.
14 ) Simple is the debut solo album by Oxford singer-songwriter Andy Yorke, released in 2008.
15 ) In contemporary mereology, a simple is any thing that has no proper parts. Sometimes the term "atom" is used, although in recent years the term "simple" has become the standard.
16 ) A preparation made from one plant, as opposed to something made from more than one plant; A simple or atomic proposition; To gather simples, ie, medicinal herbs; Free from duplicity; guileless, innocent, straightforward; Without ornamentation; plain; Undistinguished in social condition; of no
17 ) (simples) That is easy to understand
18 ) (Simples) Suit tiles other than terminals.
19 ) (SIMPLES) Herbs or herbal remedies.
20 ) (Simples) Tiles numbered two through eight.
21 ) (simples) (n): medicine or medicament concocted of only one constituent, esp. of one herb or plant; hence, a plant or herb employed for medical purposes. In common use from c 1580 to 1750, chiefly in pl.
22 ) (simples) a medicinal herb; a medicine made from a plant.
23 ) Opposite of complex; straightforward.
24 ) Normal, everyday, well-vinified table wine of straightforward character.
25 ) Opposite of complex. Straightforward, inexpensive wines are often referred to as being simple. It is not a negative term when describing a £5 bottle of wine, but it's certainly an insult to a £20 bottle.
26 ) The Savings Incentive Match Plan for Employees (SIMPLE) is a retirement plan that can be offered by firms with 100 or fewer employees.
27 ) Is the new password too small? This is controlled by 5 arguments minlen, dcredit, ucredit, lcredit, and ocredit. See the section on the arguments for the details of how these work and there defaults.
28 ) adj. 1. (of an array) being of type simple-array. 2. (of a character) having no implementation-defined attributes, or else having implementation-defined attributes each of which has the null value for that attribute.
Share the knowledge.
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Acorn Theme - Autumn Season
Activity 2: Language - Proverbs / Sayings
Language: Great oaks from little acorns grow
Preschool Lesson Plan Printable Activities
|Themed activities||Lesson plan and suggestions|
Preparation and introduction for the Acorn Theme
Language > Nursery Rhymes & Proverbs and bulletin board idea
Craft > Printable Acorn or Nut
Alphabet Letter A: A is for Acorn or N is for Nut
Science and Social Studies > Plants, Trees, Nutrition
Counting Autumn Acorns
> Trees & the seasons
> Oak activities & printables
Holidays & season:
> Arbor Day
Ages 3 and older:
Visit each activity section for all the lesson plan content to present the acorn theme.
Language > English proverb: Great oaks from little acorns grow
This activity ties in with the suggested bulletin board idea incorporating the acorn craft in activity 3.
3. Print and assemble one acorn craft to use as a puppet to present the activity below.
There is an English proverb or saying that goes like this: Great oaks from little acorns grow.
What do you think this saying means? Listen to children's responses.
Acorns are the fruit and the seed from which oak trees grow.
< Use the craft as a puppet to present this portion >
Yes, I am little acorn now, but I can grow into a tall and great oak tree, and you can too! I will need, air, sunlight, good soil and water to grow into a great oak tree.
You were also like an acorn. First, you were a baby, and you are growing like an oak tree. What do you need to do to grow to be like a great oak tree? Discuss. Learn to read and write, learn new things at school and at home everyday, be caring, kind and generous (discuss other good character traits at your discretion), eat nutritious food, exercise, and you will grow to be just like a great oak tree.
Give an example, of a historical figure or talk about a member of your community or family that exemplifies this English proverb.
President's Day theme:
Abraham Lincoln lived in a small log cabin and his family was very poor. He worked very hard and loved to read when he was growing up. He went on to become a great leader and president of the United States! Abe Lincoln is certainly an example of this saying.
Now let's have more fun with acorns!
continue to activity #3 >
To view updates to these activities visit: http://www.first-school.ws/activities/crafts/holidays/acorn-nut.htm
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Teresa Jornet e Ibars was the foundress of the Little Sisters of the Abandoned Aged, better known as the Little Sisters of the Poor. She was born on January 9, 1843, to a farmer Francisco Jornet and his wife, Antonieta Ibars, in the Catalan region of Spain.
From a young age, Teresa demonstrated a strong concern for the poor, often bringing them to the home of an aunt, where they were sure to receive assistance. She later moved to the nearby city of Lérida, living with another aunt, as she pursued her education. She grew up to become a teacher in the suburbs of Barcelona.
During this time, she felt drawn to the monastic life and applied for admission to the Poor Clares near Burgos. She was prevented from doing so, however, by anti-clerical laws then in effect. Due to this turn of events, she devoted herself to her teaching, and became a Carmelite tertiary to help in the development of her spiritual life. The death of her father was followed by a severe illness which kept her homebound for a prolonged period.
At that time, she was encouraged by her spiritual director, the Reverend Saturnino López y Novoa, to undertake the care of the many elderly people of the region who were living in solitude and poverty. This answered a strong sense of futility Teresa had been feeling in her life, and she accepted the challenge.
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- Propitious means something that is favorable or good.
An example of propitious is the good weather before an athletic event.
- The definition of propitious is someone that is helpful or generous.
An example of propitious is a wealthy donor at a charity auction.
- favorably inclined or disposed; gracious: the propitious gods
- boding well; favorable; auspicious: a propitious omen
- that favors or furthers; advantageous: propitious winds
Origin of propitiousMiddle English propicius ; from Old French ; from Classical Latin propitius, favorable ; from pro-, before, forward + petere, to seek, desire, rush at: see feather
- Presenting favorable circumstances or showing signs of a favorable outcome; auspicious: “Grandmothers consulted almanacs to determine a propitious hour for the betrothal” (Jhumpa Lahiri).
- Merciful or kindly: a propitious deity.
Origin of propitiousMiddle English propicius, from Old French propicieux, from Latin propitius; see pet- in Indo-European roots.
(comparative more propitious, superlative most propitious)
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A series of powerful earthquakes over the weekend shook Niiagata Prefecture on Northwest Honshu, 260 km (160 miles) north of Tokyo. The first quake registered 6.5 on the Richter Scale, according to the National Earthquake Information Center, and occurred at 8:56 Universal Time, in the early evening local time as many residents were starting their dinners. At present, some 24 deaths have been attributed to the quake, or to the series of strong aftershocks, some above 6.0 in magnitude. Rescuers are still looking for missing people and, unfortunately, the death toll may climb further.
The quakes also injured approximately 2,000 people, stretching local hospitals to their limits. Electrical power has been cut off for some 300,000 residents. Many people remain in emergency shelters, fearful of returning to homes that may be unstable from the damage caused by the quakes.
Earthquakes are not uncommon in Japan, which rests on the Pacific “Rim of Fire,” where the Pacific plate (on which northern Honshu rests) subducts under the Eurasian Plate.
This visualization shows the topography of northwestern Japan around the initial epicenter. Color represents elevation and shading shows slope (illuminated from the lower left, as the area would appear at this time of year in the early morning). The land surface elevation data shown here were collected by NASA’s Shutte Radar Topograph Mission (SRTM) in February 2000. The locations and information about the quakes were obtained from the USGS National Earthquake Information Center.
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Understanding the creation of social spaces in an unfamiliar landscape is, according to Robert Paulett, a productive way to account for eighteenth-century developments in the American Southeast, particularly in Georgia. In his interesting but not entirely successful study of non-Native participants in the southeastern deerskin trade, Paulett uses the word "mapping" to convey their processes of coming to know and create ways to live in a particular place, a process that included imagination and adaptation as well as habitation.
Paulett finds that the geography of place varied with those who conceptualized, created, and utilized the "small spaces" they inhabited in the geography of the deerskin trade. The participants of his analysis are the British who bought and marketed deerskins and the boatment who transported trade goods in the American colonies. As a study of the trade from the perspective of non-Natives, the book provides a useful comparison to the work of ethnohistorians such as Kathryn Holland Braund and Claudio Saunt who focus on the Native American side of colonial contests over space. Moreover, while Saunt and Braund examined the contested spaces of houses and farms, Paulett looks at an entire river system, the Savannah, and its surrounding landscape.
In Paulett's study, the British traders, white and African boatmen, and colonial town merchants who shared the landscape of the deerskin trade created geographies that overlapped and were similar but not identical. Those connected to the trade conceptualized and developed a system of linked places that persisted through the upheavals of the eighteenth century and continually challenged British notions of order and control. Paulett asserts that incompatible mapping between British ideals and colonial reality led to the recurring pattern of misunderstanding and conflict that continually threatened the deerskin trade. His study threads its way through an era of turmoil, war, negotiation, environmental destruction, and English incursion on Native lands by concentrating on one arena where various populations charted their own courses.
Paulett's study area is the trade route from Charles Town (now Charleston, South Carolina) up the Savannah River through Augusta, past several Creek Indian towns, and ending in the Chickasaw towns of present-day north Mississippi and west Tennessee. Temporally, the book covers most of the 1700s, beginning with the settlement of the Georgia colony and concluding with the aftermath of the American Revolution.
The empire of the book's title is a predominantly British vision of orderly settlements on the land of colonial Georgia, an imagined place that implied the English longing for control of lands and economies. The empire is also a landscape of commerce that developed locally and largely eluded British control at the hands of merchants, traders, and boatmen. By the end of the American Revolution the old geography had given way to what Paulett calls an "Empire of Liberty," a space imagined by white settlers who tried to redefine the region for themselves.
Each of the five chapters, as well as the introduction and conclusion, opens with a character sketch of a participant in the trade, providing immediacy, reinforcing the role of imagination in the creation of social space, and bringing the reader into the historical moment. Paulett begins with a consideration of James Oglethorpe on the banks of the Savannah River visualizing the possibilities of trade and concludes with a group of Augusta leaders eyeing the fencing on a former trader’s land. The sketches skillfully illustrate the power of spatial imagination while introducing the concept Paulett uses to organize his narrative.
|Edw. Crisp, Detail of A compleat description of the province of Carolina in 3 parts, the west part by Capt. Tho. Nairn, 1711. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, 2004626926.|
|Henry Popple, A map of the British Empire in America with the French and Spanish settlements adjacent thereto, 1733. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, 2009582407.|
|John Mitchell, A map of the British and French dominions in North America, with the roads, distances, limits, and extent of the settlements, 1755. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, 74693187.|
Referencing literal as well as metaphorical maps and mapping, Paulett's first chapter persuasively establishes the tension between imperial efforts to control trade and local resistance expressed by the participants' point-to-point network of small places, a tension between the ideal and real. With no defined boundaries between southeastern occupants, Europeans drafted manuscript maps that reinforced imagined empires with drawings of a land whose features they did not know. In contrast to European spatial and static maps, those conceived and experienced by local Indians and traders were processional geographies of connected places. The book's cover presents an image of such geographies: the early-1700s Chickasaw map of friends and enemies denoted by a series of separate but linked circles. Although the eight other maps and two cartouches in the chapter are neither large nor clear enough to augment Paulett's discussion, they demonstrate that the early manuscript maps reveal the ambitions of the builders of American trade empires. He successfully repositions European maps as texts about power rather than information, and local maps as geographies of relationships.
In the following four chapters Paulett expands his argument to examine four arenas central to the deerskin trade: the Savannah River, the town of Augusta, trading paths connecting Augusta to Indian towns, and houses built by traders in Indian communities. Like blank parchments carefully inked by European cartographers, these venues were also spaces onto which various participants in the trade inscribed their maps. Each chapter looks at the competing and overlapping spatial concepts of the English, traders, merchants, and African American laborers, with some attention to Creek Indians. His review of diverse groups, settings, and activities highlights the everyday and personal elements of a global economy.
Paulett's spatial analysis is particularly illuminating when he examines a location, such as the trade town of Augusta, or discrete elements, such as maps. His discussion of Augusta details the ways English traders shaped a space to suit their needs rather than conforming to the imperialist vision of an orderly, fortified town. In contrast to other southern settlements, Augusta lacked town walls because the traders required an open town with easy and rapid communication among buyers and sellers, providers and purchasers. Individual trade houses were fortified and spaced a mile or so apart, which emphasized the dominance of trade rather than government or religion, and shaped the town in a unique configuration. As Paulett effectively shows, Augusta was a traders' space that articulated their economic, physical, and social authority.
|Archibald Campbell, Sketch of the northern frontiers of Georgia, extending from the mouth of the River Savannah to the town of Augusta, 1780. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, 73694481.|
When addressing more fluid locations, Paulett's use of spaciality as an analytical framework is less effective. His chapter on the Savannah River, for example, seems unnecessarily encumbered by frequent assertions of space creation by the English, the traders, and the white and African boatmen. Certainly the corridor of water that was so essential to the deerskin trade carried different meanings to the trade's participants. Relying on his spatial paradigm, Paulett claims the English viewed rivers as empty spaces to be occupied and managed but could not accommodate their vision to the realities of the uncontrollable Savannah. Merchants relied on the river as a connector to one another and a link to the European world but experienced it only as infrequent, transitory visitors.
In contrast to both groups, according to Paulett, the white and enslaved African boatmen considered the Savannah a singular space in which they acted independently and experienced a measure of freedom. While his documentation and discussion of cross-cultural experiences expands our understanding of trading history, Paulett's imposition of spatial mapping onto the minds and experiences of African boatmen is not persuasive. Perhaps a boatman's momentary experience of freedom from plantation slavery inevitably led to his creation of a unique cultural space, but we have no evidence of his attendant development of identity derived from and expressive of that creation. Here, as in the chapter on the trading path, additional evidence is necessary to support the author's provocative assertions about the ways individuals conceptualized their experiences.
The book concludes with an overview of the American Revolution's dissolution of the trade that led to revised concepts of American geography. With little or no deerskin trade, new generations of Georgians could abandon the old trade geography to imagine a new, homogeneous kind of space with farms, settlements, and no Native Americans. Richly conceived and well expressed, the chapter documents the rise in upcountry newspaper articles about geographical boundaries, the growing public and academic interest in atlases and maps, and an increased frequency in use of the term "neighborhood" as indicators of Georgians' evolving American geography.
Robert Paulett has given us a refreshing consideration of life in the eighteenth-century deerskin trade. His focus on disparate groups occupying the same arena but living different experiences challenges us to reimagine the complexities of life among multiple cultures and changing landscapes. Reliance on a spatial framework enables him to shift his gaze and lead ours to see the agency of those groups in their effort to imagine, conceptualize, and shape their place in a shared world. Although Paulett's argument does not always succeed, his work adds new information and a different perspective to studies of the American South.
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UKRAINIAN NOBILITY AT THE BREAK OF 16 AND 17 CENTURIES.
A part of vol. 6 "History of Ukraine-Ruthenia", chapter 3 "Cultural and national relations: national composition and national element". Translation reviewed and corrected by the author (applies to Polish translation -sp).
Printed in: History of Ukraine, Commemorative Volume, edited by W. Lipinski, Kiev 1908
National relations in various parts of Ukraine were different during 14-16 centuries as a result of different political, economical and colonization conditions. Consequently, at the turn of 16 century these relations were quite different in different parts of the Ukraine. It seems useful to introduce a division of the Ukrainian lands into certain parts, which varied under aforementioned aspect one from another and then these parts shall be examined separately. Therefore, is seems appropriate to distinguish Western strip containing Red Ruthenia, Podolia, lands of Chelm and Podlasie with the Brzesc-Lithuanian part of the basin of Bug river, and Pinsk area, the right-bank strip with remaining part of the Bug river basin and with the Dniepr basin, and at the end beyond-the Dniepr strip.
Red Ruthenia. The earliest evolution of the national relations was noted in the Western strip, and these changes were by far the strongest. I have proved before that during 1340-1370 wars for Red Ruthenia, the privileged classes of the Ukrainian inhabitants suffered most and were then greatly weakened (The History of Ukraine-Ruthenia, t. 4, p. 61-2, 5. p. 20-3). Those taking active part in the defense of the country against Polish occupation, after Polish victory, were forced - had they not been killed - either to migrate to Wolyn lands or to the Bug river basin, or, in result of the confiscation of the estates, they were pushed down the social ladder. Their place and wherever it was possible, the Polish government introduced privileged Polish elements, or foreign, being supporters of Polish colonization. The government generously distributed ample lands and estates, extensive like principalities, such as Rzeszow lands given to Jan Pokoslaw, Sambor lands given to the Spytkos, Laroslaw lands offered to the Tarnowskis, immense latifundia of the Odrowazs, Kmitas, Buczackis and smaller estates confiscated and taken away from the locals, sometimes "nullo jure possessores", being not able to produce legal documents proving their claim, as well as farms and villages belonging to peasant freeholders. Poles and other foreigners, fulfilling Polish policies, receive high administrative offices. Burgher class is mixed with Polish and foreign element in big towns, it comes even to the peasant masses in villages settled based on German law.
At the break of 14 and 15 centuries there is still significant number of the local clans, being however, pushed out to the background. Interesting reflection of these relations we can see in the jurors panel judging case of Jagiello against Elzbieta Pilecka in Medyka in 1404. Following nobles and dignitaries took part in the panel: Maciej, bishof of Przemysl and Athanazy, the esquire, Jan of Tarnow, the Rusyn subprececf, Kmita, the Sandomierz palatine, Iwo of Kleczyca, Benko of Zabokruki, Janko of Mazovia, Mikolaj of Kulikow, Jaszko Klus, Krystyn of Marcinkowicze, Mikolaj Pstroski, Jaszko Fortuna, Franciszek Borsnicz, Hrynko Sokolecki, Andrijko and Hrycko Bybelskis, Hrycko Kierdejowicz, Hlib Dziadkowicz, Wolczko Presluzycz, Danylo Zaderewicki, Kostko Solneczkowicz, Kostko, the Przemysl judge, Jacko, the Sanok judge, Wasko Teptiukowicz, Mychajlo Procowicz, Drahut (or Drahin) The Walachian, Chodko Czemer, Juryj and Wasko Moszonczyce, Wolczko Kuzmicz, Mychajlo Senkowicz, Iwan Danslawicz, Oleszko Hrudkowicz, Wasko Czortkowicz.
Document in Czartoryskis' library in two original texts, Ukrainian (Rusyn) and Latin. First published in archives J.Z.R. and at Holowacki; new edition (facsimile) in "Paleograficzeskije snimki" I N.31, the Latin text published not long time ago in vol. IV of Kodeks Malopolski, l. 1084. The Ukrainian text some Polish names have Rusyn form, in Latin just opposite. Therefore both texts shall be taken carefully into account. Compare this register with some information from last quarter of the 14 century and first years of 15 century, such as the sale contract of the Kalenik monastery 1378 (Town and land archives II l. 9), where we can meet old Chodko Bybelski with Dworskowiczs, Grozd, Wasko Kuzmicz and others, ib. IV.19,V.14 etc.
This panel of significant "nobles and gentry of the Ruthenia lands", how they are called in the document, in fact the Western part of Ruthenia, Przemysl area, shows remarkable number of the Rusyns (Hrynko Sokolecki and subs., except Drahin, are probably all Rusyns). However, they are mentioned after Poles, and there are no dignitaries among them, except Kostka Bolestraszycki, the Przemysl judge, and Jacek, the Sanok judge, by no means high ranking officers (fact from before legal reform in Red Ruthenia. Similar relations we see in Eastern part of Red Ruthenia. There, in first half of th 15 century we can see still a great number of well off Ukrainian (Rusyn) aristocracy, but also without influence and on rather low offices.
The Lviv and Zydaczow lands Confederation Act more than a half of the nobility names are names of the Ukrainian nobles, sometimes with Rusyn seals, such as Jursza of Chodorowstaw, Stanko of Dawidowa (in 1410 he was named Ostaszko of Dawidow), Dmytro Lahodowski, Martyn Kalenyk of Podhajce, Michno and Paszko of Borszczow, Juryj of Malczyce, Senko Halka of Iljaszow, Senko of Nahorce, Olechno, Marko and Lenko of Drohoszow, Petro Wolczko of Kolodenice, Stecko, Onyszko and Stecko-Ilko of Czerkasy, Dmytro and Jacko of Didoszyce (Diduszykis), Jacko of Roznitow, Andrejko of Swaryczow, Iwaszko of Duliby, Iwan of Koszawa, Oleksa and Luczko of Witwice, Danko, Myka and Senko of Balice, Jacko of Nowosielice.
Town and land archives. VII, 55; description of the seal p. 108-109; the Cyrillic descriptions are on 8 seals, some have Latin description but with Rusyn forms of names, like Michn... de Borsofsky, Ilko, Stecko dominus de Sirkaz, (Iac)konis de Dzedosicze.
Rusyns during 15 century still are among dignitaries and on the offices, either elected or as king's nominees. Senko of Siennow (de Syennow) is the Przemysl chamberlain and a tutor during 1436-37 confederation, Ihnat of Kutyszcze for long years was a Halich judge (1438-1471), Wasko of Rybotyczewas a Przemysl judge (and a sub-judge before that) (1460-67) , Jacko Bybelski is a master of the pantry, and Olechno alias Aleksander Porochnicki a deputy master of the pantry for Przemysl, Hlib-Mikolaj of Siennow is known as a sub-judge (1471-77), and one of Porochnickis was a Przemysl castellan (1449-54).
Dates as shown in the respective archives.
But it is also a period of fast denationalization of the more prominent Ukrainian clans, which still were present among upper classes of the local nobility. They slowly melted away and disappeared among new incoming Polish element. The major factors causing aforementioned denationalization were: the same feudal interest, pursuing of actual (not only legal) equality with privileged Polish aristocracy, aspiration of obtaining all these prerogatives and honors available only to the Polish magnates and nobility, influence of the Polish culture and growing pressure of the Catholicism, which was conquering new Ukrainian lands and finally, mixed marriages between Rusyns and Poles. "When it happened - wrote Jan Prochnicki (Porochnicki), Lviv archbishop and great supporter of Jesuits, himself being of Ukrainian ancestry, on the process of polonization of Ukraine - that a girl was an only daughter with estate or a rich widow, the kings would send the Polish nobles to Ruthenia, (faverunt) and helped them with their influence to get married and it resulted with filling Ruthenia with religionem catholicam romanam. The rest, perfecit vigilantia pastorum (was done by the perfection of the priests), that the previous masters of Ruthenia went to the Roman church, eiurate schismate graeco (throwing away the Greek schism).
Excerpts from that family chronicle of archbishop Prochnicki, written in first quarter of the 17th century, are given in the 48th volume of "Zapiski nauk. Tow. im. Szewczenki", p. 6
It is quite impossible to attribute so great influence to the mixed marriages, however, the fact is that those marriages caused a great number of the Ukrainian estates went to the Polish hands and they were a direct cause of polonization of Ukrainian families or clans. The Bybelski clan in which archbishop Prochnicki had his roots - one of the best off Ukrainian clans in Red Ruthenia - let the granddaughter of Chodko Bybelski, Duchna marry a Pole, Jan Barzy of Bolozow
(Beginnings of the family unclear, but judging from the names, already in first half of the 15th century the family was if not Polish, then polonized. The following may serve as a documentation of that kind of marriages - one of many: generosa Oluchna de Hermanow consors generosus Albert Svathek de Uyasd iudicis castr. leopoliensis. Town and Land archives VII, 53)
and the family of the latter, enriched with the Bybelskis estates, gained high offices and senatorial chairs in 16 century, not available for Bybelskis. Marriage articles related to the marriage between Senko Bybelski and Fredro of Pliszowice from 1441 says that Fredro will give his daughter to Senko, under conditions that Senko will become a roman catholic. "Noble Frydro of Pliszowice - we can read there - and nobles Jacko of Bybel and his brother voluntarily agreed that Frydro will give his daughter Jadwiga to Senko of Bybel as a wife, under a condition that the marriage will be executed in four years, together with the wedding (in quatuor annis debet fore copula et cum hoc nupcie), and if any party will not hold to the agreement, it will pay to the other party one thousand grzywny as pledge, and Senko, with similar pledge, will become a roman catholic before the wedding (et etiam Senko sub eodem vadio debet se baptizare prius quam copulam contraheret), and Frydro will give to Senko two hundred grzywny of dowry and clothing worth same. Senko shall pay his wife Jadwiga dowry of 600 grzywny secured on the half of the estates he will receive.
(Town and land archives, XIII, 1491)
That kind of evolution was taking place during 15th and 16th centuries within families and other private arrangements. The proof of the evolution could be double names being in use in second half of the 15th century by people representing Ukrainian families of Red Ruthenia, those Costhko alias Joannes Porochnicki, Joannes alias Hrycko Bybelski, Hlib-Mikolaj of Siennow etc.
(Town and lands archives, VII 63, IX 81 i 110, and indexes, vol. XIII i XVII)
In general, history of polonization of the Ukrainian families was never examined and explored in spite of fact that it is extremely interesting from the cultural point of view and that there is abundance of documents related to it.
In 16th century there was almost no magnate families in Red Ruthenia, which would perserve in Ukrainian (Rusyn) nationality.
Al. Jablonowski names (Zr. Dziejowe, XVIII cz. II str.287-288)* such magnate families out of old aborigin clans as the Lipskis, (decendands of Dymitr of Goraj, endowed by Casimir the Great with immense estates in Chelm lands, the Czurylos (from the same clan), the Bybelskis-Nowomiejskis - all using coat of arms Korczak. The Danilowiczs, Dzieduszyckis and Tarnawskis - using arms Sas. The Kierdejs, Wapowskis, Lahodowskis - using other arms. Except Lahodowskis, which still in 16th century show off their Rusyn origin by care of Uniow monaster, the others denationalized by the end of first half of the 16th century, mostly even before the 16th century outbreak.
* Due to the problem of great interest, here and in a few other paragraphs we quote extensively Alexander Jablonowski's "Zrodla dziejowe", which were mentioned by prof. Hruszevskij. Editors
"By nature of things the Rusyn magnates should have major influence in Ruthenia. The boyar families were powerful there during Ruryk descendants rule and could not be moved out by new sovereign - Casimir the Great and his successors. That was what happened. Taking into consideration both immediate results and historic data we shall conclude that first Polish rulers maintained good relations with important boyar families leaving them at their estates." Then the author names these boyar familes mentioned above by prof. Hruszevskij. Al. Jablonowski counts also the Komarnicki family (perhaps with a kind of question mark) using arms Junosza into boyars. Then "the intermediate link between old Rusyn and pure Polish families were houses, which came to Ruthenia during Opolczyk's rule from Silesia or Moravia, such as the Herburts using arms Paweza and undoubtedly the Fredros using arms Boncza (or from Hungary)" writes Mr. Jablonowski. Further Jablonowski writes: "so numerous formerly in Red Ruthenia and in other Rustyn lands boyar class, now at the end of 16th century semmed ceased to exist. It splitted into two parts: one got itself luckily into file of nobles-gentry endowed with Polish laws, the other pauperized, fell to the class of simple servants, serfs, etc." (p. 175-176)
Few better off noble families remained, which could be counted into Ukrainian (Rusyn) population by their national identification. In known for example petitions of 1539-1540 to the Metropolitan in regard with the Halicz eparchy, following Red-Rusyn nobles took a part: Marek Szumlanski, Iwan Stanimirski, Iwan and Stefan Demidecki, Nikandro Switelnicki, Michal and Marek Balaban, Pawel Zeliborski, Iwan Lopatka, Piotr Uhernicki, Wasko, Trufan and Iwan Grabowiecki, Iwan and Pawel Zahwozdecki, Olechno Zamostski, Iwan Dubrowicki, Wasyl and Olechno Czolhanski, Iwan and Wasko Roznitowski, Raszko and Stefan Swaryczewski, Deonisij and Iwan Horbaczewski, Iwan and Pawel Sambor, Michal and Jacko Jaczniski.
(Archives Z. R. II, 193 and 198)
From aforementioned noble families a few could be counted as wealthy: the Balabans, perhaps the Demideckis and Czolhanskis; the remaining group belongs to moderately wealthy or petty like the Grabowieckis, Dubrowickis, Rozniatowskis, Swaryczewskis, Jaczniskis, etc.
( See at Jablonowski after p. 339 and next, passim*.)
*) "Petty gentry of Rusyn origin. We have deliberated a little - writes Jablonowski - about certain characteristic order of propagation of Rusyn families, known or little known. And it is not a small retnue by no means! Firstly, all houses and families using arms Sas (about 50 families, page 340) just Rusyns, if we discount a legend originating their roots behind the Mountains of Beskid, from Hungarian Walachia. Immediately next to those, there are families with arms Wreby and Korczak (circa 40 families, page 341), probably the aboriginal Ruthenia. Also, although not to same extent, arms Kierdeja are of old Rusyn origin; and with rather Turkish than Hungarian roots come Salawa and Holobok. That is it! The remaining part of the old Rusyn families and houses adjusted their original seal signs to well established already Polish arms, or just adopted them. More often than others such as Nieczuja, Sulima, Junosza, Jastrzab, Ostoja".
Those gentry folk of Ukrainian (Rusyn) progeniture settled widely Red Ruthenia (particularly Przemysl lands) already in 16th century. Later, in 17th century all Rusyn families removed earlier by the government from everything giving income and influence, joined those aforementioned. Propagating and growing in numbers, the petty nobility was loosing their holdings and meaning and finally, it landed among petty landlords, except of course those families extinct earlier or polonized during 16th century. As a result, we can see first half of the 17th century Ruthenia following Rusyn families of petty gentry.
( Lozinski "Prawem i Lewem" I, p. 290-1, gives a list of those families together with other pertinent data. The list, however, is by no means exhaustive, therefore I am adding a number of names being conscious that it will still remain far from being complete and there is a number of names left.)
In Halicz area we have: the Berezowskis, Chocimirskis, Drogomireckis, Grabowieckis, Holynskis, Kniahynickis, Krechowieckis, Medynskis, Swistelnickis, Sulatyckis, Strutynskis, Tatomirs, Uhernickis, Wolkowickis, Zeliborskis, Zurakowskis; in Lviv region: the Balickis, Czolhanskis, Dubrowskis, Hoszowskis, Kopeckis, Lozinskis, Podwysockis, Podlasieckis, Pletenieckis, Pohoreckis, Popiels, Przedrzymirskis, Swirskis, Semihinowskis, Srokowskis, Winnickis, Witnickis; in Przemysl region: the Baczynskis, Bereznickis, Bilinskis, Bojarskis, Bratkowskis, Dobrianskis, Horodynskis, Horodyskis, Ilnickis, Jaminskis, Jasienickis, Jaworskis, Kolnofojskis, Koblanskis, Komarnickis, Kopystynskis, Krynickis, Kruszelnickis, Kulczyckis, Litynskis, Luckis, Monastyrskis, Matkowskis, Paclawskis, Podhorodeckis, Popiels, Radylowskis, Rytarowskis, Sieleckis, Sozanskis, Smereczanskis, Stupnickis, Terleckis, Tureckis, Turianskis, Tustanowskis, Uniatyckis, Uruskis, Winnickis, Wysoczanskis, Zeliborskis; in Sanok region: Dobrianskis and Lozinskis *).
*) Al. Jablonowski, mentioning the names of the Red Rusyn origin nobility still holding their estates at the end of 16th century, apart from aforementioned undoubtedly Rusyn families, gives additionally following clans:
In Halicz region: the Bednawskis, Bludnickis, Czastylowskis, Czerleniowskis, Dymideckis, Grabowskis, Hnileckis using arms Sas Krechowskis (Sas), Kunaszowskis, Lichanskis, Orzechowskis, Obertynskis(Sas), Powerbeckis, Poplawnickis, Szumlanskis, Studzinskis arms Holobok, Zagwojskis, Zywaczowskis.
In Lviv area: the Belzeckis, Borszowskis, Borosniowskis arms Sas, Czajkowskis, Ciemierzynskis arms Sas, Hermanowskis, Jastrzebskis, Narajowskis, Pieczychojskis, Polatyckis, Rozniatowskis arms Sas, Streptowskis, Swaryczowskis arms Sas. In Przemysl lands: the Boryslawskis, Baranieckis arms Sas, Bystryowskis, Blazowskis arms Sas, Chlopczyckis, Chlopickis, Czyzowkis, Dabkowskis, Debowskis, Dubowlanskis, Jasienskis arms Sas, Klodnickis arms Sas, Korczynskis arms Sas, Kropiwnickis arms Sas, Krukienickis arms Korczak, Kupiatyckis, Lubienieckis, Lowieckis, Morawskis, Nowosielskis arms Sas, Nowoszyckis, Tarnowskis, Wolosieckis arms Sas, Zupanskis. In Sanok region: Bukowskis, Leszczynskis, Lodzinskis arms Sas" (p. 330-333).
From among those families, these using arms Sas, Korczak, Holobok are, as we know, undoubtedly of Rusyn progeniture, and the others, the fact of their settling as early as 16th century would proof local progeniture, however, it is prudent to accept Jablonowski's conclusion that "since nobles of Rusyn origin took with time Polish arms, it is difficult to distinguish roots of these houses from houses of Polish origin, taking names from the endowed lands, without in-depth examination." (p. 342).
"Great number names taken from the Red Ruthenia localities can be explained that apart from already accounted for reasons, there was a custom that each separating branch of the family or house or clan, used to take separate name or by-name. And there we have the Boratynskis house arms Korczak from Przemysl region, which gave beginnings to the houses of the Malczyckis, Dabrowskis etc. The Grochowskis arms Junosza, also from Przemysl lands, gave beginnings to the houses of the Hermanowskis, Komarnickis, Kijewskis." (p. 352). Editor's notes.
Mostly they were old families, holding significant estates, which with time grew in numbers, divided into different branches with characteristic by-names and nicknames, such as Proskurczetas, Kalinowieta - Kniahynickis; Lechowskis, Josypowiczs, Jakubszowiczs - Zurakowskis; Beryndas, Soloninkas, Trunkowicz - Czajkowskis; Hryckowietas, Iskrzeta - Paclawskis etc.
(See at Jablonowski's p. 353*) and at Lozinskie's 1. c.)
*) Nicknames among the Terleckis - wrote Al. Jablonowski - Popowietas; Sieleckis - Hryckowietas, Dziurdzies; Blazowskis - Czechs, Sochas, Telepas, Iwankowietas; among the Komarnickis - Jankowietas, Dudyczs; Turzanskis - Holowaczs, Lujs; Sozanskis - Prasolas, Woronowiczs; Winnickis - Mukaszs, Oszosts; Jaworskis - Mrzyglodowiczs; Popiels - Tarapatyczs, Petelczycs (Chwosciaks - Lozinski, p. 291); Bratkowskis - Puhaczs; among the Kruszelnickis - Wolks, Holowkas, Popowietas, Blyszczycs; Swaryczewskis - Czepiels; Chojenskis - Kostrowiczs; Sosnowskis - Feciulowiczs; Czarnolozkis - Orzeszkowiczs; Piaseckis - Skoczylass; Gruszeckis - Zakowiczs; Stawskis - Bylinas, Sowas; Komorowskis - Malcherowiczs.
These families belonged to two specifically Ukrainian coat of arms groups: Sas and Korczak (in particular to the first one). Progeniture and propagation of these arms among Ukrainian (Rusyn) nobility remains unresolved, however, from historic and cultural point of view, very interesting story.
(See footnote 4, p. 610-12, v. VI "Historya Ukrainy-Rusi")
Military reviews prove great number of these petty nobility families (military review was a mandatory gathering and presentation of all nobles in the region to show military readiness - sp) of first half of the 17th century.
(Numbers related to the reviews per Lozinski, op. c. I p. 339-40, 342)
So, during Lviv lands nobility review i 1621, total number of gentry was 518. Among them 43 Czajkowskis, 34 Hoszowskis and 40 Witnickis. During Przemysl lands review in 1648 among almost 1000 gentry there were 70 Jaworskis, 46 Kulczyckis, 36 Winnickis, 23 Bilinskis ). In the documents related to the reviews we can find details on arms and armories and war readiness of the nobles, showing clearly their "wealth" and social status. Few of them could afford a retinue and those being able to show on the horseback and at arms were in minority. Out of 43 Czajkowskis three came with horses, remainings presented themselves on foot. Out of 40 Witwickis nobady was riding a horse. The Lviv lands review shows even with greater emphasis the petty gentry poverty, due to which, most of them could not afford not only a horse, but even any kind of armory. Noble Hryc Wolczkowicz Jasnicki of Jasniszcze presented himself on foot, but with a saber and a musquet. Noble Iwan Wolczkowicz Jasnicki stood also on foot, but only with a "stick" (a primitive rifle - sp); noble Roman Hoszowski standing as a substitute for his father Anton Hobrycz Hoszowski presented hinself also only with a "stick"; noble Fedor Hoszowski of Kleczkowicze was on foot with a saber and a musquet, but noble Stec Andronikowicz Hoszowski wielded only a rapier (considered as inferior to a saber - sp), noble Fedor Szumlanski of Bratkowicze presented himself on foot with a "stick", noble Hryhory Rudnicki of Bratkowicze (note two nobles were sharing an estate, possibly with others) with a saber and a musquet, noble Iwan Zaplatynski of Ostaloicze with a saber, an axe and with a bird gun (small caliber rifle), etc.
(Town book of Lviv, 280, p. 2581-5)
Poverty did not allow these people to afford even so low degree of learning and culture, which better off Polish and polonized nobility could afford. This caused that these petty gentry was closer to the "masses" and peasants and in the effect caused that these people preserved their national identity as Ukrainians (Rusyns) through out not only 17th and 18th century, but also later, till modern times. These folks remained in 17th and 18th century, similarly as in 15th and 16th centuries faithful to their "Rusyn religion" and national tradition and in a same way as all those Waskas, Fedkos, Hryckos (typical Rusyn names - sp) with no less characteristic by-names like Puhaczs, Kolodrobs, Wowkos, Holowkos, Tarapatyczs, Popowietas, etc. differ from Przeclaws, Prandotas, Zboznys and Szczesnys, Polish nobility, gente or natione.
(See Lozinski, op. c. p. 291)
Their national identity is alive with them and, sometimes, they show off as reprezentatives of "all Ruthenia", Ruthenia of unclear form, indistinctive, such as it was in the imagination of all Western frontier inhabitants, immense Ruthenia reaching with its boundlessness, yonder, to the Eastern horizon beyond haze.
Being in majority among all local nobility and based on the Polish Constitution recognizing all nobles as equal, without distinguishing the wealthy from the petty, honors, education, titles and offices and resolving all public matters by common vote of all present, these masses of petty gentry could easily govern their lands and counties, elect their candidates to the offices and have leading role in the life of province. Unfortunately, they were lacking solidarity, well defined social, political and national goals, organization, and in result, those people were too often moved to insignificant position and subdued to their better off and having more influence Polish "brothers".
There were however, moments, when crystallized in some cast in concrete fact national or class interest pushed this nobility mass towards more active and solidary action. Reasons and conditions creating such an action are not always clear, even when the facts are well known. Such mysterious activity was massive joining of the Halicz region nobility the Moldavian palatine Bohdan army during his aggression against Red Ruthenia lands in 1509.
(This Bohdan's aggression and resulting retaliation against Moldavia Pulaski describes in his sketch: "Zygmunt I's war with Moldavian palatine Bohdan in 1509", Sketches, v.I)
Incidentally there we can find that people such as Iwanko Demidecki and Ilja Szumlanski, Iwanko, Jacko, Wasko Mieszczenskis (?), Fedko Dubrowicz, Zan Cucylowski, Sienko Witwicki, Wasko and Marek Kniahynickis, Semen, Iwan, Senko and Sydor Drogomireckis, Sienko Balicki, Dmytro z Danyskowicz, Hryhory, Senko, Hryncza, Hryhor, Ficza and Iwasko Berezowskis, Iwasko Pyszyninski (?), Andrzej Lucki joined Moldavian forces.
(Materyaly, I, 66 - some names distorted)
The were pronounced traitors
(Sua temeritate, fidelitate postposita, sponte et non coacti ad eundem woywodam defecissent eidemque se absque legittima causa subiecissent- ibid.)
and their estates were confiscated. After Polish victory in 1509/10 winter, when Bohdan was obliged by a treaty, to return all Ukrainians, those nobles came back excusing themselves that they joined Moldavian forces not by good will but being threatened and forced into it. Their excuses were accepted and consequently, their rights and estates were returned to them. It is, however, hard to believe their excuses. Some of the circumstances could be explained by certain relation of religious and cultural nature between Western Ukraine and Moldavia, however, there is no definite information on the subjest available. When we remember, though, that less than twenty years earlier there was also unclear movement related to certain Mucha, when the Pokucie and Red Rusyn peasantry were represented by a notorious Moldavian agent. A year after that the Moldavian palatine supports certain pretender (contemporary Polish chronicler named him Andrzej Borul), which called himself a rightful heir to the Rusyn throne, grabbed by Casimir [the Great]. The pretender, having Sultan's military help, tried to take over the Western Ukraine, but he was incidentally apprehended by the Michal Buczacki's servants.
(Monum. pol. hist. III, p. 239-40)
Twenty years after 1509 episode, during another Moldavian raid against Western Ukraine, the Rusyns again, almost unanimously subjected themselves to the palatine, which accepts their act gratefully, having killed the roman Catholics in meantime.
(Ad quem Rutheni illic paene omnes advolant et se illi gestibundi subjiciunt, quos ille benigne suspicit et tractat, eos vero, qui Romani ritus sunt occidi jubet. Acta Tomicina, XII, 393, list w grudniu 1530 r. )
Worth remembering is a king's act of 1511 requiring that the Red Ruthenia lords shall not attend the religious observances in Moldavia, since they - suscipiendorum ordinum, ut ipsi putant sacrorum, causa solent se conferre in Valachiam et alias exteras partes et plerumque de rebus et statu regni apud hostes disserere positionemque regni prodere (Corpus iuris polon. III, 71)
Of course, we have here in all those incidents of the end of 15th and first half of the 16th centuries, certain evidence of a Ukrainian - Moldavian irredentism, so unclear due to the lack of information sources.
Clearer, though, are some acts of the Ruthenian nobles in 17th century. In the Western Red Ruthenia for example, it was a fight going for almost half of a century after Kopystynski's death (1610), for the church of Przemysl lordship, between Orthodox and Greek church members.
(See Dobranski's "Istorja episkopow eparchii peremyszlskoj", Lozinski "Prawem i Lewem" I, p. 294 et subs.), Golubiew "Piotr Mohyla", v. II, p. 135 et subs.)
The defense of the Eastern rite against Greek church was in that time considered as a matter of honor, not only in relation with religion but also with national pride. Local nobles were interested in it very much, since majority of the Orthodox church officers were and members of the local nobility, church lordship including. Therefore all changes, both internal and in hierarchy of the eparchy were not neutral for those nobles. When after Kopystynski's death, also a local noble, who was firmly with Eastern rite, the king promoted to the eparchy a Greek church member and his protégée, Atanazy Krupecki, both clergy and nobility submitted a very strong protest and started annoy if not bully the eparch. The king Zygmunt took Krupecki unter his personal protection and ordered that a great deal of money, as much as 50,000 dukats (gold coins - sp) was deposited against possible harm to the eparch or other harmful action. The names of the eparch's adversaries were mentioned in the king's order, and there we have: Iwan and Mikolaj Chlopeckis, Marcin Rytarowski, Fedor Turianski, Andrzej and Iwan Sozanskis, Iwan Monastyrski, Iwan, Pawel, Iwan, Mikolaj, Lukasz, Adam, Wasyl, Samuel and Michal Kopystianscy, Wasyl Terlecki, Fedor Winnicki, Stefan and Bohdan Radylowskis, Marcin-Aleksander Farafunta Blazowski, Iwan, Fedor, Hryhory, Pawel and Hrycko Popiels, Martyn Jasieniecki, Hrycko Koblanski, Aleksander Uhernicki, Iwan and Wasyl Buntowieckis (!) (this surname could be translated as Rebel - sp) Fedor and Iwanko Kulczyckis, Piotr Rohozinski, Piotr and Aleksander Holatyckis, Iwan Czajkowski, Hrycko Janocki, Iwan Tustanowski, Fedor Koblanski, Bosko Chmytkowski, Fedor Kuniczkowski, Dmytro and Piotr Hordynskis, Iwan Ilnicki, Dmytro Sydorski, Dmytro Burda, Fedor Tatomir.
(The Przemysl Archives, 327, p. 18-19) (In later fight between Krupecki and Hulewicz, particular role played the Hulewicz's brothers Aleksander and Daniel Hulewiczs, the Czernichow sandardbearer Andrzej Kossakowski, Andrzej Zahorowski, Semen Myszka Choloniewski, Teodor Winnicki and Piotr Szeptycki. - Editor)
Among Orthodox contra-candidates, the nobles supported the eparch Hulewicz, an energetic man who was able to organize the nobles and take the eparchy estates and offices from Krupecki by force. The nobles, due to their persistence, obtained an amnesty act for Hulewicz, together with a lifetime lordship. After Hulewicz's death, the same nobles brought in by force the dead eparch Orthodox successor Winnicki, who successfully ousted Krupecki from the eparchy. Later, the nobles gave strong support to Winnicki in his fight with another kings protégée, Polish national and Greek church member Chmielowski, which caused that Chmielowski was not even able to take over the eparchy, but even live in there. Restlessly, the nobles initiated the local political assemblies acts in defense of Winnicki, instructed their representatives accordingly to act on Winnicki's behalf both in Parliament and before the king, which resulted in Winnicki's confirmation as the eparch.
Not so unified and unanimous, however, very distinguished, was joining of the Red Ruthenia nobility, forces of Bohdan Chmielnicki's popular uprising. Variety of stances was caused by certain economic factors, as well as class interest. Main area of this movement was Halicz region (the movement was relatively weakly developed in Western Red Ruthenia), the local nobles particularly supported though the irredentism organized in Pokucie by Semen Wysoczan (perhaps one of Wysoczanskis). The nobles were there the chieftains, "colonels" leaders of the peasants and burghers which were a core of the Wysoczan's forces.
(see Tomaszewski's "Narodni ruchy w Halyckij Rusy 1648 r. " (in Zapyski nauk. tow. im. Szewczenki, v. XXIV et sep.), p. 39 et subs., comp. p. 121-3)
In this and in the other uprising details we can see a number of the Hrabowieckis, Holynskis, Berezowskis, Skolskis, Kniahinickis, Zurakowskis, Tatomirs, Drohomiereckis, Jazwinskis, Strutynskis, Medynskis, Hoszowskis, Popiels. The Poles in general, charged the Ukrainian nobility for supporting the uprising and ousting Poles from the lands, etc.
(Zerela IV, 42, 74, 83, 97, 152. V, 42, 63, 75. see Tomaszewskis op. c. p.41)
Alas, lack of enunciation on the part of the uprising participants offers little possibility of recognizing the nobles' motives and nobility's understanding of the uprising origins and reasons.
Omitting such extraordinary episodes, even regular day-to-day life proves important meaning of the petty nobles in preserving of the Ukrainian element and national tradition. They were rather poor people, not well educated, without influence, however, still their material and social position was much higher than the deprived of any rights feudal peasantry. In spite of the poverty, there were numerous examples of ut in substantia sic in moribus et claritate talented people growing above the level of fall of the Ukrainian element caused by Polish reign. Truly though, those growing became quickly enough in its majority strangers to their own nation and accepting outward cultural forms, assimilated with "cultural" Polish environment. Nevertheless, presence in the Ukrainian file of this a little more wealthy and mainly haughtier element, gave this file some moral power and in many instances it was a help to the contemporary national activist in their works. Reading aforementioned registers of the Red Ruthenia nobility families, the reader could remember the Balabans i Kopystynskis, Zeliborskis and Winnickis, Pletenieckis and Kalnofojsks, Radylowsks and Zurakowskis, which wrote their names into the Ukrainian history as remarkable activists of religious, educational and cultural life of their motherland. These petty nobles gave their members to clergy; better half of those families became with time clans, let's say dynasties of the high clergy. And great number of those names was written on the chart of the first hundred-year history of the contemporary Ukrainian Galicia national re-birth. (...) s. 15
(transl. - sp)
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Simple Definition of drawing table
: a table that has a surface that can be raised up or down or turned to different angles and that is used for drawing
Full Definition of drawing table
: a table with a surface adjustable for elevation and angle of incline
First Known Use of drawing table
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up drawing table? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
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A wearable technology that measures physiological signs is poised to help doctors better understand and treat mental illness such as bipolar disorder.
The National Institutes of Mental Health is funding a five-year study on bipolar disorder, which is being led by William Perry, professor of psychiatry at the University of California San Diego and investigators Mark Geyer, Martin Paulus, MD, and Arpi Minassian, PhD, also UC San Diego professors of psychiatry.
The study uses a device called the LifeShirt, designed by Ventura, Calif.-based VivoMetrics, Inc., to research movements in subjects with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
"When patients are highly symptomatic, it is sometimes difficult for physicians to diagnose whether an individual is exhibiting signs of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder," said Perry.
LifeShirt provides continuous ambulatory monitoring on pulmonary, cardiac and other physiologic data and correlates them over time.
UC San Diego researchers released a study in 2007 called a "reverse-translational approach," which uses a paradigm originally developed in rodents for human subjects.
In studies researchers found when rodents are given drugs such as amphetamines, or have genetic abnormalities that change brain chemistry, they exhibit distinctive, abnormal movement patterns and difficulties in filtering information. Medications for bipolar disorder normalize these types of behaviors.
In the study, subjects were asked to go into a small room filled with objects and wait unsupervised for 15 minutes before the experiment began - unbeknownst to the subjects, this was the actual experiment.
Patrick Hankey, sales director, VivoMetrics, says the study found "different types of subjects interacted with the objects in very distinctive ways."
The subjects with bipolar disorder interacted with all the objects and moved around the room rapidly, while subjects who had schizophrenia were found to interact much less.
Perry and his colleagues say by studying the brain's screening or filtering mechanisms in manic patients before and after they are treated with medication, they will be able to compare their results to tests done on rodents. Researchers believe mice can be used to discover new and improved drugs by observing how their movement pattern is altered after taking medication. The collective findings might also offer insight into the chemical imbalances and genetic abnormalities that appear to contribute to bipolar disorder.
Hankey says LifeShirt was the enabling technology for this experiment because it replicated what had previously only been done with rodents.
Alex Derchak, principal scientist, VivoMetrics, says although the subject's movements are continuously being monitored, it is not in real-time. He says the company is planning to extend to remote monitoring and that real-time capabilities are in the works.
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Welcome to E-Books Directory
This page lists freely downloadable books.
Information Technology in Education
E-Books for free online viewing and/or download
e-books in this category
Mobile Media Learning
by Seann Dikkers et al. - ETC Press , 2012
This book shares innovative uses of mobile technology for learning in a variety of settings. From camps to classrooms, parks to playgrounds, libraries to landmarks, the book shows that exciting learning can happen anywhere educators can imagine.
Web Writing: Why and How for Liberal Arts Teaching and Learning
by Jack Dougherty, Tennyson O'Donnell - University of Michigan Press , 2015
The book responds to contemporary debates over the proper role of the Internet in higher education, steering a middle course between polarized attitudes that often dominate the conversation. The authors argue for the wise integration of web tools ...
TeacherCraft: How Teachers Learn to Use MineCraft in Their Classrooms
by Seann Dikkers - unglue.it , 2015
Minecraft is currently the game of choice for millions of youth and also for these seventeen teachers. Its rapid adoption provides a unique window of opportunity to look inside the recent memory of innovative teachers and unpack how they learned.
Ebooks in Education: Realising the Vision
by Hazel Woodward - Ubiquity Press , 2014
Ebooks are coming of age in education, as this collection demonstrates. The book will provide guidance to institutions as they develop services to support students and researchers and will be of interest to publishers, teachers, lecturers, etc.
ARTiculating: Teaching Writing in a Visual World
by P.B. Childers, E.H. Hobson, J.A. Mullin (eds) - Heinemann , 2013
The book explores the central role that the visual plays in a multimediated, computerized culture. The contributors to this collection and the editors ask how we can exploit the intersections between the visual and the verbal to improve learning.
Education for an Information Age
by B.J. Poole, E. Sky-McIlvain - University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown , 2006
The primary goal of the text is to help you incorporate the computer into your K-12 curriculum. A secondary goal is to support your endeavors towards becoming the most effective educator you can be in the context of the K-12 classroom of today ...
Digital Thinking and Mobile Teaching
by Renee Robinson , Julie Reinhart - Bookboon , 2014
This book explores how mobile devices can be incorporated into learning environments to promote a digitally-rich curricula resulting in a framework that identifies a right time, right place and mobile device aimed at maximizing student learning.
The Digital Scholar: How Technology Is Transforming Scholarly Practice
by Martin Weller - Bloomsbury Academic , 2011
Every aspect of scholarly practice is seeing changes effected by new technologies. This book will explore these changes, their implications for higher education, the new forms of scholarly practice and what lessons can be drawn from other sectors.
Passions, Pedagogies, and 21st Century Technologies
by Gail E. Hawisher, Cynthia L. Selfe - Utah State University Press , 1999
A volume that sets the agenda in the field of computers and composition scholarship for a decade. The technology changes that scholars of composition studies face as the next century opens couldn't be more dramatic or deserving of passionate study.
Issues in Digital Technology in Education
- Wikibooks , 2011
Table of Contents: Web 2.0 Learning Environments; The Net Generation; Blended Learning; Online Communities; Accessibility and Usability; Games for Learning; Virtual Learning Environments; Moderating Online Discussions For Learning; etc.
Planned Obsolescence: Publishing, Technology, and the Future of the Academy
by Kathleen Fitzpatrick - NYU Press , 2009
Planned Obsolescence is both a provocation to think more broadly about the academy's future and an argument for reconceiving that future in more communally-oriented ways. Kathleen Fitzpatrick focuses on the technological changes...
The Future of Learning Institutions in a Digital Age
by C.N. Davidson, D.T. Goldberg - The MIT Press , 2009
The authors focus on the potential for shared and interactive learning made possible by the Internet. They argue that the most important characteristic of the Internet is its capacity for world-wide community and the limitless exchange of ideas.
Game Changers: Education and Information Technologies
by Diana G. Oblinger - EDUCAUSE , 2012
Institutions are finding new ways of achieving higher education's mission without being crippled by constraints or overpowered by greater expectations. Find out who is changing the game and what we can learn from their approaches in this book.
Digital Tools in Urban Schools: Mediating a Remix of Learning
by Jabari Mahiri - University of Michigan Press , 2011
The book demonstrates significant ways in which high school teachers in the complex educational setting of an urban public high school in Northern California extended their own professional learning to revitalize learning in their classrooms.
Hacking the Academy
by Dan Cohen, Tom Scheinfeldt - MPublishing , 2011
This volume explores how the academy might be beneficially reformed using digital media and technology. The book represents a good snapshot of how engaged academics are trying to further its original goals of learning, scholarship, and service.
Introduction to Problem Solving in the Information Age
by David Moursund , 2007
This book explores how Information and Communication Technology aid both your physical capabilities and your mental capabilities. By learning to make effective use of ICT tools, you can improve your problem-solving capabilities.
Beyond Fun: Serious Games and Media
by Drew Davidson et al. - Lulu.com , 2008
This book focuses on strategies for applying games, simulations and interactive experiences in learning contexts. Throughout, the promises and problems of implementing games and media in learning experiences are explored.
Computers as Tutors: Solving the Crisis in Education
by Frederick Bennett - Faben , 1999
Bennett methodically analyzes current educational Practices with a focus on the enhanced role computers can play in the schools. His review of past educational theory and present-day situations illustrate the frustration of many with our schools.
New technologies, new pedagogies: Mobile learning in higher education
by J. Herrington, at al. - University of Wollongong , 2009
This e-book explores the use of mobile devices in learning in higher education, and provides examples of good pedagogy. The examples this book will provide the reader with the inspiration to teach their own courses in ways that employ mobile devices.
Wiki Writing: Collaborative Learning in the College Classroom
by Robert E. Cummings, Matt Barton - Digital Culture Books , 2008
A collection of essays that provides an array of perspectives on the many theoretical and practical issues that wikis raise. The book draws on practical classroom experiences with wikis to offer a series concrete suggestions to help educators.
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Paediatric Drug Handling
Costello, Ian; Long, Paul; Wong, Ian Chi Kei; Tuleu, Catherine; Yeung, Vincent
Ian Costello, Paul Long, Ian K Wong, Catherine Tuleu and Vincent Yeung - Centre for Paediatric Pharmacy Research, The School of Pharmacy, University of London, UK
Children form a large percentage of the patient population, but few medicines have been designed and tested specifically for paediatric use.
This important textbook covers:
- pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs and formulations in children of different ages
- medication errors in paediatric practice
- the formulation of established, new and orphan drugs for use in paediatric practice
- the regulatory processes for paediatric medicines throughout the world
- the ethics of clinical trials in children and trial design in the case of rare diseases where patient numbers will be limited.
Written by international experts in the field, this introductory text is an excellent resource for postgraduate students in the pharmaceutical sciences.
2. Paediatric Formulations in Practice
3. Paediatric Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
4. Pharmacogenomics Considerations in Paediatric Drug Handling
5. Clinical Trials in Children
6. Medication Errors in Paediatric Patients
'This book provides a background in paediatric pharmacy and a comprehensive introduction to children's medication. Written by international experts in the field, this introductory text is an excellent resource for pharmacists.'
CompoundingToday.com Newsletter (International Journal of Pharmaceutical Compounding) Volume 5, Issue 6. Published online February 8, 2008
01-Jul-07, Annals of Pharmacotherapy
'The authors have done a good job of reviewing and summarizing medication issues in the pediatric population. This information is easy to read and understand. This is a unique book, as most pharmaceutical textbooks cover broader population issues.'
Lea S Eiland. Associate Clinical Professor of Pharmacy Practice. Auburn University School of Pharmacy, Alabama. Annals of Pharmacotherapy. Vol 41. June 2007
01-Jul-07, Journal of Pharmacy Technology
'One of the greatest strengths of Paediatric Drug Handling is its collection of a variety of important topics related to the development and use of drugs in the pediatric population, in a small, inexpensive format. Each chapter provides a summary of relevant issues facing pediatric medical care.'
Edward A Bell PharmD BCPS, Professor of Pharmacy Practice, Drake University College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Iowa, July 2007 issue of the Journal of Pharmacy Technology
'This book provides a comprehensive overview of all of the issues pharmacists serving pediatric patients must consider. It is easy to read and carefully referenced.'
Doody Enterprises, Ina Lee Calligaro, Temple University School of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, USA
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|Full name||Pitcairn Islands|
|Currency||New Zealand Dollar|
|National Anthem||"Come Ye Blessed"|
|Newspaper||Pitcairn Miscellany is the only one newspaper in this island.|
|Places to Visit||Acadia Island, Bounty Bay, Henderson Island etc are some of the tourist attractions that you must visit in the country.|
|Transport||Airways: In Pitcairn Island there is no airport.|
|Shopping||Walking Canes, woodcarvings, longboats, pitcairn wheelbarrows, vases, name plates, bounty cannon, serving dishes, dolls, handcrafted wooden magnets, barrette hairclips etc are can be bought in cheap prices in this country.|
Introduction To Pitcairn Island : The people discovered the Pitcairn Island in the year 1767. The island is very beautiful and rich with natural beauty. Enjoy your trip to the fullest.
Location Of Pitcairn Island : Pitcairn Island is located in the southern regions of the Pacific Ocean. Pitcairn Island consists of four small islands. All of these form a British colony. Peru and New Zealand are the two bordering countries of the island.
Physical Map Of Pitcairn Island : Pitcairn Island is full of coastal regions and volcanic regions on its face. Mountains, highlands and lowlands are also there. The highest elevation of the island is the Pawala Valley Ridge peak that rises almost 347 meters above the sea level. Pacific Ocean on the other hand is the lowest point of the country.
Climate Of Pitcairn Island : You must gather details about the climate of the country you are going to visit. The climate of Pitcairn Island can be termed as tropical. The weather remains warm and wet throughout the year. The temperature of the country swings between 10°C and 43°C. the rainy season continues from November and March. On the other hand, July and August are dry months.
Flora And Fauna Of Pitcairn Island :
Flora : The vegetation of the island is diverse. In the forets you can find various species of Ixora fragrans, sandalwood, Santalum insulare, Metrosideros collina, Ctenitis cumingii, Pyrrosia serpens, leafless orchid, Taeniophyllum fasciola, Capparis cordifolia, Hibiscus australensis and so on. Fauna : Animal kingdom is also very rich with rare species of birds. Some of these are Booby, Hermit crab, Henderson Dove, Henderson Rail, Henderson Parrot, Henderson Warbler and Henderson Petrel etc.
People Of Pitcairn Island : The total population of the country is almost 45. Pitcairn is a very small island. The Bounty mutineers' descendants form the majority of the country. The official language of the country is English. However, Pitcairnese is also widely spoken in the various regions of the country.
Art, Culture And Music Of Pitcairn Island :
Art : Cane works; woodcarvings, handcrafted wooden magnets etc are practiced in this country. Besides that painting is also considered as an important section of art. Longboats are also made in various pats of the country.
Culture : Pitcairn Island has developed a diverse cultural atmosphere. Tahitian influence can be percieved in the tradition of Pitcairn Island. English influence can also be seen in the music and ance of the country.
Music : The music of the island country reflects the influence of New Zealand and Peru. Music and dance are two integral parts of the country's cultural. The folk music is still very popular.
Flag of Pitcairn Island The flag of Pitcairn Island is very colorful. It features the flag of UK in the upper corner of the hoist side. The other half of the flag bears the coat of arms of Pitcairn Island in the center. The coat of arms has three colors i.e. green, yellow and light blue. It bears a shield that features an anchor colored is yellow.
Economy Of Pitcairn Island : Fishing and farming are two integral parts of the economy of Pitcairn Island. Besides those handicrafts is also an occupation in this island. The natural resources of the country are miro trees and different varieties of fishes. However, iron, copper, manganese, gold, zinc, silver etc are also being found in this country. The primary agricultural products are honey, wide variety of fruits, vegetables etc. The fast growing industries are handicraft industry, postage stamps industry, beekeeping industry, honey industry and so on. The materials that are exported to foreign countries are machinery, sugar, building materials, fuel oil, flour etc.
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Definitions of Reflector and Refractor.
Royal Observatory Greenwich
in the UK has a
nice collection of
leaflets, including one on
that discusses several types of telescopes if you would like to know
more. (It even mentions Yerkes!)
- Refracting telescopes use lenses to gather light.
(Lenses refract, or bend, the light.) Whether or not Galileo
actually developed the first refracting telescope, he was certainly
the first one to turn such a device on the stars. (He might have gotten
the device from regional merchants.)
The Yerkes 40-inch refractor is the largest refracting telescope in the
- Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to gather light.
(Mirrors reflect the light.)
Reflectors were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century.
The mirrors in these telescopes are curved and shallow.
There are several reasons why most modern
research telescopes (and the biggest telescopes) are reflectors.
Strobel's site has a nice article about telescopes.
Continue the tour: Go to the Yerkes grounds
and look around outside.
Content originally generated in March 1995.
This file was last modified on 19 April 2000.
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Mount Everest – Information, Expeditions and More
Everyone has heard of Mount Everest, we learned about it in school, avid climbers dream about reaching its summit, and we know it is on the Nepal and Tibet borders. However, there is much more to know about this great mountain.
Everest stands an astounding 29,029 feet above sea level. It is said that it actually grows about 2 inches a year due to the shifting of the tectonic plates. Originally names Peak XV in 1865 it was re-named after the Surveyor General of India, Sir George Everest. If you are in Tibet you will hear it called Chomolungma meaning Mother Goddess of the Universe, and in Nepal it is called Sagarmatha meaning Goddess of the Sky.
The mountain is said to be 60 million years old. Over 6,000 people have attempted to climb Mount Everest, of that only about 2,250 actually reached the summit. Sadly there have been over 200 Mount Everest deaths due to weather conditions. It is said that 120 bodies still remain on Mount Everest.
The weather can be treacherous as temperatures fall lower than 100 degrees below zero. Additionally the wind on Mount Everest can blow with the strength of a hurricane at 118 miles per hour or more. The other factor is the altitude as oxygen levels decrease the higher you climb. At only 9.800 feet there is only about 2/3 of the oxygen compared to sea level amounts. As you progress higher at 20,000 feet there is only half the needed oxygen and at the top of Mount Everest there is only a third of the oxygen needed to support human life.
Many climbers succumb due to the altitude. The low oxygen levels can cause severe illness and disorientation. Most climbers use the technique of climbing high and sleeping low. This means literally back tracking downwards on the mountain when it’s time to rest, but that is required in order to gain the benefits of being able to digest food and sleep sounder allowing your body to regain its needed strength.
The hardest part of the mountain to climb is called the Khumbu Icefall which literally requires climbers to climb through a moving sea of ice typically using nothing more than an ordinary aluminum ladder. Khumbu Icefall is responsible for over 19 deaths.
Since 1953 when Tenzing Norgay Sherpa of Nepal made the first ever documented climb of Everest, thousands more have been drawn to the challenge. Avid climbers put Mount Everest on their lists of mountains they want to conquer and it attracts those of all ages. The youngest known person to reach the summit was a mere 15 years old, while the oldest was 64 years old.
One needs to be a very experienced, highly trained climber in order to even attempt to conquer Everest. Even with those qualifications the mountain continues to take lives. The majority of lives lost on the mountain happened while the climbers were on their way back down. Many had reached the summit and lost their lives descending due to pure exhaustion. It’s a challenge that will entice climbers for decades to come!
Additional Mount Everest Information
This entry was posted on Thursday, September 9th, 2010 at and is filed under Mount Everest. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site.
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In this Tutorial we want to describe you a code that help you in understanding Get Tomorrow Date. For this we have a class name GetTomorrowDate.Inside the main method we have a variable name string s,Date date, Format formatter. The Calendar class has a method get Instance method() returns you the calendar object with a specific time zone and locale. . The calendar object call the get time () method that return you the current time and store in a variable date. and store in a formatter. The format class is abstract base class that is used for formatting the local sensitive object to a string. The formatter variable call format method to return a format object to a string.. The System.out.println print the current date. The calendar class has a add() method that add the next date in the calendar. In the same way the calendar call the get Time Method to return a current time and store in a date variable. The format method format the current time in a specified format passed as argument in simpledateformat and store in a string variable. Finally The println print the next day i.e. tomorrow on the command prompt.
1)calendar.getInstance ( )-This method return you the calendar object with a specific time zone and locale.
SimpleDateFormat- is a formatting concrete class that
helps you in parsing date in a locale-sensitive manner. This allows you to
format (date -> text), parsing (text -> date), and normalization.
3)calendar.getTime ( ) - This method returns the number of the millisecond elapsed since January1,1971.GetTomorrowDate.java
Posted on: November 5, 2008 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles
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Family Development - A Caregiver's Guide
Better Sleep for You and Your Baby
As with every new skill your baby learns, falling asleep in a crib may take practice. Your baby may cry when first put in the crib. This is normal and should be expected. There are a lot of things you can do to help your baby settle down for bed and feel more comfortable sleeping in a crib. Every baby is unique, so you may need to try a few times before you figure out exactly what your baby likes best.
10 tips to help your baby sleep at night
- Make sure your baby has active playtime, such as “tummy time,” during the day.
- Respond to your baby’s needs quickly during the day to reduce your baby’s stress.
- Allow for skin-to-skin contact during the day.
- Keep a consistent schedule for meals, naps and bedtime.
- Use a bedtime routine of three or four relaxing activities to help your baby wind down (giving your baby a bath, gently massaging muscles, and then spending a short period of quiet time together). Research has shown that babies who have a bedtime routine fall asleep 30% faster, wake up 50% less often, and sleep for longer stretches of time.
- Talk or sing softly to your baby before bed. Just the sound of your voice is very soothing to your baby.
- Put your baby in the crib when he or she begins to look tired, but is still awake. Putting babies to bed while they are tired, but still awake, helps them learn to fall asleep on their own.
- If your baby seems restless at bedtime, put your baby to bed 30 minutes earlier. When babies become overtired, they sometimes become energetic and fight off sleep.
- Play soft music, turn on a fan or put a ticking clock near your baby’s crib. Listening to repetitive sounds lulls babies off to sleep. Continuing normal household activities while babies sleep helps them learn to sleep without silence.
- Place a warm towel down on your baby’s sheet and remove it just before you place your baby down.
If you have tried all of these suggestions and your baby is still not sleeping well, talk to your baby’s nurse or doctor. There may be a medical reason for your baby’s restless nights. IMPORTANT INFORMATION!
Sleeping with your baby is dangerous.
Even if your baby is breastfed and you don’t smoke, drink alcohol or use drugs or other medications, sleeping with your baby still increases your baby’s risk of suffocation or strangulation while sleeping. The only way to protect your baby from higher risk is to have your baby sleep alone in a crib. For more information on safe infant sleep, visit www.ounce.org/safe_sleep.html
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AMES, Iowa -- Horticulturists with Iowa State University Extension and Outreach answer questions about lawn seeding, from what to look for in a grass seed mix to how frequently to water a newly seeded area. Homeowners and gardeners with lawn questions should contact horticulturists at Hortline by emailing email@example.com or calling 515-294-3108.
Late summer (mid-August to mid-September) is the best time to establish a new lawn from seed and to overseed existing lawns in Iowa. Late summer seeding has several advantages over spring seeding. The seeds of cool-season grasses germinate quickly in the warm soil of late summer. Once the seeds germinate, the warm days and cool nights of early fall promote rapid turfgrass growth. The growing grass also has less competition from weeds, as few weed seeds germinate in fall.
When purchasing grass seed, select a high quality seed mix that is best adapted to the site. Kentucky bluegrass is the best choice for sunny areas that receive at least six hours of direct sun each day. Choose a seed mix that contains at least two or three bluegrass cultivars. Because Kentucky bluegrass is slow to establish from seed, perennial ryegrass is often included in bluegrass mixes to speed establishment. The fine-leaf fescues (creeping red fescue, hard fescue, chewings fescue, etc.) are the best grasses for shady locations. In lawns that contain sun and shade, select a seed mix that is approximately 60 percent Kentucky bluegrass, 30 percent fine-leaf fescue and 10 percent perennial ryegrass. Kentucky bluegrass will be the dominant grass in the sunny areas while the fine-leaf fescues will thrive in the shaded portions of the lawn.
The first step in planting a new lawn is to establish the rough grade. Remove construction debris, then fill in low spots and level off high areas. The ground should slope away from the foundation of the house, drive and sidewalks. The rough grading should be done well in advance of seeding to allow settling to occur.
To determine soil fertility, conduct a soil test. Apply the recommended fertilizer, then incorporate it into the soil. Where a soil test has not been made, apply 10 pounds of 10-10-10 or a similar analysis fertilizer per 1,000 square feet and till it into the soil. The final step in soil preparation is hand raking the area. This is also the last opportunity to establish the final grade. Immediately prior to seeding, apply a starter lawn fertilizer. A starter lawn fertilizer is high in phosphorus.
Apply the seed with a drop-type seeder or by hand. The basic requirement is uniform distribution over the area. Sow half the seed in one direction; the remaining half should be applied at a right angle to the first application. After sowing the seed, lightly rake or drag the area. The seed should be covered to a depth of 1/8 to 1/4 inch. Roll the area lightly to ensure good contact between the seed and soil.
To reduce the competition from the established turfgrass, mow the lawn at a height of 1½ to 2 inches. Successful overseeding requires good seed-to-soil contact. Simply throwing or broadcasting seed over the lawn typically results in poor seed germination, as much of the seed rests on the thatch layer or soil surface. Core aerators, vertical mowers and slit seeders can be used to ensure good seed-to-soil contact.
Core aerators are machines with hollow metal tubes or tines. They remove plugs of soil when run over the lawn. To prepare the site, go over the lawn three or four times with the core aerator. When finished, there should be 20 to 40 holes per square foot. Apply the seed with a drop seeder. Afterward, drag the area with a piece of chain link fence or drag mat to break up the soil cores and mix the seed into the soil.
It’s also possible to prepare the site with a vertical mower. When run over the lawn, the knife-like blades of the vertical mower slice through the thatch and penetrate into the upper 1/4 to ½ inch of soil. One or two passes should be sufficient. Afterwards, remove any dislodged debris from the lawn. Sow grass seed over the lawn with a drop seeder. Work the seed into the soil by again going over the site with the vertical mower.
Large areas also can be overseeded with a slit seeder. A slit seeder makes small grooves in the soil and deposits the seed directly into the slits.
Core aerators, vertical mowers and slit seeders can be rented at many garden centers and rental agencies. If you would rather not do the work yourself, many professional lawn care companies can overseed your lawn.
After seeding, keep the upper 1 inch of soil moist by watering once or twice a day. With adequate moisture and warm soil temperatures, the seeds of most turfgrasses should germinate in two to three weeks. When the grass seedlings reach a height of 1 to 2 inches, gradually reduce the frequency of watering, but water more deeply.
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GIBEON, WEST BANK/ISRAEL
Photo of Gibeon (El Jib) 1931, The ancient city was on the upper hill to the right of the buildings, Library of Congress Collection.
Gibeon was located next to El Jib about eight miles north of Jerusalem by James B. Pritchard.
The word "Gibeon" appears 41 times in the Bible (ASV).
Gibeon was excavated by James B. Pritchard of the University of Pennsylvania 1956-1960, and 1962. The ancient city during Iron Age I-II was about 16 acres. The sixteen acres at the top of the hill yielded EB, MB, Iron Age, Greek and Byzantine remains. No LBA houses were found. On the sides of the hill there were tombs there was one LBA tomb found to contain two burial chambers joined by a hole in the wall. The tombs were labeled tomb 10A and 10B. There were problems in the Book of Joshua after British excavations at Jericho could not verify the account in the Bible. The finding of 24 wine jar handles deeply inscribed 'Gibeon,' and other jar handles lightly inscribed 'Gibeon' at the site was evidence the location of Gibeon was at El Jib. There was no evidence of the Late Bronze Age royal city as described in the Book of Joshua existed at Gibeon. A pool as described in 2 Samuel during the time of David was found at Gibeon. Pritchard estimated the pool was dug at the beginning of Iron Age I.
Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery imports ceased about 1200 BC during the end of the Bronze Age the beginning of the Iron Age. Widespread warfare disrupted cities and trade in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Some historians speculated earthquakes and drought may have caused some of the damage. The presence of these imports and locally made imitations of the imports is used as a marker for the Late Bronze Age strata found at an archaeological dig.
Long collar rim storage jars were used in the 12th century BC along with short collar rim storage jars. After the 12th century BC there were short collar rim storage jars and not long collar rim storage jars in the Central Hill Country (N. Lapp 1981). Variations in the shape of bowl sides and the rims of the bowls have also been used to note transitions through this interval.
The town on the small hill to the left of the large hill (see photo above) is El Jib. When Pritchard arrived in the late 1950's this town was four acres in size. During the search for tombs the entire area was surveyed. There was no late LBA- pottery found except in the LBA tombs. Evidence suggests there may have been a small Egyptian controlled manor or garrison in the area as scarabs of Egyptian pharaohs were found in the two tombs. Just as it was in Pritchard's day, there are problems trying to match the archaeological record to the Book of Joshua in the Bible.
They found pottery on the surface of the hill, and in the diggings. No large scale late LBA walled city was located on the 16 acre hill. The finding of two joined LBA tombs allowed Pritchard to declare he had found evidence for a Late Bronze Age occupation. In later writings he described the stories in the Bible about Gibeon as folk tales. W.F. Albright had stated the conquest of the Biblical Joshua occurred close to the end of the Late Bronze Age. Pritchard did not find as much as a Late Bronze Age house, much less a walled city from the late LBA period. Only a small fraction of the hill was excavated. There were various trenches to discover the extent of the city walls around the perimeter and excavations near the water tunnel and spring. This area near the sprong would have been prime real estate as it was more convenient to fetch water close by than from a distance.
Gibeon Where the Sun Stood Still,
Winery, Defenses, and Soundings at Gibeon, Pritchard, 1964
The Water System of Gibeon, Pritchard, 1961
The Bronze Age Cemetery at Gibeon, Pritchard, 1963
Hebrew Inscriptions and Stamps from Gibeon, Pritchard, 1959
The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. XXIII, 1960, "Industry and Trade at Biblical Gibeon," Pritchard
The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. XXIV, 1961, "A Bronze Age Necropolis at Gibeon," Pritchard
University Museum Bulletin, Vol. 21, No. 3, March 1957, "Discovery of the Biblical Gibeon," Pritchard, University Museum, Philadelphia
University Museum Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 2, June 1958, "A Second Excavation at Gibeon," Pritchard, University Museum, Philadelphia
Published and Unpublished Works Including Newspaper Clippings, Letters, Notes, Field Notebooks, Photos, Site Plans, etc. in the University of Pennsylvania Museum Archives
Reflections of a Digger, Froelich Rainey, 1992, University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania
"The Wine Industry at Gibeon: 1959 Discoveries," Pritchard, Expedition, Volume 2, Number 1, Fall 1959
"The Bible Reports on Gibeon," Pritchard, Expedition, Volume 3, Number 4, Summer 1961
"Civil Defense at Gibeon," Pritchard, Expedition, Volume 5, Number 1, Fall 1962
Biblical Archaeology and History, Paul W. Lapp, 1969
SEE ALSO: OLD
DQHALL.COM SITE LINKS
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Almost thirty years ago the brilliant ecologist H. T. Odum employed analytical systems models to study the infrastructures that sustain humanity. He concluded that industrial society was on a collision course with the natural systems upon which it is dependent. He predicted that a fossil fuel dominated society would overshoot the Earth's carrying capacity and as a consequence there would be widespread suffering in the twenty first century.
Odum proposed an alternative future based upon design strategies embedded in the 3.5 billion year long experience and evolution of life on Earth. He postulated that forests, rivers, prairies, coral reefs and other ecosystems contained within themselves the information and the biological knowledge essential to creating a sustainable future. If the information housed within ecosystems was decoded, a body of knowledge would become available that could be applied to redesigning farms, factories, waste systems, communities, energy production and even transportation networks.
For this new field Dr. Odum proposed the terms ecological design and ecological engineering. He went further and conducted experiments in ecological design and engineering as well as formulated some of their guiding principles. His landmark book Environment, Power and Society, published in 1971, launched ecology as an intellectual foundation for future design.
The same year, John Todd began the task of decoding information from ecosystems and applying the information to create new technologies that employed the biological complexities found in nature. The first experiments, carried out at the New Alchemy Institute and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, involved designing and building engineered ecosystems for growing foods. During subsequent years these ideas were applied by Todd and his associates to the fields of aquaculture, fuel production, renewable energy development and architecture.
Much of our current work is based on the concept of linking normally unconnected sectors of society's infrastructures. This stage has been labeled industrial ecology. In broadest terms industrial ecology creates symbiotic systems throughout society which share and exchange resources internally just as ecosystems do in nature. Industrial ecologies can have high overall efficiencies because of resource sharing. Also, pollution can be mostly, if not completely, eliminated as one component's wastes is another component's energy, nutrient or materials source. An example is the growth of eco-industrial parks, which can be one solution to smart resource utilization. Another example is the use of Restorers to purify water and provide valuable secondary products as functions of the same process.
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As Livy tells it, callous drunks and the rape of a virtuous woman gave birth to the Republic of Rome. The inebriates were young army officers who had grown bored while besieging the nearby town of Ardea. To settle an inane argument, over whose wife was more virtuous, one of their number, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, proposed that they ride home and surprise their wives.
Collatinus won the dispute, because the other wives were discovered partying while their husbands were away. His own wife Lucretia was found in her home, among her maids, working her loom, but this exemplary spouse would pay a terrible price for her husband’s wager. One of the revelers that night was Sextus Tarquinius, the last king of Rome, who became enamored of the young woman and determined to violate her virtue.
The king returned to the home for more hospitality and, with a knife in hand, demanded that Lucretia acquiesce to his desires. Honorable woman that she was, Lucretia chose death rather than infidelity. The wicked king then threatened to kill her and a male slave and subsequently frame them for adultery. With her honored threatened, Lucretia surrendered her body. She sent a message, informing her husband and her father of the crime, and then killed herself.
In SPQR (2015), historian Mary Beard examines the lessons ancient Romans drew from the tale:
Lucretia’s story remained an extraordinarily powerful image in Roman moral culture ever after. For many Romans, it represented a defining moment of female virtue. Lucretia voluntarily paid with her life for losing, as Living put it, her pudicitia—her “chastity,” or better the “fidelity,” on a woman’s part at least, that defined the relationship between Roman wife and husband. (Though) to some Romans, it looked as if she was more concerned with her reputation than with real pudicitia—which surely resided in the guilt or innocence of her mind, not her body, and would have not been remotely affected by false allegations of sex with a slave. In the early fifth century CE, St Augustine, who was well versed in the pagan classics, wondered if Lucretia had been raped at all: for had she not, in the end, consented? It is not hard to detect here versions of some of our own arguments about rape and the issue of responsibility it raises (122-23).
History and, before it, myth have no doubt been male dominated concerns, reflecting men’s attitudes towards women and sexuality, so it’s not surprising that women are often chiseled into jejune categories of virtue and vice. Some have suggested that this is what lies beneath the gospel proclamation of Mary’s virginity, though that’s not looking deeply enough at the mystery.
Motherhood and procreation are deep Hebrew values. It would have been more than acceptable for Jesus to have been born of a natural, lawful marriage. It would only heightened the promise of progeny made to Abraham. No, something deeper is being proclaimed in the Virginal Birth. It’s a new beginning, which an ever-creative God makes in the Christ.
The Virgin Birth isn’t a spurning of sexuality or a straightjacketing of woman. It is rather the proclamation of a paradox. Through his mother Mary, Christ comes from the covenant, out of the people and promise made to Abraham. But his birth, his entrance into our history, is a new creation. The same spirit that breathed over the waters, in the creation account of Genesis, now breathes upon the Virgin (Gen 1:2). God is faithful to his creation. The Christ emerges from it. Yet God is ever fruitful, ever new. A Virgin gives him birth.
That’s why, very early in the life of the church, this first feast day of Virgin arose on the first day of the new year. Mary is the Morning Star, the new dawn of grace. And in contrast to Lucretia, and to so many other women, she is not merely an object, an instrument of the will of others, male or divine. She is the New Eve, the one who says “yes” to the new creation of God.
Is this new creation difficult to believe? No more than the original. Both requires eyes that see the world and the Christ as gifts of God, a God ever faithful, ever free.
Numbers 6: 22-27 Galatians 4: 4-7 Luke 2: 16-21
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Most of Adrian’s students answered “no” after researching that question, but they were more forgiving of swimmer Michael Phelps and singer Mary J. Blige, whose transgressions were judged less serious than the good work they do.
It’s all part of Adrian’s lessons on citizenship, which she thinks students don’t know nearly enough about today.
Adrian, a 10-year teacher at Jefferson Middle School and head of the social studies department, is again being honored for her innovative teaching, this time as the national Outstanding Middle Level Social Studies Teacher of the Year. The award from the National Council for the Social Studies carries a $2,500 prize.
Last year she was named Illinois History Teacher of the Year by the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. She’s also won awards from the History Channel for a lesson plan she developed on Abraham Lincoln and memory, and from the League of Women Voters for Jefferson’s participation in a national mock election in 2008.
“Kids need to see that history matters, because it keeps our society running,” she said.
In her history and social studies classes, Adrian incorporates the study of ordinary people students can relate to so “they can see themselves in history. It’s the everyday people who make society work.”
Amos Lee, who teaches with Adrian, said she is able to get students to “care about things that they might not even know that they care about.”
Adrian uses social media and other technology to get through to students, though she makes sure they read plenty as well.
One tool is “edmodo,” a secure social-learning network where students and teachers can discuss lessons or ideas. That’s where her students debated the celebrity good-citizenship question after doing Web research on Lohan (arrested for multiple drug violations), Phelps (a DUI and marijuana arrest), 50 Cent (gun charges) and Blige (accused of hitting her husband).
Technology is crucial for this age group, as most students are accustomed to texting, surfing the Web or using Facebook outside of class, Adrian said.
She also wants to close the digital divide. Some of her students have barely touched a computer, and they need to know how to navigate the Web, judge the content they find and “think for themselves.”<< previous 1 2 3 next >>
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Online MA in TESOL!
Using the Senses
I try to get my students to bring their senses into their writing, and use various activities to demonstrate the power of the senses.
I bring in a variety of smells, have each student close his/her eyes, and then describe/guess what the smell is. Afterwards, smells are passed around and smell metaphors* are created (excellent activity!).
SOUND I bring in a tape of a rain storm and play about a 10 minute segment. Students have to answer the following questions:
* Describe everything you hear
* Where is the scene taking place?
* Are there any people?
* What do you feel?
For homework, students write a short story based on what they heard on the tape.
I bring in a variety of objects, place them on a table, and cover them with a sheet (very dramatic!). After uncovering them, I have the students study them for approximately one minute. After covering them again, students have to list as many of the obje cts as they can remember. Afterwards, each student chooses an object and writes a brief description. Objects are passed around so that each student is given a chance to describe a variety of objects. I also place chairs back to back (so each paired student cannot see one another) . After receiving an object, one student will describe and the other will write. After guessing the object, a new object is given. Very fun activity and one of my better suc cesses of the session!
Name: Dave Sperling
Location: LA, CA USA
World's Best Jobs!
Dave's ESL Cafe Copyright © 2016 Dave Sperling. All Rights Reserved.
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- A first-grader in Virginia died of an allergic reaction January 2
- There is no cure for food allergies
- About 8% of U.S. children under 18 have at least one food allergy
- State laws vary on whether schools can stock epinephrine
Most kids can freely snack at recess, but a growing number of American children have food allergies that can lead to serious reactions if the wrong ingredient gets into their mouths.
Ammaria Johnson, 7, of Virginia, died January 2 of cardiac arrest and anaphylaxis, according to a statement from Chesterfield County police. The girl had received a peanut from another child unaware of Ammaria's allergy, police said. Ammaria ate the peanut on the playground, and then approached a teacher, who took her to the school clinic. School personnel, responding police officers and firefighters were unable to save her life, and she was declared dead at Chippenham Hospital.
Detectives determined that no crime or criminal negligence occurred as a result of the actions of school personnel, Ammaria's mother or the child who gave Ammaria the peanut, police said.
There is no cure for food allergies, and a person can develop them at any age. The only treatments available are antihistamines for mild reactions and injected epinephrine for anaphylaxis -- severe, life-threatening reactions in which the airway closes and the person is unable to breathe.
To make matters worse, food allergies are on the rise, although no one knows why. The number of kids with food allergies increased 18% from 1997 to 2007, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Last year, researchers found that 8% of children under age 18 in the United States have at least one food allergy.
CNN received more than 1,000 comments from readers responding to the initial report of Ammaria's death, many of which questioned the responsibility of the school. Some readers said portable epinephrine injectors should be on hand at all schools and child-care institutions. "And what if a child has their FIRST reaction at a school (i.e., they didn't know they were allergic)? It would be their LAST reaction if the school is not properly equipped to handle it," commenter Boater39 wrote.
Most school districts have some sort of written policy on food policy management, said Maria Acebal, chief executive officer of the Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network. Normally, epinephrine prescribed to individual students is kept at school.
"All the school policies I'm aware of require the parent to turn in the medication and to have the school keep it readily on hand," she said. And some states have schools that allow students, with appropriate consent, to carry their prescribed medication on them (Acebal's organization keeps this list of states and their policies).
Some states, but not the majority, allow schools to have a stock of epinephrine -- not specifically prescribed to anyone -- to give in an emergency to any student who is suffering from an anaphylactic reaction. They may also permit the training of teachers and other staff in the use of epinephrine injectors.
Lawmakers are paying attention to the issue. Legislation introduced to the House and Senate toward the end of 2011, the School Access to Emergency Epinephrine Act, encourages states to require schools to have a stock of epinephrine that can be used for any student who is having an allergic reaction.
By some estimates, 25% of allergic reactions that occur in school involve children not known to have had an allergy before, Acebal said. And it's a myth that a person's first allergic reaction won't be a serious one, doctors say.
There's no way to know how severely a child will react to any given food to which he or she has a known allergy; any exposure may result in reactions ranging from nothing to a few hives to an inability to breathe.
"The more staff at a school that are trained on food allergy safety, the safer the environment for kids with food allergies," Acebal said.
Even if you think your child is having an allergic reaction to a food for the first time, it's likely that he or she has been exposed before, in utero, or through contact, or when it has been an ingredient in other foods. Once sensitization occurs, allergy can ensue, says Dr. Clifford Bassett, fellow of the American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology and an allergist based in New York.
Acebal's oldest daughter had a reaction to peanuts the first time she ate them, when she was less than 2 years old. Two injections of epinephrine saved her life.
It is possible to develop an allergy at any age; to some extent, it is unpredictable. But there are certain risk factors: a strong evidence of family history, seasonal and indoor allergies, eczema and asthma. A child with one or more of those should be evaluated for food allergies by a board-certified allergist, said Bassett, also a fellow of the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.
An allergy test can help identify which foods may put a child at risk of anaphylaxis and other reactions. Tiny doses of allergen are placed under the skin, and those that produce a small bump are the likely problem foods. Unfortunately, this test does not predict how severe a reaction to eating that food would be.
Education is key to managing food allergies, Bassett said. Knowing what foods to avoid, learning how to read ingredient labels on food products and taking the initiative to ask about problem foods when eating outside the home are all essential. "Preparedness is part of the overall goal," he said.
Every child at risk of food-allergic reactions should have an allergy action plan on file with the school that is signed by a doctor, and an epinephrine injector available at school, Bassett said. The Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network has an emergency action plan online you can adapt to your needs for school and other child-care purposes.
A person who is experiencing anaphylaxis needs to receive epinephrine immediately; rapid decline and death can occur within 30 to 60 minutes, according to the National Institutes of Health. Repeat doses may be necessary, which is why doctors recommend having two epinephrine auto-injectors on hand in case of emergency.
During a reaction, the offending food or substance should be removed from the mouth or skin immediately, and the auto-injector should be injected into the thigh muscle. Call 9-1-1 or if already in a hospital, summon a resuscitation team, the National Institutes of Health says.
Some CNN readers called for better health support in schools:
kinderlove: Every school nurse should have an [epinephrine auto-injector].
ajkf : Every school should have a nurse.
The National Association of School Nurses agrees on both points.
About 75% of schools in the country have access to a school nurse, and about 25% do not have any access to a school nurse. Between 40% and 50% have a full-time nurse. There's not really a shortage of school nurses; there's a shortage of funded positions, said Linda Davis-Allbritt, president of the organization.
"Children need to have a school nurse so that their health conditions can be well-managed," she said. "Healthy kids do learn better."
It's rare, but it has happened that when there is a clear emergency, a school nurse would use an epinephrine injection that was prescribed for another student, she said. This action would be controversial, however -- one problem is that the other student could have had a reaction at the same time or shortly thereafter, and their medication would have been used.
"The cost of epinephrine is so much less than the value of a child's life," Davis-Allbritt said. "It would make a lot of sense to have epinephrine available, and have a school nurse in the building every day, and have people besides the school nurse who are trained in case there is an emergency."
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What is a “related subtraction sentence?” If you don’t know, you may not be able to pass a mathematics exam designed for first graders under the Common Core curriculum guidelines.
Carol Burris, an acclaimed New York high school principal who writes a blog about education issues, recently posted a first grade math test that one of her employee’s daughters had failed. The test–which caught the eye of The Washington Post’s Valerie Strauss–features several questions with awkward wording that could trip up adults, to say nothing of six-year-olds.
Students are instructed to “find the missing part.” Question 1 shows five coins above the phrase “part I know,” and a cup with a ‘6’ on it that is marked as “whole.”
Though the answer must logically be ‘1,’ the question isn’t clear at all, wrote Burris.
“My assistant principal for mathematics was not sure what the question was asking,” wrote Burris. “How could pennies be a part of a cup?”
Several questions give a number, and then depict a box cut in half with some number of dots on one side and the rest of them–or nothing–on the other side. The question related to the boxes changes after each problem, and one asks students to choose the true statement that represents the box–out of 4 possible answers.
The most difficult question, Number 12, shows 4 black squares connected to 3 white ones, and asks, “Which is a related subtraction sentence?” Each of the answers are addition problems.
“My nephew’s wife, who teaches Calculus, was stumped by that one,” wrote Burris. “Would (or should) a 6 year old understand the question…?”
Burris said it was ridiculous to give first graders percentage grades on multiple choice tests in the first place.
“The problem (no pun intended) is at the core,” she wrote.
The math test was designed by Pearson Education, the corporation contracted by the state of New York to design its Common Core-aligned standardized tests. Pearson’s exams are designed to measure whether students at each grade level have mastered the set of skills dictated by the new national curriculum standards. The question about the pennies and the cup is worded in a manner so that it evaluates kids’ ability to “understand subtraction as an unknown-addend problem,” which is what Common Core requires.
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Acropustulosis: Acropustulosis is a recurrent, self-limited, pruritic, vesiculopustular eruption of the palms and soles.
More detailed information about the symptoms,
causes, and treatments of Acropustulosis is available below.
Symptoms of Acropustulosis
- Typically, an infant aged 2-12 months with acropustulosis exhibits pruritic erythematous macules or papules that progress into vesicles and then pustules.
- Children with acropustulosis are fretful, irritable, and uncomfortable
- The hands and feet always are involved, usually on the palms, soles, and lateral surfaces. Lesions may occur on the dorsal hands and feet, trunk, scalp, and face.
- Lesions begin as small macules or papules that eventually form distinct, noncoalescing vesicles and pustules. They resolve with macular hyperpigmentation
- more symptoms...»
Read more about symptoms of Acropustulosis
Treatments for Acropustulosis
- Treatmentis not necessary because of the self-limited nature of acropustulosis; however, topical steroids and oral dapsone have been used with good success
- more treatments...»
Read more about treatments for Acropustulosis
Wrongly Diagnosed with Acropustulosis?
Causes of Acropustulosis
Read more about causes of Acropustulosis
More information about causes of Acropustulosis:
Misdiagnosis and Acropustulosis
Leg cramps at night a classic sign: The symptom of having leg muscle cramps,
particularly at night, is a classic sign of undiagnosed diabetes.
However, there are also various other causes....read more »
Psoriasis often undiagnosed cause of skin symptoms in children: Children who suffer
from the skin disorder called psoriasis can often go undiagnosed.
The main problem is that psoriasis is...read more »
Read more about Misdiagnosis and Acropustulosis
Acropustulosis: Research Doctors & Specialists
Research related physicians and medical specialists:
- Skin Health Specialists (Dermatology):
- Arthritis & Joint Health Specialists (Rheumatology):
- more specialists...»
Other doctor, physician and specialist research services:
More Acropustulosis animations & videos
Prognosis for Acropustulosis
Prognosis for Acropustulosis:
All cases of acropustulosis spontaneously resolve in a few months to 3 years.
More about prognosis of Acropustulosis
Acropustulosis: Broader Related Topics
Types of Acropustulosis
User Interactive Forums
Read about other experiences, ask a question about Acropustulosis, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards:
Contents for Acropustulosis:
» Next page: What is Acropustulosis?
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- Ask or answer a question at the Boards:
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Edited by Lindsey Frick
The dark days of energy-hogging, poorly toleranced cast parts are over. A new casting method dampens vibration and uses less energy during production. The technology is called cast-totolerance (CTT) synthetic-quartz-composite casting and the magic lies in the mixture.
CTT synthetic-quartz composite is a precisely formulated mixture of high purity quartz aggregates, liquid-polymer resin, and various air release and wetting agents. Depending on the degree of tolerance required for the finished casting, the size of quartz particles in the mixture range from a fine powder to 10-mm grains. Castings can be made for specific applications by blending in different types of liquid-polymer resins with the quartz aggregates.
When liquid resin Bisphenol-F epoxy is used in the mixture, it produces a casting that resists chemicals, making it a good alternative to stainless steel. CTT castings do not rust or deteriorate from exposure to aggressive coolants.
CTT castings commonly go into vibration-dampening applications. To make castings that dampen vibration, liquid resins such as Bisphenol-A epoxy, Methyl methacrylate, or rigid urethane are used in the mixture. Machines that use this type of casting include those for inspection, prepress plate setters, and pick-and-place equipment. Reduced vibration lets these machines operate faster and with greater accuracy. For cutting machinery, these castings extend cutting-tool life by one-third.
Heat transfer and electrical conductivity are two properties to keep in mind when using CTT castings. The CTT material does not transfer heat well or conduct electricity thoroughly. This is a benefit when casting machine tools because the machine base will not easily move when heat builds during machining. The application of a conductive gel coat on the casting will make it conductive, as will placing wiring into the mold prior to casting.
Tolerance in the tooling
Tooling for the CTT mixture must be machined to closer tolerances than the desired finished tolerances on the casting. Steels used to make the tooling must have good wear qualities, but the tooling does not need heat treatment. Proper tool design and construction is critical to holding precise tolerances. And as any designer knows, tolerance costs money.
Luckily, the CTT technology offers a poor-man’s tooling option. When a high-precision top surface of a casting is required (bottom of the mold), only the mold base is machined. Then low-cost sheet steel can be used to create the sides and cores. It is even possible to use wood sides with a precision steel-base mold.
Typical mold tolerances are 0.0005-in./ft flatness, 0.001-in. total indicator reading (TIR) for surfaces, and 0.0001-in. diameters. The finished part dimensions often exactly match the mold, but not consistently enough to say every casting will be to tolerance. For routine production, assume the finished part tolerances will be one-half of the mold tolerances. CTT castings can, therefore, be cast to 0.001-in./ft flatness, 0.002-in. TIR surfaces, and 0.0002-in. diameters. Closer tolerances are possible, but at some point, the cost of the tooling exceeds the value.
One of the biggest issues to keep in mind with high-precision casting is inspection. When trying to qualify close-tolerance surfaces, the inspection technique must be agreed upon prior to production. Although 0.0002-in. flatness should be the same regardless of the inspection technique, it often is not. The technique used to qualify dimensions will affect the readings so it is important to find an inspection technique that both the vendor and customer have available.
Energy and cost saving
Finished CTT castings typically consume 85% less energy during production than similar cast-iron parts. One reason is that CTT almost eliminates all secondary operations. Once the CTT tooling has been produced and qualified, the casting process consists of assembling the tooling and installing inserts that replace the need for machining. For example, steel or stainless-steel threaded inserts are cast-in to create standard tapped holes. Other types of inserts like foam can be cast-in as the structural core of the casting, which reduces weight and cost. CTT castings can also be cast in color. This means secondary operations like painting or plating can be eliminated.
Unlike cast iron, CTT mixture can be blended and poured into the mold at room temperature. Vibration and/or mechanical pressure then compacts the mixture to reduce air voids and to fill every recess in the tooling. Some castings are consolidated by applying a vacuum depending on the formulation of the mixture, size of the casting, and its cure time. Overall, the method of casting a synthetic-quartz-composite mixture produces finished parts that need little to no inspection as the feature placement, color, and tolerance stay consistent from part to part.
6,000 years later
Casting: A 6,000-year-old process where a material in liquid form is poured into a mold to produce a harder part called a casting.
Cast-to-tolerance (CTT) synthetic-quartz-composite casting: A technology involving an exothermic pour material made of quartz aggregates and liquid resin. The mixture is poured into the mold at room temperature and compresses to match tolerances with the assistance of vibration, mechanical pressure, or a vacuum.
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Detroit asked to build a car that runs on natural gas
Governors of 13 states that produce natural gas are asking Detroit car companies to make them a passenger car that runs on the fuel.
Advances in a drilling technique called horizontal hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, are making natural gas more plentiful.
The drilling technique has plenty of environmental critics, but Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper says it's safe when done properly, and he says natural gas is a better fuel than gasoline.
"It burns cleaner," Hickenlooper said during a break between back-to-back visits to Chrysler, General Motors and Ford facilities on Tuesday. "It's less expensive, and it creates jobs right here in the United States."
Detroit automakers make commercial trucks that run on compressed natural gas, but not passenger cars.
There's very little consumer demand for CNG-fueled passenger cars, despite the significantly lower price of the fuel, because of the lack of fueling stations. In Michigan, for example, there's only a handful of CNG stations, and most are not available to the public.
The consortium of states hopes to jumpstart consumer demand, by agreeing to buy thousands of compressed natural gas cars.
Mary Fallin is Governor of Oklahoma. She says Oklahoma alone needs to add 500 passenger cars to the state government's fleet - and those could be CNG (compressed natural gas) vehicles - if one were available.
Fallin says, counting the fleet replacement needs of 13 states - plus many of the universities and cities in those states - and it adds up to a lot of cars, enough to make it worth a car company's while to develop a CNG passenger car.
"We come here to Detroit to say we're serious about this," Fallin said. "We're going to let a request for proposal on July 24, [and] we hope to have those proposals and makes some awards on those initiatives and contracts by October. So this is a real deal."
Hickenlooper says Detroit was a natural first stop for the effort.
"Well, we're not gonna play favorites," he said. "But we're American governors, so we'll start out at Ford and General Motors and Chrysler, but we'll certainly talk to Honda and Toyota."
Honda already builds a small number of Civics that run on natural gas. But the car is too small for most fleets, which strongly prefer midsize sedans that more comfortably seat four people.
The visiting governors test-drove a heavy-duty Chrysler RAM truck, designed for fleet and commercial users.
None of the car companies disclosed whether they plan to bid on the RFP.
In addition to Oklahoma and Colorado, states in the consortium include Wyoming, Pennsylvania, Utah, Maine, New Mexico, West Virginia, Kentucky, Texas, Ohio, Mississippi and Louisiana.
Two other states may join the consortium this week, Governor Hickenlooper says.
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A Vexing Problem | A Special Report by Daniel Allott | Catholic World Report
Disturbing developments in the area of organ transplantation.
Organ transplantation—the moving of an organ from one body to another—is a relatively new medical procedure. The first successful transplantation in America—which was of a kidney—took place in 1954. Today, the most commonly transplanted organs are the kidneys, liver, heart, lungs, pancreas, and intestines.
The demand for these organs is much greater than the supply. The United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS), which collects and manages data about every transplant in the United States, maintains the national organ transplant waiting list. As of late May, that list contained 107,729 names. Three quarters of those patients are waiting for kidneys, and they will each wait up to eight years to obtain one. A 2009 study in the Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology estimated that 46 percent of patients over age 60 waiting for a kidney transplant will die before they receive one. In 2007, for instance, 16,500 Americans received a kidney transplant; nearly 5,000 died while waiting for one.
These numbers have focused the attention of physicians, ethicists, and policymakers on ways to increase the supply of viable organs. While some of the proposed solutions are promising, others, as Dr. John F. Brehany, executive director and ethicist for the Catholic Medical Association, said to CWR, are “inappropriate responses centered on improper notions of the dignity of human life.”
One increasingly popular proposal is for the government to presume that everyone wants his organs harvested if he does not say otherwise in writing. “Presumed consent” would significantly narrow the gap between the approximately nine in 10 people who tell pollsters they favor organ donation and the roughly one in 10 who are both signed up to be organ donors and whose loved ones consent once they die.
At least two dozen countries have adopted presumed consent organ donation systems. In some systems, family members may be required to give consent, while in others family members may veto harvesting even if the donor has consented.
The US has an “opt-in”
organ donation system in which one must give consent in order to be
designated a donor. All states require that donors make an affirmative
statement during their lifetimes of a willingness to donate—by signing a
driver’s license, signing up online, or consenting through a health
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At the hospital, the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) provides round-the-clock care for your premature baby.
Specialized supportive care for your baby may include:
- Being placed in an incubator. Your baby will probably stay in an enclosed plastic bassinet (incubator) that's kept warm to help your baby maintain normal body temperature. Later on, NICU staff may show you a particular way to hold your baby — known as "kangaroo" care — with direct skin-to-skin contact.
- Monitoring of your baby's vital signs. Sensors may be taped to your baby's body to monitor blood pressure, heart rate, breathing and temperature. A ventilator may be used to help your baby breathe.
- Having a feeding tube. At first your baby may receive fluids and nutrients through an intravenous (IV) tube. Breast milk may be given later through a tube passed through your baby's nose and into his or her stomach (nasogastric, or NG, tube). When your baby is strong enough to suck, breast-feeding or bottle-feeding is often possible.
- Replenishing fluids. Your baby needs a certain amount of fluids each day, depending upon his or her age and medical conditions. The NICU team will closely monitor fluid, sodium and potassium levels to make sure that your baby's fluid levels stay on target. If fluids are needed, they'll be delivered through an IV line.
- Spending time under bilirubin lights. To treat infant jaundice, your baby may be placed under a set of lights — known as bilirubin lights — for a period of time. The lights help your baby's system break down excess bilirubin, which builds up because the liver can't process it all. While under the bilirubin lights, your baby will wear a protective eye mask to rest more comfortably.
- Receiving a blood transfusion. Because your preemie may have an underdeveloped ability to make his or her own red blood cells, a blood transfusion may be needed to raise blood volume — especially if your baby has had several blood samples drawn for various tests.
Medications may be given to your baby to promote maturing and to stimulate normal functioning of the lungs, heart and circulation. Depending on your baby's condition, medication may include:
- A liquid (surfactant), squirted into the lungs to help them mature
- Fine-mist (aerosolized) or IV medication to strengthen breathing and heart rate
- Antibiotics if infection is present or if there's a risk of possible infection
- Medicines that increase urine output (diuretics) to help the lungs and, sometimes, the circulation
- An injection of medication into the eye to stop the growth of new blood vessels that could cause retinopathy of prematurity
- Medicine that helps close the heart defect known as patent ductus arteriosus
When specific complications arise, sometimes surgery is necessary to treat:
- A feeding problem, by placing a central line to deliver IV nutrition
- Necrotizing enterocolitis, by removing the damaged part of the intestines
- Patent ductus arteriosus, when medications fail to work, by closing a blood vessel near the heart
- Retinopathy of prematurity, by using a laser to reverse abnormal blood vessel development and limit further risks to vision
- Worsening hydrocephalus, by placing a plastic tube, called a shunt, to drain excess fluid in the brain
Taking your baby home
Your baby is ready to go home when he or she:
- Can breathe without support
- Can maintain a stable body temperature
- Can breast- or bottle-feed
- Is gaining weight steadily
- Is free of infection
In some cases, a child may be allowed to go home before meeting one of these requirements — as long as the baby's medical team and family create and agree on a plan for home care and monitoring.
Your baby's health care team will help you learn how to care for your baby at home. Before discharge from the hospital, your baby's nurse or a hospital discharge planner may ask you about:
Nov. 27, 2014
- Living arrangements
- Other children in the household
- Adult relatives and friends to provide help
- Primary pediatric care
- Cunningham FG, et al. Williams Obstetrics. 24th ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2013. http://www.accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=46. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014.
- Creasy RK, et al., eds. Creasy and Resnik's Maternal-Fetal Medicine: Principles and Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.; Saunders Elsevier: 2014. http://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Sept. 30, 2014.
- Cook WJ, et al. Mayo Clinic Guide to Your Baby's First Year. Intercourse, Penn.: Good Books; 2012:503.
- Kliegman RM, et al. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2011. http://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Oct. 13, 2014.
- Hay WW, et al. Current Diagnosis & Treatment: Pediatrics. 21st ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2012. http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/book.aspx?bookid=497. Accessed Oct. 17, 2014.
- Fenton TR, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis to revise the Fenton growth chart for preterm infants. BMC Pediatrics. 2013;13:59.
- Norwitz ER. Prevention of spontaneous preterm birth. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Sept. 30, 2014.
- Robinson JN, et al. Risk factors for preterm labor and delivery. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Sept. 30, 2014.
- Mandy GT. Short-term complications of the premature infant. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Oct. 18, 2014.
- Cerebral palsy. March of Dimes. http://www.marchofdimes.org/baby/cerebral-palsy.aspx. Accessed Oct. 18, 2014
- Stewart J. Care of the neonatal intensive care unit graduate. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Oct. 18, 2014.
- Common NICU tests. March of Dimes. http://www.marchofdimes.org/baby/common-nicu-tests.aspx. Accessed Oct. 18, 2014.
- Mandy GT. Long-term complications of the premature infant. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Oct. 18, 2014.
- Harris MN, et al. ADHD and learning disabilities in former late preterm infants: A population-based birth cohort. Pediatrics. 2013;132:e630.
- Pertussis: Summary of vaccine recommendations. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/pertussis/recs-summary.htm. Accessed Oct. 18, 2014.
- Grieger JA, et al. Preconception dietary patterns in human pregnancies are associated with preterm delivery. Journal of Nutrition. 2014;144:1075.
- Hypertension in pregnancy. Washington, D.C.: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. http://www.acog.org. Accessed Oct. 10, 2014.
- Hofmeyr GJ, et al. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001059.pub4/abstract. Accessed Oct. 10, 2014.
- Stampalija AZ, et al. Cervical stitch (cerclage) for preventing preterm birth in singleton pregnancy (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008991.pub2/abstract. Accessed Oct. 10, 2014.
- Goya M, et al. Cervical pessary in pregnant women with a short cervix (PECEP): An open-label randomised controlled trial. The Lancet. 2012;379:1800.
- Abdel-Aleem H, el al. Cervical pessary for preventing preterm birth (Review) Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007873.pub3/abstract. Accessed Oct. 10, 2014.
- Ferguson KK, at al. Environmental phthalate exposure and preterm birth. JAMA Pediatrics. http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1769137. Accessed Oct. 10, 2014.
- Harms RW (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Oct. 23, 2014.
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Farm Horizons, April 2013
New study shows tiling causes increased flow in MN rivers
By Jennifer Kotila
Just as commodity prices have ebbed and flowed over the years, so has the popularity of installing drainage tile in farm fields to increase their productivity. As the installation of drainage tile has ebbed and flowed, so has the debate over whether it is good or bad for Minnesota’s waters, and those downstream.
Although it can be argued that drainage is necessary to produce more food on less land to feed an ever-growing world population, the expansive network of ditches and tile used to drain water off the land in Minnesota for better crop production has unintentionally created increased river-channel erosion and sediment loading, according to a recently published study conducted by a team of researchers from the Science Museum of Minnesota and several major universities.
“Erosion of stream channels is a natural phenomenon,” explained Shawn Schottler, who led the study. “But our rivers are eroding at unnatural and increased rates, so we need to verify why this is happening. Our research concludes that agricultural drainage, more so than excess rainfall, caused the erosion of our river banks.”
The study compared changes in flow for 21 southern Minnesota rivers from 1940 to 2009, which showed flows in about half the rivers steadily increased in the last 70 years, with some nearly doubling; other watersheds showed no change in river flows. The conclusion was that changes in flow strongly correlated to changes in land use, including the installation of drainage tile and the types of crops being planted.
However, a major unknown factor is how much drainage tile is being installed in farm fields in Minnesota. The installation of drainage tile is a fairly unregulated endeavor, and it seems that nobody knows exactly how much, or where, tile is being installed. It is also unknown whether the installation of tile is replacing old drainage systems, or if it is a new system.
There are state and federal laws agricultural producers are supposed to follow when installing tile. However, if a producer is not planning to impact a certified wetland, there is very little oversight. The laws, enacted in the late 1980s and early 1990s, rely on the knowledge and actions of landowners to assure compliance with their requirements, according to the USDA.
At the federal level, agricultural producers are required to protect wetlands on farms owned and operated in order to be eligible for USDA farm program benefits. In order to assure compliance, producers should fill out a form at their local Farm Service Agency informing the USDA of their intentions.
At the state level, local government units regulate drainage activity, specifically soil and water conservation districts and watershed districts, which may also provide technical assistance to landowners. To assure compliance with state laws, producers should meet with SWCD or watershed district authorities, according to the USDA.
However, none of the agencies issue permits to producers for drainage tiling projects, or keep track of such projects. McLeod SWCD does not regulate the amount of tile that is installed in McLeod County, according to program director Ryan Freitag. “As far as how many miles of tile have been installed, it would be a complete guess and wouldn’t be correct,” Freitag said. “A landowner has made it known that he installed 700,000 feet of tile in 2012.”
The Buffalo Creek Watershed District, which has jurisdiction over agricultural land in McLeod County that drains into Buffalo Creek, does not permit for tile that is less than 8 inches in diameter, according to Corey Henke of the Buffalo Creek Watershed District. Although it seems a lot of drainage tile has been installed in the district, “We have not noticed an increase in flooding on Buffalo Creek,” Henke noted.
Wright SWCD also does not issue permits for tiling agricultural land, and relies on producers complying with federal laws regarding drainage, according to Kerry Saxton of Wright SWCD. It also does not keep track of the amount of drainage tile being installed.
Anecdotally, a lot of the drainage tile installed in the past was not effective, and producers decided to stop farming those areas, Saxton noted. Although drainage cannot be improved in such areas, it can be maintained. So some areas look like they have returned to wetlands, but with improvements in tiling and high commodity prices, producers are now installing better tile and again draining those areas, Saxton said.
The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources requires permits for numerous projects that affect Minnesota waters, but farmers do not need a DNR permit for tiling if the outlet does not include construction of an open ditch and is not intended to drain a public water or wetland.
About the only watershed district in Minnesota that tracks the amount of drainage tile being installed is the Bois de Sioux Watershed District, and it does so through a permitting process which has been in place since 1999, according to Al Kean, chief engineer at the Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources. Located in west central Minnesota, the watershed district includes the entire drainage basin, in Minnesota, of the Bois de Sioux River; counties include Traverse, Grant, Wilkin, Stevens, Big Stone, and Otter Tail.
“Their data indicates a rapid acceleration in pattern tiling in the BDSWD in recent years,” Kean said. “No other local government unit that I’m aware of has tracked tile installation in its jurisdiction, but we know high commodity prices in recent years have accelerated pattern tiling in much of Minnesota.”
Since the publication of the most recent study, Prinsco, a local tile manufacturer, has begun to compile information regarding tiling. “Our objective is to start addressing the educational pieces about drainage,” said Betty Bonnema of Prinsco. For instance, the company wants to educate customers and the public about what drainage is, how it works, and why it is needed to help people understand the big picture.
“There are environmental concerns in virtually all aspects of agriculture,” Bonnema said. “We want to be the solution to other issues, as well.”
“There is a real misconception about what motivates farmers to install drainage systems,” Bonnema added, noting that there will be 7 to 9 billion people in the world to feed by 2050, and tillable land is being lost at a rate of two acres per minute.
“The primary agricultural purposes of pattern tiling are to provide soil profile water conditions that enable better field access for planting and harvesting, and help avoid crop stunting or drown-out during the growing season due to excess soil profile or surface water,” noted Kean.
Tiling has been shown to pay for itself in a fairly short amount of time by increasing crop reliability and productivity in many soils in Minnesota that are typically too wet, he added.
Drainage has both positive and negative impacts, and research is ongoing. The University of Minnesota Extension Service has compiled a lot of information regarding agricultural drainage on “The Drainage Outlet,” an area of the U of M’s Extension website. More information can also be found on websites for the DNR, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources, the Red River Basin Decision Information Network, and the Minnesota Agricultural Water Resources Center.
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The Height Climbers
Back in the late 1950s, just out of high school, I got a job with a company that designed and built the breathing equipment for the U-2, the then super-secret high altitude spy plane. Because of the nature of the secrecy surrounding the plane, working there required me to obtain a confidential clearance. Because of that clearance I met a person called "Harry the Man," who, at that time was considered to be the top-rated high altitude breathing equipment specialist in the world. Top-ranked generals and pilots from all over the world would come by to pay him homage. Kelly Johnson of the Lockheed Skunk works was his friend as well as Howard Hughes. Harry had reached that high-exalted position in the late 50s, early 60s because of World War I Zeppelins.(see)
On August 4, 1914, when Harry the Man was eight years old or so, the British entered World War I with a declaration of war against Germany. To protect their island nation from the traditional sea borne naval attack the British did everything they could to keep the German surface fleet bottled up. To bypass the English blockade the German High Command switched to underwater warfare using submarines and to the sky using giant rigid airships built by the German airship genius Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin. At the start of the war the German navy had only one fully operational rigid airship, the L-3. Typical of the time she had a capacity of 795,000 cubic feet, a top speed of forty-seven MPH, and a maximum ceiling of 6,000 feet.
On the night of January 19, 1915 two German navy Zeppelins carried out the first successful bombing run against British soil. One of the ships was the L-3. Both craft bombed from an altitude of 3,000 feet and both returned safely. On May 31, 1915, ten months into the war, the first Zeppelins showed up over London. In August 1916 two-million cubic feet mid-level ships operating at 13,000 feet went on line. It wasn't until September 2, 1916 that the British pulled the first airship out of the sky over England in direct air-to-air combat. To beat the sting of fighter aircraft and increased British anti-aircraft ground defenses the Zeppelin company began to develop a special series of rigid airships called Height Climbers that routinely operated at altitudes above 20,000 feet. Cruising at seventy MPH and beyond the top-out range of British fighters, crew members fought oxygen depravation, dizziness, bitter cold, snapped oil lines, congealed oil, frozen radiators, and cracked windows.
As the trench war on the western front bogged down, to bring the British to their knees, the Germans turned more and more of their attention to high altitude bombing. On the night of October 19, 1917 they launched a massive eleven ship raid against England using nothing but height climbers. The ships were so far above the earth their engines couldn't be heard by observers on the ground. Following the raid nearly half of the eleven climbers were destroyed, ironically none over England. As the ships dropped altitude to come in over Germany, French and British fighters such as the Zeppelin Killer Sopwith Camel together with Nieuport 11s with overwing-mounted Lewis and Hotchkiss guns, swarmed like bees around an invaded hive, and joined with ground fire, tore four of them to shreds. One airship, the L-55, flew unscratched over the western front by not dropping altitude. After bombing Birmingham from 20,000 feet the L-55 turned toward home. Nursing a faulty engine the Zeppelin commander decided to avoid allied fighters over the continent by maintaining altitude. Dawn found the ship in France at over 20,000 feet. The rising sun increased the temperature of the gas and immediately the ship began to rise. She reached 24,606 feet before the captain and a few men were able to force her into a downward angle. The crew began to revive and frozen engines thawed out as they reduced altitude. Low on fuel and with a damaged engine the L-55 slowly crashed in central Germany, but not before setting the all time airship altitude record, including the amount of hours surviving crew members spent above 20,000 feet.
On January 5, 1918 a series of explosions blew up all the airship sheds at Ahlhorn, Germany. Four Zeppelins were destroyed, all them height climbers. Low on ships, on August 8, 1918, the Germans launched their last Zeppelin raid against England. Just past sundown a British lightship reported several airships crossing overhead at extremely high altitude. A British fighter scrambled and caught the three behemoths cruising in the dark at about 17,500 feet. Straining the aircraft's ceiling the pilot attacked the lead ship, lacing her three-hundred foot bow with two drums of tracers. Within seconds fire engulfed the airship, the heavy metal superstructure crashing through the clouds in a trail of hydrogen-fed flames. Immediately the other ships dropped ballast and increased their altitude by several thousand feet. Every time the British pilot nosed up his De Havilland DH-4 to bring his twin front mounted Vickers to bare the plane would stall and nose back down. The two height climbers escaped. The rigid blown out of the sky that night was the L-70. Not only a height climber, the L-70 was the most advanced of a special breed of extremely long range Zeppelins. She and her commander's next mission was to lead the other two ships, the L-53 and L-65, across the Atlantic and bomb the city of New York, then return without stopping. The British pilot and his twin Vickers altered the flow of history that night, with all of it's attendant ramifications and potential outcomes. The L-53 was shot down six days later on August 11, 1918.(see)
De Havilland DH4 with Front-Mounted Twin Vickers
and Rear Cockpit Double-Mounted Lewis Guns
The long-range Height Climber L-65, designed
to bomb New York City
The Treaty of Versailles contained terms that all intact airships would be turned over to the allies. On June 23, 1919 German crew members destroyed all remaining craft they could get their hands on. One of the ships destroyed, the L-65, was the last of the three-ship triad intended for the New York raid.
Destroyed or not, with the end of the war the Treaty of Versailles required the Germans to abandon all military and naval aviation by October 1, 1919, including the construction of Zeppelins. The secret of the height climbers and high altitude survival would have ended then except for an interesting twist of fate. Not wanting to lose their talent pool and construction expertise the Zeppelin company unwillingly formed a partnership with the american-based company Goodyear, creating the Goodyear Zeppelin Corporation of Akron, Ohio. On October 6, 1928 the U.S. Navy contracted with the corporation for two rigid airships. Hundreds of americans worked and trained with former German wartime engineers in the construction of the two ships. Harry the Man was one of the americans, but not by chance.
The Height Climber L-49 as captured by the French,
Bow-on view of the crashed and captured L-49.
Eleven years before, on October 2, 1917, the German Zeppelin L-49 was captured almost intact by the French. French and American engineers swarmed all over the craft measuring and testing every single millimeter. Based on a L-30 design, the L-49 was thought to be a mid-level ship, sixty-two MPH, 13,000 foot ceiling, with ten machine guns. It was actually a height climber. On August 9, 1919 the U.S. Navy approved plans to build, in America, a rigid airship based almost exactly on the L-49 design. Assembled in Lakehurst, New Jersey from parts fabricated at the naval aircraft factory in Philadelphia, under supervision of the Bureau of Aeronautics, the completed ship, the ZR-1, was christened the Shenandoah.
The Shenandoah's maiden flight was September 4, 1923. On September 2, 1925, 28,000 miles and two years later, the Shenandoah left her mooring in Lakehurst on a routine demonstration flight headed west toward St. Louis, Missouri. Early in the AM of the following day the craft was just north of the small town of Ava, Ohio, about twenty-five miles east of Zanesville. At 5:58 AM the Shenandoah was caught in a severe thunderstorm. The airship broke up into several sections killing fourteen of the forty-three crew members, scattering the craft all over eastern Ohio. The crash brought airships to the attention of a wide-eyed young Harry the Man (then Boy), in his late teens living in the buckeye state with his mother and father. His dad and he visited the crash site and Harry fell into a trance with the awe of it all.(see)
Between the time I was no longer under my uncle's care and I met Harry the Man for the first time I was living with my grandmother. During that in between period, as a young teenager still in high school, I went from learning about submarines and U-boats from my Merchant Marine Friend, who had barely survived a U-boat attack on his ship in World War II to learning first hand about Zeppelins and World War I from a man, who eventually became my spiritual guide and Mentor. He lived in the house next door and as I got to know him I found out he had participated in the war as a pilot. An American, he joined the military through Canada and by age 18 at the time of the Armistice was flying for the British against the Germans. His best friend, who had taught him everything about flying and survival, was shot down and killed saving his life and I could tell, even after all those years, he was still deeply affected by it. One day I asked him about some scars I saw on his shoulder that looked like burn marks. He simply replied, "Jousting with dragons." Later I would figure out he meant doing battle with the giant hydrogen filled airships.
JOUSTING WITH DRAGONS
(please click image)
Unknown to the French and American engineers at the time the height climbers were made from thinner gauge material and, except for the machine guns, stripped of armaments and even one engine. They did not realize they were being specially built in response to mounting losses and were super risky to fly, being very much on the edge of sound structural rigidity. The Americans copied the L-49 almost exactly not knowing how close the Germans had pushed the boundaries of minimal structures and a major reason she, the Shenandoah, broke up in bad weather.
NOTE: Click first gif below to see location map of crash site, click second gif for enlarged picture of wrecked craft showing the front section of the Shenandoah, September 3, 1925. Photo is from a 9 X 37.5 gelatin silver print by R.S. Clements courtesy of PAN US GEOG - Ohio, no. 25 (E size) P&P:
A couple of years later, after Harry caught wind two rigids were being built by the Goodyear Zeppelin consortium in Akron, he applied for a job. He was put to work on the pressure systems that inflated the ships and kept the pressure constant. Working side-by-side with German engineers experienced with height climbers and high altitude Harry was taken.
The first of the two new airships, the ZRS.4, named the Akron, was commissioned October 27, 1931. The second airship, the ZRS.5, named the Macon, was commissioned June 24, 1933. On April 4, 1933 the Akron broke up off Barnegat Light, New Jersey. The Macon crashed in the Pacific off Point Sur, California February 11, 1935. The Akron and the Macon ended the U.S. military involvement with rigid airships and the Akron Goodyear plant turned to making non-rigids. That ended Harry's interest in airships, but not in high altitude breathing equipment.
The Germans had discovered maintaining ships higher than 16,000 feet for four hours or more caused severe headaches, nausea, and vomiting. Crew members became exhausted and gasped for air. They grew inefficient, apathetic, and collapsed at their posts. To help resolve the situation the German navy began issuing bottles of compressed oxygen. The problem was that the breathing apparatus that regulated the gas flow was extremely primitive and the oxygen was contaminated with glycerin and other impurities. Crew members who used it experienced nausea for days afterwards. Harry knew there was a better way. With what he had learned from the German engineers he began to experiment on his own
During the summer of 1932 Howard Hughes was working incognito as a co-pilot and baggage handler on the Fort Worth to Cleveland, Ohio run for American Airlines under the assumed name of Charles Howard. It is from Hughes slumming that Harry related the first of two versions on how they met. In the first version Hughes just happened to wander into the hanger were Harry was working. Harry said he was unaware the man was Hughes even after he followed him around all day asking questions about high altitude breathing equipment. In the second version Harry said Sherman Fairchild, head of Fairchild Aviation, suggested Hughes stop by Cleveland or Akron and look him up. I think it may be a combination of the two, although I have a third version.
On October 31, 1927 Howard Hughes began shooting a motion picture he was producing called Hell's Angels. Four million dollars later, on May 27, 1930, the movie opened. Hell's Angels took place in World War I and centered around the members of the British Royal Flying Corps battling Zeppelins over London. Hughes built massive sets of interiors and exteriors of the airships. To ensure accuracy, Hughes, fastidious to reality almost to the point of paranoia, brought in genuine Zeppelin engineers from Akron. They brought charts and plans and Hughes ended up with exact replicas, right down to the last nut and bolt. What intrigued Hughes the most was stories of the height climbers. It is my opinion the engineers brought Harry the Man to Hughes attention.
Hughes H-1 Racer
In 1934 Hughes had experienced some success racing a modified Boeing Model 100A, a civilian version of an Army P12 pursuit biplane. Thinking he could do better, Hughes decided to design and build his own plane. The craft, designated the H-1 Racer, was a remarkable piece of engineering. A monoplane, it featured retractable landing gear, flush rivets, an oversize constant speed propeller and a close-fitting bell shaped fully cowled engine, taken together, all fairly innovative stuff in those days. Hughes idea was to crack the world speed record. In September 1935 he did just that, officially clocked at 352.3 MPH, surpassing the old record by a full thirty-eight MPH. Crossing the last pylon he ran out of gas, pancaked into a beet field located in an area in California that would eventually become Orange County, bent the propeller, destroyed the landing gear, and broke up a good part of the fuselage and underside.
Immediately he started rebuilding the plane for an attack on the transcontinental record, using a basically untried and unproved ace in the hole: High Altitude.
To operate in the rarefied air of the upper atmosphere Hughes had his racer, which he had renamed the "Winged Bullet," equipped with a supercharger, larger wings, and an oxygen supplied high altitude breathing system. Not to leave his breathing in the hands of just anybody, he sought out the very best. Thus entered a youthful Harry the Man. Throughout the year 1936 Hughes and Harry tested and refined the plane and it's various systems. For his effort Hughes was honored with the prestigious Harmon International Trophy, primarily for his work in high altitude flight. On January 20, 1937 Hughes and the H-1 easily lopped two hours off his own transcontinental record set one year earlier, January 13, 1936, using famed aviatrix Jacqueline Cochran's Northrop Gamma. Despite all the work Harry and Hughes put into the mostly winging it breathing equipment and the continuing insistance by Hughes for the system being ever more light weight, the prototype-like oxygen mask failed and Hughes almost, but DID NOT, black out. Because of the the redundancy the two put into the system and the training Hughes went through under Harry's guidance, of which dropping altitude if necessary was part of the training, the flight ended in success --- for both.
In an oblique sort of way the German Zeppelin engineers along with Hughes and Harry's experiments contributed significantly to the success of the U.S. and allied high altitude bombing effort in the European theater during World War II, while it is said the Japanese air force turned out almost carbon copies of the H-1 racer for their infamous Zero fighters used against the Americans with near unequaled success in the Pacific theater. A plaque in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. where the H-1 is displayed attests to the fact. For more on the H-1 Racer and Zero controversy please see:
HOWARD HUGHES: AVIATOR
AS WELL AS:
FLYING HUMANS AND THEIR ATTEMPT TO DO SO
LEONARDO DA VINCI: HIS FLYING MACHINES
LEONARDO DA VINCI: 500 YEARS TO SOON
FLYERS BEFORE DA VINCI
TARZAN AND THE HUNTRESS
Howard Hughes, Da Vinci, and Flying Machines
Again and again I am asked what is my source surrounding the alleged World War I Zeppelin attack against the city of New York? My primary source is attributed to the works of historian Aaron Norman as cited in his 1968 book The Great Air War (pp.408-9).
As Norman presents it, toward the end of the war Korvettenkapitan Peter Strasser approached Admiral Reinhard Scheer at his HQ in Berlin with documents, maps, and drawings outlining a plan and substantiating it's feasibility of a bombing run on New York using a triad of specially built long range Zeppelins, type L-70, of which one was already constructed and flying, with two more under construction.
According to Norman, Reinhard told Strasser to leave the papers only to send them back the next day marked in pencil 'R.S, Nein.' Strasser did not leave it at that, initiating and participating in an attack against England a short time later using the L-70. For whatever reason, the L-70, a height climber, under his command came in at a reduced altitude and was easily detected and picked off by British planes, killing Stasser in the process.
Some people have stated they have not been able to find other references regarding Stasser and Reinhard in relation to suggested attacks against New York other than Norman's allegations of such. So too, neither did he footnote his source. Norman's book has passed scrutiny as being historically accurate, being held up as a classic standard relative to the air war in Europe during World War I. Although Norman's specific source is not cited beyond his own presentation, given the quality and credibility of the rest of his book there is no reason to discard what he has to say. We can only hope that in the future Norman's source or a secondary source confirming the contact between Stasser, Reinhard and a potential Zeppelin attack against New York surfaces.
More than once New York had been in the crosshairs of the German military. First in World War I and again under a variety of methods in World War II. Except for Fate intervening they came close --- and their methods for their planned attacks were within reason.
In World War II it was no longer Zeppelins but long range fixed wing bombers, most notedly the massive six-engined Ju 390, and again, just at the end of the war.
It has been reported that a Ju-390 left Europe coming in over Canada crossing into U.S. airspace to photograph defense plants in Michigan only to exit out over the Atlantic sometime after noon on August 28, 1943 by coming in behind any east-facing aircraft detection systems and passing directly over New York above the Empire State Building.(see)
The above is a complete free online version of "HELL'S ANGELS" and below the review of the movie as it appeared in VARIETY:
BRIEFLY: 1930, WWI- Howard Hughes made this epic about 2 Americans who join the RFC. Made with up to 87 biplanes and 80 pilots (including Roscoe Turner), although some reports say no more than about 40 aircraft at one time.
Types included 5 Thomas-Morse Scouts S4.C (as "Camels"), 3+ SE.5, Sikorsky S-29 ("Gotha"), this crashed killing a stuntman) 8 Fokker D.VII, 2 Jennies ("Avro 504") Snipes?, Camels? DH.4. Many Travelair 2000/4000's ("Fokker") Many crashes both planned and accidental, 3 of them were fatal. DH.4, Travelair camera plane. Models. Some people have thought that WWI French flying ace (45 kills) Charles Nungesser, who had been doing stunt flying for films in Hollywood, was one of the stunt pilots killed in the filming of Hell's Angels. He wasn't. Nungesser disappeared May 8. 1927 on a flight attempt across the Atlantic a few weeks before Charles Lindberg's successful flight.
NOTE Although it has been claimed that famed aviatrix, barnstormer, and stunt pilot Pancho Barnes did stunt work for Huges in Hell's Angels she did not. Her role for the film was much more technical: to capture authentic audio of planes by flying past tethered balloons with sound equipment attached to them.
Filmed at several 1920's Los Angeles Fields- Caddo (Van Nuys), Inglewood, Chatsworth, Riverside, Encino, Santa Cruz, Glendale and Oakland in the San Francisco area.
The first half of the film (60 minutes) builds up to a Zeppelin raid on London which runs two reels and is given a big screen. A German youngster brought up in England purposely misdirects the bombing into a lake, British planes pursue, part of the Zep crew is called upon to abandon ship to lighten the dirigible, they jump and the climax is one of the Royal Flying Corp’s youngsters sending his plane through the big bag from above.
The way this final destruction is pictured will get a gasp from any audience. No film has yet had anything like it. Meanwhile, that German kid spotted in a suspended gondola to direct the Zep’s bombing, has been suddenly cut loose because he’s impeding the homeward escape and the big drum can’t retrieve him fast enough. The story has previously designated his as an Oxford pal of the Rutledge brothers. Hence, there’s more than casual interest in the boy.
The three dramatic highlights of the Zep footage are claimed to be based on fact — the severing of the cable to the gondola (which probably is out for Germany); the crew volunteering to jump (minus parachutes) and the British kid plunging his plane through the big envelope. A French flyer did this over Paris.
Second half’s main display (59 minutes) is an aerial dog fight in which at least 30, maybe 40, planes simultaneously start diving and zooming at each other. The only things Hughes missed on this and would have had if they’d had ‘em, was a Grandeur camera. Continuity approach to this action is a captured German bombing plane which the British are going to fly back over the enemy lines to destroy an ammunition dump. The Rutledge boys offer to do it, Monte stepping forward after an emotional upheaval over being tabbed as yellow. The brothers reach and destroy the objective with the explosions figuratively rocking the screen and it doesn’t look miniature.
While this has been going on, 13 or 15 German planes have been flying above the bomber but paying no attention until the leader sees the depot being peppered, whence he signals to attack — and those planes start tail spinning out of a V-formation to take a crack at the bomber. Then coming from the other direction are what seem to be dual groups of about 10 planes each — British ships. The German squadron leader sights them, signals to his men to regain their formation and Hughes has mistakenly and abruptly cut off this shot after showing but four or five planes returning to position. It’s a beautiful maneuver for which the footage should have been allowed to run to sure applause. Thence the free-for-all interspersed by close-ups for the boys in action. One overly gruesome passage is that of a pilot being hit to then scream in terror and agony as his plane dives.
The complete VARIETY review can be found HERE
copyright © 1940 Variety
LARRY CAMPBELL: Cactus Jack
ROSWELL UFO ARCHAEOLOGIST
Every time I heard Harry tell the story of visiting the airship wreckage scattered all over that field in Ohio it reminded me of my Uncle taking me as a very young boy to visit the so-called crash site associated with Roswell, New Mexico. My uncle wanted to see if there was any truth behind the so called Hieroglyphic Writing reported on some of the metal scraps, so we went there actually walking the then fresh debris field within days of the crash as described in FRANK EDWARDS: The Truth Behind the Veil
Although it was from discussions with Harry that I heard of the mysterious World War II bogies called Foo Fighters for the first time and he was willing to discuss the wartime event called The Battle of Los Angeles or the UFO Over L.A., wherein a giant Zeppelin-size object of unknown origin overflew Los Angeles and was able to resist the impact of over 1400 anti-aircraft rounds, when I tried to talk with him about the possibilities of the Roswell Incident he scoffed at the whole idea, saying it was all BS. He had arrived at that position through personal experience. From 1947 on there was a series of high altitude balloon tests under varying names such as Project Mogul and Project Gopher designated to accomplish a variety of goals. In 1952 or so Harry was called in to consult on Project Gopher wherein a reconnaissance balloon was developed to carry a 500 pound payload to more than 70,000 feet for up to fourteen days.
"The Project Gopher test flights faced unique security problems. Since the initial sightings of 'flying saucers' in June and July 1947, including the 'Roswell incident,' in which strange debris was found in New Mexico, the belief had developed among the general public that they were seeing alien spaceships and that the air force knew about it and was covering it up."(source)
The above quote is found in Shadow Flights (2000) by Curtis Peebles and is fairly typical. When I first met Harry the Man, because of his experience with the high altitude balloons of Project Gopher Harry threw his hat into the ring with the Air Force explanation of events, pooh-poohing the Roswell side of things. Since I semi-supported the Roswell side of things and he didn't, I pretty much never mentioned it to him again --- that is until the two of us were in the process of doing routine U-2 business at Edwards Air Force Base and taken to Area 51, in of which then Harry was assigned to investigate some mysterious parts. After that, for Harry the Man, things changed when it came to Roswell. See:
AREA 51, GROOM LAKE, ROSWELL
THE SO-CALLED BATTLE OF L.A.--800 FOOT ZEPPELIN-SIZE UFO
CAUGHT IN SEARCHLIGHT BEAMS OVER LOS ANGELES IN 1942
LITTLETON VS THE WANDERLING:
Battle of Los Angeles or UFO Over L.A.?
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CHAN, EUGENIA M.D., M.P.H.
The mother of a little girl you have diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) calls you. “I know you said she has ADHD and should be on medicine, but I don’t want to put my child on drugs. What if she gets addicted? My husband found out that cutting down on sugar and food dyes can help calm her down. Also, I read on the Internet that pycnogenol and blue-green algae can cure ADHD and they don’t have any side effects. Is that true? How come you didn’t tell me about these treatments for ADHD?”
For many parents and clinicians, choosing an acceptable therapy for the young child with ADHD is very difficult. First, clinicians have generally avoided prescribing stimulants except as a last resort for very young children, although in recent years the use of psychotropic medications for preschoolers has increased dramatically. 1,2 Unlike evidence demonstrating the benefits of stimulant therapy for school-aged children, data supporting the effectiveness of stimulants in children under 6 years of age are sparse. 3 Second, parents often are concerned about giving their child a “mind-altering” drug without knowing how long the child will need to be treated and what long-term side effects there might be. Understandably, then, parents may search for what they consider to be more “natural” therapies, hoping either to lessen the need for stimulant therapy (i.e., as adjunctive or “complementary” therapy) or to avoid stimulants altogether (i.e., as “alternative” therapy).
Thus, it is important for clinicians caring for children with ADHD to be familiar with complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) and its role in ADHD. This paper will review the epidemiology of CAM use in ADHD, discuss a conceptual model of CAM as well as selected therapies used to treat ADHD, and suggest ways to incorporate CAM into pediatric practice.
WHAT IS COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE? A DEFINITION
In 1993, “unconventional medicine” was defined as “medical interventions not taught widely at United States medical schools or generally available at United States hospitals.”4 In the year 2001, as more medical schools offer courses in alternative medicine, more hospitals and clinics offer therapies such as acupuncture, hypnosis, and massage, and third party payors are increasingly willing to reimburse for such therapies, this definition has become quite dated. A more recent definition used by the Cochrane collaboration defines complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) as “…a broad domain of healing resources that encompasses all health systems, modalities, and practices and their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than those intrinsic to the politically dominant health systems of a particular society or culture in a given historical period.”5
Implicit in this definition is the reality that the boundaries between CAM and mainstream medicine are often unclear, as what was once considered alternative (e.g., acupuncture for management of pain) moves into conventional medicine.
COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE USE IN CHILDREN: EPIDEMIOLOGY
Adult use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has increased significantly in the past decade. 6 Although there are no similar national epidemiologic studies in children, a series of regional studies over time suggests that CAM use in general pediatric populations is also increasing, with more recent estimates of 20% to 21% of children in the Bath (United Kingdom) and Washington, DC areas. 7–9 Among children with serious or chronic medical and psychosocial conditions, rates of CAM use are much higher (e.g., 66% in children with cystic fibrosis, 70% in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, and 70.1% in homeless youth). 10–12
One would expect that CAM use in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a highly prevalent chronic condition, would be similarly common. There are remarkably few systematic studies of the prevalence of CAM use in ADHD. A developmental referral center in western Australia found that approximately 64% of their patients diagnosed with ADHD had used “other” therapies in addition to stimulants, most commonly dietary restriction, multivitamins, and occupational therapy. 13 Data from our institution suggest that over half of the parents of children referred for ADHD evaluation have used some form of CAM therapy for treatment of ADHD (E. Chan, L.A. Rappaport, and K.J. Kemper, unpublished manuscript, May 18, 2001). In a 1997 American Academy of Pediatrics Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Program self-assessment exercise, 38% of pediatricians reported being asked about alternative therapies by their patients with ADHD. 14
CONCEPTUAL MODEL: THE THERAPEUTIC WHEEL OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
What complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapies are children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using? The answers depend on geography, the availability and types of CAM practitioners in a given area, and the current fads at any given time. The diversity of CAM therapies is remarkable; it is well beyond the scope of this paper to review the majority of CAM therapies and their effectiveness in ADHD. Several other articles on this subject have recently been published. 15,16 However, learning a comprehensive model for CAM helps one to organize an understanding of CAM therapies and to develop a practice of discussing CAM with families.
One useful conceptual model, proposed by Kemper, 17 also demonstrates how conventional therapies for ADHD integrate into a holistic therapeutic approach. Kemper’s model takes the form of a wheel of therapies, with the patient at the center and different therapies at the rim (Fig. 1). Specific therapies are grouped into one of four broad healing modalities roughly based on the proposed mechanism of action: biochemical, lifestyle/mind-body, biomechanical, and bioenergetic. For ADHD, the most commonly used therapies fall into the biochemical and lifestyle/mind-body groups.
Biochemical therapies act at the level of biochemistry and are perhaps the most familiar and readily understood by physicians. Among the most common biochemical therapies are medications, herbal remedies, vitamins, and nutritional supplements. Table 1 summarizes the uses, suggested dosages, adverse effects, potential drug interactions, and contraindications of these substances.
Treatment of ADHD symptoms with herbal remedies is generally based on the herbs’ traditional uses. For example, the anxiolytic and soporific properties of sedative herbs such as chamomile, kava kava, and valerian are thought to be useful for treating the restlessness, decreased concentration, and possible sleep difficulties associated with ADHD. Although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recognized chamomile and valerian as generally safe, kava kava is associated with adverse effects related to chronic or heavy use and may potentiate the effects of other central nervous system depressants such as alcohol and benzodiazepines. 18,19 Another popular herb, Gingko biloba, is often used to treat memory problems and to improve cognition. A recent meta-analysis has suggested that long-term Gingko therapy may improve cognitive function, memory, and concentration in adults. 20 Because Gingko antagonizes platelet activating factor, it should be used with caution in patients on antiplatelet or other anticoagulant therapy.
Subtle deficiencies in certain vitamins and minerals have often been suggested as causes for hyperactivity and impulsivity. Certainly, early nutritional deprivation has been associated with long-term effects on cognition, behavior, and learning. 21,22 In addition, iron deficiency, with or without anemia, has recognized effects on attention and cognition. However, little evidence suggests that supplementing otherwise adequate diets with “extra” vitamins or minerals or using “megadose” therapy (often several times the recommended daily dosage) is effective in treating ADHD. Such therapy may even be harmful. One double-blinded, placebo-controlled crossover study of combination megavitamin treatment found that children with ADHD exhibited 25% more disruptive classroom behavior while on megavitamins, and more than 40% had elevated serum transaminases. 23
Nevertheless, parents often use iron, pyridoxine, zinc, magnesium, coenzyme Q, and other vitamins and minerals to treat hyperactivity and inattention. It is thus important to discuss the potential toxic effects of these substances when given as megadoses (Table 1). Iron is particularly dangerous. Although it is often perceived as safe because of its ubiquitous presence in multivitamin supplements, cereals, and other foods, iron is the leading cause of poisoning deaths in children under 6 years of age. 24 Acute toxicity can occur in amounts as little as 20 mg/kg of elemental iron in children. 25
Nutritional supplements have often been used to enhance overall well-being or for their specific physiologic effects. For example, blue-green algae is touted as a “powerful immune system enhancer.”26 Supplements such as pycnogenol and evening primrose oil are used for their antioxidant and membrane-stabilizing properties, presumably to improve the function of the nervous system. Melatonin may be useful for promoting sleep in children with ADHD and insomnia;27 however, it may also suppress puberty and lower the seizure threshold in children with pre-existing neurologic disabilities. 28,29 Whereas the health benefits of these and other supplements are currently under scientific investigation, published randomized, controlled studies for their effectiveness in ADHD are lacking. The evidence for the effectiveness of several popular herbs and supplements for treating ADHD was recently reviewed. 16
It is important to remember that the FDA does not regulate nutritional supplements. Parents need to know that the consistency, purity, potency, and safety of natural remedies can vary among manufacturers and even within the same lot produced by a single manufacturer. Contamination by pesticides, heavy metals, and other products may also occur at any time during the manufacturing process.
These interventions are often common-sense therapies all of us incorporate into our daily lives, including exercise, nutrition, environmental changes, and mind-body techniques such as hypnosis, psychotherapy, and biofeedback.
Parents often encourage their children with ADHD to engage in exercise, whether to improve their overall well-being or (consciously or unconsciously) to “tire them out.” Common activities include gymnastics, martial arts, and team sports. Although it is doubtful that exercise alone can “cure” ADHD, exercise can certainly provide opportunities to develop social skills and to help improve the motor incoordination so often present in children with ADHD.
Perhaps the most popular and enduring alternative therapy for ADHD is dietary manipulation, especially the Feingold/Feingold-like diets and the low-sugar/sugar elimination diets. In an era of increased focus on how diet can influence behavior, mood, and disease, parents often turn to elimination diets in an effort to lessen their child’s symptoms and to promote overall health. Dietary changes add to the parents’ sense of efficacy because the household diet is more directly under their control. Because other family members often also adopt such dietary changes and attitudes to make it easier to plan meals, whole-diet interventions are best classified as lifestyle therapies rather than as biochemical therapies.
The Feingold diet originated from allergist Dr. Benjamin Feingold’s observation that the rise in hyperactivity and learning disabilities among children appeared to coincide with the rise in use of artificial salicylates in food additives and colorings. 30 By eliminating from the diet foods containing artificial and natural salicylates (e.g., aspirin, Pepto-Bismol, apples, berries, citrus, cucumbers, grapes, tomatoes, tea), Feingold reported behavioral improvement in 50% of the children with ADHD. Subsequent well-controlled studies have shown that the Feingold diet is not effective for ADHD, although it may be useful for a small group of children with true sensitivities to food additives. 31,32
Another popular dietary manipulation is the sugar-elimination diet. Several recent studies, as well as a meta-analysis, have failed to demonstrate a significant association between sugar and behavior. 33,34 However, the “sugar and hyperactivity” myth endures among parents, and many try to restrict their child’s sugar intake regardless of any observable improvements in behavior.
The principles behind environmental interventions are straightforward: clear organization and minimizing distractions. Environmental changes often used for ADHD include adherence to regular daily schedules, structured home and school settings, sitting at the front of the classroom, and using white noise during homework time. Music therapy is another potentially useful environmental intervention: One study has found that hyperactive boys made more errors than healthy boys while listening to fast-tempo music, whereas both groups performed as well when listening to slower-tempo music. 35
Mind-body therapies are geared toward invoking the mind’s ability to influence body function and symptoms. The key principle is that thoughts or emotions (“stresses”) have an important impact on health. By improving awareness of one’s own bodily systems, one develops a sense of self-efficacy and control and is more able to move from a state of internal disorder to one of homeostasis. Probably most relevant for children with ADHD is that mind-body therapies can help reduce autonomic hyperarousal to stress by eliciting the relaxation response.
Several mind-body therapies are commonly used for ADHD. Many of these are readily recognized and are considered established interventions: professional counseling, parenting skills training, and behavioral therapies such as positive rewards for desired behaviors.
A growing literature suggests that relaxation training through a variety of techniques (progressive muscle relaxation, meditation, deep breathing, hypnosis, meditation, biofeedback) can help children with ADHD learn to relax and thus presumably decrease autonomic activity. Other reported benefits have included reductions in parent- and teacher-reported problem behavior, more internal locus of control, and greater attention to task. 36–39 These studies must be interpreted cautiously because of very small sample sizes, but their results are nevertheless intriguing. Relaxation-training skills need to be practiced regularly at home for continued effect.
Two types of biofeedback have been studied in children with ADHD. Electromyogram (EMG) biofeedback focuses specifically on developing the child’s ability to recognize and reduce his own muscle tension, resulting in more relaxation. Several studies have suggested that EMG biofeedback can decrease hyperactivity and problem behaviors such as impulsivity and aggression. 40–42
Electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback therapy was developed after it was observed that a subset of children with ADHD appear to have excessive theta (slow) wave and decreased beta (fast) wave activity on EEG. Teaching children to alter their EEG pattern through biofeedback thus may help normalize their cortical function. One study, using a pre/post-training design, found a correlation between decreased theta wave activity and improvements in visual attention, ADHD behavior scores, and intelligence scores. 43 However, studies with more rigorous methodology need to be done. EEG biofeedback can be an unwieldy therapy requiring 35 to 50 training sessions, although results can be observed after 15 to 20 sessions. 44
These therapies stimulate, align, move, or remove larger tissues and organs. Therapies such as surgery, massage, and spinal manipulation (including chiropractic) are in this category. Few have been evaluated for their effectiveness in ADHD.
Massage, which helps to lower heart rate, increase blood flow through the body, and increase circulating endorphins, is often used to promote relaxation and to reduce stress. Massage’s relaxing effects probably explain its popularity for children with ADHD. However, only one study has evaluated the effects of massage therapy on symptoms of ADHD. In this study, male adolescents who received massage therapy reported improved mood and were rated by teachers as less hyperactive than those who had received relaxation therapy. 45
Chiropractic originated from the concept that misalignment of spinal segments leads to illness. In theory, subluxations cause nerve irritability, which leads to ineffective nervous system function and agitation, decreased concentration, and abnormal behavior. 46 Very few studies of chiropractic in ADHD exist.
The underlying principle of bioenergetic interventions is that they restore the harmonious balance of an invisible energy or spirit that surrounds and flows through the body. These therapies are often not based on known scientific laws, but several have been shown to be effective for certain conditions in well-conducted studies. Examples of bioenergetic therapies include acupuncture, therapeutic touch, prayer, and homeopathy.
Acupuncture is based on the theory that illness arises when the body’s flow of energy (Qi or Chi) is no longer in balance. To restore the proper flow of energy, points along the meridians that carry Qi are stimulated with needles, heat (moxibustion), vigorous massage (shiatsu), or electrical current. Studies of acupuncture in ADHD are ongoing.
For therapeutic touch, healing energy can be transmitted from a therapist to a patient, releasing blockages in the patient’s energy flow. Rather than touch the body directly, as in massage, therapists work on the energy fields surrounding the body. Similar therapies include Qi Gong, Reiki, and Healing Touch.
Homeopathy is also based on the idea that illness results from disrupted “vital energies.” However, homeopathic remedies are often difficult for those trained in Western biomedicine to grasp. Treatment, which is highly individualized, is based on two primary principles:like cures like and the more dilute the remedy, the more potent it is. In other words, the substance that produces symptoms in a healthy person should cure the same symptoms in a sick person, and extreme dilutions of plant, animal, or mineral extracts are more potent than more concentrated remedies because of the bioenergy of the molecules in a dilution. Because of these often extreme dilutions (from 1:10 to 1 in billions), however, homeopathic remedies are likely to be reasonably safe. Remedies are also specifically targeted to symptom clusters or profiles; for example, Cina (wormseed) for defiance and irritability, Veratrum album (white hellebore) for restlessness and fidgety behavior, and Colocynthis (bitter cucumber) for children who are easily upset. 47
INCORPORATING COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE INTO PRACTICE: AN APPROACH
Holistic pediatrics is an approach to practice that goes beyond the traditional medical model to consider the patient’s mind, body, emotions, and spirit in the context of his or her family’s beliefs, values, culture, and community. Most clinicians caring for children already use this approach, although they may not consciously define it as “holistic.” It bears emphasizing that complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is only one component of holistic pediatrics. However, a common-sense approach to incorporating CAM into practice can help make one’s practice more holistic.
Several studies have found that perhaps one-third of patients discuss their use of CAM with their physician. 6,13 Many patients are reluctant to approach their physician, fearing disapproval or disparagement. Clinicians may be reluctant to discuss CAM with patients and families, often because of their own skepticism or lack of knowledge about CAM. It is clear, however, that we must overcome this reluctance. Discussing CAM affords a valuable opportunity to learn about and understand a family’s values and attitudes toward therapy, allow mutual exchange of information, and forge an effective therapeutic alliance. Given the opportunity, most families are eager to discuss CAM with physicians. The most important principle is that providers need to ask.
Clinicians should have several goals in mind when discussing CAM with families. First, they need to learn what therapies families have thought about or have tried for treating their child’s attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Asking about CAM is no different from asking about parents’ methods of discipline or ways of dealing with a fever; a comprehensive history is essential. The key to a good history, of course, is a systematic approach—whether asking for symptoms by organ system or asking about use of therapies by the therapeutic wheel. Just as a clinician would ask a series of questions to characterize a symptom (e.g., How long does it last? When does it occur? When does it go away? What makes it better or worse?), one should also try to characterize use of a therapy. For example, in the case of a parent wondering about special diets, questions could include:
* What specific diet changes have you tried? (e.g., eliminate sugar, eliminate all preservatives)
* When did you start it? How long did you try it?
* Did it seem to work? What behaviors improved? What worsened?
* Why did you stop it?
* Where did you hear about it?
A second goal is for clinicians to understand what parents see as the important goals of therapy (Table 2). 48 This necessarily leads to a discussion of the family’s values and attitudes toward treatment for ADHD. For some families, a treatment isn’t effective unless it cures their child’s ADHD. For others, treatment should promote family solidarity or a sense of peace. Other possible goals of therapy include lessening symptoms (e.g., decreasing impulsive behavior), enhancing their child’s well-being and resilience (e.g., eating well, getting enough sleep), and preventing symptoms (e.g., future delinquency).
Implicit in this discussion is acknowledging the differences between the parent’s goal of therapy and the clinician’s goal of therapy. Whereas both parents and clinicians can usually agree that decreasing symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention is important, many parents also hope for a cure (“He’ll grow out of it, right?”). Promoting a child’s well-being and resilience is another important mutual goal but may mean different things. For the physician, stimulants can help decrease difficult behaviors and improve school and home functioning. For the parent, stimulants may affect their child’s appetite, growth, mood, and sleep—all necessary for physical and emotional health. Whereas physicians may be focused on short-term goals such as increasing attention and improving school performance, parents may also be concerned about preventing adolescent delinquency and motor vehicle accidents. Understanding how goals differ can lessen misunderstanding and frustration and pave the way for mutual prioritization of treatment objectives.
A third goal is parent education. Clinicians are the family’s best source of information regarding potential side effects of CAM therapies, interactions among different CAM therapies (e.g., different herbs), and interactions between conventional and CAM therapies. Resources for information about CAM therapies, including side effects, toxicity, interactions, and current clinical trials, are in Table 3.
Clinicians can also help families establish a system to evaluate how well a therapy is meeting their mutually-agreed treatment objectives. Having a written “action plan” listing the priority goals of therapy and concrete daily or weekly measurements of target behaviors can be very helpful as parents try new CAM therapies.
Finally, clinicians can teach families how to critically appraise the advertising for a CAM therapy. For example, the rationale for using many CAM therapies is based on traditional uses or purported mechanisms of action rather than on scientific data. However, aggressive and widespread marketing in the lay press and on the Internet often promote such therapies as “miracle cures” for ADHD. Some of this marketing can sound insidiously scientific and may appear to be logically sound, if not necessarily biologically sound; other marketing may be factually accurate yet its overall message misleading. For example, literature used by one company to promote the benefits of blue-green algae for ADHD states:
Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially omega-3 fatty acids, have been shown to be beneficial to the immune, cardiovascular, and nervous systems. It is interesting to note that nearly 50% of the lipid content of dried [Aphanizomenon flos-aquae] is composed of omega-3 fatty acids…. [D]ecreased concentrations of certain PUFAs in plasma have been found in children diagnosed with Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Stevens, 1995). Although the cause of ADHD is believed to be multifactorial, eating foods containing PUFAs may be helpful. Based on various unpublished studies, consumption of Aph. flos-aquae was demonstrated to be beneficial in the treatment of ADHD. 26,49
For a parent eager to find an alternative to stimulant therapy, a natural immune- and nervous system-enhancer may sound extremely attractive. It therefore becomes all the more important for clinicians to review promotional materials with parents.
CAM therapies for ADHD are often very attractive for families of young children with ADHD. It behooves clinicians to be familiar with the popular CAM therapies (print and electronic references for both professionals and parents are in Table 3). Incorporating a systematic approach to discussing CAM with families can only benefit children with ADHD and their families. [Editor: These references have been cited in Table 1 50–57.]
1. Rappley MD, Mullan PB, Alvarez FJ, et al: Diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and use of psychotropic medication in very young children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 153:1039–1045, 1999
2. Zito JM, Safer DJ, dosReis S, et al: Psychotherapeutic medication patterns for youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 153:1257–1263, 1999
3. Jadad A, Boyle M, Cunningham C, et al: Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 11 (prepared by McMaster University under contract no. 290-97-0017). AHRQ Publication No. 00-E005. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, November 1999
4. Eisenberg DM, Kessler RC, Foster C, et al: Unconventional medicine in the United States: Prevalence, costs, and patterns of use. N Engl J Med 328:246–252, 1993
6. Eisenberg DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL, et al: Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990–1997: Results of a follow-up national survey. JAMA 280:1569–1575, 1998
7. Spigelblatt L, Laine-Ammara G, Pless IB, et al: The use of alternative medicine by children. Pediatrics 94:811–814, 1994
8. Simpson N, Pearce A, Finlay F, et al: The use of complementary medicine in paediatric outpatient clinics. Ambul Child Health 3:351–356, 1998
9. Ottolini MC, Hamburger E, Loprieato J, et al: Complementary and alternative medicine use among children in the Washington, DC area. Ambul Pediatr 1:122–125, 2001
10. Stern RC, Canda ER, Doershuk CF: Use of nonmedical treatment by cystic fibrosis patients. J Adolesc Health 13:612–615, 1992
11. Southwood TR, Malleson PN, Roberts-Thomson PJ, et al: Unconventional remedies used for patients with juvenile arthritis. Pediatrics 85:150–154, 1990
12. Breuner CC, Barry PJ, Kemper KJ: Alternative medicine use by homeless youth. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 152:1071–1075, 1998
13. Stubberfield T, Parry T: Utilization of alternative therapies in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Paediatr Child Health 35:450–453, 1999
14. ACQIP: Monitoring Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Program, American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997
15. Baumgaertel A: Alternative and controversial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Clin North Am 46:977–992, 1999
16. Chan E, Gardiner P, Kemper KJ: “At least it’s natural…” Herbs and dietary supplements in ADHD. Contemp Pediatr 17:116–130, 2000
17. Kemper K: Separation or synthesis: A holistic approach to therapeutics. Pediatr Rev 17:279–283, 1996
18. Blumenthal M: The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin, TX, American Botanical Council, 1998
19. Fleming T: PDR for Herbal Medicines. Montvale, NJ, Medical Economics Company, Inc., 1998
20. Oken BS, Storzbach DM, Kaye JA: The efficacy of Ginkgo biloba on cognitive function in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 55:1409–1415, 1998
21. Galler JR, Ramsey F, Solimano G, et al: The influence of early malnutrition on subsequent behavioral development. II. Classroom behavior. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 22:16–22, 1983
22. Galler JR, Ramsey F, Solimano G, et al: The influence of early malnutrition on subsequent behavioral development. I. Degree of impairment in intellectual performance. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 22:8–15, 1983
23. Haslam RH, Dalby JT, Rademaker AW: Effects of megavitamin therapy on children with attention deficit disorders. Pediatrics 74:103–111, 1984
24. Toddler deaths resulting from ingestion of iron supplements—Los Angeles, 1992–1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 42:111–113, 1993
25. United States Pharmacopeial Convention: Drug Information for the Health Care Professional. Englewood, CO, Micromedex, Inc., 2000
26. Drapeau C:Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
: Blue-Green Algae. Klamath Falls, OR, Cell Tech International, Inc., 1999
27. Smits M, Nagtegaal E, Valentijn S, et al: Melatonin for chronic sleep onset insomnia in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Randomised placebo controlled trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67:840, 1999
28. Walker AB, English J, Arendt J, et al: Hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism and primary amenorrhoea associated with increased melatonin secretion from a cystic pineal lesion. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 45:353–356, 1996
29. Sheldon SH: Pro-convulsant effects of oral melatonin in neurologically disabled children (letter). Lancet 351:1254, 1998
30. Feingold BF: Hyperkinesis and learning disabilities linked to artificial food flavors and colors. Am J Nurs 75:797–803, 1975
31. Harley JP, Ray RS, Tomasi L, et al: Hyperkinesis and food additives: Testing the Feingold hypothesis. Pediatrics 61:818–828, 1978
32. Conners CK, Goyette CH, Southwick DA, et al: Food additives and hyperkinesis: A controlled double-blind experiment. Pediatrics 58:154–166, 1976
33. Wolraich ML, Lindgren SD, Stumbo PJ, et al: Effects of diets high in sucrose or aspartame on the behavior and cognitive performance of children. N Engl J Med 330:301–307, 1994
34. Wolraich ML, Wilson DB, White JW: The effect of sugar on behavior or cognition in children. A meta-analysis. JAMA 274:1617–1621, 1995
35. Klein P: Responses of hyperactive and normal children to variations in tempo of background music. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 18:157–166, 1981
36. Klein SA, Deffenbacher JL: Relaxation and exercise for hyperactive impulsive children. Percept Mot Skills 45:1159–1162, 1977
37. Donney VK, Poppen R: Teaching parents to conduct behavioral relaxation training with their hyperactive children. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 20:319–325, 1989
38. Raymer R, Poppen R: Behavioral relaxation training with hyperactive children. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 16:309–316, 1985
39. Dunn FM, Howell RJ: Relaxation training and its relationship to hyperactivity in boys. J Clin Psychol 38:92–100, 1982
40. Potashkin BD, Beckles N: Relative efficacy of Ritalin and biofeedback treatments in the management of hyperactivity. Biofeedback Self Regul 15:305–315, 1990
41. Braud LW: The effects of frontal EMG biofeedback and progressive relaxation upon hyperactivity and its behavioral concomitants. Biofeedback Self Regul 3:69–89, 1978
42. Hughes H, Henry D, Hughes A: The effect of frontal EMG biofeedback training on the behavior of children with activity-level problems. Biofeedback Self Regul 5:207–219, 1980
43. Lubar JF, Swartwood MO, Swartwood JN, et al: Evaluation of the effectiveness of EEG neurofeedback training for ADHD in a clinical setting as measured by changes in T.O.V.A. scores, behavioral ratings, and WISC-R performance. Biofeedback Self Regul 20:83–99, 1995
44. Kroll D: The role of biofeedback in the treatment of attention deficit disorder. Altern Complement Therapies 1:290–294, 1995
45. Field T, Quintino O, Hernandez-Reif M, et al: Adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder benefit from massage therapy. Adolescence 33:103–108, 1998
46. Peet J: Adjusting the hyperactive/ADD pediatric patient. Chiropr Pediatr 2:12–16, 1997
47. Reichenberg-Ullman J: A homeopathic approach to behavioral problems. Mothering Spring 74:97–100, 1995
48. Kemper K: Integrative medicine: Talking with families about complementary, alternative and mainstream medical therapies in acute care settings. Emerg Off Pediatr 13:45–49, 2000
49. Stevens LJ, Zentall SS, Deck JL, et al: Essential fatty acid metabolism in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Clin Nutr 62:761–768, 1995
51. Olin B: The Lawrence Review of Natural Products. St. Louis, MO, Facts and Comparisons, 1998
53. NCAHF: Growing concerns over blue-green algae. National Council Against Health Fraud Newsletter 19:1, 1996
55. Rowin J, Lewis SL: Spontaneous bilateral subdural hematomas associated with chronic Ginkgo biloba ingestion. Neurology 46:1775–1776, 1996
Index terms: complementary and alternative medicine; attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
© 2002 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.
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High cholesterol can be quite an overwhelming issue to deal with if you are not prepared with the types of foods or diets one needs to consume in order to lower their overall cholesterol levels. So what exactly does a cholesterol lowering diet consist of?
This is what we will discuss in this section.
First, cholesterol is a fatty deposit which can block blood flow to the brain, heart and other parts of the body due to its waxy or plaque-like state. It builds up on blood vessel or artery walls and ultimately can narrow and block blood flow.
It is important to avoid saturated fats such as red meat and other fatty foods (pastries and more) in general as these are the fats that can build up on your artery walls which can cause heart conditions.
Foods that are great replacements for red meats include fish, chicken, or turkey. In addition to the lower cholesterol levels, fish such as salmon are very high in omega-3 fats which are actually very proactive in lowering cholesterol.
In addition, partially hydrogenated oils, or transfats, are known to raise cholesterol levels in many individual and should be avoided during your cholesterol lowering diet. Oils such as olive oil and canola are some of the best oils to use for cooking in a cholesterol lowering diet as well as vegetable oil for its state as a polyunsaturated fat. Cholesterol lowering diet foods to stick with include low fat foods such as skim milk, fruits, vegetables, as well as foods that are high in simple carbohydrates.
Carbs are indeed needed in one’s diet; however, it is the complex carbohydrates such as whole grain oats rather than bleached white bread that have all the health benefits. Some other foods that should be considered as part of your cholesterol lowering diet include garlic, grapes, turmeric, red yeast rice, beans, brown rice, broccoli, yams, cinnamon, peas, many different types of berries, carrots, walnuts, soybeans as well as vitamins and supplements such as niacin, artichoke leaf extract, coenzyme q10.
In addition to these cholesterol lowering diet foods, its important to monitor your daily activities such as the amount of regular exercise each day. Even if it is just a brisk walk each day, it is important to get into an exercise program and stick with it.
Before starting any type of cholesterol lowering diet including the Mediterranean diet or other known diets, it is important to find out exactly what each type of cholesterol lowering diet entails and even speak to your medical professional in regards to your cholesterol lowering diet plans. Their advice can be very helpful in addition to the research you had already done.
Remember that most of the high cholesterol levels in the nation come from a few foods out there and those foods that can be dangerous to many individuals include cheeses, burgers, eggs (if too many are consumed each week) , pastries/desserts as well as fatty milk products. Try to limit these foods in a regular diet while consuming more fish, fruits and vegetables and help prevent problems due to high cholesterol through the new and well-regimented cholesterol lowering diet the best suits you.
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Ape-Men: Fact or Fallacy? by Malcolm Bowden, Sovereign Publications, Bromley, Kent (2nd edition, 1981)
Reviewed by Professor John Sheets
This review was originally published in the book Reviews of Creationist Books, edited by Liz Rank Hughes (2nd edition, 1992), published by the National Center for Science Education.
It is republished here by permission of the National Center for Science Education.
Ape-Men: Fact or Fallacy? is written to cast doubt on the evolutionary interpretation of the human fossil record. The author, M. Bowden, uses two approaches: 1) questioning the fossil evidence, and 2) questioning the honesty of human paleontologists.
Bowden barely describes or illustrates the fossils for the reader. He does not give an adequate reference, such as Oakley (6), where the reader might obtain further information. These unfortunate omissions greatly reduce the value of the book. Nevertheless, Bowden claims that "the layman's judgment can be as valid as that of the expert in this "representation of all the relevant evidence" (p. 1) - comparable to believing that any car owner can explain the internal combustion engine.
Bowden states that "Neanderthal man was a degenerate form of existing Homo sapiens, suffering from malnutrition and rickets, possibly living promiscuously" (p. 173). This unwarranted assertion ignores the standard paper about Neanderthal by C.L. Brace (1), and remains dismissive in view of the renewed Neanderthal debate (8).
Bowden claims that Australopithecus "did not walk upright" (p. 176). He disputes D.C. Johanson and M. Taieb's (4) description of the fossil knee joint discovered in the Hadar region of Ethiopia. Bowden insists, "I could find no evidence in print which proves that his knee joint exhibited bipedalism" (p. 220). Yet the paper by Johanson and Taieb lists well-known biomechanical research showing that the fossil knee matches a modern knee (3,5). The author's error of fact illustrates his tendency to ignore or distort any evidence that doesn't support his viewpoint.
Bowden believes that human paleontologists conspire to conceal the "truth of Creationisrn." He shows no comprehension of the self-correcting nature of scientific work, which regularly causes scientists to expose the errors of other scientists. An outstanding example of this procedure is the famous Piltdown hoax. Bowden cites the affair to draw suspicion towards human paleontologists. He might as well claim that modern medicine is suspect because physicians once prescribed 'bleeding by leeches" to cure illness. In fact, the Piltdown hoax was exposed by paleontologists, showing that conspiracy and error in science cannot be concealed forever.
Bowden makes other false charges. On page 244 he accuses scientists of plotting with journalists for harsh treatment of dissidents; on the next page he accuses paleontologists of using "evidence which has been wilfully misconstrued." He accuses Eugene Dubois of withholding information on the "Java man" skulls (pp. 141-2), and charges Marcellin Boule with being "unconvinced that Sinanthropus was other than a monkey" (p. 105).
However, a scholarly review (2) of the work of these authors demonstrates the falsity of the charges. Bowden's persistent attack upon Fr. Pierre Tielhard de Chardin constitutes almost 40% of the book (pp. 3-55,90-137)! Personal attacks and vendettas are not the material of scientific discussion. This book is typical of the creationist brand of science. It offers no new facts, only disputes the work of others, attacks scientists personally, and supports the irrational view that conspiracies are everywhere in science. The book concludes with familiar apologetics and the contrived dualism (7) of modern creationism. Unlike scientists, the creationists not only answer all present-day questions, but they already know the answers to all future questions.
In grossly misrepresenting the nature of scientific discussion, Bowden's book does a disservice to good science education. It does not deserve a place in any modern science classroom, where coming to understand the nature of the scientific enterprise is far more important than absorbing any particular subject content.
2. --- 1982. Text of the Debate: "Creation vs. Evolution." Hill Auditorium, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. March 17,1982.
3. Heiple, K.G., and C. O. Lovejoy 1971. "The distal femoral anatomy of Australopithecus." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 35:75-84.
4. Johanson, D. C., and M. Taieb 1976. "Plio-pleistocene hominid discoveries in Hadar, Ethiopia." Nature 260:293-297.
5. Kern, H.M., and W.L Straus 1949. "The femur of Plesianthropus transvaalensis." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7:53-77.
6. Oakley, K. P., B. G. Campbell, and T. I. Molleson, eds. 1977. Catalogue of Fossil Hominids, 2nd ed., 3 volumes. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London.
7. Overton, W. R. 1982. "Creationism in schools: the decision in McLean versus the Arkansas Board of Education." Science 215:934-943.
8. Stringer, C. B. and P. Andrews 1988. "Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans." Science 239:1263-1268.
John W. Sheets
Professor of Anthropology and Museum Director
Central Missouri State University
Warrensburg, MO 64093
This page is part of the Fossil Hominids FAQ at the talk.origins Archive.
Home Page |
Illustrations | What's New | Feedback | Search | Links | Fiction
Copyright © Jim Foley || Email me
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From 2008 to 2012, the American Indian Healthy Eating Project worked on developing planning and policy strategies to improve access to healthy, affordable foods within American Indian communities in North Carolina.
- Learn more about why improving access to healthy, affordable foods within American Indian communities is important
- Get to know our project partners, participating tribes, and multidisciplinary research team
- Explore the tools and technical assistance we developed to facilitate community change within each of the participating tribes, through Tools for Healthy Tribes policy toolkit and additional Tools for Healthy Tribes web-based resources
- Understand how community newsletters complement our efforts to stimulate community change within each of the participating tribal communities
- See how the American Indian Healthy Eating project momentum shaped Healthy, Native North Carolinians
We have been blessed with the opportunity to build partnerships with the NC Commission of Indian Affairs, seven tribes in North Carolina, and with all the tribal leaders, liaisons, and advisors who have given so much of their time and thoughts to facilitate united approaches to advance American Indian health within their tribes, across the state, and throughout Indian Country. This project is just one fruitful example of the talent, assets, and potential living within American Indian communities in North Carolina. Native people have the power and wisdom to live long, healthy lives!
Support for this project was provided by Healthy Eating Research, a national program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) (ID#66958) and a National Institutes of Health (NIH) University of North Carolina Interdisciplinary Obesity Training Grant (T 32 MH75854-03). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the RWJF or NIH.
Requested Website Citation:
The American Indian Healthy Eating Project in partnership with seven American Indian tribes in North Carolina. Tools for Healthy Tribes. Chapel Hill, NC; 2011.
American Indian Health Disparities
American Indians have long experienced disproportionately high mortality rates from diet-related chronic diseases compared to other Americans. As young as four-years-old, striking disparities are seen in American Indian childhood obesity rates. To illustrate, a recent cross-sectional study using a nationally representative sample of US children born in 2001 (n=8550) with height and weight measured in 2005 reported that American Indian children had the highest prevalence of obesity among five major racial/ethnic groups (Anderson SE & Whitaker RC. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2009;163(4):344-348). While the prevalence among four-year-old US children was 18.4%, the prevalence rates differed significantly by racial/ethnic group. American Indian rates doubled the non-Hispanic white and Asian rates and were notably higher than rates endured by Hispanic and non-Hispanic black children. This study produced the first national estimates of obesity prevalence among American Indian preschoolers. Study investigators recommended future studies focus on how community context influences differences in eating and exercise behaviors across various racial/ethnic minority populations.
Little is Known about the American Indian Food Environment
Changing a community’s context or specifically its built environment is a promising strategy to reduce American Indian health disparities. The built environment encompasses all the buildings, spaces, and products created or modified by people. These buildings and spaces include homes, schools, workplaces, park/recreational areas, greenways, business areas, and transportation systems. In addition, the built environment takes into consideration the land-use planning and policies impacting our communities in urban, rural, and suburban areas. The food environment specifically includes the availability, accessibility, and affordability of both healthy foods and beverages, such as fruits and vegetables, as well as nutrient-poor, calorie-dense foods and beverages, such as sugar-sweetened beverages. Few research efforts have rigorously examined the built environment within American Indian communities, especially within American Indian communities living off reservations—estimated to be as high as 60% of the American Indian population.
Facilitating Tribally-Led Environmental and Policy Strategies to Healthy Eating
Public health professionals are increasingly exploring how local, state, and federal policymakers can prevent and control chronic diseases such as obesity, Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain types of cancer. For instance, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended twenty-four strategies communities could implement to prevent obesity in the US. Tribal communities were not explicitly mentioned in this report. Moreover, in comparison to local, state, and federal policymakers, little attention is given to the role tribal leaders can have in improving access to healthy, affordable foods within their tribal communities. This is the first study to our knowledge that works directly with tribes to explore the potential for tribally-led efforts to maximize environmental and policy strategies to improve access to healthy, affordable foods.
Our approach, or theoretical framework, to understanding the relationship between public health, planning, and policy is based on Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura A. Social Foundation of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1986). Social Cognitive Theory sets forth that health behaviors, such as diet, are influenced by individual factors in combination with the social and physical environment. A more recent ecological-based model of community nutrition environments includes relevant constructs, such as government policies and the type and location of food outlets (Glanz, et al. Am J Health Promot. 2005;19(5):330-333). We also were influenced by Community-Based Participatory Research, various theories and concepts trying to explain political decision making and public participation in policy, and consumer behavior models.
The American Indian Healthy Eating Project Aims
Our multidisciplinary project aimed to build the partnerships and evidence-base necessary to improve access to healthy, affordable foods within American Indian communities in North Carolina. Specifically, this project
(Aim 1) Applied Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) to build partnerships with the NC Commission of Indian Affairs and seven American Indian communities in North Carolina to gain an understanding of how environmental and policy factors influence access to healthy foods;
(Aim 2) Examined existing data sources to identify and map the type and location of food outlets, such as grocery stores and restaurants, within the seven communities;
(Aim 3) Assessed agreement among existing (secondary) food outlet data sources and validated existing data using primary field-based observations; and
(Aim 4) Conducted legal and policy analyses of regulations and rules relating to healthy food access in order to guide solution-oriented strategies and develop a toolkit for improving access to healthy foods within each of the tribal communities.
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Description: Shrubs or small trees with scaly buds; mostly monoecious.
Leaves alternate or opposite, glabrous, mostly with 2 embedded marginal glands 3–5 mm above base, pinnately veined; translucent dots visible in lamina with a lens; stipules obsolete.
Inflorescence a terminal raceme, male and female flowers often mixed. Sepals mostly 5, shortly fused. Petals usually 5, free, longer than the sepals. Stamens c. 40–50. Ovary 3-locular, each loculus with 1 ovule; styles free or shortly united, deeply bifid.
Capsule ± globose, 3-lobed, at first fleshy but finally separating into three 1-seeded units; seeds oblong.
Distribution and occurrence: World: 12 species, Australia, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island. Australia: 3 species, Qld, N.S.W.
Text by T. A. James & G. J. Harden
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|1||All leaves opposite, petiole less than 10 mm long and without a distinct swelling at apex||Baloghia inophylla|
|Most leaves alternate, petiole usually more than 15 mm long and with a distinct swelling at apex, occasionally some leaves (bracts) opposite and petiole less than 10 mm long and without a swelling at apex||Baloghia marmorata|
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While the cause of IBS has not been clearly identified, new clinical evidence
suggests that an alteration of the normal bacteria flora may be to blame, making
Probiotics one of the most promising strategies to recently emerge.
Probiotics are live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate
amounts, provide an excellent health benefit.
In Probiotics and Digestive Health, you will learn how Probiotics work and why
they are so critical for regulating overall digestive health.
In addition, you will learn the differences between Probiotic strains and the
promise of a newly discovered strain - Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 (Bifantis) -
for relieving IBS and other GI problems.
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Jonas Stundzia, a second-generation Lithuanian-American from Lawrence, became "mesmerized" by Lithuanian culture as a child when he visited the Lawrence Lithuanian Club, learned the language and heard stories from the elders.
He is now an elder in the Romuva Organization, which maintains the ancient traditions of the Baltic people.
One of those traditions is the creation of head garlands worn during the Rasos Svente, or Dew Festival. The festival culminates on the midsummer feast of St. John the Baptist, held a few days after the summer solstice to celebrate harmony with nature.
Water, fire, flowers and the sun are key elements in the festival. The garlands, made of wild flowers, herbs and grasses, adorn the head and shoulders. People also float the garlands with lit candles on the water to guide the sun back to earth. They may also use the garlands to decorate their homes or throw them into the solstice bonfire to burn.
Young, unmarried women also use their garlands to determine whom they might marry. According to tradition, the young woman throws her garland into a birch tree. If it lands high in the branches, that means she will marry that year.
Stundzia will demonstrate the creation of midsummer garlands and show completed examples at the Folk Festival.
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Center Aims to Produce Liquid Transportation Fuels from Sunlight
WASHINGTON – The U.S. Department of Energy today announced $75 million in funding to renew the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP), a DOE Energy Innovation Hub originally established in 2010 with the goal of harnessing solar energy for the production of fuel. JCAP researchers are focused on achieving the major scientific breakthroughs needed to produce liquid transportation fuels from a combination of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, using artificial photosynthesis.
While the scientific challenges of producing such fuels are considerable, JCAP will capitalize on state-of-the-art capabilities developed during its initial five years of research, including sophisticated characterization tools and unique automated high-throughput experimentation that can quickly make and screen large libraries of materials to identify components for artificial photosynthesis systems.
“Basic scientific research supported by the Department of Energy is crucial to providing the foundation for innovative technologies and later-stage research to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change,” said Under Secretary for Science and Energy Lynn Orr. “JCAP’s work to produce fuels from sunlight and carbon dioxide holds the promise of a potentially revolutionary technology that would put America on the path to a low-carbon economy.”
JCAP – which brings together many of the world’s top researchers in the field of artificial photosynthesis – is led by the California Institute of Technology in partnership with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and operates research sites at both institutions. A Southern California site is located at the Caltech campus in Pasadena, while a Northern California site operates at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley. Additional partners include SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory; the University of California, Irvine; and the University of California, San Diego.
JCAP is one of several Energy Innovation Hubs established by the Department of Energy beginning in 2010. The Energy Innovation Hubs are major integrated research centers, drawing together researchers from multiple institutions and varied technical backgrounds. They are modeled after the strong scientific management approaches typified by the Manhattan Project, the Lincoln Lab at MIT, which developed radar, AT&T’s Bell Laboratories, which developed the transistor, as well as the successful DOE Bioenergy Research Centers established during the Bush Administration to pioneer advanced techniques in biotechnology, including biofuels.
Under the renewal plan, the five-year-old center would receive funding for an additional five years of research, subject to congressional appropriations.
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Ralph McNutt’s contributions to interstellar mission studies are long-term and ongoing. We’ve looked at the Innovative Interstellar Explorer concept he has been studying at the Applied Physics Laboratory (Johns Hopkins), but IIE itself rose out of earlier design studies for a spacecraft that would penetrate the heliopause to reach true interstellar space. One possibility for that earlier probe was a ‘Sun-diver’ maneuver, a close pass by the Sun to gain a gravitational slingshot effect, followed by an additional kick from an onboard booster.
The thinking a few years back was to reach 1000 AU in less than fifty years, but Innovative Interstellar Explorer has lost the Sun-diver maneuver and focuses on a more realistic 200 AU, as part of a NASA Vision Mission study that contemplates a gravitational assist at Jupiter and the use of radioisotope electric propulsion. IIE is subject to the same funding constraints as any other mission of this nature but it’s well worth perusing its specs on the site, for McNutt is both scientist and visionary, a man who looks beyond the ‘lifetime of a researcher’ limit for mission duration.
That has taken him into interesting intellectual terrain, writing in a study for NASA’s now defunct Institute for Advanced Concepts of a future technology that could reach speeds of 200 AU per year. That’s fast enough to get you to Epsilon Eridani in 3500 years, approximately the lifetime of the Egyptian empire. Writes McNutt:
“A more robust propulsion system that enabled a similar trajectory toward higher declination stars such as Alpha Centauri could make the corresponding shorter crossing in a correspondingly shorter time of ~1400 years, the time that some buildings have been maintained, e.g., Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the Pantheon in Rome. Though far from ideal, the stars would be within our reach.”
Human Expeditions to the Gas Giants and Beyond
Given these musings, where does McNutt stand on human exploration of the Solar System itself? We learn the answer in an interesting piece that has just appeared in the Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest where, writing with Jerry Horsewood and Douglas Fiehler, he notes the sharp constraint that radiation exposure places upon mission designers. We know we can reach the outer Solar System — our unmanned probes continue to demonstrate the capability — but humans in deep space have to cope with solar energetic particles from the Sun (SEPs) and galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). That means getting to the destination quickly.
The article looks at optimized trajectories to Callisto, Enceladus, Miranda, Triton and Pluto, five expeditions that each demand one-way flight times of no more than two years, with a total mission time of five years. Solar energetic particles can be shielded against, but running the numbers on galactic cosmic rays shows they would require a huge mass penalty for shielding. To approximate the shielding effect of the Earth’s atmosphere would involve a shield massing thousands of tons. Limiting flight times seems the only solution.
To make this happen, McNutt envisions a nuclear electric propulsion system with an overall power level of 100 MWe, with the electricity generated by the nuclear reactor being used to power up the plasma stream that propels the vehicle. The Neptune mission, targeted for a 2075 launch, would achieve 197.5 kilometers per second with a thrust time of 1.2 years — compare that to the 16.2 kilometers per second New Horizons is currently managing on its trajectory to Pluto/Charon. And the trajectories of these five fast missions are themselves interesting:
The striking point for all of these trajectories, and especially for the three outermost targets, is the lack of curvature. To date, planetary transfer trajectories make use of near-Hohmann-transfer orbits (minimum-energy solutions), albeit sometimes with intermediate planetary gravity assists. Propulsive maneuvers typically are used for gravitational capture at the target, rather than slowing down from faster-than-required transfer orbits. The “straight” trajectories are driven by the requirement of a fixed transit time; without the interplanetary deceleration period before reaching the target planet, the spacecraft in each case would escape from the solar system.
Demands of the Journey
It’s the radiation constraint that pushes our propulsion technologies well past current capabilities, shortening acceptable trip times and demanding speeds that in our current context are almost surreal. Back in 1968, Clarke and Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey sent the ‘Discovery 1′ mission to Jupiter without evident regard for radiation shielding, and young optimists like me in the audience assumed that the outer planets would be within reach some time in the early 21st Century. Now we’re talking about putting together a set of missions that vaguely resemble Clarke and Kubrick’s a century later than the film had supposed.
Interestingly, by McNutt’s calculations, these expeditions would be mounted in a vehicle offering a habitable volume about twice that of the spaceship in 2001 if we assume a crew of ten (a crew of six is also considered in the paper). And if 2001 didn’t concern itself with enroute radiation, another thing it didn’t dwell on was the method for constructing the interplanetary craft. To build such a vehicle, we’ll need something like the extremely heavy lift launch vehicles (EHLLVs), or ‘Supernovas,’ that were originally studied in the 1960s. McNutt discusses lifting a thousand tons to low-Earth orbit with each launch for assembly of the outer system spacecraft in space. The study envisions 30 Supernova launches for the five expeditions.
Costs of an International Venture
All of this adds up to huge costs, some $4 trillion, which compares to a US GDP of $13 trillion in 2006 and a world GDP in the same year of $48 trillion. The five expeditions to the outer planets would clearly demand an international initiative, one that would cost 1.5 times the U.S. cost of World War II in 2006 dollars. From the study’s summary:
A 5-year round-trip mission will require ~10 t per person of expendable supplies with a likely crew of at least six people and an extremely reliable vehicle with an extremely dedicated and stable crew. Infrastructure capable of putting tens of thousands of metric tons of materials into LEO will be required as well. Such a project is potentially achievable at the cost of at least 10% of the current world GDP. With current investment in human space activity in the United States, even with growth projected on the basis of the growth of the overall U.S. economy, a dedicated, international effort will likely be required if the entire solar system is to have an initial reconnaissance by human crews by the beginning of the 22nd century.
Getting a human presence to the outer planets by the end of the century is going to be tough even if we assume the propulsion advances that can achieve 200 kilometers per second — or in the case of Pluto/Charon, over 300 kilometers per second. But this is exactly the kind of study we need to place our current technology in context. We can’t assume anything about future breakthroughs. We can only define the problems we face so that in that context, future work may produce solutions that can lower travel times and costs to acceptable levels.
The report is McNutt, Horsewood and Fiehler, “Human Missions Throughout the Solar System: Requirements and Implementations,” available online. McNutt’s Phase I and II studies for the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts are still available on the NIAC site.
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• clodhopper •
klahd-hah-pêr • Hear it!
Part of Speech: Noun
Meaning: 1. A heavy leathery work shoe that laces up to the ankle. 2. (Offensive) A country bumpkin, a clumsy uncouth oaf.
Notes: This week is a week of lexical contrasts: yesterday's word was genteel so today's word refers to the least genteel shoe there is. The few attempts at expanding it have been clodhopperish (one example) themselves: clodhoppership, clodhopperdom, and so forth. Today's word simply lacks the derivational sophistication of words borrowed from French and Latin.
In Play: Today we hear this word mostly in the plural referring to heavy work shoes or just shoes we don't like for some reason: "Gilliam! When will you learn to clean your dirty clodhoppers before walking into my kitchen?!" However, the original, even more offensive, meaning of this word still lurks out there: "I was surprised to see someone as genteel and sophisticated as Lil Abner out at a hillbilly banjo concert with a clodhopper like Duane Pipes."
Word History: The original sense of today's word emerged in the middle of the 17th century. It referred to a farmer who used a horse-drawn plow and hence had to hop over the clods it churned up. It wasn't until the middle of the 19th century that the meaning was narrowed to the type of shoes such plowmen normally wore. We have already covered the history of clod. Hop pops up in several other Germanic languages in such guises as Swedish hoppa, Danish hoppe, German hopfen, and Dutch huppen. (We are grateful to Gail Granum, who—I'm sure—never associates with clodhoppers, for suggesting this lexical curmudgeon as today's Good Word.)
Come visit our website at <http://www.alphadictionary.com> for more Good Words and other language resources!
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Canada has been cited repeatedly by the United Nations because of its extreme racism.
But, this has absolutely NOTHING to do with the French speaking population and the English speaking population. In fact, generally, they get along fine, with no "racism" at all, because they are the same race. They are Caucasians, of European ancestry.
There is a bit of religious "racism", with Roman Catholics being somewhat oppressed in some areas of Canada. But even that is slowly dying away.
The real racism, and it runs very deep in Canadian culture, is whites against Native Peoples. Canada has been cited at least 7 times by the United Nations because of its institutionalized,. and virtually complete, racism against its natives.
Canada, until very recently, stripped away the Native status of any Native woman, the instant she married a non-Native.
Canada is the ONLY country that determines who its Native (Aboriginal) peoples are, and that denies all bands/tribes the right to self-determination.
Canada then divides those that they consider to be "Natives" into those that are members of a band/tribe, and those that are not. Status Indians (those that belong to a band or tribe) have a great many rights that Non-Status Indians do not have. Once again, only the Federal government is allowed to determine who can, and who can not, belong to any band or tribe.
Then, there are the Métis people. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms recognizes the Métis as being one of the 3 aboriginal peoples of Canada, but as late as 2008, the Federal government was arguing before the Supreme Court that the Métis no longer existed, that they were extinct. The argument of the government was that they became extinct with the issuance of "Manitoba Script" (which was issued to all "recognized" Métis people in what had been "Rupertsland", to make up for the lands that the government confiscated from them. Of course, the Script was essentially useless to the Métis, but what did that matter?).
The Supreme Court held that in fact, the Métis do exist, and that they ave aboriginal rights to hunt, fish and gather. The Federal government, and most Provincial governments are still fighting to deny the Métis any such rights.
Canada has denied equality of education to almost all minority groups, especially the natives and Métis. The schools available on the Reserves are horrible, and the schools in the "less affluent" parts of most cities and towns are also "second rate". Without a decent education, it is very difficult to climb out of poverty and despair, but so what. They're just Indians, Métis, Natives, Pakistani's, etc., right?
Then you can look back on how Canada has treated various ethnic groups such as: the Chinese, Japanese, Ukranians, Germans, Italians, etc. etc. It didn't (and sadly still doesn't) matter how many generations a family has been in Canada, if there is any crisis, minorities are immediately rounded up, their property confiscated, and they go into internment camps (also called CONCENTRATION CAMPS).
Canada held their "enemy aliens" (which were generally people that had beenin Canada for 2 or more generations) far longer than any other western country did, following World War II.
Just look at the newspapers in SK, AB, BC, MB, ON and even in NS, and see how the Natives, the Métis, foreigners, etc. are written about in letters to the editor.
Or, take my cousin, a retired Crown Attorney, who was devastated when I proved to him that his mother was Métis. As he put it, in his final letter to me, "You have destroyed my memories of my mother". All because we have a common native ancestor.
Yes indeed, racism is very much alive and well in Canada. Canada is FAR from the enlightened country that so many of you want to believe that it is. You just don't bother to "look under the rug", and thereby keep yourself in ignorance about reality.
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(STRINGER Mexico Reuters, REUTERS)
LONDON (Reuters) - Culls of hundreds of thousands of chickens, turkeys and ducks to stem bird flu outbreaks rarely make international headlines these days, but they are a worryingly common event as the deadly virus continues its march across the globe.
As scientists delve deeper into H5N1 avian influenza, they have discovered it is only three steps way from mutating into a potentially lethal human pandemic form, adding new urgency to a debate over how to protect humans.
In 2009, during the H1N1 swine flu pandemic, vaccines only became available months after the virus had spread around the world - and even then there was only enough for one in five of the world's 7 billion people.
Next time, experts say, we need another approach.
Talk is centered on "pre-pandemic vaccination" - immunizing people years in advance against a flu pandemic that has yet to happen, and may never come, rather than rushing to create vaccines once a new pandemic starts.
"Even if you change manufacturing to higher-yield technologies, you're still going to be chasing the virus," David Salisbury, Britain's director of immunization, who chaired a global group on vaccines during the H1N1 flu pandemic, said in an interview.
"The bottom line is that current production will never solve the problem. You'll always get at least one, if not two waves of infection before you can get sufficient quantities of vaccine to do anything significant ... If you want to get ahead of it, you've got to have a different strategy."
Scientists and vaccine makers have already produced pre-pandemic H5N1 vaccines and some are stockpiled by wealthy countries like the United States and European governments for front-line medical staff.
Pharmaceutical companies have also invested heavily in ramping up flu vaccine production capacity - partly due to the H1N1 pandemic and partly in response to World Health Organisation (WHO) calls for better preparedness for next time.
Annual flu vaccination programs have also gained impetus in recent years, with the result that seasonal campaigns are well-established in many developed and some developing countries and structures therefore exist to immunize lots of people.
So why not bring all those elements together and run a pre-pandemic vaccination campaign to prime potential victims with a preparatory shot?
IMMUNITY COULD LIMIT DEATH TOLL
This could boost the immunity of millions of people to a pandemic bird flu strain that might otherwise kill tens of millions. The 1918-19 Spanish flu outbreak killed an estimated 20 million to 50 million people worldwide.
The last flu pandemic was widely viewed as a mild strain and the WHO, along with drugmakers and governments, was criticized in some quarters for scare-mongering over the threat.
Yet a fresh analysis last month showed it may still have killed as many as 580,000 people, far more than the 18,500 cited as the number of laboratory-confirmed deaths.
A mutated human pandemic form of H5N1 bird flu could be a whole different ball game. H5N1 does not yet pass easily from birds to people but when it does it kills around 60 percent of those infected.
The virus continues to spread among birds in Asia, with China reporting the latest cull of more than 150,000 chickens in the far western region of Xinjiang just last week. As of July 6, the WHO counts 607 cases of people infected by bird flu globally. Of those, 358 died, a fatality rate of 59 percent.
Faced with that risk, Rino Rappuoli, a scientist at the Switzerland's Novartis - one of the several drugmakers including Sanofi and GlaxoSmithkline that have H5N1 vaccines approved for use - made the case for pre-pandemic vaccination in a paper in the journal Science last month.
"Given that licensed H5N1 vaccines are available, we have the option to vaccinate individuals at greatest risk or to vaccinate more broadly, including the populations of individual countries, of continents, or even the entire globe," he wrote.
"It is just a question of evaluating the cost, the logistics and the risk of implementing such a vaccination campaign. It is not impossible."
A global campaign might take three to five years, he said.
Pharmaceutical companies would certainly like a new opportunity to put their flu vaccine manufacturing capacity to better use - potentially triggering a re-run of the $7 billion-plus sales windfall seen in 2009-10.
During that pandemic, industry capacity was ramped up to around 900 million doses, but to sustain this drug companies need a regular flow of business and demand for flu vaccines is only around 480 million doses right now.
The scientific case for pre-pandemic vaccination looks sound, given studies led by Karl Nicholson of Britain's Leicester University showing that even people immunized with a different flu strain still had "immune memory" and some protection from a new virus many years later.
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Suppose you have two mass spectra, and you want to check if they both were obtained from the same protein; you will need some notion of spectra similarity. The simplest possible metric would be to count the number of peaks in the mass spectrum that the spectra share, called the shared peaks count; its analogue for simplified spectra is the number of masses that the two spectra have in common.
The shared peaks count can be useful in the simplest cases, but it does not help us if, for example, one spectrum corresponds to a peptide contained inside of another peptide from which the second spectrum was obtained. In this case, the two spectra are very similar, but the shared peaks count will be very small. However, if we shift one spectrum to the right or left, then shared peaks will align. In the case of simplified spectra, this means that there is some shift value
$x$such that adding $x$to the weight of every element in one spectrum should create a large number of matches in the other spectrum.
A multiset is a generalization of the notion of set to include a collection of objects in which each object may occur
more than once (the order in which objects are given is still unimportant). For a multiset
The Minkowski sum of multisets
Given: Two multisets of positive real numbers
Return: The largest multiplicity of
186.07931 287.12699 548.20532 580.18077 681.22845 706.27446 782.27613 968.35544 968.35544 101.04768 158.06914 202.09536 318.09979 419.14747 463.17369
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|SUSTAINING OUR NATURAL WORLD|
Trees and Plants
This site provides leads to information on key environmental issues and resources: Acid Rain Animal Rights Biodiversity Climate Endangered Species Environmental Education Environmental Justice & Environmental Racism Environmental Law Forests Toxics, Hazards & Wastes (including Pesticides) Water, Seas, Oceans, and Rivers Wildlife and more.
Selected International Environmental
The most significant international treatise and protocols that regulate human impact on the natural environment are described here. Descriptions provide the name of the agreement, when it was opened for signatures, when it went into force and what nations support it.
Ozone Depletion Glossary
In order to understand ozone depletion, it is important to understand the terms and acronyms. This site gives you the word on aerosol, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), the Montreal Protocol, and all those deadly little chemicals you were wondering about.
The signing of the Montreal Protocol by 139 nations has gone a long way to solving the ozone crisis. True or False? False according to John Passacantando and Andre Carothers of Ozone Action, a non-governmental organization that monitors the ozone issue. They contend that hidden beneath the facade of our united international effort on ozone protection is a far less comforting tale. The "ozone industry," an international coalition of chemical manufacturers, has not been idle during all this. On the contrary, by alternatively downplaying the threat, proposing "alternatives" and then declaring the crisis solved, the industry has been able to dominate the entire history of the idea of ozone depletion. The result is a world that is secure for chemical manufacturers, temporarily safe for purveyors of automobile air-conditioners and refrigerators, and dangerously unsure for life on the planet.
Ozone Action programs and resources
If you want to know what Ozone Action is about, this is their web site. It contains Ozone Action Press Releases Ozone Action News Articles Legal Symposium Activist Conference.
Office of Air Quality Planning and
The Environmental Protection Agency's Premier Technical Web site for Information Transfer and
Sharing Related to AIR POLLUTION Topics.
Air Quality Glossary
Contains all the terms and acronyms you need to enter the debate and get to work on clean air issues. Lots of pointers to additional resources.
EcoNet Atmosphere and Climate Resources
Links to information on climate policy, climate reseach, acid rain, air quality and ozone depletion.
Resources for those involved in pollution prevention. A forum for all levels of government, researchers, industry and public interest groups. Links to Business Sector Search Pollution Prevention Roundtable Industry Content Guides Partners for the Environment EPA Sector Notebooks American Institute for Pollution Prevention. Includes information on solvent alternatives. A site for technical problem solving.
USGS Water Resources
National water conditions, water data, publications and products, programs, data on water resources in each state, question about water and more.
Glossary of Water Resource Terms
Interested in water issues? This site helps you to know what you are talking about.
Ground Water: The Hidden Resource
Ground water is found in spaces between soil particles and rocks, and within cracks of the bedrock. Some ground water can be found beneath the land surface in most of the United States. Because of its availability and general good quality, ground water is widely used for household needs and other purposes. Ground water is often taken for granted, but recent circumstances indicate that it is seriously vulnerable to pollution and depletion. This article by J.E. Watson, an Extension Water Quality Specialist, tells the story and offers what to do about it.
Water Use in the United States
These pages have information on surface-water data collected by the U.S. Geological Survey. Includes guidelines for estimating water use data and a handbok for collecting water use data.
WWW Virtual Library: Irrigation
The Virtual Library IRRIGATION and HYDROLOGY provides links to servers and sites holding informatin relevant to irrigation and hydrology. Pointers to: Irrigation NEWS, Congresses, Conferences Irrigation Discussion Lists Irrigation and Water Experts Irrigation Different Subjects Irrigation Systems Irrigation Statistics Irrigation / Hydraulic Engineering Irrigation Standards Irrigation Management Irrigation / Hydraulic Modeling Irrigation & Hydrology Software (NEW) Irrigation / Hydraulic Research Irrigation and Drainage Irrigation and Salinity Irrigation Agronomy Irrigation and Drought Management Irrigation and Soil-Water Relationship Irrigation Organizations and Institutes Irrigation Projects Irrigation Companies / Equipment Water Resources and Research Hydrology.
Water Wiser: The Water Efficiency
Publications Water related links 1997 Residential Water Use Summary References and more
The U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification:
Dispelling Misconceptions, Building a Case
This article by Earth Action provides information on the human destruction of land on the global level. Of the world's 5.2 billion hectares of useful dry land, 69%, an area that represents one quarter of the earth's land surface, has already suffered erosion and soil degradation. Africa, where two thirds of the land is dry land, has suffered most. Nearly half the continent has already been affected. Many areas of Asia and Latin America are also hard-hit, as well as parts of Southern Europe and North America. In addition to the enormous human and environmental costs of this problem, the world is losing $42 billion in yearly agricultural potential. The problem is particularly troublesome in light of projected population growth which will be dependent upon the land for growing food.
The problem of land abuse is not unique to third world countries. This site contains an article by Carl Pope, Executive Director of the Sierra Club about a movement by state governments to absolve corporations from social responsibility in respect to land usage. He calls this a new politics. This politics, he says speaks of property rights, but it means by property rights something new, not something traditional. It means the end of both human and natural communities. It would abandon the entire web of public obligations undertaken by those who own land, obligations that we call the public trust. It substitutes for that traditional idea the concept that each landowner is a sovereign state, immune from regulation and obligation to his neighbors. This new politics would allow every landowner virtually to secede from the union.
Public Lands Frequently Asked Questions
Our government controls millions of acres of land in the public interest, but is the public interest being protected? This site addresses key questions such as: 1.What are public lands? 2.Why do we need so many? 3.What does Congress plan to do with them? 4. Is business behind plans to get rid of them? 5.Could we significantly reduce the national debt by selling them? 6.What about jobs? 7.Shouldn't state governments own the lands within their borders? 8.What can I do?
Creating Land Trusts
One of the ways for local people to gain control over public lands are to set up land trusts. Land Trusts are local, regional, or statewide nonprofit conservation organizations directly involved in helping protect natural, scenic, recreational, agricultural, historic, or cultural property. Land trusts work to preserve open land that is important to the communities and regions where they operate. Land trusts respond rapidly to conservation needs and operate in cities, rural, and suburban areas. This site provides vital information for setting up a land trust, including: How a Land Trust Works Land Trusts Increasing as Land Decreases A Little History Land Trusts in Action Tools of the Trade - Land Purchase, Land Donations, Life Estates, Limited Development, Conservation Easements Setting Up Your Own Land Trust Organizations Land Trust Alliance The Trust for Public Land Books and Brochures Magazines Training Meetings other.
If you need outside expertise, this site contains links to environmental organizations involved in the following land issues: Arctic Caves Coastal Preservation Countries Deserts and Arid Lands Dunes Environmental Community Living Erosion Forestry General Wilderness Geology Institutes Mining Mountains Natural Resources Prairies States Trusts and Funds Wetlands.
This is the USGS link to mineral information. There are leads to: Office of Minerals Information Geologic Information Mineral Investigations Resource Maps (MR Series) Mineral Resource and Environmental Investigations of the Elk Creek Carbonate Mineral Resource Surveys Geophysics Geochemistry Western Marine Mineral Studies.
USGS Mineral Resource Surveys Program
The Mineral Resource Surveys Program is responsible for providing and communicating current, unbiased information on the occurrence, quality, quantity, and availability of mineral resources. Pointers to What's New Fact sheets Organization Contacts Links to other mineral-related Web sites.
USGS Energy Resource Surveys Program
The USGS Energy Resource Surveys Program addresses national and global energy geoscience issues and conducts interdisciplinary research on energy systems. The program provides earth-science information and interpretations essential to build a framework for identification and assessment of economically stable and environmentally sound resources of petroleum, natural gas, and coal. The site describes the Programs projects, shows energy activities by state and lists its publications, products and databases. (See also the Section on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy in the following section.)
The Big, Big List of Nuclear Related
This is a comprehensive list of nuclear related URLs. There are currently 254 URLs in the list.
National Plants Database (PLANTS)
The Plants Database provides a single source of standardized information about plants. PLANTS provides standardized plant names, symbols and other plant attribute information. This standardized information permits scientists and other persons interested in plants across disciplines to freely exchange accurate plant-related information because they are all using the same plant names and symbols. From this page you can: Find out more information about the PLANTS project and the people who cooperate to make it work Access the PLANTS Database to request information See plant photographs Link to the USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center Home Page Link to other USDA NRCS Plants Projects.
Plant Reference Databases
A major database on plants. Points to information on eco-systems, worldwide plant uses, Native American food and medicinal plants, plant chemicals, plant variety protection etc.
The Internet Directory of Biology
A mega-load of information for plant people. Links to: Arboreta and Botanical Gardens Economic Botany Ethnobotany Images Collections and Resource Guides Other Resources University Departments and Institutes Botanical Societies International Botanical Organizations Botanical Museums Herbaria Natural History Museums Vascular Plant Families Checklists and Floras, Taxonomical Databases, Vegetation Conservation and Threatened Plants Images Journals, Books, Literature Databases, Publishers Listservers and Newsgroups Lower Plants and Fungi Software and more.
International Forest Policy
This site gives you the United Nations deliberations on the worlds forests. Links to: The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests including IPF-3 (9-20 September, Geneva) The DPCSD Division for Sustainable Development Gopher Page on the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests Earth Negotiations Bulletin Coverapartments [Europe] [North America] [Pacific] [Asia] Non-Governmental Organizations Commercial Organizations and Services.
Econet Resources for Forest activists
Over thirty sites of interest to activists, including: The Alaska Rainforest Campaign Rainforest Action Network Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide Natural Resources Defense Council etc.
This is a good place to start if you like to observe wildlife. It contains lots of links to: Wildlife Spots Books/Videos/Mags Trips Species Info Regional Resources Other Links Clubs and more.
Wildlife Website Directory
There are a variety of sites on the Internet that are valuable sources of information for wildlife rehabilitators and those interested in wildlife. This directory groups them by subject to make for easy access: Animal Behavior Birds Education and Careers Endangered Species Information Environment and Conservation Food and Nutrition Living With Wildlife Wildlife Problems Major Link Sites Non-Profit Information/Fundraising Pictures Species Information Veterinary Information Wildlife Agencies and Organizations Wildlife Management Wildlife Rehabilitation Organizations Zoonoses (health information) Other sites on the Internet (newsgroups and mailing lists).
The Wildlife Society Policy Information
This site contains the following resources: A list of The Wildlife Society's Policy Priorities for 1996 The Latest Issue of The Wildlife Policy News, The Wildlife Society's bi-monthly newsletter covering late breaking events and information concerning wildlife policy. The Wildlife Society's Wildlife Conservation Policy Statements. A complete synopsis of the Society's recommendations and policy stances on a broad range of wildlife and wildlife related topics. Brief overviews of the Society's most recent white papers and The Society's Wildlife Policy FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions). Topics include: The Endangered Species Act The Wildlife Diversity Initiative The Farm Bill Wetlands Goshawk Management.
Fish and Wildlife Laws, Regulations,
Policies and Congressional Information http://www.fws.gov/laws/
This site also contains federal and state Wildlife Laws Handbooks.
US Fish and Wildlife Service
This is the site of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a bureau within the Department of the Interior. Its mission is to conserve, protect, and enhance fish and wildlife and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people. Its major responsibilities are: migratory birds, endangered species, certain marine mammals, freshwater and anadromous fish, the National Wildlife Refuge System, wetlands, conserving habitat, and environmental contaminants.
National Wildlife Refuge System
This site contains information on US wildlife refuges. Links to: What's New Updates Table of Contents Index Exhibits, Festivals, and Tours Partnerships Addresses Server Statistics Internet Resources for Natural Resources Management, Legislative Information and Search Tools and References.
Environmental organizations web
This site contains links to environmental organizations by the following categories:
Animals Bats Birds Bears Conservation Dolphins Ecology Elephants Environmental Community Living Felines Ferrets Fishes Foxes Humans and Nature General Endangered Species General Hoofed Animals General Marine Mammals Institutes Natural History Museums Orca Otters Primates Rhino States Tortoises Trusts and Funds US Fish and Wildlife Service Waterfowl Whales Wild Dogs Wildlife Art and Photography Wildlife Rehabilitation Wolves Zoo.
How can the elements of wild nature -- its species, genetic traits, populations, habitats and ecosystems -- be maintained in landscapes that also need to produce material goods, environmental services, and the many cultural, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits that people everywhere want? The following sites provide resources to help answer this question.
Biodiversity Conservation Guidelines
This practical site offers information on the following: A Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation Managing Biodiversity Throughout the Human Environment Building Biodiversity Awareness in Primary and Secondary Schools Information Required to Conserve Biological Diversity Establishing Priorities for Conserving Biological Diversity International Policies National Policies Local Action Conserving Elements of Biodiversity Expanding Human Capacity to Conserve Enlisting New Partners for Conservation of Biological Diversity Forest Policy Instruments Number of Marine Protected Areas by Size Class
California Biodiversity Council
This site gives an example of how California formed local and national partnerships to address the issues of biodiversity.
A new NGO network to strengthen biodiversity policy and law.
Natural Hazards Center
What to do when Mother Nature is in a bad mood? The Natural Hazards Center, located at the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA, is a national and international clearinghouse for information on natural hazards and human adjustments to hazards and disasters. The Natural Hazards Center has a variety of resources available from the Internet, including: Introduction to the Hazards Center, its Services, and its Staff Issues of Disaster Research (DR) - their electronic newsletter Issues of the Natural Hazards Observer - their printed newsletter Quick Response Reports - brief papers presenting the results of quick response disaster research sponsored by the Natural Hazards Center Other Centers and Institutes Focusing on Hazards and Disasters Information Sources 1 - list of disaster-related organizations and other sources of hazards/disaster data Information Sources 2 - list of disaster-related periodicals Annotated list of colleges, universities and institutions offering emergency management courses Hazards Center Publications Other new publications Recently Awarded Grants for Hazards/Disaster Research Upcoming conferences, workshops and training Selected Disaster Internet Sites.
Natural Disaster Links
Additional links to federal agencies and organizations dealing with: Earthquakes Hurricanes Floods Fires and Miscellaneous issues like insurance, disaster management, computer networks and the toxic substances and disease registry.
American Red Cross Community Disaster
This site contains an extensive list of publications available from the American Red Cross to educate a community before and after a disaster strikes.
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The Lade AS Windship is a conceptual vessel that hopes to usher in a new age of sustainable shipping. Norwegian sustainable design firm Lade AS envisions its Windship as sort of an inverted sailboat. The ship would plow through the water thanks to its hull, which would function like a giant airfoil.
Many people harp on cars for emitting harmful emissions into the air, but shipping vessels operate in all of the world's oceans and emit tons of C02. The designers of the Lade AS Windship envision the ship following a wind-friendly course, allowing it to avoid using power for as long as possible. The ship is still a concept, but hopefully it gets those in the shipping industry thinking more about sustainable design.
Conceptual Wind-Powered Cargo Ships
More Stats +/-
Buoyant Holiday Homes
Tremendous Terrestrial Sailboats
Enormous Emissionless Sailboats
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Help America’s Endangered Waterways
Yesterday, American Rivers released their 2012 list of America’s Most Endangered Rivers. Topping the nonprofit’s annual list is none other than the Potomac River, also known as “the nation’s river” and not far from our headquarters here in Washington, D.C. Nearly five million people rely on it for clean drinking water. The main reason the Potomac is considered the most endangered has to do with urban development and pollution in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. Although the river is in much better shape than it was 40 years ago when the Clean Water Act was introduced, high levels of agricultural and urban pollution still remain a threat to fish, wildlife and human health. And it’s not just American Rivers that noticed this trend. The Potomac River also received a D letter grade from the University of Maryland’s Center for Environmental Sciences for the second year in a row.
The health of the Potomac is closely related to the health of surrounding green areas and wildlife that rely on the river’s water. Trees and plants play a significant role in mitigating river pollution. They serve as a natural filtration system to clean groundwater from pollution that might otherwise enter a river system.
But there’s also a big policy concern attached to this issue. House Republicans have recently proposed to strike several provisions from the Clean Water Act that help clean up and protect places like the Potomac River headwaters. So far, none of the proposals have been approved, but advocates remain wary of this Congressional attack on the Clean Water Act. One example is the Preserve the Waters of the United States Act (S. 2245 and H.R. 4965), which would weaken the Clean Water Act by preventing the EPA from using its jurisdiction to protect private waters. It’s clear from this proposed measure that Republicans remain concerned about the administration’s reach and jurisdiction, but if this measure passes, many endangered rivers would remain vulnerable to pollution.
If you’re concerned about this issue and want to get more involved, please visit American Rivers’ website where you can learn more about endangered rivers and urge Congress to save the Clean Water Act.
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The first graduating class of the University of North Dakota chose colors of the Wild Prairie Rose as the school’s official color in 1889.
The USDA considers it a weed!
The North Dakota’s State flower, the Wild Prairie Rose, has three distinct species: the Rosa Blanda, Arkansana, and Pratincula. Grown as an ornamental plant, the lovely flowers sport five dazzling showy pink petals with a tight complementary cluster of shiny yellow stamens in the center.
The Wild Prairie Rose is native to a large area of central North America, although it’s concentrated in the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. You’ll find it growing like wildfire across all of North Dakota, along roadsides, foothills, meadows and even cities. The extravagant pink perennial can sometimes be weedy or invasive.
From Fargo to Grand Forks and Bismarck to Red River, the Wild Prairie Rose can be found in abundance and is often picked by residents because of its wonderful scent. Considered a block shrub, these beauties are also found in South Dakota, Missouri and Minnesota.
One of the most stunning flowering crabapple varieties is the Prairie Rose Flowering Crab. It blossoms slightly later than other crab trees and the rose-like flowering is amazingly beautiful. Trees produce breathtaking double, deep pink flowers that are temptingly fragrant.
The Wild Prairie Rose is quite useful outside the garden as well! It’s often used in food, food additives, animal food, bee plants, fuels, poisons, medicines, and environmental compounds. In fact, the essence of Wild Prairie Rose can be used to help address issues which often underlay stress and health problems, helping to ‘untie’ or release mental/emotional energetic knots. Wild Prairie Rose essence helps transform emotions, attitudes or patterns of behavior to enhance development, growth and awareness.
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Flag Day Quest
Our flag is red, white, and blue,
But our nation is a rainbow -
Red, yellow, brown, black, and white -
And we're all precious in God's sight.
What does our flag mean to you?
How do you feel when you see our American flag displayed?
Today you will learn about our country's flag.
Your job is to read and answer questions about our country's flag.
Read the following passage and answer the questions below.
Flag Day is celebrated on June 14th.
The Thirteen Stripes
The U.S. Flag has thirteen stripes, alternating red and white, each stripe representing one of the 13 original colonies of England.
The 50 Stars
The United States Flag has 50 stars, one for each state of the Union. The last star added was for the State of Hawaii, 1960.
U.S. Flag Names
- Stars and Stripes
- Old Glory
- When is Flag Day celebrated?
- How many stripes does the U.S. flag have?
- What do the red and white stripes stand for?
- How many stars does the flag have?
- What do the stars stand for?
- What are the two other names for the United States flag?
Use Betsy Ross' homepage to answer the following questions.
- Who sewed the first American flag?
- Why were the stars on the first flag arranged in a circle?
- Who is a vexillologist?
- Is it ever appropriate to fly the flag upside down?
Visit the Flag Pledge site and say the Pledge of Allegiance with a friend.
Visit the American Flag Picture Gallery on the Betsy Ross Homepage. See how our flag has changed through the years.
Now design a flag that tells about you!
Did you answer all the questions?
Did you work cooperatively?
You have completed your Flag Day Quest. Congratulations!
This page was designed by Kent Primary School First Grade Teachers in Carmel, New York.
Pages Created: June 24, 1998
Questions and Problems regarding this page should be directed to:
Lower Hudson Regional Information Center
Southern Westchester BOCES
32 Warren Avenue
Tarrytown, NY 10591
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Monday, July 16, 2012
Zoobiquity With Horowitz and Bowers
This new book Zoobiquity makes the pitch for far greater collaboration between human and animal medicine. The most compelling argument though is that there are many prospective animal models to work with in terms of developing healing protocols. We need to be taking advantage of this fact.
There are plenty of curative protocols out there that are presently been self administered with significant effect that begs for a proper animal study to establish efficacy. It also makes it far easier to acquire the data itself which is no small thing in medical research.
The book itself is an exploration of the interface that exists between the two disciplines.
Zoobiquity: What Animals Can Teach Us About Being Human by Barbara Natterson Horowitz and Kathryn Bowers – review
Would it be healthier for humanity if doctors were more like vets?
The Observer, Sunday 1 July 2012
Shared experience: the authors of Zoobiquity point out that stallions, like human males, can suffer from psychosomatic sexual dysfunction. Photograph: Marilyn Newton/AP
We all know that, biologically speaking, Homo sapiens is just another animal. Yet we seem to have been remarkably slow in coming to terms with the implications of this truth. One example of this is summed up in the joke that a doctor is just a vet who can treat only one species. This is actually quite a recent development, as cardiologist Barbara Natterson Horowitz points out in one of the many fascinating asides that light upZoobiquity, written with the journalist Kathryn Bowers. Before Darwin decisively quashed the myth of an essential difference, "a century or two ago, in many communities, animals and humans were cared for by the same practitioner".
Horowitz's central claim is that this failure to make connections between animal and human medicine is robbing us of vital insights that could improve health and even save lives. "Zoobiquity" is the cheesy neologism given to the approach that makes just that link.
Horowitz and Bowers give several striking examples of why this link is needed. For instance, the reluctance in 1999 of the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention to listen to the counsel of a veterinarian led them to falsely conclude that a mysterious disease that had broken out in New York was St Louis encephalitis, when it was West Nile virus. The delay this caused almost certainly cost lives.
Something else vets know, and doctors ought to, concerns the phenomenon of capture myopathy. This is when animals caught by predators die of a sudden surge of adrenaline. Unfortunately, this reaction can also be triggered when they are held by well-intentioned vets. Even more unfortunately, in humans the same mechanism can lead to injury, complications and death when patients are restrained in hospitals; and possibly also when infants experience a shock while lying on their stomachs, which is considered a likely cause of sudden infant death syndrome.
The book is stuffed full of examples of overlaps between human and other-animal pathology. Cancer, for example, is not just a modern disease caused by bad diet and environmental toxins but something found all over the animal kingdom, even in dinosaurs. Wherever there is replicating DNA, there is the potential for harmful as well as adaptive random mutation.
Animals too suffer from psychosomatic sexual dysfunction. In stallions, "fear and confusion can all lead to vastly decreased libido and sometimes an inability to breed", says equine expert Jessica Jahiel. And the evolutionary advantage of rapid insemination suggests that what we call premature ejaculation is not a medical pathology at all, which perhaps explains why a third of men of all ages are affected by it.
Interesting though these examples are, the book rarely delivers on its promise that bridging the animal-human divide will reap major health benefits, offering instead a promissory note for future developments. The pay-off for people is often simply a cold comfort that we are not alone in our suffering, allowing "a human stress eater [to] better understand his own candy binge" and making the bewildering behaviour of adolescents "slightly more bearable". Zoobiquity also overuses the trope of describing what seems to be a familiar human situation and then revealing that – da-daaa! – the case in point is actually that of a nonhuman animal.
But these small irritations are far outweighed by the pleasures provided by this pacy, readable and entertaining manifesto for a zoobiquitous approach to health and wellbeing, to be welcomed by vets and other human animals.
Dr. House, Meet Doctor Dolittle
Redefining the Boundaries of Medicine
In the spring of 2005, the chief veterinarian of the Los Angeles Zoo called me, an urgent edge to his voice.
Uh, listen, Barbara? We’ve got an emperor tamarin in heart failure. Any chance you could comeout today?
I reached for my car keys. For thirteen years I’d been a cardiologist treating members of my own species at the UCLA Medical Center. From time to time, however, the zoo veterinarians asked me to weigh in on some of their more difficult animal cases. Because UCLA is a leading heart-transplant hospital, I’d had a front-row view of every type of human heart failure. But heartfailure in a tamarin
a tiny, nonhuman primate? That I’d never seen. I threw my bag in the car and headed for the lush, 113-acre zoo nestled along the eastern edge of Griffith Park.
Into the tiled exam room the veterinary assistant carried a small bundle wrapped in a pink blanket.
This is Spitzbuben,‖ she said, lowering the animal gently into a Plexiglas-fronted examinationbox. My own heart did a little flip. Emperor tamarins are, in a word, adorable. About the size of kittens, these monkeys evolved in the treetops of the Central and South American rain forests.Their wispy, white Fu Manchu style mustaches droop below enormous brown eyes. Swaddled inthe pink blanket, staring up at me with that liquid gaze, Spitzbuben was pushing every maternalbutton I had.
When I’m with a human patient who seems anxious, especially a child, I crouch close and openmy eyes wide. Over the years I’ve seen how this can establish a trust bond and put a nervous patient at ease. I did this with Spitzbuben. I wanted this defenseless little animal to understandhow much I felt her vulnerability, how hard I would work to help her. I moved my face up to thebox and stared deep in her eyes animal to animal. It was working. She sat very still, her eyeslocked on mine through the scratched plastic. I pursed my lips and cooed.
Sooo brave, little Spitzbuben.
Suddenly I felt a strong hand on my shoulder.
Please stop making eye contact with her.
I turned. The veterinarian smiled stiffly at me. You’ll give her capture myopathy.
A little surprised, I did as instructed and got out of the way. Animal-human bonding would have to wait, apparently. But I was puzzled. Capture myopathy? I’d been practicing medicine for almost twenty years and had never heard of that diagnosis. Myopathy, sure that simply means a disease that affects a muscle. In my specialty, I see it most often as cardiomyopathy, a degradation of the heart muscle. But what did that have to do with capture?
Just then, Spitzbuben’s anesthesia took effect. Time to intubate, the attending veterinarian instructed, focusing every person in the room on this critical and sometimes difficult procedure. I pushed capture myopathy out of my mind to be fully attentive to our animal patient.But as soon as we were finished and Spitzbuben was safely back in her enclosure with the other tamarins, I looked up capture myopathy. And there it was in veterinary textbooks and journals going back decades. There was even an article about it in Nature, from 1974. Animals caught by predators may experience a catastrophic surge of adrenaline in their bloodstreams, which can poison their muscles. In the case of the heart, the overflow of stress hormones can injure the pumping chambers, making them weak and inefficient. It can kill, especially in the case of cautious and high-strung prey animals like deer, rodents, birds, and small primates. And there was more: locking eyes can contribute to capture myopathy. To Spitzbuben, my compassionate gaze wasn’t communicating, You’re so cute; don’t be afraid; I’m here to help you. It said: I’m starving; you look delicious; I’m going to eat you.
Though this was my first encounter with the diagnosis, parts of it were startlingly familiar.n Cardiology in the early 2000s was abuzz with a newly described syndrome called takotsubocardiomyopathy. This distinctive condition presents with severe, crushing chest pain and a markedly abnormal EKG, much like a classic heart attack. We rush these patients to an operating suite for an angiogram, expecting to find a dangerous blood clot. But in takotsubo cases, the treating cardiologist finds perfectly healthy, ―clean‖ coronary arteries. No clot. No blockage. No heart attack. On closer inspection, doctors notice a strange, lightbulb-shaped bulge in the left ventricle. As the pumping engines for the circulatory system, ventricles must have a particular ovoid, lemonlike shape for strong, swift ejection of blood. If the end of the left ventricle balloons out, as it does intakotsubo hearts, the firm, healthy contractions are reduced to inefficient spasms floppy and unpredictable. But what’s remarkable about takotsubo is what causes the bulge. Seeing a loved one die can do it. So can being left at the altar or losing your life savings with a bad roll of the dice. Intense, painful emotions in the brain can set off alarming, life-threatening physical changes in the heart. This new diagnosis was indisputable proof of the powerful connection between heart and mind. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy was tangible evidence of a relationship many doctors had considered more metaphoric than diagnostic. As a clinical cardiologist, I needed to know how to recognize and treat takotsubo cardiomyopathy. But years before pursuing cardiology, I had completed a residency in psychiatry at the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute. Having also trained as a psychiatrist, I was captivated by this syndrome, which lay at the intersection of my two professional passions. That background put me in a unique position that day at the zoo. I reflexively placed the human phenomenon side by side with the animal one.
Emotional trigger . . . surge of stress hormones . . . failing heart muscle . . . possible death
. An unexpected ―aha!‖ suddenly hit me.
Takotsubo in humans and the heart effects of capture myopathy in animals were almost certainly related
perhaps even the same syndrome with different names.
But a second, even stronger insight quickly followed this ―aha.‖ The key point wasn’t the
overlap of the two conditions. It was the gulf between them. For nearly four decades (and probably longer) veterinarians had known this could happen to animals that extreme fear could amage muscles in general and heart muscles in particular. In fact, even the most basicveterinary training includes specific protocols for making sure animals being netted and examined don’t die in the process. Yet here were the human doctors in early 2000 trumpeting thefinding, savoring the fancy foreign name, and making academic careers out of a ―discovery‖ that every vet student learned in the first year of school. These animal doctors knew something we human doctors had no clue existed. And if that was true . . . what else did the vets know that wedidn’t? What other human‖ diseases were found in animals?
So I designed a challenge for myself. As an attending physician at UCLA I see a wide variety of maladies. By day on my rounds, I began making careful notes of the conditions I came across. Atnight, I combed veterinary databases and journals for their correlates, asking myself a simple question: Do Animals Get [ fill in the disease]?
I started with the big killers. Do animals get breast cancer? Stress-induced heart attacks?Leukemia?How about melanoma? Fainting spells? Chlamydia?And night after night, condition after cond ition, the answer kept coming back ―yes.‖ The similarities clicked into place.
Jaguars get breast cancer and may carry the BRCA1 genetic mutation that predisposes many Jews of Ashkenazi descent and others to the disease. Rhinos in zoos get leukemia. Melanoma hasbeen diagnosed in the bodies of animals from penguins to buffaloes. Western lowland gorillas die from a terrifying condition in which the body’s biggest and most critical artery, the aorta, ruptures. Torn aortas also killed Lucille Ball, Albert Einstein, and the actor John Ritter, and strike thousands of less famous human beings every year. I learned that koalas in Australia are in the middle of a rampant epidemic of chlamydia. Yes, that kind sexually transmitted. Veterinarians there are racing to produce a koala chlamydia vaccine.That gave me an idea: doctors around the United States are seeing human chlamydia infectionrates spike. Could the koala research inform human public health strategies? Since unprotected sex is the only kind koalas have (my searches for condom use by animals came up short), whatmight those koala experts know about the spread of sexually transmitted diseases in a population that practices nothing but ―unsafe‖ sex?
I wondered about obesity and diabetes two of the most pressing health concerns of our time. I burned midnight pixels investigating questions like: Do wild animals get medically obese? Do animals overeat or binge-eat? Do they hoard food and eat in secret at night? I learned that yes,they do. Comparing animal grazers, gorgers, and regurgitators to human snackers, diners, and dieters transformed my views on conventional human nutritional advice and on the obesity epidemic itself. Very quickly, I found myself in a world of surprising and unfamiliar new ideas, the kinds I’d never been encouraged to entertain in all my years of medical training and practice. It was,frankly, humbling, and I started to see my role as a physician in a whole new way. I wondered:
Shouldn’t human and veterinary doctors be partnering, along with wild- life biologists, in the field, the lab, and the clinic? Maybe such collaborations would inspire a version of my takotsubo moment, but for breast cancer, obesity, infectious disease, or other health concerns. Perhaps they would even lead to cures. The more I learned, the more a tantalizing question started creeping into my thoughts: Why don’t we human doctors routinely cooperate with animal experts?And as I searched for that answer, I learned something surprising. We used to. In fact, a century or two ago, in many communities, animals and humans were cared for by the same practitioner — the town doc- tor, as he set broken bones and delivered babies, was not deterred by the species barrier. A leading physician of that era named Rudolf Virchow, still renowned today as the father of modern pathology, put it this way: ― Between animal and human medicine there is no dividing line nor should there be. The object is different but the experience obtained constitutes the basis of all medicine.
However, animal and human medicine began a decisive split around the turn of the twentieth century. Increasing urbanization meant fewer people relied on animals to make a living. Motorized vehicles began pushing work animals out of daily life. With them went a primary revenue stream for many veterinarians. And in the United States, federal legislation called the Morrill Land-Grant Acts of the late 1800s relegated veterinary schools to rural communities while academic medical centers rapidly rose to prominence in wealthier cities. As the golden age of modern medicine dawned, there was simply more money, prestige, and academic reward to be had in pursuing human patients. For physicians, this era all but erased their tarnished image as the leech purveyors and potion makers of times past. But veterinarians enjoyed little to none of this skyrocketing social status and its accompanying wealth. The two fields moved through the twentieth century for the most part on divided, yet parallel, paths.
Until 2007. That’s when a veterinarian named Roger Mahr and a physician, Ron Davis, arranged a meeting in East Lansing, Michigan. They compared notes on similar problems they encountered in their animal and human patients: cancer, diabetes, the adverse effects of secondhand smoke, and the explosion of ―zoonoses (diseases that spread from animals to humans, like West Nile virus and avian flu). They called for physicians and veterinarians to stop segregating themselves based on the species of their patients and start learning from one another. Because Davis was president of the American Medical Association (AMA) and Mahr headed the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), their meeting carried more weight than the handful of previous attempts to reunify the fields. But the Davis-Mahr announcement received little notice in the popular media, or even among medical professionals, especially physicians. True, One Health (the favored term for this movement) has got- ten notice from the World Health Organization, the United Nations, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.† The Institute of Medicine, which is the health arm of the National Academy of Sciences, hosted a One Health summit in Washington, D.C., in2009. And veterinary schools, including those at the University of Pennsylvania, Cornell, Tufts, UC Davis, Colorado State, and the University of Florida, have embarked on One Health collaborations in education, research, and clinical care. Yet, the truth is that most physicians will go through their entire careers never interacting with veterinarians, at least not professionally. Until I started consulting at the zoo, the only time I even thought about animal doctors was when I brought my own dogs in for an exam or vaccination. My veterinary colleagues tell me they regularly read human medical journals keep up on the latest research and techniques. But most physicians I know including myself, until recently would never dream of consulting an animal-focused monthly, even one as highly respected as the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine.
I think I know why. Most physicians see animals and their illnesses as somehow different.‖ We humans have our diseases. Animals have theirs. And I suspect there’s another reason. The human medical establishment has an undeniable, though unspoken, bias against veterinary medicine. While most physicians have many laudable attributes tireless work ethics, the desire to help others, a sense of duty to the community, scien- tific rigor we have some dirty laundry I must reluctantly air. Doctors, it may or may not surprise you to learn, can be snobs. Ask your (non
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Figure 20.23. Energy requirements of different forms of passenger transport. The vertical coordinate shows the energy consumption in kWh per 100 passenger-km. The horizontal coordinate indicates the speed of the transport. The “Car (1)” is an average UK car doing 33 miles per gallon with a single occupant. The “Bus” is the average performance of all London buses. The “Underground system” shows the performance of the whole London Underground system. The catamaran is a diesel-powered vessel. I’ve indicated on the left-hand side equivalent fuel efficiencies in passenger-miles per imperial gallon (p-mpg).
Hollow point-styles show best-practice performance, assuming all seats of a vehicle are in use. Filled point-styles indicate actual performance of a vehicle in typical use.
See also figure 15.8 (energy requirements of freight transport).
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Teenager Creates New Instant HIV Test!
Nigel Campbell | May 14, 2014
Canadian high school student Nicole Ticea has developed an HIV test, which can instantly detect the presence of the virus in a drop of blood. This test differs from other HIV tests that typically look for the presence of HIV antibodies and removes the "window period" that is required in order for these antibodies to develop in the body.
Nicole Ticea is a Grade 10 student at the private girl's York House School, Vancouver. As part of a collaboration program with Simon Fraser University she developed a test using Isothermic Nucleic Acid Amplification. This allows users to place a drop of blood on a chip to receive a near instantaneous response to find out if they are infected, a process only slightly more difficult than a pregnancy test.
....Ticea used techniques that have been successful in identifying other viral infections and applied them to HIV for the first time. Rather than looking for antibodies to HIV, as the majority of existing tests do, Ticea amplifies the virus itself. This removes the window during which people are infected, but still show up as negative on antibody tests because the immune system has yet to gear up its response. Existing viral amplification tests for HIV are expensive and time consuming.The test won Ticea first place in the British Columbia 2014 Regional Sanofi BioGENEius Challenge, a contest for high school students to produce biotechnology projects.
(H/T: Wicked Gay Blog)
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Industrial Revolution is the name given to changes that took place in Great Britain during the period from roughly 1730 to 1850. It was originated by German author Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) in 1844. In general, those changes involved the transformation of Great Britain from a largely agrarian (farming) society to one dominated by industry. These changes later spread to other countries, transforming almost all the world.
The Industrial Revolution involved some of the most profound changes in human society in history. Most of the vast array of changes took place in one of three major economic industries: textiles, iron and steel, and transportation. These changes had far-reaching effects on the British economy and social system.
Prior to the mid-eighteenth century, the manufacture of textiles (woven cloth or fabric) in Great Britain (and the rest of the world) took place almost exclusively in private homes. Families would obtain thread from wholesale outlets and then produce cloth by hand in their own houses. Beginning in the 1730s, however, a number of inventors began to develop machines that took over one or more of the previous hand-knitting operations.
In 1733, John Kay (1704–1764) invented the first fly shuttle. This machine consisted of a large frame to which was suspended a series of threads. A shuttle, a device that carried more thread, was then passed through the suspended threads, weaving a piece of cloth. Workers became so proficient with the machine that they could literally make the shuttle "fly" through the thread framework.
Over the next half century, other machines were developed that further mechanized the weaving of cloth. These included the spinning jenny (invented by James Hargreaves in 1764), the water frame (Richard Ark-wright, 1769), the spinning mule (Samuel Crompton, 1779), the power loom (Edmund Cartwright, 1785), and the cotton gin (Eli Whitney, 1792).
At least as important as the invention of individual machines was the organization of industrial operations for their use. Large factories, powered by steam or water, sprang up throughout the nation for the manufacture of cloth and clothing.
The development of new technology in the textile industry had a ripple effect on society. As cloth and clothing became more readily available at more modest prices, the demand for such articles increased. This increase in demand had the further effect of encouraging the expansion of business and the search for even more efficient forms of technology.
One factor contributing to the development of industry in Great Britain was that nation's large supply of coal and iron ore. For many centuries, the British had converted their iron ores to iron and steel by heating the raw material with charcoal, made from trees. By the mid eighteenth century, however, the nation's timber supply had largely been used up. Iron and steel manufacturers were forced to look elsewhere for a fuel to use in treating iron ores.
The fuel they found was coal. When coal is heated in the absence of air it turns into coke. Coke proved to be a far superior material for the conversion of iron ore to iron and steel. It was eventually cheaper to produce than charcoal and it could be packed more tightly into a blast furnace, allowing the heating of a larger volume of iron.
The conversion of the iron and steel business from charcoal to coke was accompanied, however, by a number of new technical problems. These, in turn, encouraged the development of even more new inventions. For example, the use of coke in the smelting (melting or fusing) of iron ores required a more intense flow of air through the furnace. Fortunately, the steam engine that had been invented by Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–1819) in 1763 provided the means for solving this problem. The Watt steam engine was also employed in the mining of coal, where it was used to remove water that collected within most mines.
For nearly half a century, James Watt's steam engine was so bulky and heavy that it was used only as a stationary power source. The first forms of transport that made use of steam power were developed not in Great Britain, but in France and the United States. In those two nations, inventors constructed the first ships powered by steam engines. In the United States, Robert Fulton's steam ship Clermont, built in 1807, was among these early successes.
During the first two decades of the nineteenth century, a handful of British inventors devised carriage-type vehicles powered by steam engines. In 1803, Richard Trevithick (1771–1833) built a "steam carriage" which he carried passengers through the streets of London. A year later,
one of his steam-powered locomotives pulled a load of 10 tons for a distance of almost 10 miles (16 kilometers) at a speed of about 5 miles (8 kilometers) per hour.
The Industrial Revolution brought about dramatic changes in nearly every aspect of British society. With the growth of factories, for example, people were drawn to metropolitan centers. The number of cities with populations of more than 20,000 in England and Wales rose from 12 in 1800 to nearly 200 in 1900.
Technological change also made possible the growth of capitalism. Factory owners and others who controlled the means of production rapidly became very rich. In the years between 1800 and 1900, the total national income in Great Britain increased by a factor of ten.
However, working conditions in the factories were poor. Men, women, and children alike were employed at extremely low wages in crowded, unhealthy, and dangerous environments. Workers were often able to afford no more than the simplest housing, resulting in the rise of urban slums.
These conditions soon led to actions to protect workers. Laws were passed requiring safety standards in factories, setting minimum age limits for young workers, establishing schools for children whose parents both worked, and creating other standards for the protection of workers. Workers then began to establish the first labor unions to protect their own interests; as a group they had more power when bargaining with their employers over wages and working conditions.
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On February 14, 1990, after nearly 13 years of travel through the outer Solar System, NASA’s Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed the orbit of Pluto and turned its camera around, capturing photos of the planets as seen from that vast distance. It was a family portrait taken from over 4.4 billion kilometers away — the ultimate space Valentine.
Who says astronomy isn’t romantic?
“That’s here. That’s home. That’s us. On it everyone you love, everyone you know, everyone you ever heard of, every human being who ever was, lived out their lives… There is perhaps no better demonstration of the folly of human conceits than this distant image of our tiny world.”
– Carl Sagan
It was the unique perspective above provided by Voyager 1 that inspired Carl Sagan to first coin the phrase “Pale Blue Dot” in reference to our planet. And it’s true… from the edges of the solar system Earth is just a pale blue dot in a black sky, a bright speck just like all the other planets. It’s a sobering and somewhat chilling image of our world… but also inspiring, as the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft are now the farthest human-made objects in existence — and getting farther every second. They still faithfully transmit data back to us even now, over 35 years since their launches, from 18.5 and 15.2 billion kilometers away.
The Voyagers sure know the value of a long-term relationship.
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Delicate Blue-eye - Pseudomugil tenellus
The Delicate Blue-eye was scientifically described by Taylor in 1964. Its scientific name is Pseudomugil tenellus. It was first collected for scientific purposes in 1964 by an American ichthyologist named Miller.
The Delicate Blue-eye can reach a length of 5.5 cm (2.2 inches). The body is semi-translucent or light blue-grey and the upper half is adorned with fine, dark scale outlines that form a decorative network. The fish is also embellished with roughly a dozen of pearly dots that form a mid-lateral row along the side of the body. The fins are usually yellowish.
Geographical distribution, habitat and conservation
The Delicate Blue-eye can be found in both northern Australia and southern New Guinea. In Australia, it can be found between Darwin and Blyth River in the Northern Territory and in the Edward River on the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland.
In New Guinea, Delicate Blue-eye has only been found in the Bensbach River. The Bensbach River is the westernmost river in Papua New Guinea and its runs through lowland forest and grassland until it empties itself into the ocean at the border to West Papua.
The Delicate Blue-eye lives in swampy environments and slow backwaters, including billabongs (a type of marshy pond) and overflow pools created by rivers and creeks. The bottom will normally consist of gravel, sand or mud. During the dry season, you can find Delicate Blue-eyes in stagnant pools and puddles.
The Delicate Blue-eye is usually found in non-shadowed waters with rich vegetation both above and under water. In some habitats, the water is turbid due to do suspended algae. The water temperature within the species geographical range is 25-35 degrees C (77-95 degrees F).
The Delicate Blue-eye is listed as “Not Evaluated” on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Keeping Delicate Blue-eye in aquariums
The species is not a commonly kept blue-eye, especially not outside Australia. The Delicate Blue-eye must be carefully nursed back to health after being transported, but if you manage to make your fish recover it will turn in to quite an easy species to care for in the aquarium. Since the fish is so small, even a 20 litre (5 gallon) aquarium is large enough to house a small group of Delicate Blue-eyes. You should however keep in mind that it can be hard to keep the water quality up in such a small aquarium. You have to be prepared to carry out really frequent water changes. The Delicate Blue-eye is often kept in species aquariums, but it can also be combined with non-aggressive species of a similar size in a community set up.
Try to resemble the natural habitat of the Delicate Blue-eye and use driftwood and plenty of aquatic plants to create hiding spots in the aquarium. Strong water current is not recommended, since the Delicate Blue-eye is used to backwaters, slow-flowing creeks and stagnant pools.
The recommended water temperature for Delicate Blue-eyes is 25-30 degrees C (77-86 degrees F). Keep the water acidic or just slightly alkaline, from pH 6.0 to 7.2.
Breeding Delicate Blue-eye
The Delicate Blue-eye reaches sexual maturity when it is roughly 2.5 cm (1 inch) long and this may occur when the fish is no older than three months old if kept on a nutritious diet. This species can be bred in both groups and pairs and is known to readily spawn in aquariums.
If you want your Delicate Blue-eyes to breed, it is advisable to include floating plants or floating mops in the aquarium set up and keep your fish on a varied and nutritious diet. If additional coaxing turns out to be necessary, try moving the aquarium to spot where it receives roughly one hour of natural sunlight each morning.
During spawning, the female will deposit her sticky eggs among the floating plants/mops. The safest course of action is to move the spawning medium with the eggs to a separate container in order to avoid predation.
If you keep the water temperature in the upper part of the recommended range, Delicate Blue-eye eggs will normally hatch within 5 days. You can feed the fry infusoria and finely ground flake food until they are big enough to eat newly hatched brine shrimp and whole flake food.
Other Blue-eyesKiunga Blue-eye
New Guinea Blue-eye
Central American Cichlids
Frogs and Turtles
Lake Victoria Cichlids
Marine Aquarium Fish
Responsible Fish Keeping
South American Cichlids
Tropical Fish Food
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World Bioenergy Association issues small-scale biomass heat facts
As part of a campaign to highlight key developments across the entire bioenergy industry, the World Bioenergy Association has released a fact sheet focused on small-scale biomass heating.
The fact sheet covers topics such as the heating value of different types of fuel, including firewood, wood chips and wood pellets; technological improvements; modern equipment including firewood stoves and boilers, wood chip boilers , wood pellet boilers, retrofitted oil boilers and wood/solar heating combinations; market perspectives and economic issues.
“In recent years there have been impressive technological advancements, both by industry and the scientific community, in the area of modern small-scale bioenergy heating below 100 kilowatts,” the WBA stated. “The main advancements have been in the preparation of the biomass fuel as well as the combustion technology, resulting in increasing efficiencies and continued reductions of harmful emissions by over 90 percent when compared to older models.”
The WBA pointed out that in many regions across the world, people are using old or outdated equipment with low energy conversion efficiency that can result in relatively high emissions. At the same time, however, significant improvements in the technology of small-scale biomass combustion have been achieved during the last decade.
Part of the problem is inadequate public policy in regard to renewable heat energy, according to the WBA, as its significance is often overlooked, even though the heat energy sector is often the most important part of overall primary energy. “…biomass offers solutions with high efficiency and economic advantages for the consumers,” the WBA stated.
WBA is urging public authorities to re-evaluate the importance of biomass for production of heat energy, especially for the small-scale heat market, and to set up promotion programs for this energy sector, including the supply side, training of installers, financial support for installation costs and awareness building among the public.
The association hopes the fact sheet/campaign will help fill an important gap in the availability of objective and up-to-date information for decision-makers on bioenergy opportunities. Download it here.
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The unique approach of introducing children via entertaining educational fairytales to the world of Nature's Gifts - Healthy Food - is found to be the most successful, easiest and proven to be very effective by parents from all over the world. Now this project has stepped ahead - its heroes came alive online: vegetables are represented as animated funny creatures who can talk, smile, read poetry and win the hearts of young readers. Read 'How our amusing vegetables teach kids to ...' >>
Educational Project on Healthy Food for kids: Books on Fruits, Berries, Tea, Honey, Chocolate, Cereals, Herbs & Vegetables with healthy recipes
Since 1999 books on Fruits and Vegetables for kids with Healthy Recipes were published and distributed in USA, UK, RSA, Russia, Holland and India. The well-deserved popularity of this unique approach to healthy diet is growing ...
Fruits for kids is 1st part of Educational Project on Healthy Food for children. To meet fruits from entertaining tales, to learn secrets of healthy benefits of fruits and berries - visit website Fruit Rhymes or KindBook.com
Beetroot with apple
- 1 beetroot
- 2 apples
- 100g cheese
- 200g sour cream
- herbs, sugar or honey to taste
Grate the carrot. Mix all the ingredients together. Mould into a flat layer 2cm thick and brush with vegetable oil. Sprinkle on the orange zest and bake for an hour in a warm oven.
Glyconutrients There are a lot of sites on nutrients and supplements, but only a handful of good, organic, down-to-earth sites.
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Healing Qualities of Beetroots: story, rhymes
In an underground cellar, in three comfortable compartments, lived three beetroot sisters: Feeding Beet, Edible Beetroot and Sugar Beet. One day some people came, loaded all the sugar beet into a basket and took it away. Only one beetroot remained, accidentally forgotten in a corner. She rushed over to her sisters and said:
‘You see, they've taken all of my kind: people need sugar beet more than anything else because they make sweet sugar from it.'
‘Sugar Beet, don't think that you're the only one that people need. Without me, there would be no borsch (beetroot soup) or beetroot salad,' Edible Beetroot replied.
‘I am no less useful than either of you,' Feeding Beetroot said in a hurt voice. ‘Even though I am not as sweet as Sugar Beet or as tender as Edible Beetroot, I am a lot bigger than you both. In winter, cows would not give humans milk to drink if it wasn't for me.'
The sisters were about to start squabbling, but at that moment, the Earth Fairy peeked into the cellar to have a look at the vegetables which she had helped to create. The fairy heard the three sisters arguing and said:
‘Dear sisters, I'll turn you into girls and transport you to a time when beetroots did not yet grow. Then we'll see which of you people like best.'
The Earth Fairy touched each of the sisters with her magic wand, and at that moment, they turned into three girls. The oldest and tallest sister was wearing simple peasant clothing. The middle sister, who was plump and rosy-cheeked, had on a maroon tunic and a green cape. The youngest sister, who was also the fattest and had a face as white as sugar, was dressed in a maroon silk skirt and a short, white fur coat.
The three sisters set off together and ended up on a farm. The oldest sister was chosen to work in the farmyard, the middle sister started work as a cook and the youngest one looked after the farmer's children.
The oldest sister fed the cows with feeding beet. They gobbled up two large beets a day each, accompanied by a bale of straw, and produced rivers of milk. The chickens also tucked into the beets; they pushed and shoved each other to get to the beets and furiously pecked out their juicy flesh. In the winter the farmyard geese became ill because they had no fresh vegetables, but as soon as chopped beet was added to their feed, they started to get better.
The farmer said to the girl in delight: ‘You, girl, have magic hands. In the past, we never got enough milk during winter. Now we have plenty of milk, cream and eggs.'
‘My helper is responsible for these miracles,' the girl replied, and showed the farmer the huge, rough root vegetables.
The farmer was overjoyed and decided to pay particular attention to the field in which the feeding beet grew the next year.
The new cook was also very popular. Her fragrant beetroot soup and vitamin-packed beetroot salad were so delicious that she made them every day. The farmer's wife, a plump lady, often complained of headaches. One day she could not move from the pain. The cook brought her a glass of beetroot juice with honey, and gradually the pain went away.
‘What is that miraculous juice?' the farmer's wife asked the girl.
‘It's juice made from edible beetroot. Overweight people need to eat boiled beetroot more often. It makes the heart vessels, intestines and liver more healthy,' the girl explained. The farmer heard this and decided to start growing beetroots in the vegetable garden.
The children liked the youngest beetroot sister most of all. The farmer's wife noticed that when the children obeyed the new nanny, they were rewarded with little white cubes. So she asked : ‘ What is it that you r re feeding the children ?'
‘I'm giving them sugar lumps,' the girl replied. ‘You don't give them honey very often, and children like to eat sweet things.'
‘Where are you getting the money from for the sugar?' the farmer's wife said in surprise. At that time, sugar was brought in from faraway lands, and was very expensive.
‘I don't have any money, I made the sugar myself from sugar beets. Try it, it's just as good as foreign sugar,' the girl said, offering the farmer's wife a piece.
The farmer's wife tried it and said to her husband: ‘Let's plant a field of sugar beet and then we can extract the sugar from it.'
At first the farmer wasn't sure, but after he drunk some tea with sugar from a sugar beet, he agreed straight away. What surprised the farmer most of all was the fact that beetroots were not afraid of different seasons. As spring approached, the carrot and the turnip became soft and the cabbage withered, but the beetroot remained fresh.
So the sisters beetroots never did decide who was the most important, because people liked them all, and they are still eaten in their different ways to this very day.
Activities on Story about Beetroots
What beetroot dishes are prepared in your family?
Which of the three sisters Beets do you like the most, and why?
What did you find out about the three types of beetroot from this story?
Who in your family needs beetroot the most?
Draw the three Sisters Beetroots and talk about how they helped people with the aid of their beetroots.
Tell a story about how the beetroot sisters invited you to a beetroot feast.
... This was the fragment from children's storytellers on vegetables: story on beetroot. Other stories on veggies for kids with creative tasks, colouring pages and healthy recipes you will find in the book 'WORLD OF VEGETABLES' - available for instant download online >> World of Vegetables pdf >>
IN "THE WORLD OF VEGETABLES" each story for kids on healthy food is delivered in an entertaining fairytale representational form and narrates about a particular vegetable, its importance in daily diet, its values. Each story for kids about vegetables concludes with healthy recipies. More about this book for kids >>
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Blount, William Grainger
1784–21 May 1827
William Grainger Blount, congressman, was the oldest son of Southwest Territory Governor William Blount and his wife, Mary Grainger, the daughter of Colonel William Caleb Grainger of Wilmington. William Grainger ("Billy") Blount was born at Piney Grove on Great Contentnea Creek, Dobbs (now Pitt) County. Hugh Williamson addressed a letter to William Blount on 28 Nov. 1782 at "Piney Grove, near Washington"; though Piney Grove was near Washington, it was closer to New Bern in Craven County. Blount first studied at the New Bern Academy, of which his father was an original trustee.
In 1790, President Washington appointed William Blount, a former Continental officer and North Carolina signer of the federal Constitution at Philadelphia, the Governor of the Territory of the United States South of the Ohio River, better known as the Southwest Territory. He moved to Upper East Tennessee and established residence in the house of William Cobb. Two years later, Governor Blount moved with his wife and sons to elegant quarters in Knoxville. Billy was eight years old when he made this first trip to his new home in Knoxville. This house, known as the Blount Mansion in Tennessee, the oldest dwelling west of the Appalachian Mountains, was built in 1792 for William Blount, and it was here that Billy grew up and spent his formative years.
Blount studied French and music with a Mr. Faurnier in 1794, and in 1797 he was tutored in Latin by the Reverend Samuel Carrick, a Presbyterian minister. Later Carrick became president of Blount College (now the University of Tennessee); Billy's sister Barbara enrolled in the college and became one of America's first five co-eds.
When Governor Blount died on 21 Mar. 1800, the education of his children was taken over by his half brother, Willie Blount, who was also their legal guardian. Willie Blount, who served as the secretary to Governor William Blount, had been educated at Princeton University and was himself elected governor of Tennessee. He saw to Billy Grainger's legal training and had him admitted to the bar in 1805. Billy practiced law in Knoxville and also had avid agricultural pursuits. He was elected Tennessee secretary of state (1811–15) and subsequently was elected to the Fourteenth Congress to fill the Democratic seat left vacant by the death of John Sevier on 24 Sept. 1815. He took his seat on 8 Jan. 1816 and, reelected to the Fifteenth Congress, served until 3 Mar. 1819; he declined to run again, so that he could return to peaceful Tennessee and the practice of law and farming.
That Blount had a sense of pride and love of his family is attested by the two brick monuments with stone tops in the old First Presbyterian Church Cemetery at Knoxville, which he had placed at the grave of his father, Governor William Blount, and that of his beloved aunt, Ann Blount Harvey (Mrs. James Harvey), the sister of John Gray and William Blount. Blount moved to Paris, Tenn., in Henry County, some two hundred miles from Knoxville, where he set up a law practice and became the leading citizen. His new career was short lived, however: he died suddenly at age forty-three. His grave is located in the Paris, Tenn., City Cemetery.
American Historical Magazine 3 (1898).
Samuel A. Ashe, ed., Biographical History of North Carolina, vol. 1 (1905).
Blount Family Society Papers (in possession of the author).
Archibald Henderson, ed., Washington's Southern Tour (1923).
The John Gray Blount Papers, ed. Alice B. Keith and W. H. Masterson, 3 vols. (1952–65).
Henry Knox, Secretary of War Report of Continental Army to Congress (Frederick Anderson Berg, Encyclopedia of Continental Army Units ).
Papers of Lida T. Rodman (North Carolina State Archives, Raleigh).
Tennessee Historical Magazine 9 (1926).
"Blount, William Grainger, (1784 - 1827)." Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Washington, D.C.: The Congress. http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=B000571 (accessed May 29, 2013).
The French Broad-Holston country: a history of Knox County, Tennessee : a contribution to the sesquicentennial celebration of Tennessee statehood. The Society, 1972. 383.
"The Blount Mansion." Landmarks of Tennessee History. Tennessee Historical Society, 1965. 57.
1 January 1979 | Stewart, William Blount
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puppet, human or animal figure, generally of a small size and performing on a miniature stage, manipulated by an unseen operator who usually speaks the dialogue. A distinction is made between marionettes, moved by strings or wires from above, and hand puppets, in which the hand of the operator is concealed in the costume of the doll. Popular forms of the puppet show include the Punch and Judy shows of England and the Guignol in France. Puppet theaters have been established in the Americas; old epic dramas, often based on the Chanson de Roland and other medieval and modern pieces, have drawn crowded houses. The Greeks of the 5th cent. B.C. were familiar with it; in Java, China, and Japan it is almost immemorial; in the Europe of the Middle Ages it was the most popular form of entertainment for the masses; and it is a constituent in many folk cultures.
From the end of the 16th cent. to the end of the 18th, puppet or marionette shows, sometimes called motions, reached the summit of their vogue on the Continent and in England. During Puritan times in England they flourished after the theaters were prohibited. On the Continent great writers such as Goethe and major composers including Mozart and Haydn wrote for them. Avant-garde theater, such as Alfred Jarry's Ubu Roi (1896), used puppets in reaction against naturalistic conventions; Manuel de Falla composed a puppet opera, El Retablo de Maese Pedro (1926). In 18th-century Japan the most celebrated dramatists wrote plays for the bunraku, or puppet theater. Nonetheless, puppets have primarily been used in popular entertainment.
Puppets have enjoyed something of a renaissance in late 20th-century America. For instance, during the 1950s in the United States, Burr Tilstrom's hand-puppet show Kukla, Fran, and Ollie was a popular television series. In the 1960s, Jim Henson created a group of madcap educational and entertaining puppets, known as Muppets, that appeared in the television series Sesame Street and their own feature films. During the Vietnam War and after, the Bread and Puppet Theatre utilized larger-than-life puppets in their political theater pieces. At the end of the 20th cent. and the beginning of the 21st a new generation of creative puppeteers, including Roman Paska, Julie Taymor, and Basil Twist, were producing a variety of innovative new works and updated classics.
The art of ventriloquism (making the voice appear to come from a source other than the speaker) has also been associated with the puppet. The manipulator, in full view, converses with the "dummy," a large doll usually held in the lap of the manipulator. The dummy's words appear to issue from its own mouth. Skillful ventriloquists are able to speak the doll's words without moving their lips and to "throw" their voices so that their dummies appears to speak.
See S. Bemegal, Puppet Theatre around the World (1961); P. Fraser, Puppets and Puppetry (1972); G. Speaight, The History of the Puppet Theatre (2d ed. 1990); E. Blumenthal, Puppetry: A World History (2005).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Theater
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- Social & Humanitarian
- The Rebbe
The contents of the Central Chabad library are a scholar's dream and the heritage of the Lubavitch community. After a tumultuous history, the Library of Agudas Chassidei Chabad and Ohel Yosef Yitzchak Lubavitch, now known as the Central Chabad Library, opened its reading room in 1992 and exhibition hall in 1994. The collection is home to 250,000 books, mostly in Hebrew and Yiddish; many are rare and unique to the library. More than 100,000 letters, artifacts and pictures belonging to, written by and for the Rebbes of Chabad and their Chasidim complete the collection. Housed in Chabad-Lubavitch world headquarters at 770 Eastern Parkway in Brooklyn, NY, the library is utilized by Chabad and general Judaic scholars and viewed by thousands of visitors each year.
A Turbulent History
Uprooted, burnt, lost, and confiscated, Chabad's library has been subject to the upheavals of Jewish history since its beginning in the late eighteenth century. The first Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi, known as the Alter Rebbe, had his 100-volume library seized by imperial authorities searching for evidence of sedition. Fires common in the time of thatched roofs and wooden buildings ravaged the 600 volume library of the second Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Dov Ber, the Mittler Rebbe. During World War I, the fifth Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Shalom Dov Ber, fled the town of Lubavtich for Rostov, Russia, and stored his collection in a Moscow warehouse. After the communist revolution, the bulk of the Lubavitch collection was appropriated by the government for the Moscow Public Library where it remains. The sixth Lubavitcher Rebbe aggressively rebuilt the library starting with the purchase of 5,000 rare volumes from a Jewish bibliophile and moved the collection to Riga, Latvia and then to Poland. The collection remained in Poland throughout Nazi occupation, and it was at this time that the manuscript portion of the library was lost. During WWI, in 1941, the library was shipped to New York and housed in the basement of Lubavitch World Headquarters. During that year, Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who would become the seventh Lubavitcher Rebbe, was appointed head of Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch and its publishing arm. The Rebbe opened a separate library for use by Merkos on the premises of Lubavitch World Headquarters and the library grew to the extent that an adjacent building to 770 was purchased in 1968 to house the collection. In 1977, the manuscripts were found in Poland and returned to Chabad-Lubavitch. Some years later, the ownership of the sixth Lubavitcher Rebbe's library was contested by a descendant. In 1987, the courts ruled that the library was the property of Agudas Chassidei Chabad (Association of Chabad Chasidim). Four years later the master catalog of all works in Chabad's libraries was completed. Currently a full time staff of librarians is at work culling the library for works that will be anthologized in future Chabad publications.
The Chabad library is home to books on Jewish topics dating back to the earliest days of Jewish publishing. While the bulk of the collection is comprised of works on Chabad chasidic philosophy, many works are of more general interest. Among the collections' 2000 Passover Haggadahs is the Kittsee Hagaddah written in 1760 by calligrapher Rabbi Chaim son of Rabbi Asher Anshel of Kittsee. A Zohar with commentary in the handwriting of kabbalah master Rabbi Moses Kordovera, known as the Ramak (1522-1570) is another treasure in the collection.
Handwritten manuscripts on Chabad philosophy are among the most prized elements of the collection. Pages from the Alter Rebbe's own manuscript of his magnum opus, the Tanya, as well as contemporary handwritten copies of the pre-print edition of the work are in the library's holdings. Letters, numbering in the hundreds of thousands, written to and by the seven Lubavitcher Rebbes occupy a special place of spiritual and historical significance in the collection.
Among the collection's more recent acquisitions are ephemera from the Rebbe's Mitzva Campaigns, which motivated Chabad Chasidim to spread the understanding and observance of key Jewish commandments. Brochures, posters, booklets and press clippings from the worldwide effort to reawaken Jews to Judaism, along with photos of Mitzva Campaign activities, document Chabad's growth from small chassidic group to an international force.
Books on contemporary Jewish topics have been added to the collection in recent years. These include books on Jewish communities around the world, books from the today's Chabad publishing houses and even a smattering of books of the science-and-Torah variety. Together they make up one of the largest Jewish libraries in the world.
Accessing the Collection
Scholars around the world visit the Chabad library during reading room hours. Scholars wishing to view the rare book and manuscript collection may require special permission and guidance from staff librarians to access the collection. The complete library catalog, including the Hebrew, Russian, French, German and English holdings, is available online at www.chabadlibrary.org . Books are organized by title and author.
In 1994, an exhibit space opened on library premises. Exhibits include rare manuscripts, pictures from Chabad archives, posters from Chabad activities, and other pieces of Chabad history. Changing exhibitions have featured Chabad's worldwide expansion, the Mitzvah campaigns, sages through the ages and in depth looks at Chabad leaders and their scholarship. Thousands of visitors put the Chabad Library exhibit on their itinerary when they tour Chabad World Headquarters in Brooklyn, NY. As library hours and tour times vary, advance reservations are recommended.
Under the leadership of his successor, Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, the Lubavitch publishing houses have brought Torah education to nearly every Jewish community in the world, and is the world's largest publisher of Jewish literature.
Everything in this world was created for a divine purpose. All forms of modern technology can and should be harnessed to make the world a better place and, in the case of Jews, to spread Judaism in the widest possible manner
The Merkos Chinuch - Education Office is a cohesive center for administrators, educators, students and parents of Chabad-Lubavitch educational institutions
In 1975, National Committee for the Furtherance of Jewish Education, founded by the Lubavitcher Rebbe, may his merit protect us, began disseminating information and resources globally
More than 100 Chabad Jewish Student Centers operate on campuses worldwide, and regional Chabad-Lubavitch centers offer varied activities at an additional 150 universities worldwide
The mission of the Rohr Jewish Learning Institute is to inspire Jewish learning worldwide and to transform Jewish life and the greater community through Torah study.
Jnet provides business people, students and homemakers the opportunity to take some time out of their busy work week - whether at the office at home or even on the go - to study Torah...
Nearly twenty years ago, at the annual Kinus HaShluchim in New York, the Rebbe called for the establishment of The Shluchim Office.
Jewish Educational Media has evolved into the multimedia archive responsible for maintaining a lifetime of images and sounds of the Rebbe, the Lubavitch movement, and Jewish outreach.
Over 1,500 Shluchim have joined the Exchange, from across the globe! Now they have instant advice to all their Shlichus needs. Be it a grant proposal, logo or a camp newsletter, Now it's just a click away!
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Desktop Survival Guide
by Graham Williams
Benford's Law primarily applies to the first digit of the numbers. A similar, but much less strong, law also applies to the second, third and fourth digits. A common mathematical formula has been developed that generalises the distribution for the first, and the distributions converge to a flat distribution the further we go.
For the second digit, for example, the expected frequency of the digit 1 is 11.4%, compared to the digit 2's 10.9%. As we proceed to the third and fourth and so on, each has an expected frequency pretty close to 0.1 (or 10%), indicating they are all generally equally likely.
Even though the distributions become flat, it can still be useful to plot the actual distribution in order to explore for oddities in our data. Rattle allows us to plot up to the ninth digit.
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BELGIUMLOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENERGY AND POWER
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
Kingdom of Belgium
Dutch: Koninkrijk België;
French: Royaume de Belgique
CAPITAL: Brussels (Brussel, Bruxelles)
FLAG: The flag, adopted in 1831, is a tricolor of black, yellow, and red vertical stripes.
ANTHEM: La Brabançonne (The Song of Brabant), named after the Duchy of Brabant.
MONETARY UNIT: The euro replaced the Belgian franc in 2002. The euro is divided into 100 cents. There are coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents and 1 euro; and 2 euros. There are notes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 euros. €1 = $1.25475 (or $1 = €0.79697) as of 2005.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.
HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Independence Day, 21 July; Assumption Day, 15 August; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Armistice Day, 11 November; Dynasty Day, 15 November; and Christmas, 25 December. Movable religious holidays are Easter Monday, Ascension, and Whitmonday.
TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.
Situated in northwestern Europe, Belgium has an area of 30,510 sq km (11,780 sq mi) and extends 280 km (174 mi) se–nw and 222 km (137 mi) ne–sw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Belgium is about the same size as the state of Maryland. Belgium borders on the Netherlands to the n, Germany and Luxembourg to the e, France to the s and sw, and the North Sea to the nw, with a total boundary length of 1,385 km (859 mi).
Belgium's capital city, Brussels, is located in the north-central part of the country.
The coastal region, extending about 16–48 km (10–30 mi) inland, consists of sand dunes, flat pasture land, and polders (land reclaimed from the sea and protected by dikes), and attains a maximum of 15 m (50 ft) above sea level. Eastward, this region gradually gives way to a gently rolling central plain, whose many fertile valleys are irrigated by an extensive network of canals and waterways. Altitudes in this region are about 60–180 m (200–600 ft). The Ardennes, a heavily wooded plateau, is located in southeast Belgium and continues into France. It has an average altitude of about 460 m (1,500 ft) and reaches a maximum of 694 m (2,277 ft) at the Signal de Botrange, the country's highest point. Chief rivers are the Schelde (Scheldt, Escaut) and the Meuse (Maas), both of which rise in France, flow through Belgium, pass through the Netherlands, and empty into the North Sea.
In the coastal region, the climate is mild and humid. There are marked temperature changes farther inland. In the high southeasterly districts, hot summers alternate with very cold winters. Except in the highlands, rainfall is seldom heavy. The average annual temperature is 8°c (46°f); in Brussels, the mean temperature is 10°c (50°f), ranging from 3°c (37°f) in January to 18°c (64°f) in July. Average annual rainfall is between 70 and 100 cm (28 to 40 in).
The digitalis, wild arum, hyacinth, strawberry, goldenrod, lily of the valley, and other plants common to temperate zones grow in abundance. Beech and oak are the predominant trees. Among mammals still found in Belgium are the boar, fox, badger, squirrel, weasel, marten, and hedgehog. The many varieties of aquatic life include pike, carp, trout, eel, barbel, perch, smelt, chub, roach, bream, shad, sole, mussels, crayfish, and shrimp.
About 520 sq km (200 sq mi) of reclaimed coastal land is protected from the sea by concrete dikes. As of 2000, Belgium's most significant environmental problems were air, land, and water pollution due to the heavy concentration of industrial facilities in the country. The sources of pollution range from nuclear radiation to mercury from industry and pesticides from agricultural activity. The country's water supply is threatened by hazardous levels of heavy metals, mercury, and phosphorous. It has a renewable water supply of 12 cu km. Pollution of rivers and canals was considered the worst in Europe as of 1970, when strict water-protection laws were enacted.
Air pollution reaches dangerous levels due to high concentrations of lead and hydrocarbons. Belgium is also among the 50 nations that emit the highest levels of carbon dioxide from industrial sources. In 1996 its emission level was 106 million metric tons. Belgium's problems with air pollution have also affected neighboring countries by contributing to the conditions which cause acid rain.
The Ministry of Public Health and Environment is Belgium's principal environmental agency, and there is also a Secretary of State for Public Health and Environment. The Belgian government has created several environmental policies to eliminate the country's pollution problems: the 1990–95 plan on Mature Development, an Environmental Policy Plan, and the Waste Plan.
According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 9 types of mammals, 10 species of birds, 6 species of fish, 4 types of mollusks, and 7 other invertebrates. The Mediterranean mouflon, the Atlantic sturgeon, and the black right whale are listed as endangered. There are nine Ramsar wetland sites within the country.
The population of Belgium in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 10,458,000, which placed it at number 77 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 17% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 17% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 96 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 0.1%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 10,809,000. The population density was 342 per sq km (887 per sq mi).
The UN estimated that 97% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 0.16%. The capital city, Brussels (Brussel, Bruxelles), had a population of 998,000 in that year. Other major urban areas are located within 100 km (60 mi) of Brussels. The largest cities and their estimated populations include Antwerp (Antwerpen, Anvers), 952,600; Gent (Ghent, Gand), 230,951; Charleroi, 206,779; Liège (Luik), 196,825; Brugge (Bruges), 117,172; and Namur (Namen), 106,213.
The government has conducted a census every 10 years since 1848. Since 1984 the registration of births and deaths has been delegated to the Flemish and Walloon language communities. Belgium's population has distinctive language and ethnic divisions. The Ardennes region in the south is the least densely populated region.
At the end of 2001, 862,000 persons of foreign nationality were living in Belgium. About 65% were those of other EU countries, primarily Italy, France, the Netherlands, and Spain. There were also a considerable number of Moroccans and Turks living in Belgium that year. In 2003 the foreign labor force in Belgium was 7.6%, and the foreign population was 8.3%. The net migration rate of Belgium was 1.23 migrants per 1,000 population as estimated for 2005.
As of 2004, Belgium hosted approximately 13,500 refugees. In 2004 there were 22,863 asylum applications, mostly from Russia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Iran.
Two thousand years ago the population of Belgium, as mentioned by Julius Caesar in his book on the Gallic wars, was of Celtic stock. This population was displaced or lost its identity, however, during the great invasions that brought down the Roman Empire. The Salian Franks, who settled there during the 4th century ad, are considered the ancestors of Belgium's present population. The origin of the language frontier in Belgium has never been satisfactorily explained. In the indigenous population, the ratio of Flemings (Dutch speakers) to Walloons (French speakers) is about 5 to 3. In 2004, the Flemings constituted about 58% of the total population; Walloons accounted for 31.7%. The remaining 11% was comprised of those with mixed ancestry or other groups.
According to a 1970 constitutional revision, there are three official languages in Belgium—French, Dutch (also called Flemish), and German. Dutch is the language of the four provinces of Antwerp, Limburg, East Flanders (Oost-Vlaanderen), and West Flanders (West-Vlaanderen), which form the northern half of the country. French is the language of the four southern Walloon provinces of Hainaut, Liège, Luxembourg, and Namur. The central province of Brabant is divided into three districts—one French-speaking (Nivelles, Nijvel), one Dutch-speaking (Leuven, Louvain), and one bilingual (composed of the 19 boroughs of the capital city, Brussels). The majority of people in the Brussels metropolitan area are French-speaking. According to 2005 estimates, 60% of the total population speak Dutch (Flemish), 40% speak French, less than 1% speak German, and 11% are legally bilingual in Dutch and French.
The relationship between the two major language groups has been tense at times. For many years, French was the only official language. A series of laws enacted in the 1930s established equality between the two languages. Dutch became the language of administration, the schools, and the courts in the Flemish region (Flanders), while French continued to be the language of Wallonia. The use of German is regulated in the same way in the German-speaking municipalities in the province of Liège. As a rule, French is studied in all secondary schools in the Flemish region, while Dutch is a required secondary-school subject in Wallonia.
In 1963, a set of laws created four linguistic regions (with bilingual status for Brussels), a decision incorporated into the constitution in 1970. Subsequent legislation in 1971–74 provided for cultural autonomy, regional economic power, and linguistic equality in the central government. Disagreement over the future status of bilingual Brussels intensified during the late 1970s. In 1980, after a political crisis, the Flemish and Walloon regions were given greater autonomy, but the issue of Brussels, a predominantly French-speaking territory surrounded by a Dutch-speaking region, remained intractable and was deferred.
According to a 2001 Survey and Study of Religion conducted by universities within the country, about 47% of the population were nominally Roman Catholic. However, other sources have reported that Roman Catholics account for as high as 75% of the population. The Roman Catholic Church estimates that of its total Belgian membership, only about 10–15% are active participants.
Based on the Survey and Study of Religion, the Muslim population numbered about 364,000, most of whom were Sunni. Protestants numbered between 125,000 and 140,000. Greek and Russian Orthodox adherents numbered about 70,000. The Jewish community was approximately 45,000 to 55,000 and Anglicans numbered approximately 10,800. The largest unrecognized religions included the Jehovah's Witnesses, with 27,000 members, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), with about 3,000 members. About 350,000 people belong to laics, the government's term for nonconfessional philosophical organizations. Estimates indicate that up to 15% of the population do not practice any religion at all. About 7.4% claim to follow the tenets of nonconfessional philosophical organizations (laic ).
The constitution provides for freedom of religion and this right is generally respected in practice. The government gives "recognized" status to Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Judaism, Anglicanism, Islam, and Orthodox Christianity. These groups are allowed to receive some funding from the government. Laic groups are also considered as a recognized religion. Some social discrimination has been reported by Jews, Muslims, and members of "unrecognized" groups.
In 2004, the densest railway network in the world comprised 3,521 km (2,190 mi) of track operated by the government-controlled Belgian National Railway Co., of which 2,927 km (1,821 mi) was electrified. In addition, Belgium has a regional railway network of 27,950 km (17,367 mi). The road network in 2003 comprised 149,757 km (89,417 mi) of highways, of which 117,110 km (72,842 mi) were paved, including 1,747 km (1,087 mi) of expressways. All major European highways pass through Belgium. In 2003, Belgium had 4,793,271 passenger cars and 661,948 commercial vehicles registered for use.
Inland waterways comprise 2,043 km (1,270 mi) of rivers and canals, and are linked with those of France, Germany, and the Netherlands. In 2003, a total of 1,570 km (976 mi) of these waterways are in regular commercial use. The chief port, Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports), on the Scheldt River, about 84 km (52 mi) from the sea, handles three-fourths of the country's foreign cargo. Other leading ports are Gent and Zeebrugge. Liège is the third-largest inland river port in Western Europe, after Duisburg, Germany, and Paris. In 2005 the Belgian merchant fleet was comprised of 53 vessels, with a total of 1,146,301 GRT. The fleet numbered 101 ships (2.2 million GRT) in 2002, but offshore registry programs and so-called "flags of convenience" have enticed ship owners into foreign registry.
In 2004, there were an estimated 43 airports. As of 2005 a total of 25 had paved runways, and there was also a single heliport. The Belgian national airline, Sabena, formed in 1923, is the third-oldest international airline. Brussels National Airport, an important international terminus, is served by more than 30 major airlines. In 2003, a total of 2.904 million passengers flew on scheduled domestic and international flights.
Belgium is named after the Belgae, a Celtic people whose territory was conquered in 57 bc by Julius Caesar and was organized by him as Gallia Belgica. In 15 bc, Augustus made Gallia Belgica (which at that time included much of present-day France) a province of the Roman Empire. In the 5th century ad, it was overrun by the Franks, and in the 8th century, it became part of the empire of Charlemagne. But this empire soon fell apart, and in the 10th century there emerged several feudal units that later would become provinces of Belgium. These included the counties of Flanders, Hainaut, and Namur, the duchy of Brabant, and the prince-bishopric of Liège. During the three following centuries, trade flourished in the towns of the county of Flanders. Antwerp, Bruges, Ypres (Ieper), and Ghent in particular became very prosperous. In the 15th century, most of the territory that currently forms Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg—formerly called the Low Countries and now called the Benelux countries—came under the rule of the dukes of Burgundy as the result of a shrewd policy of intermarriage. Through the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with Archduke Maximilian of Austria, those same provinces, then collectively known as the Netherlands, became part of the Habsburg Empire in the early 1500s. When Maximilian's grandson Emperor Charles V divided his empire, the Netherlands was united with Spain (1555) under Philip II, who dedicated himself to the repression of Protestantism. His policies resulted in a revolt led by the Protestants.
Thus began a long war, which, after a 12-year truce (1609–21), became intermingled with the Thirty Years' War. Under the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years' War, independence was granted to the northern Protestant provinces. The southern half remained Roman Catholic and under Spanish rule. By this time, the southern Low Countries (the territory now known as Belgium) had become embroiled in Franco-Spanish power politics. Belgium was invaded on several occasions, and part of its territory was lost to France.
Under the Peace of Utrecht (1713), which concluded the War of the Spanish Succession, Belgium became part of the Austrian Empire. The country was occupied by the French during the War of the Austrian Succession (1744) but was restored to Austria by the Treaty of Aixla-Chapelle (1748). Belgium entered a period of recovery and material progress under Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II. The latter's administrative reforms created widespread discontent, however, which culminated in the Révolution Brabançonne of 1789. Leopold II, successor to Joseph II, defeated the Belgians and reoccupied the country, but his regime won little popular support. In 1792, the French army invaded the Belgian provinces, which were formally ceded to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797). This French regime was defeated by the anti-Napoleonic coalition at Waterloo in 1815.
Belgium was united with the Netherlands by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This action caused widespread discontent, culminating in a series of uprisings. The Dutch were compelled to retreat, and on 4 October 1830, Belgium was declared independent by a provisional government. The powers of the Congress of Vienna met again at London in June 1831 and accepted the separation of Belgium and the Netherlands. However, William I, king of the United Netherlands, refused to recognize the validity of this action. On 2 August 1831, he invaded Belgium, but the Dutch force was repulsed by a French army. In 1839, he was forced to accept the Treaty of the XXIV Articles, by which Belgian independence was formally recognized. The European powers guaranteed Belgium's status as "an independent and perpetually neutral state."
In 1831, the Belgian Parliament had chosen Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as ruler of the new kingdom, which was already in the process of industrialization. In 1865, Leopold I was succeeded by Leopold II (r.1865–1909), who financed exploration and settlement in the Congo River Basin of Africa, thereby laying the foundations of Belgium's colonial empire. Leopold's nephew, Albert I, came to the throne in 1909. At the outbreak of World War I, German troops invaded Belgium (4 August 1914). The Belgian army offered fierce resistance, but by the end of November 1914, the only Belgian towns not occupied by the Germans were Nieuport (Nieuwpoort), Furnes (Veurne), and Ypres. Belgium, on the side of the Allies, continued to struggle to liberate the kingdom. Ypres, in particular, was the scene of fierce fighting: nearly 100,000 men lost their lives at a battle near there in April and May 1915 (during which the Germans used chlorine gas), and at least 300,000 Allied troops lost their lives in this region during an offensive that lasted from late July to mid-November 1917.
Under the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Germany ceded to Belgium the German-speaking districts of Eupen, Malmédy, St. Vith, and Moresnet. The country made a remarkable recovery from the war, and by 1923, manufacturing industries were nearly back to normal. After a heated controversy with Germany over reparations payments, Belgium joined France in the occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. In 1934, Leopold III succeeded Albert.
Belgium was again attacked on 10 May 1940, when, without warning, the German air force bombed Belgian airports, railroad stations, and communications centers, and Belgian soil was invaded. Antwerp fell on 18 May and Namur on 23 May. By the end of the month, British, French, and Belgian forces were trapped in northwestern Belgium. King Leopold III surrendered unconditionally on 28 May and was taken prisoner of war. The Belgian government-in-exile, in London, continued the war on the side of the Allies. With the country's liberation from the Germans by the Allies and the well-organized Belgian underground, the Belgian government returned to Brussels in September 1944. During the Allied landings in Normandy, King Leopold III had been deported to Germany. In his absence, his brother Prince Charles was designated by parliament as regent of the kingdom.
The country was economically better off after World War II than after World War I. However, a tense political situation resulted from the split that had developed during the war years between Leopold III and the exiled government in London, which had repudiated the king's surrender. After his liberation by the US 7th Army, the king chose to reside in Switzerland. On 12 March 1950, 57.7% of the Belgian electorate declared itself in favor of allowing Leopold III to return as sovereign. The general elections of 4 June 1950 gave an absolute majority to the Christian Social Party, which favored his return, and on 22 July 1950, Leopold came back from exile. But the Socialists and Liberals continued to oppose his resumption of royal prerogatives, and strikes, riots, and demonstrations ensued. On 1 August 1950, Leopold agreed to abdicate, and on 17 July 1951, one day after Leopold actually gave up his throne, his son Baudouin I was formally proclaimed king.
In 1960, the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), a major vestige of Belgium's colonial empire, became independent. The event was followed by two years of brutal civil war, involving mercenaries from Belgium and other countries. Another Belgian territory in Africa, Ruanda-Urundi, became independent as the two states of Rwanda and Burundi in 1962.
Belgium was transferred into a federal state in July 1993. The country is divided into three regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels) and three linguistic communities (Flemish, French, and German). Voters directly elect members to the regional parliaments. The French-speaking branch of the Socialist party dominates Wallonia while the Dutch-speaking faction of the Christian Democratic Party governs Flanders. As a participant in the Marshall Plan, a member of NATO, and a leader in the movement for European integration, Belgium shared fully in the European prosperity of the first three postwar decades. Domestic political conflict during this period centered on the unequal distribution of wealth and power between Flemings and Walloons. The Flemings generally contended that they were not given equal opportunity with the Walloons in government and business and that the Dutch language was regarded as inferior to French. The Walloons, in turn, complained of their minority status and the economic neglect of their region and feared being outnumbered by the rapidly growing Flemish population. In response to these conflicts, and after a series of cabinet crises, a revised constitution adopted in 1970 created the framework for complete regional autonomy in economic and cultural spheres. In July 1974, legislation provided for the granting of autonomy to Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels upon a two-thirds vote in parliament. However, the necessary consensus could not be realized. In 1977, a Christian Social–Socialist coalition proposed to establish a federal administration representing the three regions, but could not obtain parliamentary approval for the proposal. In 1980, however, following several acts of violence as a result of the dispute, parliament allowed the establishment in stages of regional executive and legislative bodies for Flanders and Wallonia, with administrative control over cultural affairs, public health, roads, and urban projects.
Labor unrest and political violence has erupted in the past. In 1982, as a result of an industrial recession, worsened by rising petroleum prices and debt servicing costs, the government imposed an austerity program; an intensification of the austerity program, announced in May 1986, aimed to cut public sector spending, restrain wages, and simplify the taxation system. Vigorous tradeunion protests have taken place to protest the freezing of wages and cuts in social security payments. Belgium has one of the largest national debts in Western Europe. Since 1995, however, unions have gone along with pay freezes to restore profitability and improve labor market performance.
A riot in May 1985, at a soccer match between English and Italian clubs, caused the death of 39 spectators and precipitated a political crisis. The government coalition collapsed over charges of inefficient policing, and a general election returned the Christian Social–Liberal alliance to power in November 1985. This in turn accelerated terrorist attacks on public places as well as NATO facilities, responsibility for which was claimed by an extreme left-wing group, Cellules Combattantes Communistes (CCC). Security was tightened in 1986. Linguistic disputes between the French- and Dutch-speaking sections have continued to break out. Extremist parties have sought to capitalize on anti-immigrant feeling among the general population. The Flemish Blok (now Flemish Interest) has been the third-largest party in Flanders and openly advocates an independent Flanders in order to get rid of French-speakers and foreigners.
Economic performance was buoyant from 1996, with growth rates averaging close to 3%; however, with the global economic downturn of the beginning of the 21st century, Belgium's growth rates have lowered. Belgium joined the European economic and monetary union in January 1999 with no problems. Actual unemployment was around 12% as of 2004 but was closer to 20% if elderly unemployed people and people in special government-sponsored programs were included.
Parliamentary elections were held on 18 May 2003, and the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD) finished first in the Flemish elections, defeating the Socialists and Christian Democrats, and the far-right Vlaams Blok. In Wallonia, the Socialists came in first. In both elections, the Greens suffered. Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt, in office since 1999, formed a center-left coalition of Liberals and Socialists after the May elections. Under Verhofstadt's leadership, Belgium legalized euthanasia and the use of marijuana, and approved gay marriages.
Under Belgium's "universal jurisdiction" law, enacted in 1993, Belgian courts can hear cases involving war crimes and crimes against humanity even if the crimes were not committed in Belgium and did not involve Belgian citizens. Amendments to the law in April 2003 made it harder to bring a case where neither victim, plaintiff, nor accused were Belgian. Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and former US president George H. W. Bush were charged with war crimes under the law, relating to the 1982 Sabra and Shatila massacres in Lebanon, and the bombing of a civilian shelter in the 1991 Gulf War, respectively. Due to pressure from the United States, Belgian courts now may try only cases which involve charges against Belgian citizens or people resident in Belgium.
The European Union was divided over the use of military force by the United States and UK in the months leading up to the war in Iraq that began on 19 March 2003. Belgium stood with France and Germany in opposing a military response to the crisis.
In 2004, the far-right Vlaams Blok increased its share of the vote in regional and European elections. However, the Belgian High Court ruled that the party was racist and stripped it of the right to state funding and access to television. The party was subsequently reorganized under a new name, the Vlaams Belang, or Flemish Interest.
In May 2005, the government survived a confidence vote, enabling it to put to rest a dispute over the voting rights of French speakers in Dutch-speaking areas around Brussels. This came after months of negotiations over the issue, which sparked demonstrations and riots and brought the government to the brink of collapse.
Belgium is a hereditary monarchy governed under the constitution of 1831. This document has been frequently amended in recent years to grant recognition and autonomy to the Dutch- and French-speaking communities. Executive power is vested in the king, who appoints and removes ministers, civil servants, judges, and officers. In June 1991, parliament approved a constitutional amendment to allow female members of the royal family to succeed to the throne. The monarch, however, would continue to be known as king regardless of gender.
With approval of parliament, the king has the power to declare war and conclude treaties; he is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. According to the constitution, the king's rights include conferring titles of nobility, granting pardons, and administering the coinage of money. However, none of the king's acts becomes effective unless countersigned by a minister, who assumes responsibility for such acts before parliament. Therefore, the king must choose ministers who represent the majority in parliament. Each ministry is created in response to necessity, and there is no fixed number of ministers.
Legislative power is vested in the king and in the two-chamber parliament. The Chamber of Representatives has 150 members, who are elected for a four-year term through a system of proportional representation. The Senate has 71 members, with 40 directly elected and 31 indirectly elected or co-opted for a four-year term. All persons 18 years of age and older are entitled to vote in parliamentary elections, and those who fail to vote are subject to fines. In time of emergency, the king may convoke extraordinary sessions. The government and both chambers may introduce legislation, and both chambers have equal rights. When a bill is introduced, a committee examines it and appoints a rapporteur, who reports on it before the full assembly. The king may dissolve the chambers either simultaneously or separately, but an election must be provided for within 40 days and a session of the new parliament must meet within two months.
In accordance with the constitutional reform of 1980, there are three communities: the Dutch-, the French-, and the German-speaking communities. They have, in a wholly autonomous manner, responsibility for cultural affairs, education, and for matters concerning the individual. There are also three regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels), which are responsible for the regional aspects of a broad range of concerns, including the economy, energy, public works and housing, employment, and environmental policy. The institutions of the communities and regions are based on the same principles as those of the national political structure: each entity has a "regional parliament" (the council), whose decisions are implemented by a "regional government" (the executive). The council and the executive are directly elected and can only be brought down by a vote of no confidence.
On 14 July 1993, parliament approved a constitutional revision creating a federal state.
Political parties in Belgium are organized along ethnolinguistic lines, with each group in Flanders having its Walloon counterpart. The three major political alliances are the Christian Social parties, which have consisted of the Parti Social Chrétien (PSC) and the Christelijke Volkspartij (CVP); the Socialist parties, the Parti Socialiste (PS) and Socialistische Partij (SP); and the Liberal parties, Parti Réformateur et Liberal (PRL) and Flemish Liberal Democrats (VLD). The People's Union (Volksunie, or VU) was the Flemish nationalistic party, while the French-speaking Democratic Front (Front Démocratique des Francophones—FDF) affirms the rights of the French-speaking population of Brussels. The Flemish Interest (Vlaams Belang—VB) is separatist and antiforeigner while the much smaller far-right National Front (Front Nationale—FN) is openly racist and xenophobic. In 2001, the CVP was renamed the Christian Democratic and Flemish Party (CD and V); the SP was renamed the Social Progressive Alternative Party, or SPA; and the VU split into two parts—the conservative wing established the New Flemish Alliance (NVA), and the left-liberal wing became the Spirit Party. Groen! (formerly AGALEV) is the Flemish Green Party, and ECOLO represents francophone Greens. In 2002, the PSC was renamed the Democratic Humanistic Center (CDH), and the PRL, FDF, and the MCC or Movement of Citizens for Change (created in 1998 by a former leader of the francophone Christian Democrats), formed a new alliance called the Reform Movement (MR). Although these changes in parties' names and new groupings have taken place in the last few years, the Belgian political landscape has not been seriously reorganized.
Following the 13 June 1999 election, party strength in the Chamber of Representatives was as follows: CVP, 14.1% (22 seats); PS, 10.1% (19 seats); SP, 9.6% (14 seats); VLD, 14.31% (23 seats); PRL, 10.1% (18 seats); PSC, 5.9% (10 seats); VB, 9.9% (15 seats); VU, 5.6% (8 seats); ECOLO, 7.3% (11 seats); AGALEV, 7.0% (9 seats); FN 1.5% (1 seat) (150 total seats).
The 1999 election ended the political career of Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene, the Flemish Christian Democrat who led a center-left coalition of francophone and Flemish socialists and his francophone Christian Democratic Party throughout the 1990s. Six parties (French-speaking and Dutch-speaking branches of the Liberal, Socialist, and Green parties) reached a core agreement only three weeks after the election on forming a "blue-red-green" coalition government. It was Belgium's first government in 40 years not to include the Christian Democrats, the first to include the Greens, and the first since 1884 to be led by a Liberal prime minister (Guy Verhofstadt).
The presence of the Greens means a commitment to a progressive withdrawal from nuclear energy, starting with gradual decommissioning of nuclear power stations more than 40 years old. However, the Greens were dealt a setback in the 2003 elections. In the 18 May 2003 elections, the party strength was distributed as follows: VLD, 15.4% (25 seats); SP.A-Spirit, 14.9% (23 seats); CD and V, 13.2% (21 seats); PS, 13% (25 seats); VB, 11.6% (18 seats); MR, 11.4% (24 seats); CDH, 5.5% (8 seats); N-VA, 3.1% (1 seat); ECOLO, 3.1% (4 seats); AGALEV, 2.5%, no seats; FN, 2%, (1 seat), and Vivant (Alive), a human rights party, took 1.2% of the vote but secured no seats. Verhofstadt formed a center-left coalition government.
Belgium is divided into 10 provinces: Antwerp, East Flanders, West Flanders, and Limburg in the north, Hainaut, Liège, Luxembourg, and Namur in the south, Flemish Brabant, and Walloon Brabant. Each of the provinces has a council of 50 to 90 members elected for four-year terms by direct suffrage and empowered to legislate in matters of local concern. A governor, appointed by the king, is the highest executive officer in each province.
There are 482 communes. Each municipality has a town council elected for a six-year term. The council elects an executive body called the board of aldermen. The head of the municipality is the burgomaster, who is appointed by the sovereign upon nomination by the town council. Recently, the number of municipalities has been greatly reduced through consolidation.
In 1971, Brussels was established as a separate bilingual area, presided over by a proportionally elected metropolitan council. Linguistic parity was stipulated for the council's executive committee.
Belgian law is modeled on the French legal system. The judiciary is an independent branch of government on an equal footing with the legislative and the executive branches. Minor offenses are dealt with by justices of the peace and police tribunals. More serious offenses and civil lawsuits are brought before district courts of first instance. Other district courts are commerce and labor tribunals. Verdicts rendered by these courts may be appealed before five regional courts of appeal or the five regional labor courts in Antwerp, Brussels, Gent, Mons, and Liège. All offenses punishable by prison sentences of more than five years must be dealt with by the 11 courts of assize (one for each province and the city of Brussels), the only jury courts in Belgium. The highest courts are five civil and criminal courts of appeal and the supreme Court of Cassation. The latter's function is to verify that the law has been properly applied and interpreted. The constitutionality of legislation is the province of the Council of State, an advisory legal group.
When an error of procedure is found, the decision of the lower court is overruled and the case must be tried again. The death penalty was abolished for all crimes in Belgium in 1996.
A system of military tribunals, including appellate courts, handles both military and commonlaw offenses involving military personnel. The government is considering narrowing the jurisdiction of these courts to military offenses. All military tribunals consist of four officers and a civilian judge.
Detainees must be brought before a judge within 24 hours of arrest. Although there are provisions for bail, it is rarely granted. Defendants have right to be present, to have counsel, to confront witnesses, to present evidence, and to appeal.
Belgium's active armed forces in 2005 numbered 36,900, with 18,650 reservists. In terms of personnel, the army is the largest, with 24,800 active members (4,200 reservists), followed by the air force with 6,350 active members (1,600 reservists), and the navy with 2,450 active personnel (1,200 reservists). Belgium also has an 1,800 active member medical service (850 reservists) and a Joint Service force of 1,500 active members (2,200 reservists). The army is equipped with 52 main battle tanks, 104 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 223 armored personnel carriers, and 132 artillery pieces (48 self-propelled). The air force operated 90 combat aircraft, in addition to 36 transports, two early warning/electronic intelligence aircraft, and 49 helicopters. The navy operates a pair of guided missile frigates in addition to one patrol vessel, and six mine warfare/counter measures/hunter ships and nine logistics and support vessels. In 2005 Belgium spent $3.35 billion on defense.
Belgium is a charter member of the UN, having joined on 27 December 1945, and participates in ECE and all the nonregional specialized agencies. Paul-Henri Spaak of Belgium served as the UN General Assembly's first president (1946–47); from 1957 to 1961, he also served as the secretary-general of NATO, of which Belgium is also a member. The country has been partnered with Luxembourg in the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) since 1922. In 1958, Belgium signed a treaty forming the Benelux (Belgium-Netherlands-Luxembourg) Economic Union, following a 10-year period in which a customs union of the three countries was in effect. Belgium is also a member of the Asian Development Bank, Council of Europe, the European Union, the European Investment Bank, the Paris Club (G-10), G-9, the Western European Union, and OECD. It is also is a permanent observer of the OAS and a member of the OSCE (1973) and the WTO (1995).
Brussels, the seat of EU institutions, has become an important regional center for Western Europe. In 1967, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) was transferred from Rocquencourt, near Paris, to a site near Mons. On 16 October 1967, the NATO Council's headquarters were moved from Paris to Brussels. Belgium is a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
Belgium is part of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Nuclear Suppliers Group (London Group), the Australia Group, the Nuclear Energy Agency, the European Space Agency, the Zangger Committee, and the European Organization for Nuclear Research. The country has offered support for UN efforts in Kosovo (est. 1999), India and Pakistan (est. 1949), Burundi (est. 2004), and the DROC (est. 1999).
In environmental cooperation, Belgium is part of the Antarctic Treaty, the Basel Convention, the Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, Ramsar, CITES, the London Convention, the International Tropical Timber Agreements, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.
In relation to its size and population, Belgium is among the most highly industrialized countries in Europe. Poor in natural resources, it imports raw materials in great quantity and processes them largely for export. Exports equal around 80% of GDP, and about three-quarters of Belgium's foreign trade is with other EU countries.
With the exception of Luxembourg and Ireland, Belgium is the most open economy in the EU as measured by the value of exports and imports relative to GDP, and one of the most open in the world. Belgium's economy is highly integrated with that of its three main neighbors—Germany, France, and the Netherlands.
For a century and a half, Belgium maintained its status as an industrial country, not only by virtue of its geographical position and transport facilities but also because of its ability for most of this period to shape production to meet the changing requirements of world commerce. Since the 1950s, the Belgian parliament enacted economic expansion laws to enable long-established industries to modernize obsolete plant equipment. Belgium's highly developed transportation systems are closely linked with those of its neighbors. Its chief port, Antwerp, is one of the world's busiest. Belgium has a highly skilled and productive workforce, and the economy is diversified. By 2004, the service sector accounted for approximately 73% of GDP, followed by industry (25.7%) and agriculture (1.3%).
Real growth averaged 5.4% annually during 1967–73 but, like that of other OECD countries, slumped to 2.5% during 1973–80, and 0.7% during 1981–85. It averaged 2.6% during 1984–91 and was 2.3% in 1995. In 1993, Belgium's recession was the most severe in the EU after Germany's. By 1998, real growth stood at 2.8%. Real GDP growth in 2003 was 1.1% due to the global economic downturn existing in 2001–03. Growth picked up in 2004, to 2.7%, but was expected to slow to 1.3% in 2005, due to the impact of high oil prices on Belgium and its export markets. A slight recovery was forecast for 2006 (1.7%) and 2007 (2%). Average inflation was forecast at 2.7% in 2005, 2.5% in 2006, and 2.1% in 2007. The government will need to keep the budget from falling into deficit; budget surpluses will be needed until around 2030 to provide for the costs of an aging population. The 2006 budget was expected to be in balance for the seventh year in a row.
In 1993, when Belgium became a federal state with three distinct regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels), substantial economic powers were given to each region, such as jurisdiction over industrial development, research, trade promotion, and environmental regulation. Belgium has been seen as a "laboratory state," in that its federal system might stand as a precursor to a more unified EU based on regional divisions.
In 2004 Belgium had the fourth-highest standard of living in the world. However, being a highly taxed and indebted country, some businesses have stated Belgium stifles private enterprise.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Belgium's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $329.3 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $31,800. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 1.5%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 1% of GDP, industry 24%, and services 74.9% in 2004.
According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $3.933 billion or about $378 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP.
The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Belgium totaled $165.38 billion or about $15,902 per capita based on a GDP of $301.9 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 1.8%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 17% of household consumption was spent on food, 8% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 1% on education. It was estimated that in 1989 about 4% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.
As of 2005, the Belgian workforce was estimated at 4.77 million people. In 2003, it was estimated that the service industry employed 74.2% of workers, while 24.5% were employed in industry, and 1.3% in agriculture. The overall unemployment rate climbed to 12% in 1998, but fell to 7.2% by 2002. In 2005, unemployment had risen slightly to an estimated 7.6%.
The law provides workers with the right to associate freely and workers fully exercise their right to organize and join unions. Approximately 63% of the country's workforce (employed and unemployed) are union members. Workers have a broad right to strike except in "essential" industries including the military. A single collective bargaining agreement, negotiated every other year, covers about 2.4 million private sector workers. This gives unions considerable control over economic policy. In addition, unions also freely exercise the right to strike.
Belgium has a five-day, 38-hour workweek. Overtime pay is time-and-a-half on Mondays through Saturdays, with double-time paid on Sundays. Overtime is limited to 11 hours daily and up to 50 hours weekly. In addition, an 11-hour rest period is required between two work periods. Children under the age of 15 years are prohibited from working. Those between the ages of 15 and 18 may engage in part-time work-study programs, or work during school vacations. Child labor laws and standards are strictly enforced. In 2005, the national minimum wage was $1,492 per month, in addition to extensive social benefits. This minimum wage provides a decent standard of living for workers and their families.
Agriculture's role in the economy continues to decrease. In 2003, about 1.3% of the employed population worked on farms, compared with 3.7% in 1973. Agriculture's share in the GNP fell from 3.8% in 1973 to about 1.5% in 2002. Many marginal farms have disappeared; the remaining farms are small but intensively cultivated. Average farm size grew from 6.17 hectares (15.2 acres) in 1959 to 26.88 hectares (66.4 acres) in 2005, when there were 51,540 farms (down from 269,060 in 1959). About 80% of the country's food needs are covered domestically. The richest farm areas are in Flanders and Brabant. About 1.4 million hectares (3.4 million acres), or 45% of Belgium's total area, are under cultivation. Over half the land cultivated is used for pastureland or green fodder; one-quarter is used for the production of cereals. Total production of grains in 2004 was around 2.5 million tons, of which wheat accounted for about 65%; corn, 22%; barley, 10%; and spelt, triticale, oats, rye, and other grains, 8%.
Government price policy encourages increased production of wheat and barley with decreasing production of rye and oats. Increased emphasis is being placed on horticulture, and nearly all fruits found in temperate climates are grown in Belgium. Chief among these are apples, pears, and cherries. Producers of tomatoes and apples were obliged to refrain from marketing part of their 1992 harvests in order to hold up prices. Tomato production in 2004 totaled 250,000 tons, about 1% of European production.
Belgium imports considerable quantities of bread and feed grains, fodder concentrates, and fruits. Its only agricultural exports are processed foods and a few specialty items such as endive, chicory, flower bulbs, sugar, and chocolates. In 2004, agricultural products amounted to 8.6% of exports; there was an agricultural trade surplus of $3.2 billion that year. Imports from other EU countries account for 85% of agricultural imports.
Livestock raising is the most important single sector of Belgian agriculture, accounting for over 60% of agricultural production. In 2004 there were about 2.7 million head of cattle, 6.4 million hogs, 151,000 sheep, and 33,000 horses. Belgian farmers breed some of the finest draft horses in the world, including the famous Percherons.
The country is self-sufficient in butter, milk, meat, and eggs. Some cheese is imported, mainly from the Netherlands. Milk production amounted to 3.35 million tons in 2004.
The chief fishing ports are Zeebrugge and Ostend (Oostende, Ostende), from which a fleet of 156 boats (with a combined 23,262 GRT) sail the North Atlantic from the North Sea to Iceland. The total catch in 2003 was 27,800 tons, whose exports were valued at $762.4 million. Principal species caught that year were plaice, sole, turbot, and cod.
Forests cover 21% of the area of Belgium. Commercial production of timber is limited; roundwood production in 2003 was estimated at 4.76 million cu m (168 million cu ft). Most common trees are beech and oak, but considerable plantings of conifers have been made in recent years. Belgium serves as a large transshipment center for temperate hardwood logs, softwood lumber, and softwood plywood. Large quantities of timber for the woodworking industry are typically imported from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The total output of Belgium's wood processing and furniture industry in 2004 was €5.65 billion, with furniture accounting for 52%; wood panels, 22%; and construction, packing, and other wood products, 26%.
The total value of exports of forest products in 2003 was $4.7 billion, with imports of $3.9 billion. Belgium's wood processing industry consists of over 2,000 enterprises, 65% of which are furniture manufacturers, typically with fewer than five employees.
Belgium's only remaining active mining operations in 2003 were for the production of sand and gravel and the quarrying of some stone, including specialty marbles and the Belgian bluegray limestone called "petit granite." An important producer of marble for more than 2,000 years, Belgium was recognized for the diversity and quality of its dimension stone. All the marble quarries are in Wallonia, and red, black, and gray are the principal color ranges of the marble. The country was an important producer of such industrial materials as carbonates, including limestone, dolomite, silica sand, whiting, and sodium sulfate.
The mineral-processing industry was a significant contributor to the Belgian economy. The refining of copper, zinc, and minor metals, and the production of steel (all from imported materials), were the most developed mineral industries in Belgium. The country possessed Europe's largest electrolytic copper and zinc refineries, and one of the continent's largest lead refineries. In addition, Belgium retained its position as the world's diamond capital. Estimated production figures for 2003, in metric tons, included: secondary copper, 125,000 and primary zinc, 230,000. Hydraulic cement output in 2003 totaled 8 million tons, with lime and dead-burned dolomite at 1.7 million tons. Quarried Belgian bluestone, or petit granite, totaled 1.2 million cu m in 2003. Petite granite, which is actually a dark blue–gray crinoidal limestone, was one of the most important facing stones the country produces.
Belgium was once a major producer of coal, as the Belgian coal mining industry dates back to the 12th century. Coal was mined in the Sambre-Meuse Valley; the last mines closed in 1992. Metallic mining was in its heyday from 1850 to 1870, after which mining activity decreased until the last iron ore operations at Musson and Halanzy were closed in 1978. Belgium has no economically exploitable reserves of metal ores.
In 1998 there were about 120 power stations operating in Belgium; capacity as of 2002 was 14.223 million kW. Electricity generated in that year totaled 76.516 billion kWh, of which 44.992 billion kWh was from nuclear sources and 29.535 kWh came from fossil fuels. In 1981, only 25% of the nation's power was from nuclear sources. By 2002, that figure had risen to 40%, or 5.738 million kW. Hydroelectric generation in 2002 totaled 0.356 billion kWh, while geothermal and other sources accounted for 1.633 kWh. Electricity consumption in the same year was 78.760 billion kWh. The principal sources of primary energy for conventional power production are low-grade coal and byproducts of the oil industry. Belgium is heavily dependent on imports of crude oil, but it exports refined oil products. Power rates in Belgium are regulated through a voluntary agreement between labor, industry, and private power interests. In 2000, total energy consumption was 2.8 quadrillion Btu, of which 45% came from petroleum, 23% from natural gas, 12% from coal, 17% from nuclear energy, and the remainder from hydroelectric and other renewable sources.
Industry, highly developed in Belgium, is devoted mainly to the processing of imported raw materials into semifinished and finished products, most of which are then exported. Industry accounted for 24% of GDP in 2004. Steel production is the single most important sector of industry, with Belgium ranking high among world producers of iron and steel. However, it must import all its iron ore, which comes principally from Brazil, West Africa, and Venezuela. About fourfifths of Belgium's steel products and more than three-quarters of its crude steel output are exported. In recent years, Belgian industry has been hampered by high labor costs, aging plant facilities, and a shrinking market for its products. Nevertheless, industrial production rose by nearly 11% between 1987 and 1991, as a result of falling energy costs (after 1985) and financial costs, and only a moderate rise in wage costs. Industrial production continued to rise in the late 1990s; 1997 registered a 4% growth rate, while it slowed to 3.1% in 1998. The industrial growth rate in 2000 was 5.3%; it was -0.5% in 2001, due to the global economic downturn, and rebounded to an estimated 3.5% in 2004.
Production of crude steel declined from 16.2 million tons in 1974 to 11.3 million tons in 1991, while the output of finished steel dropped from 12.2 million tons to 8.98 million tons. In 2004, Belgium's total crude steel production was 11.7 million metric tons. Belgium as a steel-producing country ranked 18th in the world in 2004, and was the 5th largest steel exporting country in the world. The industry employs some 19,500 people. By 1981, 60% of all Belgian steel production and 80% of all Wallonian steel (concentrated in Charleroi and Liège) came under the control of a single company, the government-owned Cockerill-Sambre. Government subsidies for this firm ended (in conformity with EC policy) in 1985. In 1998, French-owned Usinor agreed to take over Cockerill-Sambre, the last major steel making enterprise in Wallonia. As a result of this and other mergers, the Belgian steel industry is now dominated by one multinational company, Arcelor, based in Luxembourg. Arcelor, which was created in 2001, is the largest steel company in the world and is a merger of Usinor, Arbed, and Arcelia.
Belgium also produces significant amounts of crude copper, crude zinc, and crude lead. The bulk of metal manufactures consists of heavy machinery, structural steelwork, and industrial equipment. The railroad equipment industry supplies one of the most extensive railroad systems in Europe. An important ship-building industry is centered in Temse, south of Antwerp. Belgian engineering and construction firms have built steel plants, chemical works, power stations, port facilities, and office buildings throughout the world.
Belgium's automotive industry has always been one of the strongest components of its economy. Belgium is a world leader in the car assembly industry; with nearly 95% of its output designed for export, Belgium has the highest per capita production in the world. Belgium's local automotive production in 2003 was estimated at $23.5 billion.
The textile industry, dating from the Middle Ages, produces cottons, woolens, linens, and synthetic fibers. With the exception of flax, all raw materials are imported. Centers of the textile industry are Bruges, Brussels, Verviers, Gent, Courtrai (Kortrijk), and Malines (Mechelen). Carpets are made in large quantities at Saint-Nicolas (Sint-Niklaas). Brussels and Bruges are noted for fine linen and lace. Foreign competition has cut into the Belgian textile industry, however. Following the expiration of the World Trade Organization's longstanding system of textile quotas at the beginning of 2005, the EU signed an agreement with China in June 2005 imposing new quotas on 10 categories of textile goods, limiting growth in those categories to between 8% and 12.5% a year. The agreement runs until 2007, and was designed to give European textile manufacturers time to adjust to a world of unfettered competition. Nevertheless, barely a month after the EU-China agreement was signed, China reached its quotas for sweaters, followed soon after by blouses, bras, T-shirts, and flax yarn. Tens of millions of garments piled up in warehouses and customs check-points, which affected both retailers and consumers.
The chemical industry manufactures a wide range of products, from heavy chemicals and explosives to pharmaceuticals and photographic supplies. The diamond-cutting industry in Antwerp supplies most of the United States's industrial diamond requirements. Eighty percent of all rough diamonds are handled in Antwerp, and 50% of all polished diamonds pass through Antwerp. The Antwerp World Diamond Center is concentrated in a two-square-mile area, comprising more than 1,500 diamond companies and four diamond bourses. Those working in the Belgian diamond industry are increasingly being pressured to refrain from buying "conflict diamonds" from Africa, whose proceeds have fueled civil wars in a number of African countries, including Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola. Belgium has one of the largest glass industries in the world. Val St. Lambert is especially known for its fine crystal glassware. Belgian refineries (chiefly in Antwerp) turn out oil products.
The Royal Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Fine Arts, founded in Brussels in 1772, and since divided into French and Flemish counterparts, has sections for mathematics, physical sciences, and the natural sciences. There are, in addition, many specialized societies for the study of medicine, biology, zoology, anthropology, astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, geology, and engineering. The National Scientific Research Fund (inaugurated in 1928), in Brussels, promotes scientific research by providing subsidies and grants to scientists and students. The Royal Institute of Natural Sciences (founded in 1846), also in Brussels, provides general scientific services in the areas of biology, mineralogy, paleontology, and zoology. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 41% of college and university enrollment. In 2004 total research and development (R&D) expenditures provisionally amounted to €6.712 billion. As of 2001 (the latest year for which there is complete data) there were 1,462 technicians and 3,134 researchers per million people actively engaged in R&D. In that same year, 64.3% of R&D expenditures came from business, with 21.4% from the government, and 11.8% from foreign sources. In 2002, high technology exports totaled $15.736 billion or 11% of manufactured exports.
Among the nation's distinguished scientific institutions are the Center for the Study of Nuclear Energy in Mol (founded in 1952); the National Botanical Garden of Belgium in Meise (founded in 1870); the Royal Observatory of Belgium in Brussels (founded in 1826); the Institute of Chemical Research in Tervuren (founded in 1928); the Royal Meteorological Institute in Brussels (reorganized in 1913); the Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics in Rhode-St-Genese (founded in 1956) and supported by NATO; and the Institute of Spatial Aeronomy in Brussels (founded in 1964). Belgium has 18 universities and colleges offering degrees in basic and applied sciences.
Brussels is the main center for commerce and for the distribution of manufactured goods. Other important centers include Antwerp, Liège, and Ghent. Most large wholesale firms engage in import and export. Customary terms of sale are payment within 30–90 days after delivery, depending upon the commodity and the credit rating of the purchaser.
In 1994, the government began privatization efforts of several public sector corporations, including banks and airlines. The domestic market is relatively small. Instead, the economy relies heavily on trade as various industries have capitalized on the country's prime central European location, which serves as a regional transit and distribution center. The country also serves as a vital test market for many European goods and franchises.
Business hours are mainly from 8 or 9 am to 5 or 6 pm, Monday through Friday, with an hour for lunch. Banks are open from 9 am to between 3:30 and 5 pm, Monday–Friday. Retail stores are generally open from 9 am to 6 pm, Monday through Saturday; some may close for lunch. Larger stores and shopping centers stay open until 9 pm on Fridays. Important international trade fairs are held annually in Brussels and Ghent. Advertising techniques are well developed, and the chief media are the press, radio, and television.
Foreign trade plays a greater role in the Belgian economy than in any other EU country except Luxembourg. Exports constituted around 80% of GDP in the early 2000s. Belgium's chief exports are iron and steel (semifinished and manufactured), chemicals, textiles, machinery, road vehicles and parts, nonferrous metals, diamonds, and foodstuffs. Its imports are general manufactures, foodstuffs, diamonds, metals and metal ores, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing, machinery, electrical equipment, and motor vehicles. In 1921, Belgium partnered with Luxembourg in the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU).
In 2004, 77.4% of Belgium's exports and 74% of its imports were traded with EU countries. Belgium's leading markets in 2004 were Germany (17.5% of total exports), France (17.4%), the Netherlands (12.9%), the United Kingdom (8.6%), and Italy (5.4%). Belgium's leading suppliers in 2004 were the Netherlands (19.9% of all imports), Germany (16.6%), France (13.7%), the United Kingdom (7.8%), and the United States (5.6%).
Belgium ran deficits on current accounts each year from 1976 through 1984. Trade deficits, incurred consistently in the late 1970s and early 1980s, were only partly counterbalanced by invisible exports, such as tourism and services, and capital transfers. Belgium in the early 2000s had a high current account surplus—$14.3 billion in 2003, and averaging 4.2% of GDP from 2000–04. The current account surplus in 2004 was estimated at $11.4 billion.
Belgium in the early 2000s was attempting to meet the EU's Maastricht target of a cumulative public debt of not more than 60% of GDP. However, the public debt only fell below 100% of GDP at the end of 2003, for the first time in nearly 30 years. Public debt stood at 96.2% of GDP in 2004.
The total value of exports in 2003 was estimated at $189.2 billion. Imports were estimated at $173 billion, for a trade surplus of $16.2 billion.
The National Bank of Belgium (Banque Nationale de Belgique-BNB, founded in 1850), the sole bank of issue, originally was a joint-stock institution. The Belgian government took over 50% of its shares in 1948. Its directors are appointed by the government, but the bank retains a large degree of autonomy. In Belgium, most regulatory powers are vested in the Banking Commission, an autonomous administrative body that monitors compliance of all banks with national banking laws. In order to restrain inflation and maintain monetary stability, the BNB varied its official discount rate from 2.75% in 1953 to a peak of 8.75% in December 1974; by 1978, the rate was reduced to 6%, but it rose steadily to a high of 15% in 1981 before declining to 11.5% at the end of 1982 and 9.75% by December 1985. By 1993 the discount rate was 5.25%. At the time of its abolition on December 15, 1998, the discount rate was 2.75%.
By law, the name "bank" in Belgium may be used only by institutions engaged mainly in deposit bank activities and short-term operations. Commercial banks are not authorized to invest long-term capital in industrial or business enterprises. The largest commercial bank, the General Banking Society, came into being in 1965 through a merger of three large banks. The National Society for Industrial Credit provides medium-term loans to industrial
|Italy-San Marino-Holy See||13,853.3||7,879.5||5,973.8|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
|Balance on goods||9,532.0|
|Balance on services||1,919.0|
|Balance on income||6,830.0|
|Direct investment abroad||-23,302.0|
|Direct investment in Belgium||33,768.0|
|Portfolio investment assets||-3,190.0|
|Portfolio investment liabilities||5,739.0|
|Other investment assets||-80,013.0|
|Other investment liabilities||71,572.0|
|Net Errors and Omissions||-13,104.0||Reserves and Related Items||1,723.0|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
firms and exporters. Other institutions supply credit to small business and to farmers. The leading savings institute is the General Savings and Retirement Fund, which operates mainly through post office branches. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $63.1 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $241.7 billion.
The Bourse in Belgium is a very old institution. As early as the 13th century, merchants from the main commercial centers, particularly Genoa and Venice, used to gather in front of the house of the Van der Bourse family in Brugge, which was then the prosperous trading center of the low countries. The word "Bourse" is often considered to have originated in Brugge.
The Brussels Stock Exchange was founded in 1801 after Napoleon, then Consul of the Republic, issued a decree of the 13th Messidor in the 9th Year that "There shall be an exchange in Brussels, in the Department of the Dyle." The law of 30 December 1867, completely abolished the provisions then in force controlling the profession of broker, the organization of the exchanges and the operations transacted there. After the crisis of 1929 through 1933, a commission was created to assure investors of greater security. The Commercial Code of 1935 still controls the organization of the stock exchange in large measure. Since the law of 4 December 1990, the Société de la Bourse de valeirs mobiliéres de Bruxelles (SBVMB) is organized under the form of a cooperative society. There is also an exchange in Antwerp. Market capitalization as of December 2004 stood at $818.520 billion, with the local BEL 20 Index up 30.7% from the previous year at 2,932.6.
The exchanges deal in national, provincial, and municipal government bonds, government lottery bonds, and company shares. The issuance of shares and bonds to the public is subject to the control of the Banking Commission in Brussels. There are also a number of special industrial exchanges; the most prominent one is the Diamond Exchange in Antwerp.
Insurance transactions are regulated by the Insurance Control Office of the Ministry of Economic Affairs. Compulsory classes of insurance in Belgium are workers' compensation, automobile liability, and inland marine liabilities. Life and disability insurance needs are to a large extent met by Belgium's extensive social security system. Compulsory insurance includes thirdparty automobile liability, workers' compensation, "no fault" liability for property owners with free access to property, hunter's liability, and nuclear liability for power facilities.
In 1996 and 1997, a general pattern of mergers and acquisitions among European union insurers formed, as companies sought to strategically take advantage of the single market in insurance, which became effective in July 1994. Many insurance companies throughout the European Union (EU) are considered too small to operate effectively on an international scale, to meet the challenge of bancassurance, or to invest sufficiently in the new technology needed to survive in the increasingly competitive industry. In 2003, the value of direct premiums written totaled $33.814 billion, of which $21.004 billion was accounted for by life insurance premiums. The country's top life insurer that year was ETHIAS Life,
|Revenue and Grants||112,364||100.0%|
|General public services||42,466||37.8%|
|Public order and safety||2,568||2.3%|
|Housing and community amenities||…||…|
|Recreational, culture, and religion||274||0.2%|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
with gross life premiums written of $3,458.8 million. The top nonlife insurer was Axa Belgium, with gross written nonlife premiums (including healthcare) of $1,265.1 million in 2003.
The government's budgetary year coincides with the calendar year. In the final months of the year, the minister of finance places before Parliament a budget containing estimated revenues and expenditures for the following year, and a finance law authorizing the collection of taxes is passed before 1 January. Inasmuch as expenditure budgets generally are not all passed by then, "provisional twelfths" enable the government to meet expenditures month by month, until all expenditure budgets are passed. Current expenditures, supposedly covered by the usual revenues (including all tax and other government receipts), relate to the normal functioning of government services and to pension and public debt charges. Capital expenditures consist mainly of public projects and are normally covered by borrowings. Improvements in fiscal and external balances in the early 1990s and a slowdown in external debt growth enables the Belgian government to easily obtain loans on the local credit market. As a member of the G-10 group of leading financial nations, Belgium actively participates in the IMF, World Bank, and the Paris Club. Belgium is a leading donor nation, and it closely follows development and debt issues, particularly with respect to the DROC and other African nations.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Belgium's central government took in revenues of approximately $180.4 billion and had expenditures of $180.5 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$100 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 93.6% of GDP. Total external debt was $980.1 billion.
Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 37.8%; defense, 2.9%; public order and safety, 2.3%; economic affairs, 4.3%; environmental protection, 0.1%; health, 14.9%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.2%; education, 2.7%; and social protection, 34.8%.
The most important direct tax is the income tax. Since enactment of the tax law of 20 November 1962, this tax has been levied on the total amount of each taxpayer's income from all sources. As of 2005, the top individual income tax rate is 50%, excluding local taxes. Local taxes are levied at rates varying from 4–10%. Taxes are not paid in one lump sum, but rather by a series of prepayments on the various sources of income. There is a withholding tax on salaries that is turned over directly to the revenue officer. Self-employed persons send a prepayment to the revenue officer during the first half of July. Banks and stockbrokers who offer dividends must first deduct a prepayment of 25%. Taxes on real estate are based on the assessed rental value.
The general corporate income tax, which is levied on all distributed profits, was lowered from 48% to 45% in 1982, to 43% in 1987, to 38% in 1993, and stands at 33% as of 2005. Nondistributed profits are taxed at progressive rates ranging from 28–41%. In some instances, local government bodies are entitled to impose additional levies. Numerous tax exemptions are granted to promote investments in Belgium.
In 1971, a value-added tax system was introduced, replacing sales and excise taxes. A general rate of 21% was applied as of 1996 to industrial goods, with a reduced rate of 6% applying to basic necessities and an interim rate of 12% to certain other products, such as social housing and agricultural products.
Customs duties are levied at the time of importation and are generally ad valorem. Belgium applies the EU common external tariff (CET) to goods imported from non-EU countries. There is a single duty system (the CET) among all EU members for products coming from non-EU members. Theoretically, no customs duties apply for goods imported into Belgium from EU countries. Value-added taxes are levied on the importation of foodstuffs, tobacco, alcohol, beer, mineral water, and fuel oils. There are no export duties.
Foreign investment in Belgium generally takes the form of establishing subsidiaries of foreign firms in the country. Belgium is the economic as well as the political center of Europe. The Belgian government actively promotes foreign investment. In recent years, the government has given special encouragement to industries that will create new skills and increase export earnings. The government grants equal treatment under the law, as well as special tax inducements and assistance, to foreign firms that establish enterprises in the country. There is no regulation prescribing the proportion of foreign to domestic capital that may be invested in an enterprise. The foreign investor can repatriate all capital profits and long-term credit is available. Local authorities sometimes offer special assistance and concessions to new foreign enterprises in their area. Since the start of EU's single market, most, but not all, trade and investment rules have been implemented by Belgium in order to be in line with other EU member nations.
The corporation tax rate was reduced in 2003 to 33.99% (24.98% for small companies). Over time, the Belgian government intends to reduce the corporate tax rate to 30%. The standard rate of value-added tax (VAT) is 21%. Overall, Belgium has strong competitive advantages, such as an excellent transportation infrastructure, high-quality industrial sites, and a skilled and productive workforce.
As of 2005, some of Belgium's leading sectors for US foreign investment were automotive parts and service equipment, biotechnology, computer services and software, consumer goods, electric power systems and services, environmental technologies, plastic materials and resins, telecommunication services and equipment, textile fabrics, and travel and tourism services.
Between 2001 and 2005, Belgium was expected to attract an annual average of $30.2 billion in foreign direct investment. With 3.4% of total world FDI, Belgium ranks seventh. Countries with large investments in Belgium include the United States, Germany, United Kingdom, Netherlands, France, and Switzerland. In 2004, foreign direct investment outflows from the 25 EU countries fell by some 25%, while inflows coming from the rest of the world fell by more than 50%. These falls were strongly influenced by investment flows with the United States. With inflows higher than outflows by €4 billion, Belgium was the EU's largest net recipient of FDI from outside the EU. Belgium was the fourth highest recipient of FDI from within the EU in 2004, at €19 billion, behind the United Kingdom, Luxembourg, and France. In all, Belgium's intra-EU outflows totaled €16.6 billion, and intra-EU inflows totaled €18.9 billion. Extra-EU outflows totaled €4.4 billion, and extra-EU inflows totaled €8.8 billion. Belgian investment abroad is substantial in the fields of transport (particularly in Latin American countries), nonferrous metals, metalworking, and photographic materials.
Belgium has well-developed capital markets to accommodate foreign finance and portfolio investment. More than half its banking activities involve foreign countries. The world's first stock market was opened in Antwerp in the 14th century. At the end of 2000, the Brussels Stock Market merged with the Paris and Amsterdam bourses (and later Lisbon) to form the Euronext stock exchange. Euronext forms the largest (in volume) multinational stock and derivatives exchange in Europe. In 1996, the European Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation (EASDAQ) Exchange opened in Belgium, modeled on the NASDAQ electronic exchange, dedicated to young dynamic "dot.com" start-ups. In April 2001, NASDAQ bought majority ownership and renamed it NASDAQ-Europe.
Belgian economic policy is based upon the encouragement of private enterprise, with very little government intervention in the economy. Also, as a country heavily dependent upon foreign trade, Belgium has traditionally favored the freest exchange of goods, without tariffs or other limitations. Restrictions on free enterprise and free trade have always been due to external pressure and abnormal circumstances, as in time of war or economic decline.
To meet increased competition in world markets and to furnish relief for areas of the country suffering from chronic unemployment, the government has taken measures to promote the modernization of plants and the creation of new industries. Organizations have been established to provide financial aid and advice, marketing and scientific research, studies on methods of increasing productivity, and nuclear research for economic utilization. Government policy aims at helping industry to hold costs down and to engage in greater production of finished (rather than semifinished) goods. Results have been mixed, with greater success in chemicals and light manufacturing than in the critical iron and steel industry.
In 1993, the government modified its policy of forbidding more than 49% private ownership in government banks, insurance companies, and the national telecommunications company. In 2000, the government enacted tax reform, reducing corporate, trade, and income taxes. The tax cuts planned through 2006, although improving work and investment incentives, will have to be countered by reduced government spending to compensate for the lost revenue. The telecommunications sector has been liberalized, as have the gas and energy markets.
Belgium successfully attained a budget deficit of less than 3% by the end of 1997, as stipulated by the EU. Due to a strict control of spending, the government has managed to balance the budget in recent years; the 2006 budget foresees balance for the seventh year in a row, but is based on optimistic growth and revenue assumptions. A main economic policy priority has for many years been the reduction of the large public debt, which fell below 100% of GDP at the end of 2003, for the first time in nearly 30 years. With Belgium's employment rate one of the lowest in the EU, the government has created a target of increasing employment by 200,000 by 2007.
Belgium has a social insurance system covering all workers dating back to 1900 for old age and 1944 for disability. The current law was last updated in 2001, and the age to receive full retirement benefits will be increasing to age 65 by 2009. The law provides for disability and survivorship benefits as well. Sickness and maternity benefits were originally established in 1894 with mutual benefits societies. There is work accident and occupational disease coverage for all employed persons. Family allowances cover all workers, with special systems for civil servants and the self-employed.
The Belgian government has taken an active stance to protect and promote the rights of women and children. Domestic violence is a problem and in 2004 the government initiated a national plan to increase awareness. Belgium's equal opportunity law includes a sexual harassment provision, giving women a stronger legal basis for complaints. Child protection laws are comprehensive, and governmental programs for child welfare are amply funded. The government also attempts to integrate women at all levels of decision-making and women play an important role in both the public and private sectors.
Legislation prohibits discrimination based on race, ethnicity or nationality, and penalizes incitement of hate and discrimination. The constitution provides for the freedom of religion. Although minority rights are well protected in Belgium, extreme-right political parties with xenophobic beliefs have gained ground in recent years. In 2004, there were several attacks on Jews and Muslims.
Every city or town in Belgium has a public assistance committee (elected by the city or town council), which is in charge of health and hospital services in its community. These committees organize clinics and visiting nurse services, run public hospitals, and pay for relief patients in private hospitals. There is a national health insurance plan, membership of which covers practically the whole population. A number of private hospitals are run by local communities or mutual aid societies attached to religious organizations. A school health program includes annual medical examinations for all school children. Private and public mental institutions include observation centers, asylums, and colonies where mental patients live in groups and enjoy a limited amount of liberty.
A number of health organizations, begun by private initiative and run under their own charters, now enjoy semiofficial status and receive government subsidies. Among them are the Belgian Red Cross, the National Tuberculosis Society, the League for Mental Hygiene, and the National Children's Fund. The last of these, working through its own facilities and through cooperating agencies, provides prenatal and postnatal consultation clinics for mothers, a visiting nurse service, and other health services. Health expenditures were estimated at 8.8% of total GDP.
Roughly 60% of Belgium's hospitals are privately operated, nonprofit institutions. As of 2004, there were an estimated 418 physicians, 1074 nurses, 70 dentists, and 145 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Nearly 100% of the Belgium population has access to health services. In 1999, the country immunized one-year-old children as follows: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 96%, and measles, 83%. The infant mortality rate in 2005 was 5 per 1,000 live births, one of the lowest in the world. Average life expectancy for that year was 79 years. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.20 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 10,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 100 deaths from AIDS in 2003.
Belgium no longer has a housing shortage. In the mid-1970s, an average of over 60,000 new dwellings were built every year; by the early 1980s, however, the government sought by reducing the value-added tax on residential construction to revitalize the depressed housing market. Public funds have been made available in increasing amounts to support the construction of low-cost housing, with low-interest mortgages granted by the General Savings and Retirement Fund.
The 2001 census reports a total of 4,248,502 private, occupied dwellings in the country. About 82% of the population live in single-family homes. About 14% are apartment dwellers. The average household size is 2.4 persons. About 68% of all units are occupied by owners or crowners.
Education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 18. Belgium has two complete school systems operating side by side. One is organized by the state or by local authorities and is known as the official school system. The other, the private school system, is largely Roman Catholic. For a long time, the rivalry between the public and private systems and the question of subsidies to private schools were the main issues in Belgian politics. The controversy was settled in 1958, and both systems are presently financed with government funds along more or less identical lines.
Within the public system, there are also some variations in programming between the French community and the Flemish community. In both, the primary (elementary) school covers six years of study. In the French system, secondary school is divided into three levels, with each level lasting two years. Following this course of study, a student may choose to continue in a one-year program for professional development, technical training, or preparation for university studies. There are also programs for artistic development. In the Flemish system, secondary students may choose between four educational tracks: general, technical, artistic, or vocational. Each track covers a six-year course of study. Most children between the ages of three and five attend some type of preschool program. The academic year runs from September to July.
Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 100% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 97% of age-eligible students. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 12:1 in 2003.
Higher education centers on the eight main universities: the state universities of Ghent, Liège, Antwerp, and Mons; the two branches of the Free University of Brussels, which in 1970 became separate private institutions, one Dutch (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) and the other French (Université Libre de Bruxelles); the Catholic University of Brussels; and the Catholic University of Louvain, which also split in 1970 into the Katholicke Universiteit Leuven (Dutch) and the Université Catholique de Louvain (French). Total enrollment in tertiary education programs for 2001 was at about 367,000. In 2003, about 61% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate is estimated at about 98%.
As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 6.3% of GDP.
There are large libraries, general and specialized, in the principal cities. Brussels has the kingdom's main reference collections, including the Royal Library (founded in 1837), with about four million volumes, as well as the Library of Parliament (1835) with 600,000 volumes, the Library of the Royal Institute of Natural Sciences (681,000 volumes), and the General Archives of the Kingdom, founded in 1794, with 350,000 documents from the 11th to the 20th centuries. Antwerp is the seat of the Archives and the Museum of Flemish Culture, which has an open library of 55,000 volumes. The university libraries of Louvain (1.2 million volumes), Gent (three million volumes), and Liège (1.7 million volumes) date back to 1425, 1797, and 1817, respectively. The library of the Free University of Brussels (1846) has 1.8 million volumes. Also in Brussels is the library of Commission of the European Communities. In addition, there are several hundred private, special, and business libraries, especially in Antwerp and Brussels, including Antwerp's International Peace Information Service (1981) with 25,000 volumes related to disarmament, and the library of the Center for American Studies in Brussels, with 30,000 volumes dealing with American civilization.
Belgium's 200 or more museums, many of them with art and historical treasures dating back to the Middle Ages and earlier, are found in cities and towns throughout the country. Among Antwerp's outstanding institutions are the Open-Air Museum of Sculpture in Middelheim Park, displaying works by Rodin, Maillol, Marini, Moore, and others; the Rubens House, containing 17th-century furnishings and paintings by Peter Paul Rubens; and the Folk Art Museum (1907) featuring popular music and crafts unique to Flemish Culture and mythology. Brussels' museums include the Royal Museum of Fine Arts (founded 1795), which has medieval, Renaissance, and modern collections; Royal Museum of Central Africa (1897), which has rich collections of African arts and crafts, natural history, ethnography, and prehistory; the Royal Museum of Art and History (1835), with its special collections of Chinese porcelain and furniture, Flemish tapestries, and of 18th-and 19th-century applied and decorative art; and the Museum of Modern Art, featuring 20th-century paintings, sculptures, and drawings. Museums in Bruges, Liège, Gent, Malines, and Verviers have important general or local collections.
International and domestic telegraph and telephone service, operated by a government agency, is well developed. In 2003, there were an estimated 489 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 793 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.
National radio and television service is organized into Dutch and French branches. Commercial broadcasting is permitted, hence costs are defrayed through annual license fees on radio and television receivers. There are two national public stations, one broadcasting in French, the other in Dutch. In addition, there are at least two Dutch-language, one French-language, and one German language commercial stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 793 radios and 541 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 377.7 of every 1,000 people are cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 318.1 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 386 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 946 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.
The Belgian press has full freedom of expression as guaranteed by the constitution of 1831. There are some restrictions on the press regarding slander, libel, and the advocating of racial or ethnic hate, violence, or discrimination. Newspapers are published in French and Dutch, and generally reflect the views of one of the major parties. Agence Belga is the official news agency.
The major daily newspapers published in French, with their 2002 circulations and political affiliation, include Le Soir (Independent), 178,500; La Lanterne (Socialist), 129,800; La Libre Belgique (Catholic-Independent), 80,000; and La Nouvelle Gazette (Liberal), 94,600. Dutch language papers include De Standaard (Flemish-Catholic), 372,000; De Gazet van Antwerpen (Christian Democrat), 148,000; and Het Volk/Nieuwe Gids (Catholic-Labor), 143,300. The Flemish language paper Het Laatste Nieuws (Independent) had a 2002 daily circulation of 308,808. About 500 weeklies appear in Belgium, most of them in French or Dutch and a few in German or English. Their overall weekly circulation is estimated to exceed 6.5 million copies.
Among Belgium's numerous learned societies are the Royal Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Fine Arts and the Royal Academy of Medicine; in addition, there are the Royal Academy of French Language and Literature and the Royal Academy of Dutch Language and Literature. There is a cultural council for each of the three official languages. Architects, painters, and sculptors are organized in the Association of Professional Artists of Belgium.
Business and industry are organized in the Belgium Business Federation (1885), the Chambers of Commerce, and the American Chamber of Commerce in Brussels, as well as on the basis of industrial sectors and in local bodies. Among the latter, the Flemish and Walloon economic councils and the nine provincial economic councils are the most important. The ACP Business Forum, the Association of European Chambers of Commerce and Industry, and the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions meet in Brussels. There are a vast number of national professional, trade, and industry associations for a wide variety of occupations and professions.
The many sports societies include the Royal Belgian Athletic League, the Jockey Club Royal de Belgique, and soccer, cycling, archery, homing pigeon, tennis, hunting, boating, camping, and riding clubs. Youth organizations include four branches of the World Organization of Scouting and an organization of Girl Guides.
Veterans' and disabled veterans' associations, voluntary associations to combat the major diseases, and philanthropic societies are all active in Belgium.
There are active chapters of the Red Cross, UNICEF, CARE International, Greenpeace, Caritas, and Amnesty International.
Belgium has three major tourist regions: the seacoast, the old Flemish cities, and the Ardennes Forest in the southeast. Ostend is the largest North Sea resort; others are Blankenberge and Knokke. Among Flemish cities, Brugge, Gent, and Ypres stand out, while Antwerp also has many sightseeing attractions, including the busy port, exhibitions of the diamond industry, and the Antwerp Zoo, an oasis of green in the city center. Brussels, home of the European Community headquarters, is a modern city whose most famous landmark is the Grand Place. The capital is the site of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, with its varied concert and dance programs, and of the Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie, home of the internationally famous Ballet of the 20th Century. St. Michael's Cathedral and Notre Dame du Sablon are the city's best-known churches. The Erasmus House in the suburb of Anderlecht and the Royal Palace and Gardens at nearby Laeken are popular tourist centers. Louvain possesses an architecturally splendid city hall and a renowned university. Malines, seat of the Belgian primate, has a handsome cathedral. Liège, in the eastern industrial heartland, boasts one of the finest Renaissance buildings, the palace of its prince-bishops. Tournai is famous for its Romanesque cathedral. Spa, in the Ardennes, is one of Europe's oldest resorts and gave its name to mineral spring resorts in general. Namur, Dinant, and Huy have impressive fortresses overlooking one of the most important strategic crossroads in Western Europe, the Meuse Valley.
All travelers are required to have a valid passport; visas are issued for stays of up to 30 days. No visa is required for citizens of the United States or Canada.
There were 5.2 million visitor arrivals in 2003, when receipts from tourism amounted to $8.7 billion. In that year, Belgium had 63,220 hotel rooms and 16,368 beds.
In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Belgium at between $161 and $320.
Belgium has produced many famous figures in the arts. In the 15th century, one of the great periods of European painting culminated in the work of Jan van Eyck (1390?–1441) and Hans Memling (1430?–94). They were followed by Hugo van der Goes (1440?–82), and Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1525?–69), the ancestor of a long line of painters. Generally considered the greatest of Flemish painters are Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) and Anthony Van Dyck (1599–1641). In the 19th century, Henri Evenepoel (1872–99) continued this tradition. The 20th century boasts such names as James Ensor (1860–1949), Paul Delvaux (1897–1994), and René Magritte (1898–1967). Modern Belgian architecture was represented by Victor Horta (1861–1947) and Henry van de Velde (1863–1957).
Belgium made substantial contributions to the development of music through the works of such outstanding 15th- and 16th-century composers as Johannes Ockeghem (1430?–95), Josquin des Prés (1450?–1521), Heinrich Isaac (1450?–1517), Adrian Willaert (1480?–1562), Nicolas Gombert (1490?–1556), Cipriano de Rore (1516–65), Philippe de Monte (1521–1603), and Roland de Lassus (known originally as Roland de Latre and later called Orlando di Lasso, 1532–94), the "Prince of Music." Later Belgian composers of renown include François-Joseph Gossec (1734–1829), Peter Van Maldere (1729–68), André Ernest Modeste Grétry (1741–1813), César Franck (1822–90), and Joseph Jongen (1873–1953). Among famous interpreters are the violinists Eugène Ysaye (1858–1931) and Arthur Grumiaux (1921–86). André Cluytens (1905–67) was the conductor of the National Orchestra of Belgium. Maurice Béjart (Maurice Berger, b.1927), an internationally famous choreographer, was the director of the Ballet of the 20th Century from 1959 until 1999.
Outstanding Belgian names in French historical literature are Jean Froissart (1333?–1405?) and Philippe de Commynes (1447?–1511?), whereas early Dutch literature boasts the mystical writing of Jan van Ruysbroeck (1293–1381). The 19th century was marked by such important writers as Charles de Coster (1827–79), Camille Lemonnier (1844–1913), Georges Eeckhoud (1854–1927), and Emile Verhaeren (1855–1916) in French; and by Hendrik Conscience (1812–83) and Guido Gezelle (1830–99) in Flemish. Among contemporary authors writing in French, Michel de Ghelderode (1898–1962), Suzanne Lilar (1901–1992), Georges Simenon (1903–1989), and Françoise Mallet-Joris (b.1930) have been translated into English. Translations of Belgian authors writing in Dutch include works by Johan Daisne (1912–78) and Hugo Claus (b.1929).
Eight Belgians have won the Nobel Prize in various fields. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949), whose symbolist dramas have been performed in many countries, received the prize for literature in 1911. Jules Bordet (1870–1961) received the physiology or medicine award in 1919 for his contributions to immunology. The same award went to Corneille J. F. Heymans (1892–1968) in 1938 and was shared by Albert Claude (1898–1983) and Christian de Duve (b.1917) in 1974. Russian-born Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003) won the chemistry prize in 1977. Three Belgians have won the Nobel Peace Prize: Auguste Beernaert (1829–1912) in 1909, Henri Lafontaine (1854–1943) in 1913, and Father Dominique Pire (1910–69) in 1958.
Belgium's chief of state since 1951 had been King Baudouin I (1930–93), the son of Leopold III (1901–83), who reigned from 1934 until his abdication in 1951. Baudouin was succeeded by his younger brother Albert II (b.1934) in 1993.
Belgium has no territories or colonies.
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"Belgium." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. 2007. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2586700260.html
"Belgium." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. 2007. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2586700260.html
Kingdom of Belgium
Royaume de Belgique
LOCATION AND SIZE.
Belgium is a nation located in Western Europe. It is between the Netherlands to the north, Germany and Luxembourg to the east, France to the south, and the North Sea to the west. Belgium is about the size of Maryland, has an area of 30,510 square kilometers (11,780 square miles) and includes 280 square kilometers (108 square miles) of inland waterways. It has 66 kilometers (41 miles) of coastline and its borders total 1,385 kilometers (861 miles). Belgium shares 620 kilometers (385 miles) with France, 167 kilometers (103 miles) with Germany, 148 kilometers (92 miles) with Luxembourg, and 450 kilometers (280 miles) with the Netherlands. The nation also claims an exclusive fishing zone that extends 68 kilometers (42 miles) into the North Sea. Belgium is the traditional crossroads of Europe and its capital, Brussels, also serves as the capital of the European Union (EU). Brussels also serves as the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Western European Union (WEU). Brussels is located in the middle of the country and has a population of 954,460. It is one of the largest cities in Belgium. In contrast, Antwerp, Belgium's second largest city has a population of 447,632 and is located in the northern area of the nation. Lastly, Ghent, Belgium's third largest city has a population of 224,074 and is in the northwest.
In July 2000, it was estimated that Belgium had a population of 10,241,506. The population growth rate is estimated at a low 0.18 percent. The fertility rate is estimated at 1.61 children born per woman and the birth rate consists of 10.91 births per 1,000 people. The death rate is 10.13 deaths per 1,000.
Like many advanced industrialized countries, Belgium's population is aging and 16 percent of the inhabitants are over the age of 65, while only 18 percent are between the ages of 0 and 14. The life expectancy for men is 74.47 years and 81.3 years for women. A majority of Belgians now live in urban areas and, as people from both the rural areas and immigrants settle in the cities, this trend is growing rapidly. The population density of Belgium is second only to the Netherlands in Europe.
The nation has 3 major ethnic communities: the Flemish, the Walloons, and the German-speakers. The Flemish make up about 58 percent of the population and speak a form of Dutch known as Flemish. The Flemish are concentrated in the northern regions of the nation. The Walloons speak French and mainly live in the southern areas of Belgium. About 31 percent of Belgians are Walloons. German-speakers are the third major group and they mainly reside in the east around the city of Liege. German-speakers comprise about 1 percent of the population. There are also numerous other ethnic minority groups in the country. Brussels alone has 19 different bilingual communities. Many of these other groups are from North Africa and the Middle East, particularly Turkey. There is also a significant Italian population. Since World War II, higher birth rates among the nation's foreign-born population have increased faster than that of native Belgians. The majority of new immigrants from the Mediterranean region tend to settle in the industrial areas of the Walloons—Brussels and Antwerp. There is a low migration rate of 0.98 per 1,000. Although a small number of recent Belgium immigrants return to their countries of origin each year, most emigrants go to nations within the EU or the United States.
Conflicts between the Flemish and the Walloons have traditionally divided Belgian society. Throughout most of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the French-speaking population dominated the region. However, the Flemish eventually gained reform, obtained regional autonomy, and then established Flanders as a unilingual region. The 1970 constitution created 3 autonomous political regions: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. In 1984, the German community of Liege was also granted its own legislative assembly and began controlling its own educational and cultural matters. Disputes between the 2 groups continue and have led to numerous political compromises, including a new constitution in 1993, which changed Belgium from a unitary state (a country in which the central government has the most political power) to a federal system (a country in which the central government and regional governments collaboratively share power to a certain degree).
OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY
Belgium has a well-developed free market economy, based on both industrial and service sectors. It is heavily dependent on international trade and most of its economic sectors are geared toward exporting products. The nation's exports are equivalent to almost two-thirds of its GNP. On a per capita basis, Belgium exports twice as much as Germany and 5 times as much as Japan. In 1999, the nation ranked number 11 among the world's top exporters. In spite of its small size, Belgium's economy has consistently placed among the top 20 economies of the world and remains strong. The kingdom's exports have given it an account surplus that is the sixth largest among the highly developed economies of the world.
For most of its history, Belgium's economy was based on the nation's manufacturing capabilities. The country was the first in continental Europe to undergo the Industrial Revolution, and through the 19th century it was a major steel producer. Large coal deposits helped fuel the industrialization. At the same time, agriculture began to decline. This decline was even more pronounced after World War II, and by 2000, agriculture only accounted for a small percentage of the economy. Currently, agriculture is concentrated in West Flanders, Liege, and Eastern Namur. In the post-World War II era, heavy manufacturing and mining declined. However, there was significant growth in the service sector, and the country switched from heavy production to light manufacturing and began producing finished products instead of steel, textiles, and raw materials. Belgium imports basic or intermediary goods, adds value to them through advanced manufacturing and then exports the finished products. With the exception of its remaining coal resources, Belgium has no significant natural resources.
Belgium's economic strength is based on its geographic position at the crossroads of Western Europe, its highly skilled and educated workforce, and its participation in the EU. During its industrial period, Belgium developed a highly efficient and capable transportation infrastructure that included roads, ports, canals, and rail links. The multilingual nature of the workforce and its industriousness has made the workforce one of the most productive in the world.
The oil crisis of the 1970s and economic restructuring led to a series of prolonged recessions . The 1980-82 recession was particularly severe and resulted in massive unemployment. Personal and consumer debt soared, as did the nation's deficit. Meanwhile, the king-dom's main economic activity shifted northward into Flanders. In 1990, the government linked the Belgian franc to the German mark through interest rates. This spurred a period of economic growth. In 1992-93, another recession plagued Belgian history. During this period, the kingdom's real GDP declined by 1.7 percent. Foreign investments have provided new capital and funds for businesses and have consistently helped maintain the economy. Consequently, the government has consistently implemented programs to encourage foreign investment. Since Brussels is the capital of the EU, many multinational firms have relocated to the city so they can be near the bureaucracy and regional body's government seat.
There are major regional differences in the king-dom's economy. In the former industrial and agricultural areas of the countryside, unemployment rates tend to be higher. However, in the newer urban centers (where the service economy is dominant), unemployment rates are lower. For instance, in Wallonia and Brussels, unemployment rates are 2 to 3 times higher than in Flanders. Nevertheless, overall national unemployment rates continue to be lower than the EU average. In addition, wage levels are among the highest in Europe. In 1993, in an effort to give the regions greater flexibility to deal with economic problems, each region was given broad economic powers to control trade, industrial development, and environmental regulation. Each region has also endeavored to attract foreign investment, often to the detriment of other regions.
The government has also engaged in initiatives to privatize many companies that were formally owned by the state. Ongoing efforts are underway to privatize 2 of the largest remaining companies: Sabena (the national airline) and Belgacom (the main communications company). Since 1993, successive governments have privatized some 280 billion Belgian francs worth of business.
The kingdom has few energy sources. Consequently, it must import a substantial amount of fossil fuel (which provides 42.48 percent of Belgium's total energy needs). The country has a well-developed nuclear industry that provides more than half of Belgium's energy needs (in 1998, some 55.72 percent of total energy usage). The remaining energy needs are met by a limited number of hydroelectric and coal plants.
As the profitability of many industries declined in the post-World War II era, the government attempted to support them in order to maintain employment. Among the strategies used were subsidizing certain industries, mainly steel and textile companies. In addition, the government reduced interest rates and offered tax incentives and bonuses to attract foreign businesses. All of these measures helped maintain the economy by preventing massive unemployment, but they also led to drastic government deficits in the 1970s and 1980s. The government was then forced to borrow funds from international sources in order to maintain their imports and to continue social welfare programs. By the 1990s, successive governments diligently worked to reduce the debt. In fact, they even shifted from foreign to domestic sources in underwriting their debts. In 1999, Belgium's external debt was $28.3 billion or about 10 percent of the nation's total debt. Belgium is a net contributor of foreign aid. In 1997, the kingdom provided $764 million in foreign assistance.
Belgium was one of the founding members of the European Community (later the EU), and has been one of the foremost proponents of regional economic integration. In 2000, 80 percent of Belgium's trade was with other members of the EU. Membership in the EU was the culmination of longstanding national support for economic cooperation. For instance, in 1921, Belgium joined with Luxembourg to form the Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU). This economic union provides for an interchangeable currency and it established a joint customs union. Belgium and Luxembourg have also joined with the Netherlands to form the BENELUX customs union. This organization oversaw cross-border trade between the 3 nations. Belgium is also a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), an organization of the world's most highly developed industrialized democracies.
Belgium has supported the main economic initiatives of the EU, including the elimination of trade barriers, such as tariffs , between the organization's 15 member states. The EU also coordinates the external trade of its member states. In 1999, Belgium was one of the founding members of the European Monetary Union (EMU). EMU will replace the national currencies of its members with a single currency, the euro. This is designed to further ease trade among the nations that adopt the euro by eliminating currency fluctuations.
POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION
Belgium is a constitutional monarchy based on heredity. After political reforms in the 20th century, the monarch's role is now largely ceremonial and symbolic. The monarch's main political function is to appoint the prime minister following elections or the resignation of the government. In this often-divided country, the sovereign is a unifying symbol and plays an important role. The current king, Albert II, succeeded his brother Baudouin who died in 1993.
The executive branch of the Belgian government consists of the king, prime minister and cabinet. The number of cabinet ministers is limited to 15. By an unwritten rule, there is usually a rough balance between Flemish and French-speaking ministers in the cabinet. The kingdom's parliament is bicameral (it consists of 2 chambers). The upper house is the Senate and consists of 71 members—40 of whom are elected directly by the people; the 3 linguistic communities indirectly elect the other 31. The lower house is the Chamber of Deputies and has 150 directly elected members. Representatives in both houses serve 4-year terms. Citizens are required to vote in national elections. Elections are relatively short, usually with only a month of campaigning.
There are no national parties in Belgium. Instead the political parties are divided among the major linguistic groups. As a result, governments are usually by coalition (a government composed of members of several different political parties).
As a result of the 1993 constitutional revisions, Belgium changed from a unitary government into a federal system. There are now 3 levels of government: national, regional, and linguistic community. Including the national government in Brussels, there are now 6 different authoritative bodies. Flanders has a single 124-member assembly which represents the region and Flemish-language speakers. Wallonia has 2 assemblies, one 75-member chamber for the region and a 94-member chamber for all French-speakers. Finally, the Brussels region has a 75-member body and the German-speakers have a 25-member assembly.
The government's multi-layered structure means that each governmental body has considerable freedom over their region's economic activities. The regions and communities have jurisdiction over transportation, public works, education, housing, zoning, and industrial and economic policy. Regional governments also coordinate foreign trade with the national government. Of the total government spending, 40 percent is controlled by regional and community governments. These funds are provided through a system of revenue sharing with the national government. These governments also have the ability to levy additional taxes and borrow money.
Following the economic recessions of the 1980s and 1990s, the government attempted to stimulate the economy by implementing various programs. Initially, they tried to protect declining industries by subsidizing them. For those workers that lost their jobs because of cutbacks, generous social benefits were maintained. They also tried to attract foreign businesses and capital. However, in 1994, these efforts led to a massive national debt that exceeded the kingdom's GDP by over 137 percent. In 1992, the government attempted to reduce its debt by implementing various economic policies. Unfortunately, this task proved to be quite difficult because they did not meet EMU's official requirements (which called for a debt-to-GDP ratio of 60 percent). Nevertheless, Belgium was admitted in the first round of the monetary union. Its 2000 budget projected a deficit of 1.1 percent and a reduction of the national debt so that it equaled 112 percent of the kingdom's GDP.
In order to reduce this debt, the national government implemented various strategies. First, it privatized a number of industries. Since 1993, the government has privatized 280 billion Belgian francs worth of companies, and is expanding this process. For instance, in 1997, it privatized some 35 billion francs worth of assets, but in 1998, it increased its privatization campaign to 45 billion francs. Second, it has cut government spending. Some programs have been shifted to the regional governments, while others have been scaled-back. Third, the government has reformed the tax structure. The top rate on individuals is 55 percent, but companies, including foreign corporations, pay only 39 percent. However, small companies only pay between 29 and 37 percent. There are no taxes on capital gains and taxes on interest income are 15 percent. Foreign companies are attracted to special corporate tax breaks on corporate centers, such as call centers. Still, Belgium has the third highest taxes among the OECD nations.
The government utilizes various tactics to promote certain consumer behaviors and economic activities. For example, they utilize government-guaranteed mortgage loans to encourage home construction and building. They have projects that help immigrant workers build low-income housing. They have implemented special taxes, known as ecotaxes, designed to encourage consumers to purchase environmentally friendly products. In addition, they have implemented a number of programs to enhance foreign trade and also offer companies direct subsidies . Lastly, they provide funds for participation in trade fairs and the development of market research.
The government maintains price controls on products and services such as energy, rents, and pharmaceuticals. Pharmaceutical price restrictions have hurt competition and prevented foreign companies from entering the Belgian market. In addition, some U.S. firms such as Toys 'R' Us and McDonald's have had considerable problems in obtaining permits and licenses for new operations. Furthermore, the government-owned telecommunications company, Belgacom, requires new companies to pay relatively high fees in order to offer services to Belgian consumers. In spite of problems in the telecommunications sector, it is one of the fastest growing components of the Belgian economy. In order to promote the sector, the government continues to auction licenses for new mobile phone providers and to promote the use of the wireless Internet.
One of the more significant problems with the economy is that of procurement . Foreign companies have had difficulties competing with Belgian firms that are often given preferential treatment. Specific complaints include the failure of the government to issue public notification when it calls for bids on procurement and poor enforcement of rules.
Continuing government support for economic integration with the EU will further spur Belgian's economy. As trade barriers continue to be dismantled among members of the EU, Belgium should be able to expand its exports and enhance its role as a port of entry for goods coming into the region. Although the majority of Belgium's trade is with its EU partners, the kingdom conducts a significant amount of trade with the United States. In 1999, it was the ninth largest trading partner of the United States and imported some $11.9 billion in American services and goods.
Of special concern to the Belgian government are environmental problems. Centuries of industrialization have resulted in widespread pollution. Soil contamination and groundwater pollution exist at many former industrial sites. Steel production wastes have contaminated the Meuse River, a major source of drinking water. Other rivers are contaminated by pollution from agricultural practices, mainly fertilizers. Industrial air pollution has created significant amounts of acid rain, both within Belgium and in neighboring countries. There has been a steady increase in greenhouse gas emissions, including coal, natural gas, and petroleum emissions. From 1995 to 1999, there was a 12 percent increase in these pollutants.
INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS
Belgium has an excellent infrastructure of roads, waterways, ports, and airports. The kingdom has 145,850 kilometers (90,631 miles) of roads that includes 117,701 kilometers (10,999 miles) of paved highways and 1,682 kilometers (1,045 miles) of expressways. In 1997, some 395,505,000 tons of goods were transported across Belgium's roads. The kingdom is the only nation in Western Europe that has an average of 50 km (31 miles) of roadways for every 1,000 square kilometers (386 miles). Brussels is the heart of a dense highway network that extends beyond the borders of the kingdom to major destinations such as Paris, Amsterdam, and London (via the tunnel under the English Channel). There are 3,437 kilometers (2,136 miles) of rail lines, the majority of which are electrified. In 1997, the railways transported approximately 60,696,000 tons of products. There are 2,043
|Country||Newspapers||Radios||TV Sets a||Cable subscribers a||Mobile Phones a||Fax Machines a||Personal Computers a||Internet Hosts b||Internet Users b|
|aData are from International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication Development Report 1999 and are per 1,000 people.|
|bData are from the Internet Software Consortium (http://www.isc.org) and are per 10,000 people.|
|SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.|
kilometers (1,270 miles) of waterways, of which 1,528 kilometers (950 miles) are in regular commercial use for the transport of goods. In 1997, there were some 106,978,000 tons of goods shipped across the nation's inland waterways. Finally, there is an extensive network of pipelines. There are 161 kilometers (100 miles) of crude oil pipelines, 1,167 kilometers (725 miles) of lines for petroleum products, and over 3,300 kilometers (2,051 miles) of natural gas pipelines. These pipelines transported 96,540,000 tons of fossil fuels in 1993.
Belgium's extensive transportation network and geographic position have enhanced its role as the major point of destination for goods entering Western Europe. The kingdom has 42 airports and a heliport. In 1995, 535,000 tons of goods were shipped via air. The government and the private carrier, SwissAir, jointly own Sabena, the national airline. There is also a low-cost air carrier, Citybird, which provides no-frills inexpensive fares. The international airport at Brussels has become the hub for several major U.S. air carriers. Antwerp is Europe's second largest port facility and is the center of the international diamond trade. The seaports handled some 157,413,000 tons of products in 1995. Ghent and Zeebrugge are also major seaports. Meanwhile, Brussels and Liege are major river ports. In fact, Liege is the third busiest river port in Europe. The Albert Canal can handle river barges of up to 2,000 tons, while other canals easily accommoda te barges of up to 1,350 tons. The kingdom has 22 medium to large merchant marine fleets that include 7 cargo ships, 7 petroleum tankers, and 8 chemical tankers. Combined, these fleets have a combined gross tonnage of 35,075 tons.
Belgians have an average of 427 automobiles per 1,000 inhabitants. The telephone system is highly developed and advanced. There is also an extensive nationwide system of cellular phones and 3.7 million mobile phones currently in use. Mobile phone usage is increasing at a rate of 20 percent per year. The kingdom also has 3 earth satellite stations. The Internet has gained in popularity and there are 51 Internet service providers in the nation. Approximately 1 million families use the Internet and 30 percent frequently purchase goods and services online. By 2004, e-commerce is expected to exceed $13.8 billion per year. In relation to the telecommunications industry, the government is in the third year of a privatization plan. Currently, there are 41 telecom operators besides the national carrier, Belgacom.
Electrical power production exceeds 78.7 billion kilowatts. Nuclear plants supply the majority of power (some 55 percent). Coal provides 12 percent of the king-dom's energy needs. Most of this coal is mined within the country. The nation meets 42 percent of its electrical needs through imported fossil fuels. Some 26.7 percent of these imports are natural gas. The majority of these natural gas supplies are imported from Algeria, the Netherlands, and Norway. The government has adopted a $9 billion program to provide for the modernization and maintenance of the nation's power system. Deregulation is also a priority of this program. Since Electrabel controls 84 percent of the energy market, new companies face significant obstacles while trying to enter this market. Although renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, currently only contribute about 0.17 percent of the nation's energy needs, the government continues to promote them.
Belgium is located in one of the most industrialized areas of the world. Its unique geographic location and port structure make it ideally suited as a point for goods to enter Western Europe. The economy remains dependent on trade and any global market disruptions impact Belgium. Nonetheless, the nation's foreign trade bolsters its economy and helps it rank among the world's top economies. Unemployment remains a problem for the economy. The nation has made significant progress in unemployment. In 1984, it declined from a high of 14.3 percent. In the 1990s, the nationwide unemployment rate averaged between 8 and 9 percent, with the lowest rate, 4 percent, in Flanders, and the highest rate, 16 percent, in Wallonia.
Since the last century, Belgium's agriculture has been in decline and currently only accounts for around 2 percent of the kingdom's GDP. Agriculture is concentrated in the northern areas of Flanders. The nation is self-sufficient in a variety of farm products, including various dairy goods, and exports some vegetables and meats. Fishing has also declined over the past decades and currently most of the catch is consumed within the kingdom.
In the post-World War II era, industry has become less important for the national economy. In contrast, the service sector continues to gain in prominence. Most of the kingdom's natural mineral resources have been exhausted. Steel and textile production have significantly declined. The remaining industry produces finished products from reprocessed materials. After the industrial transformation during the 1970s, a number of new industries emerged, including chemicals, refining, metals and machinery, food processing, and pharmaceuticals. Even newer industries such as automobile manufacturing have faced significant obstacles. Belgium has emerged as the center of the international diamond trade. Traditional manufacturing remains concentrated in Wallonia, while the newer industries tend to be located in Flanders.
As with most of the OECD nations, the service sector dominates the Belgian economy. In fact, service sector jobs now account for 73 percent of the nation's employment. In addition, the service sector is also the main area of growth for the kingdom. Retail businesses and tourism increasingly account for a larger percentage of the nation's GDP, while financial services continue to expand and attract foreign investment.
Belgium is the home to a number of international corporations and has outlets or subsidiaries of many multinational companies such as Ford, Volvo, and Renault. In fact, some sectors of the Belgian economy have come to be dominated by foreign firms. For instance, U.S. software manufacturers now control some 40 percent of the Belgian market while companies such as Compaq, Dell, and IBM dominate the personal computer market.
The kingdom's agricultural sector has been declining for some time. Currently, only about 2 percent of the population is employed in agriculture and it accounts for just under the same percentage of the nation's GDP. The main areas of the country under cultivation are in the northern region of Flanders; however, small farms exist throughout Belgium. Some 39 percent of the nation's territory is used for some type of agriculture, including the production of forest products. Approximately 1 percent of the land is used for permanent crops.
There are 2 main trends in Belgian agriculture. The first is the disappearance of the small family farm. Farming is increasingly dominated by large agribusinesses . Over the past 3 decades, the number of small farms has decreased by 80 percent. The second major trend is the expanding output of the sector. New technologies and scientific crop research have combined to produce greater yields. Therefore, even if farmers' total acreage declines, they are still producing more. Between 1995 and 1999, crop production increased by 9 percent.
Agriculture in Belgium is mainly divided between crop production and raising livestock. The nation's main crops include barley, corn, potatoes, sugar beets, wheat, and assorted fruits and vegetables. Sugar beets, potatoes, and barley are the main staples. In 1999, the country produced 6.15 million metric tons of sugar beets, 2.7 million metric tons of potatoes, and 1.63 million tons of wheat. The country is self-sufficient in sugar, and exports certain vegetables and fruits. About 35 percent of Belgium's farms are engaged in crop production. Belgium also re-exports a number of fruits. For instance, bananas are imported into Belgium from the Caribbean and then exported throughout Europe. The nation also imports raw crops, processes them, and then exports them as prepared foods.
Stock farming or livestock production dominates Belgian agriculture. It accounts for 65 percent of the nation's farms. A variety of livestock is raised, including beef, veal, poultry, lamb, pork, and turkey. In 1997, there were 3.1 million head of cattle and 7.3 million pigs on Belgian farms. The beef industry is still recovering from a dioxin scare in 1999. Cattle were accidentally given feed that was contaminated with the cancer-causing chemical dioxin. This led to numerous recalls and various countries around the world banned the import of Belgian beef.
There is also a significant dairy industry and Belgium is self-sufficient in eggs, butter, and milk. In 1997, the nation produced 3.2 million tons of milk, 3.97 million eggs, and 175,000 tons of butter. Belgium also produces a variety of specialty cheeses. Currently, fishing is mainly done for domestic consumption. In 2000, the nation exported $193 million worth of fish, but it imported $833 million worth. The majority of imported fish came from the United States and included lobster, salmon, and prepared seafood meals.
While the nation is a net importer of wood products, it does have a significant timber industry. In 2000, the timber industry was worth $9.9 billion. Total exports were $991 million while imports were $3.5 billion. The United States supplied some 50 percent of Belgium's softwood and plywood needs.
Belgium's traditional industries face a number of challenges. Historically, the main industries were concentrated in the French-speaking areas of Wallonia. However, since the 1970s, the principal areas of industrial growth have been in Flanders. Newer light industries and more sophisticated technologies have replaced the older and labor-intensive manufacturing systems. Between Antwerp and Brussels, a new corridor of industries emerged. The majority of these were less labor-intensive and required more skilled workers. The principal industries that have fueled this growth have been the petro-chemical and refining sectors. Nonetheless, the remaining industries tend to be highly advanced and technologically sophisticated. Light manufacturing and refining increasingly dominate the industrial sector. The entire industrial sector accounted for 26 percent of GDP in 2000.
STEEL AND PRECIOUS MINERALS.
From the 1800s through the 1960s, steel making was the heart of the nation's industry. By the end of the 1960s, Belgian steel manufacturers became less competitive when foreign companies began producing steel for less by using cheap labor and less expensive resources. The twin oil crises of the 1970s further undermined the industry by reducing the worldwide demand for steel. In order to preserve jobs, the government tried to protect steel manufacturers by subsidizing the industry.
The high cost of labor continued to impair the competitiveness of these and other industries. Industry also suffers from excess capacity and continued high fuel prices. These factors have led car manufacturers such as Ford and Renault to cut production in Belgium and shift factories elsewhere. The government has also made considerable attempts to restructure its remaining industrial base. The main thrusts of these efforts have been tax incentives for both domestic and foreign companies in exchange for industry investments. It has also offered incentives for investments in new technologies and the creation of new manufacturing methods.
The steel and plastics industries continue to decline. Since 1990, steel, iron, and coke production has declined by 20 percent. Nonetheless, about 1,000 companies remain in this industry that employs 52,000 people. Belgium remains the eighteenth largest steel producer in the world. In 1999, the sector produced 11 million tons of crude steel and had revenues of 260 billion Belgian francs of which 45 percent came from exports. This was a 4 percent decline from the previous year. The primary plastic products include parts for automobile construction and for engineering projects.
Europe's largest electrolyte copper, zinc, and lead refineries are located in Belgium. The nonferrous metals industry includes: base metals such as aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and tin; precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum; and rare or special metals such as germanium, cobalt, and indium. The metals industry employs some 8,600 people. Its exports were worth 127 billion Belgian francs in 1999. New industrial investments totaled 2.6 billion Belgian francs in 1999 and attempted to reduce production costs. The kingdom is also a major producer of limestone, dolomite, various synthetic materials, and construction materials such as marble and concrete. There is also a significant mineral sector that is focused on the refining of imported minerals such as copper, zinc, and diamonds.
Antwerp is the center of the world's diamond trade. The diamond industry employs some 30,000 people and represents 6.4 percent of the nation's exports. In total, 9 out of 10 rough diamonds and 1 out of 2 cut diamonds pass through Antwerp. The diamond sector represents one area of industrial growth. The sector experienced an average growth rate of 6 percent in the 1990s. There are 400 companies engaged in trading rough-cut diamonds, and 700 companies engaged in trading cut diamonds. In 1998, the industry's exports were worth 369 billion Belgian francs.
Glassmaking remains a profitable and expanding industry. It employs some 12,000 people and in 1998, its output was 1.5 million tons of glass. This generated revenues of 100 billion Belgian francs. The industry's exports go mainly to other European countries (some 85 percent of glass exports). In Belgium, glass production was 3 times that of consumption and Belgian workers have among the highest levels of productivity. In 1980, Belgian glass workers produced 55 kg (lbs) of glass per hour; by 1999 that output had increased to 109 kg (lbs) per hour.
Belgium's chemical industry is highly diverse and efficient. From 1985 to 1999, the sector has grown by an average of 3.5 percent per year. It is the second largest industrial sector in the nation. The industry is geared for foreign trade and some 80 percent of its products are exported (75 percent of these exports went to EU nations). In 1999, chemicals accounted for 23.5 percent of the kingdom's total exports and were worth 1.574 trillion Belgian francs. In an effort to remain competitive, the chemical industry invested approximately 50 percent of its profits in research and the development of new products and manufacturing techniques. In 1999, there were 97,167 people employed by chemical companies, which represents an 8.4 percent increase since 1985. Chemicals and pharmaceutical products are now Belgium's top exports.
Transport equipment is one of the strongest remaining industrial sectors in Belgium. This sector includes the automotive industry, shipbuilding, railway and tram construction, bicycles, and the aeronautical and aerospace industry. Although Belgium does not have its own national automotive manufacturers, it has a large number of international companies. Ford, General Motors, Opel, Renault, Volkswagen, and Volvo have plants in Belgium. In 1999, the nation produced 1.3 million cars. It also produces specialty vehicles including vans, trucks, buses, and minibuses. Of the vehicles manufactured in Belgium, 95 percent are exported. The main markets are France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The automotive industry also produces a variety of specialty parts for cars. The industry specializes in "just in time" (JIT) manufacturing which involves producing products to be used immediately upon receipt. This process eliminates the need to stockpile items in warehouses.
Belgium no longer builds large sea-going vessels, but its shipyards still build smaller coastal and river craft. In addition, there are a number of firms that are capable of repairing and refitting larger ships. Companies also produce a variety of specialty products for marine use. Belgium invests considerable sums in aerospace. The government works with other European nations such as France and Germany on projects such as Airbus jet aircraft and the Ariane rocket.
The textile sector employs over 42,500 people in 1,320 textile factories. Belgium is now the largest carpet exporter in the world. Textile revenues accounted for 250 billion Belgian francs. Unlike many of the other traditional industries, Belgium's textile manufacturers have been able to adjust to changes in the global market. Belgium is also noted for its quality leather products. There have been widespread consolidations and advancements in manufacturing techniques. As a result, the textile sector remains one of Belgium's largest industrial employers.
Belgium produces a wide range of electronics equipment that includes both consumer and business products. This sector of the economy employs 49,000 people in 300 companies. These businesses produced products worth more than 300 billion Belgian francs. Two-thirds of the kingdom's electronic products are exported. The majority, 75 percent, goes to other members of the EU, while the remaining exports are divided among the United States, Eastern Europe, and Asia. Medical and hospital electronics are a major part of this sector. The electronics sector is the largest investor in the economy's infrastructure and research and development. The sector annually invests some 30 billion Belgian francs of which 60 percent is in research and development.
Furniture manufacturing has a long and distinguished tradition in Belgium. Adaptability and quality reputation are its keys to continued success. Increased mechanization and automation have helped contain costs and kept the industry competitive. It has strong exports to Germany and the United Kingdom and has recently enjoyed dramatic growth in the Netherlands. The sector has also aggressively targeted the markets in Eastern Europe. Belgium furniture exports have increased by 57 percent and have grown by a phenomenal 79 percent to Russia itself. In 1998, the industry had revenues of 1.89 billion euros that included 1.13 billion euros in exports.
The construction industry in Belgium encompasses 2 different broad areas. The majority of activity is centered on the construction of new buildings and homes. There is also a considerable market in the restoration of older dwellings. Brick is the preferred building material and most homes are custom built. On average, only 10 percent of homes built are prefabricated. In 1998, residential construction accounted for 46 percent of new contracts, business construction accounted for 41 percent, and 13 percent of new contracts were in civil engineering. In 1997, Belgium's construction companies had revenues of 1 trillion Belgian francs. Belgian companies also carried out a number of projects abroad, mainly in developing nations. In 1998, total revenues from these projects were 88 billion Belgian francs. Government plans to eliminate slums and provide housing for low-income Belgians have significantly helped the construction industry grow.
The service sector is the largest area of the Belgian economy, accounting for 72.6 percent of GDP in 2000. It is well developed and diversified. Because of its geographic position as the gateway to Europe and the government's efforts to attract foreign banking and financial companies, Belgium is now the eighth-largest financial center in the world. In 1999, there were 130 different banking companies in Belgium. Of these, 81 were Belgian and 39 were foreign-owned. The majority of the foreign-owned banks were from EU nations (23 of the 39). The implementation of EMU will make it even easier for foreign banks to establish a presence in Belgium as the members of the EU begin to use the common currency. The Belgian government encourages foreign banks to establish a presence in the kingdom. For instance, the government allows foreign banks to operate as either subsidiaries under Belgian law or to operate under the laws of the nation in which their parent bank is licensed.
The financial sector has 3 main subdivisions: commercial banks, public credit institutions, and private savings banks. However, the divisions between these 3 types of institutions became less noticeable in the 1990s. There have been a substantial number of mergers across these fields. For instance, in 1999 the international banking corporation Dexia merged its Belgian and French subsidiaries to create a banking group worth $11 billion. Belgium's Banking Commission supervises private banks, finance companies, and the oversight of mutual funds. Investments in the country's financial sector ballooned from $55 billion in 1996 to $300 billion in 1999.
The 3 main trading banks in Belgium are the Fortis Bank, Brussels Bank Lambert, and KBC. Fortis has a workforce of some 40,000 and 3,000 branches. It services some 7 million customers in Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, and is one of the leading banks in northwestern Europe. Brussels Bank Lambert has 900 traditional branches and 500 automated teller machines. It is the twelfth largest bank in Europe. KBC is the nation's third largest bank and is also one of the largest insurance companies. It has 1,500 bank employees, 500 insurance brokers, and 8,000 other brokers. This multinational bank has branches in 30 different nations. The fourth and fifth largest banks in Belgium are foreign-owned. Number-four is Dexier, a joint Belgian-French multinational, and number-five is Morgan Guaranty Trust of New York (a subsidiary of J. P. Morgan & Company). Other major international banks in Belgium are Citibank, Bank of America, and Chase Manhattan Bank.
In 2000, the EU enacted new rules that allow insurance brokers to operate in any other EU state as long as they are registered in their home nation. For instance, Belgian insurance companies will be able to set up offices in Germany or France without having to be licensed in that nation. This offers a variety of advantages to Belgian companies. For instance, 60 to 70 percent of the insurance bought by Belgian consumers was non-life (including car or home insurance). In contrast, in other EU states, non-life insurance typically accounts for some 20 percent of the market. Hence, Belgian insurance companies see these new markets as sources of great opportunities.
The main centers of the Belgian tourist industry are the country's coastal region and the Ardennes.
The coastline has 65 resorts and numerous beaches. Most are designed for family-oriented vacations and draw tourists from France, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Situated in the southeast of Belgium, the Ardennes forest is one of the few unspoiled natural areas in Western Europe. The area attracts campers and daytrippers. It is known for hiking, fishing, canoeing and kayaking, and mountaineering in the spring and summer months. In the winter, tourists engage in both downhill and cross-country skiing.
The total value of tourism in Belgium is $11.425 billion. Of this total, Belgians traveling within the country spent $4.9 billion. The United States is the number-one destination for Belgians traveling abroad. In 1999, some 257,000 Belgians visited the United States and spent $652 million.
Retailers in Belgium have rebounded from a period of stagnation in the early 1990s. Consumer spending has been increasing at a rate of 2.5 percent over the past few years and is expected to grow in the near future. Unlike many other markets in the EU or North America, independent companies still make up a large proportion of the retail market. For instance, although 78.5 percent of fashion merchandisers are independent, chain outlets control 16.7 percent of the market. The remaining 4.8 percent is in the hands of large department stores and supermarkets.
In 1999, there were 52,807 restaurants in Belgium. The largest chain is the Quick hamburger restaurant group that has 105 shops. The number-two chain is the U.S.-owned McDonald's. Other American chains such as Pizza Hut and Chi Chi's also hold significant market shares. Sales at foreign-owned restaurants were 10.45 billion Belgian francs while sales at locally owned stores were 7.53 billion Belgian francs.
Belgium's economy is dependent on international trade. From year-to-year, foreign trade accounts for approximately 70 percent of the nation's economy. This makes Belgium particularly sensitive to disruptions in global trade. Recessions or other economic problems around the world often cause reciprocal problems in Belgium's economy. Fortunately, the kingdom has a variety of trade partners so that problems in one export market are mitigated by export diversity. For instance, since companies were able to shift exports to other markets, Asia's economic problems in the late 1990s had little significant impact on Belgium.
The nation's main trade partners are in the EU. In fact, in 1998 some 76 percent of Belgium's exports went to nations in the EU. In that year, the main export market for Belgian goods was Germany (19 percent), followed closely by France (18 percent), the Netherlands (12 percent), and the United Kingdom (10 percent). Most of Belgium's imports also came from the EU that provided 71 percent of the kingdom's imported products. Germany was the main exporter to Belgium and provided 18 percent of goods, while the Netherlands provided 17 percent, France 14 percent, and the United Kingdom 9 percent. Total foreign investment in Belgium is $68.1 billion. The Netherlands is the principal source of foreign investment (21.9 percent), followed by Germany (17.1 percent), France (16 percent), and the United States (11 percent).
The United States is a major trading partner of Belgium. The kingdom is the ninth largest trading partner of the United States. In 1999, the United States exported $11.3 billion to Belgium. About half of Belgium's imports from the United States are processed and re-exported to other markets. The kingdom is home to 1,300 U.S. companies. American investment in Belgium totals $18.9 billion. The majority of this investment is concentrated manufacturing ($8.969 billion), services ($5.262 billion), and wholesaling ($2.716 billion). Belgium also has significant investments in the United States that total $6.7 billion. The majority of these investments are in manufacturing ($2.6 billion), petroleum ($1.265 billion), and retail ($882 million).
Goods and products from EU nations enter Belgium without any tariffs or duties . However, goods from nations outside of the EU face import duties and a value-added tax (VAT). Depending on the product, these taxes amount to an average of 5-6 percent of the total value of the product. Consequently, many goods from outside of the EU face a price disadvantage.
Since Belgium is home to the headquarters of the EU and over 100 international organizations, it has a unique perspective on world trade and global markets. It also has significant influence on trade. Since it joined the European Community (now EU), Belgium has supported free trade and advocated measures that lower tariffs and reduce other barriers to the free movement of goods and services, labor, and capital within Europe. Belgium and Luxembourg also continue to be economically linked through BLEU. Despite its membership in the EU and BLEU, Belgium has bilateral trade agreements with 29 different nations. It has separate investment accords with Poland and Russia. It also has treaties with Bulgaria, Cuba, Liberia, Mauritania, and Thailand. Under the auspices of BLEU, it has jointly signed with Luxembourg. Many of these agreements have yet to be fully implemented.
Besides the national trade agreements, each of the 3 regions has the authority to grant financial incentives and other inducements to attract foreign goods and services.
Among the tactics used are loan or interest rebates if the project is financed, financing by the regional government, and tax breaks for foreign companies.
Through BLEU, Belgium and Luxembourg linked their currencies in 1921. Although the Belgian franc has declined in relation to the U.S. dollar, it has maintained its value against major European currencies. In 1995, 1 U.S. dollar was equal to 29.48 francs, but by 1999, 1 dollar equaled 34.77 francs. In 1999, Belgium joined the EMU that created a single currency, the euro, for all of the EU nations. The euro is fixed at a rate of 40.3399 francs per euro. Since its introduction, the euro has been weak against the dollar. In 2000, 1 U.S. dollar equaled 0.9867 euros (when the euro was introduced it was equal to $1.1789). The euro was only used in non-cash forms (such as electronic payments and transfers) until January of 2002, when euro coins and notes were issued and national currencies were phased out.
The Belgian National Bank acts as the state bank. It prints and issues the nation's currency and acts as the lender of last resort in certain credit operations. The bank also manages monetary policy by controlling interest rates. The Banking Commission oversees the operations of the nation's banks while the Finance Ministry regulates credit institutions.
In September of 2000, the Brussels stock exchange merged with the exchanges of Amsterdam and the Paris Bourse exchange to form Euronext. The new stock exchange is the first truly transnational exchange that combines stock, derivative, and commodity trading. The new exchange lists 1,861 different companies and has a value of 1.1 trillion euros. The merger will streamline trading and reduce transaction costs. It will also save approximately 50 million euros per year. The exchange also increases the transparency of stocks and gives investors greater cost comparisons. The stock-trading component of Euronext is divided into 3 broad areas: blue
|Exchange rates: Belgium|
|euros per US$1|
|Note: Amounts prior to 1999 are in Belgian francs per US dollar.|
|SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE].|
|GDP per Capita (US$)|
|SOURCE: United Nations. Human Development Report 2000; Trends in human development and per capita income.|
chip traditional industrial companies, high tech stocks, and traditional securities. The new multinational exchange is actively seeking further integration and consolidation and may merge or absorb additional national exchanges.
In order to become a member of EMU, Belgium had to maintain low inflation . The government took steps that kept inflation low—as low as 1 percent in 1999. Low prices on imported goods are likely to aid efforts to keep inflation low for the foreseeable future.
POVERTY AND WEALTH
Belgium, like many Western European nations, enjoys a high standard of living and a high per capita income. Each year the United Nations ranks the world's countries in its Human Development Report. Belgium consistently ranks among the top nations in its human development index that measures the quality of life in countries. In the 2000 report, the UN ranked Belgium number-seven—just behind Switzerland and ahead of the Netherlands. Its per capita income was $28,790. Belgium ranked 8th out of 191 countries in terms of per capita income.
There are extremes of wealth and poverty in Belgium. However, the nation's generous social welfare programs prevent abject poverty. Only 3.7 percent of the population falls into the lowest 10 percent of income levls
|Distribution of Income or Consumption by Percentage Share: Belgium|
|Survey year: 1992|
|Note: This information refers to income shares by percentiles of the population and is ranked by per capita income.|
|SOURCE: 2000 World Development Indicators [CD-ROM].|
while 20.2 percent of the households are in the top 10 percentile.
The nation's social welfare programs are extensive. There are 5 main elements to the Belgian social welfare system : family allowance, unemployment insurance, retirement, medical benefits, and a program that provides salary in the event of illness. Employers contribute the equivalent of 35 percent of a worker's pay to the social welfare system and workers contribute 13 percent of their pay. Many companies also offer supplemental retirement and medical programs. Almost all Belgians are covered by medical insurance. Payments to medical providers were $12.97 billion in 1999. Belgium ranked thirteenth among the 24 OECD nations and fifth among the 15 EU nations. Each region has special councils that provide public assistance and aid to the poor. The National Housing Society provides low-income housing for the poor and immigrants. The Society is also in charge of eliminating slums and revitalizing urban neighborhoods.
Belgium's educational system is among the best in Europe. Freedom of education is a constitutional right in Belgium. Both public and private schools exist, but the government subsidizes private schools since the legal system abolished fees in 1958. Children must attend
|Household Consumption in PPP Terms|
|Country||All Food||Clothing and footwear||Fuel and power a||Health care b||Education b||Transport & Communications||Other|
|Data represent percentage of consumption in PPP terms.|
|aExcludes energy used for transport.|
|bIncludes government and private expenditures.|
|SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.|
school between the ages of 6 and 18. The nation has 7 universities (4 that teach in French and 3 that teach in Flemish). There are also a number of specialized and technical schools.
Belgium's workforce is highly skilled, educated, and productive. Belgian workers are the most productive in the EU. The workforce is well paid and has both generous employer and government benefits. However, there are wide regional differences in wages, unemployment, and quality of life. Generally, conditions are better in Flanders and the German-speaking areas than in the French-speaking areas.
The nation's educational system is designed to prepare workers for entry into the workforce. From the age of 15 onward, children may work part-time while they attend school. In addition, industrial apprenticeship programs are available for students between the ages of 16 and 18. There is also vocational training available for both students and adults. The national government and regional governments offer a variety of incentives for retraining workers. These initiatives are designed to reduce the national social security burden.
There are laws against forced labor. The minimum age for a person to begin working is 15. Since education is mandatory until age 18, students may only work part-time during the school year. Youths may work full-time during school vacation periods. Both the national and regional governments aggressively enforce child labor laws.
In 1999, the government revised its legislation on equal opportunity in the workplace. The new laws outlawed sexual harassment, and continued the ban on gender discrimination in hiring, working conditions, wages, and termination. Equal treatment of men and women is guaranteed by the constitution. In 1999, legislation was passed requiring that women make up one-third of all candidates running for office. Economic inequities between men and women continue. For instance, the female unemployment rate was 10.9 percent in 1998, while the male unemployment rate was 6.7 percent. In addition, women only earn 84 percent of the salary that men earn in the same professions.
The constitution guarantees the right of workers to organize and to collective bargaining. Union membership is high and 63 percent of workers belong to unions. In addition, 90 percent of workers are covered by collective bargaining agreements. National laws limit wage increases to 5.9 percent per year. Special labor courts oversee disputes between workers and businesses. Although Belgian unions often have links to political parties, they are independent of the government. While there have been several significant strikes in the past decade, including those by teachers, railway workers and air traffic controllers, these disputes were settled peacefully.
National law sets a 40-hour workweek and mandates overtime pay for work beyond 40 hours per week and for more than 8 hours a day. In addition, each workweek must include a 24-hour rest period. However, many agreements between unions and companies have separate agreements that lower the workweek to either 35 or 38 hours per week. The minimum wage for workers over the age of 21 is $1,228 per month. Workers under the age of 21 are paid on a graduated scale. Workers who are 18 years old must be paid 82 percent of the minimum wage, 19 year olds must be paid 88 percent, and 20 year olds must be paid 94 percent. There are strong safety laws and many of these regulations are supplemented by collective bargaining agreements. Although companies with more than 50 employees must have health and safety committees made up of both management and workers, the Ministry of Labor oversees workplace laws.
COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
500-200 B.C. The area that is now Belgium is settled by a Celtic tribe, the Belgae (who gave their name to the region).
57 B.C. Julius Caesar begins conquering Belgium. The province comes to be known as Gallia Belgae. For the next 400 years, the area prospers under Roman control.
400 A.D. As Rome declines, the Franks gain control of the territory.
431. The Franks establish the Merovingian dynasty in Belgium.
466-511. Reign of Clovis I. During his reign, the last Roman territories in Gaul are captured and the kingdom is expanded to include areas of France and Germany. The Belgian people are converted to Christianity.
751. Pepin III deposes the Merovingians and starts the Carolingian dynasty.
768. Charlemagne succeeds his father, Pepin III. Charlemagne expands the empire to include all of Western Europe, and the king is crowned Emperor of the West by the Pope in 800. During his reign, organized trade begins along Belgium's rivers. After his death, the empire declines.
843. The Treaty of Verdun divides the empire among 3 of Charlemagne's sons. The western areas of Belgium come under France's control, while the eastern territories are controlled under the Middle Kingdom of Lothair. Ultimately, Germans control the eastern territories.
867. In order to protect people from Norse raids, walled cities are created. The first of these is Ghent, followed by Bruges and Ypres.
977. Brussels is founded by Charles, the Duke of Lorraine.
1000. As the Norse raids subside, trade dramatically expands. This period is the golden age of Flanders. Merchants import wool from England that is woven into fine cloths and tapestries. Flemish cities become populous and wealthy.
1300. Because of their wealth, Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres gain virtual independence from the aristocracy. A civic culture flourishes. This independence is confirmed by the defeat of the French nobles in the Battle of the Golden Spurs.
1329. Aristocratic control is re-established and the independence of the Flemish cities is revoked.
1337-1453. There is a Hundred Years War between France and England. The English support their trade allies, the Flemish, in their continuing efforts to gain autonomy from France.
1384. Flanders comes under the control of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy.
1419-1467. Philip the Good reigns. The Burgundian Empire in Belgium expands and includes the southeastern areas of Brussels, Liege, and Namur. Trade, arts, and culture expand. Prominent artists include Van Eyck, Rubens, and Van Dyck.
1490s. The canals around Bruges fill with silt and trade shifts further north to Antwerp.
1519-1713. Religious conflicts between the Protestant areas of Flanders and Catholics, led by Philip II of Spain, lead to the occupation of Belgium by Spain.
1648. The Protestant United Provinces of the North gain independence from Spain and become the Netherlands. The center of trade shifts from Antwerp and Ghent to Amsterdam. Meanwhile in order to avoid high labor costs and taxation, textile mills increasingly move from the urban areas to the countryside.
1719-1794. Austria occupies Belgium according to the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht. A revolt in 1790 leads to the establishment of the United States of Belgium, but Austrian control is soon re-established. During this period, landowners begin to mine various products, mainly coal and iron ore.
1795. France occupies Belgium and institutes a variety of civil reforms that serve as the foundation of the modern Belgian government. Encouraged by the French, industrialization begins during this period. By the turn of the century, factories with more than 100 employees become common. Ghent, home to numerous cotton mills, becomes the textile center of the country. Mining also continues to spread, especially in the French-speaking areas and in Liege.
1815. Belgium becomes part of the Netherlands by the Congress of Vienna. Dutch becomes the official language and William I of the Netherlands adopts a variety of programs to encourage industrialization in the south. However, the industrialization exacerbated the regional differences in the nation as the agrarian North sought free trade, while the industrialized South sought tariffs and other trade protections.
1831. Belgium gains independence from the Netherlands. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg becomes the Belgian king. Industrialization continues to sweep across the nation.
1835. The Banque du Belgique is founded. It provides financing for industry and serves as the model for similar banks in Germany, England, and France.
1844-46. Famine in Flanders leads to widespread economic problems and marks the final decline of the traditional linen industry. These combined problems slowed the economic development of the region well into the twentieth century.
1850. The National Bank of Belgium is formed.
1885. Congo becomes a personal possession of Leopold II.
1886. Worker unrest, which began in Liege, spreads throughout the nation. The government harshly suppresses this unrest, but it results in worker housing and wages reform.
1908. The Congo is annexed as a colony of Belgium.
1914. Germany invades Belgium at the start of World War I. During the war, some 20 percent of the nation's wealth is lost or destroyed.
1918. Universal suffrage is enacted.
1921. The Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) is formed.
1930. Flanders and Wallonia become legally unilingual.
1940. During World War II, Germany invades Belgium and the Netherlands.
1944. Belgium joins the Benelux Economic Union, formed between Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.
1949. The nation joins NATO.
1952. Belgium joins the European Coal and Steel Community.
1957. Belgium is one of the founding members of the European Community.
1960. The Congo gains independence.
1961. Massive strikes lead to the creation of a permanent linguistic barrier between Flanders and Wallonia, while the Brussels region is officially bilingual.
1962. Rwanda and Burundi are granted independence.
1971. Flanders and Wallonia are granted cultural autonomy.
1973. The worldwide oil crisis initiates a period of deep industrial decline, which is exacerbated by the second oil crisis in 1979.
1989. A revised constitution grants greater autonomy to Flanders and Wallonia, and Brussels is granted the status of a region.
1993. King Baudouin dies and is succeeded by his brother, King Albert II.
1999. The kingdom joins EMU.
Belgium is well positioned to continue its economic growth well into the 21st century. Its export-driven economy has created a trade surplus that will continue for the foreseeable future. In addition, Belgium's geographic position and its infrastructure indicate that the country will continuously serve as a point of entry for goods and services going into Europe. The introduction of the single European currency in 1999 will continue to make it easier for Belgian firms to trade within the EU.
While the 370 million people of the EU create one of the biggest commercial markets in the world, Belgium's dependence on intra-EU trade makes it vulnerable to economic slowdowns in the region. However, Belgium's trade with North America, namely the United States, continues to grow and may serve as a means to partially offset economic downturns in the EU.
Domestically, Belgium faces a variety of problems. Continuing tension between the Dutch-and French-speaking populations has led to the division of the nation into semi-autonomous regions that compete with one another for economic growth and investment. In addition, the unemployment rate remains stubbornly high, although it is lower than the EU average. Because of the high unemployment rate, the government is forced to maintain a high level of social welfare programs.
Belgium has no territories or colonies.
Belgian Foreign Trade Board. "The Belgian Assets: AnIntroduction." <http://obcebdbh.be/import_en/info-center/belgium-assets/home_en.html>. Accessed September 2001.
Hermans, Theo, editor. The Flemish Movement: A Documentary History, 1780-1990. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Athlone, 1992.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). OECD economic surveys: Belgium-Luxembourg, 1998/99. Paris: OECD, 1999.
Stallaerts, Robert. Historical Dictionary of Belgium. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 1999.
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2001. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed September 2001.
U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Belgium: 1998. <http://state.gov>. Accessed August 2001.
U.S. Department of State. 1999 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Belgium. <http://state.gov>. Accessed August 2001.
U.S. Department of State. FY 2001 Country Commercial Guide: Belgium. <http://state.gov>. Accessed August 2001.
Van Meerhaeghe, M.A.G., editor. Belgium and EC Membership Evaluated. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992.
Belgian franc (BEF). One franc is equal to 100 centimes. However, the centimes denominations are no longer used. The Belgian franc is exchangeable on an equal basis with the Luxembourg franc. In 1999, Belgium began using the euro, the common currency of the European Union. The franc is set at a fixed exchange rate of 40.3399 per euro. The euro will replace all local currencies within the EU in 2002.
Machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products.
Machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals and metal products.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:
US$259.2 billion (purchasing power parity, 2000 est.).
BALANCE OF TRADE:
Exports: US$181.4 billion (f.o.b., 2000). Imports: US$166 billion (c.i.f., 2000).
Lansford, Tom. "Belgium." Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410100197.html
Lansford, Tom. "Belgium." Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies. 2002. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410100197.html
Kingdom of Belgium
Aalst, Anderlecht, Charleroi, Geel, Kortrijk, Louvain, Mechlin, Mons, Namur, Ostend, Tournai, Verviers, Waterloo
This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated July 1996. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.
BELGIUM , whose name comes from a courageous Celtic tribe, the Belgae, once flourished as a province of ancient Rome. It was successively ruled by the Franks, the dukes of Burgundy, the Hapsburgs, and the Spanish; it was annexed by France; it endured an unhappy union with the Netherlands through the Congress of Vienna; and finally, in 1830, it achieved independence. In spite of proclaimed neutrality, Belgium was twice occupied by the Germans, in 1914 and again in 1940. Its own colonial empire in Africa collapsed in the postwar era, yet this small kingdom astonished the world with its resiliency and enterprise.
Through the centuries, Belgium has witnessed an ebb and flow of cultures, and an appealing blend of these diverse elements are found here today. The picturesque cities of Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp are renowned for their medieval architecture and splendid Flemish art collections; theater-goers, music lovers, gourmets, and sports fans find ample occasion to pursue their interests; outdoor enthusiasts are drawn to the wooded countryside of the Ardennes and the charming beach resorts on the North Sea—and, adding their own special color to this tableau, are the profusion of flowers, the open-air markets, and the ubiquitous festivals.
The origins of Brussels date back to the first centuries of the Christian era. On the banks of the Senne, a small stream long since covered and lost from view, Brussels grew as a crossroads and trading center. By the 10th century, Brussels was a principal stop en route from Cologne through France to the Channel ports. In 1402, the cornerstone of the Hotel de Ville, the central building of Brussels ' magnificent Grand Place, was laid. During the next five centuries Brussels experienced Burgundian, Spanish, Austrian, French, and Dutch foreign rule. In 1830, Belgium won its independence from the Dutch, the Belgian monarchy was founded, and Brussels became the capital of the new Kingdom of the Belgians.
Though retaining vivid architectural and cultural traces of its deep involvement in European history, Brussels today has all the excitement, activity, and comfort of a modern European capital. It is headquarters for the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, as well as the European home for many leading multinational businesses. Brussels is legally bilingual in French and Dutch. English also is widely known and used, particularly in business circles.
Generally, food prices in Belgian stores are higher than in the U.S. Fresh fruits and vegetables are abundant locally year round, with seasonal selections and variations. In winter, potatoes, carrots, brussels sprouts, endives, celery, turnips, cabbages, cauliflower, beets, apples, oranges, and grapefruit are in particularly ample supply. Many other choices are available in the large supermarkets.
Supermarkets and many smaller stores carry a wide selection of frozen fruits and vegetables at prices usually higher than those in the U.S. Local foods are safe, raw as well as cooked. All kinds of fresh fish and a variety of meats are available. Pasteurized milk is standard. An incredible variety of delicious breads and bakery items are sold at local bakeries and supermarkets. American brands of baby food are available at larger supermarkets.
Clothing and shoe requirements in Belgium are similar to those for New England, the Middle Atlantic States, and the Pacific Northwest. In Belgium, however, more raincoats, umbrellas, and low-heeled, thick-soled walking shoes are needed. Winters, as a rule, are less severe than in Washington, D.C., with little or no snow. On the other hand, summers are not as warm. Lightweight summer clothing is not usually necessary, but at times can be useful for vacationing or on the rare occasion when the weather in Brussels is unseasonably hot. Summer clothing sold locally is usually of a heavier weight, often fully lined, and relatively expensive.
Men: The local market offers a wide choice of both ready-made and tailored clothing, but prices are often high.
Women: Women wear warm, often wool or wool-blend, dresses and suits most of the year. In July and August cotton or silk dresses are appropriate, but a sweater, blazer, or light wrap is often required. Lightweight suits are ideal for the changeable summer weather. An adequate wardrobe for Brussels includes sweaters, scarves, gloves, raincoats, rain boots, umbrellas, and good walking shoes. Women planning to attend private parties, theatrical and musical events, and other social events will occasionally need cocktail and short evening dresses, and less frequently, long evening dresses or skirts.
Ready-made suits and dresses sold in Brussels are more expensive than garments of similar quality in the United States and may require alterations to fit properly. The semi-annual sales provide an opportunity to purchase items at less than normal prices, but often more expensive than comparable U.S. purchases. Tall women sometimes have difficulty finding suits and dresses in their sizes. Half-sizes do not exist in Belgium.
Excellent Belgian, French, Italian, Swiss, and English fabrics can be purchased. Good dressmakers are available. Custom-made suits and dresses compare in price and quality to American equivalents. Clothing shops in London, Amsterdam, Cologne, and Paris offer alternative shopping options within a reasonable distance from Brussels.
Women are advised to bring at least one warm winter coat. Fur coats and jackets can be worn comfortably, but are not essential for warmth during the mild Belgian winters. Raincoats in varying weights are strongly recommended.
Children: For children, warm comfortable clothing or layered outfits are advisable. Sweatshirts or sweaters in natural fabrics, tights for girls, warm pajamas, turtlenecks, hooded coats, and jackets are needed. Both boys and girls will want warm coats, scarves, gloves and mittens, sturdy shoes with rubber or composition soles, rain boots, raincoats, and hats.
Uniforms are worn in grades 1-5 at St. John's International School. For teenagers, the fashion trend is definitely American. American professional and collegiate sports logo items are the European fashion trend and are available in local shops at highly inflated prices. Baseball caps are very popular. Jeans are the norm for both girls and boys at all of the local schools. Children's clothing purchased here costs much more than in the U.S., but quality is good. Infant and baby clothing available locally is of German, English, French, and Belgian manufacture and is expensive.
Many styles of rain boots and shoes are found in Brussels shops. Warm fleece-lined boots are recommended for raw winter days. Many of the sidewalks and streets are cobblestone, which is slippery when wet and a menace to high heels. Belgian shoes are stylish, but are not always comfortable for American women. Small sizes and shoes narrower than "B" width are hard to find. French, Italian, and Swiss shoes are popular but expensive; they are normally unavailable in narrow widths.
Supplies and Services
Supplies: Both American and foreign toiletries and cosmetics are available locally at prices higher than those in the U.S. Since the local water is hard, water softeners are often required for bathing and laundry.
Basic Services: Laundry, shoe repair, and dry-cleaning services are satisfactory and fast. One-day service is available. Laundromats can be found throughout Brussels and its suburbs. Coin-operated dry-cleaning shops are also available. Local dry-cleaning is more expensive than in the U.S.
Beauty shops abound, from reasonably priced neighborhood shops to "name" salons with accompanying high prices.
Many religious denominations are represented in Brussels. The following English-language services are available:
Pro-Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Rue Capitaine Crespel 29, 1050 Brussels.
All Saints' Church, Centre Notre Dame d'Argenteuil, Chaussee de Louvain 563, 1380 Ohain.
St. Paul's English Speaking Church-Tervuren, Saint Paulus Church, Dorpsplein, 3080 Vossem.
Assembly of God:
Christian Center, Chaussèe de Waterloo 47, 1640 Rhode St. Genese.
International Baptist Church, Lange Eikstraat 76-78, 1970 Wezembeek-Oppem.
First Church of Christ Scientist, Chaussèe de Vleurgat 96, 1050 Brussels.
Church of Christ:
Church of Christ, Rue de la Brasserie 78, 1050 Brussels.
Synagogue Beth Hillel and Religious School (reform), Avenue Kersbeek 96, 1190 Brussels.
Jewish Synagogue of Brussels, (orthodox) Rue de la Règence 32, 1000 Brussels.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Strombeeklinde 110, 1820 Grimbergen.
St. Andrew's Church of Scotland, Chaussèe de Vleurgat 181, 1050 Brussels.
The International Protestant Church, Kattenberg 19, Boitsfort, 1170 Brussels.
Religious Society of Friends:
Quaker House, Square Ambiorix 50, 1040 Brussels.
Our Lady of Mercy, Place de la Sainte Alliance 10, 1180 Brussels.
Parish of St. Anthony, Avenue des Anciens Combattants 23-25, 1950 Kraainem.
Church of St. Nicolas (Bourse), Rue du Tabora 6, 1000 Brussels.
English-language schools in the Brussels area offer comprehensive educational programs for school-age children according to the American or British systems.
Belgian public schools offer viable educational programs and provide an opportunity for American children to learn French and Dutch. The 1993 Schools in Brussels: A Guide for U.S. Government Families contains detailed information on the educational options available in Brussels.
Brussels American School (BAS)
12 John F. Kennedylaan, 1960
Tel: 32 (2) 731-5626
FAX: 32 (2) 782-0230
BAS is a Department of Defense Dependents School (DODDS) sponsored institution serving the families of U.S. Government personnel, NATO personnel, embassies of NATO countries, and, on a space-available basis, American citizens working for private firms. It is located on the same campus as the NATO Health Clinic, in the commune of Sterrebeek, 5 miles east of central Brussels. Several AP programs are offered in the high school.
The school complex, constructed in 1967, is situated on 17 acres. It includes an administrative building, an elementary and middle school building, a high school building, a gymnasium, playing fields and tennis courts. BAS is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (NCA). There is a full-time guidance counselor at the school as well as a Parent-Teacher-Student Organization. Free bus service is available for students who live within the BAS bus routes.
International School of Brussels (ISB)
Kattenberg 19, 1170 Brussels
Tel: 32 (2) 672-2788
FAX: 32 (2) 675-1178
ISB, a private school on 40 acres of woodland, is located in the commune of Watermael-Boitsfort, just within Brussels city limits. The students and faculty are international. The school is divided into an early childhood, elementary, middle, and high school, each with its own library. There is a full-day kindergarten program as well as a nursery school for 3-to 4-year-old children. An International Baccalaureate (IB) program is available at the high school. A few AP courses also are offered. Bus service is available throughout greater Brussels for an annual fee.
ISB is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in the U.S., and the European Council of International Schools (ECIS).
St. John's International School
Drève Richelle 146, 1410 Waterloo
Tel: 32 (2) 354-1138
FAX: 32 (2) 353-0495
St. John's is situated near the famous Waterloo battlefield, 30 minutes from the center of Brussels by car. It is an ecumenical Catholic institution with students of all faiths. St. John's offers programs to 900 students from preschool to high school. Basically the curriculum is American, but the British General Certificate of Secondary Education and the International Baccalaureate are also offered. A limited number of AP courses are taught. Bus service is available throughout greater Brussels and is covered by the educational allowance.
There is a one-time registration fee for new students.
The British School of Brussels (BSB)
19 Leuvensesteenweg, 3080 Tervuren
Tel: 32 (2) 767-4700
FAX: 32 (2) 767-8070
BSB follows the British national curriculum leading to the General Certificate of Secondary Education. The school is located 6 miles east of the city center. It has strong programs in the sciences, languages and arts, and offers a wide range of science and technology programs. Students from preschool to Form 13 are on one campus.
The European School I
46 Vert Chasseur
Tel: 32 (2) 373-8611
The European School II
75 Avenue Oscar Jespers
Tel: 32 (2) 774-2211
The European Schools serve families of the European Union. There are two locations in Brussels and one in Mol, north of Brussels. The same curriculum is taught in six language sections. Some subjects are taught to composite classes of the same level. The school considers languages and its international character its biggest advantages. Primary school is a 5-year program and secondary school is 7. The European Schools charge fees to all non-EU employees. In recent years, because of severe overcrowding, the European Schools have been unable to accommodate applicants from non-EU countries.
The British Primary School
6 Stationstraat, 1981
Tervuren Tel: 32 (2) 767-3098
The school is located in the rural suburb of Vossem, near Tervuren, about 20 minutes from central Brussels by car. It is housed in a contemporary brick building and has a large garden with playground equipment and a closed veranda for the nursery classes. Play, music, and art go hand-in-hand with organized free play.
Brussels English Primary School (BEPS)
23 Avenue Franklin Roosevelt
Tel: 32 (2) 648-4311
FAX: 32 (2) 687-2968
Brussels English Primary School (BEPS II)
Rue L. Deladriere 13
Tel: 32 (10) 417-227
FAX: Same as BEPS I
BEPS provides education according to the traditional British primary school structure. The school is located in Ixelles near the Bois de la Cambre, 15 minutes from the center of Brussels by car. The Nursery School provides a full range of pre-school activities and the children have access to a garden at the rear of the school.
BEPS II is located in Limal, about 20 miles southeast of Brussels, near the city of Wavre.
Other national groups operating schools in Brussels include the French, Germans, Scandinavians, and Japanese. Older students whose French or Dutch capability permits may attend many Belgian schools of high academic standing. Whether supported by private, city, state, or religious funds, nearly all receive state subsidies and follow a standard curriculum. People enrolling their children in neighborhood schools pay either nominal tuition or none at all.
No documents or certificates are required to enroll a child in a Belgian primary school (grades 1 to 6). Enrollment in secondary education (grades 7 to 12) requires an "Attestation d'Etudes." This document, which must be signed by the principal of the American school the student last attended, should indicate the grade level completed and subjects taken during the last 3 years. The last report card is also required. The application for a statement of academic course equivalence is normally made by the parents, who may apply directly to the following address: Administration de l'Enseignement Secondaire, Service des Equivalences, Cite Administrative de l'Etat (Arcades), Bloc D, 5 ème ètage, bureau 55222, 1010 Brussels.
Adjustment to a European school varies with the individual student's aptitude, personality, and previous educational background. To obtain a resume of Belgian curricula, write:
The Office des Publications
Administration des Etudes
Ministere de l'Education Nationale Cite Administrative de l'Etat (Arcades)
Brussels has good preschool facilities. Most communes have nursery school programs for which there is little or no tuition. Excellent private nursery schools charge a nominal tuition. All programs provide excellent opportunities for children to enjoy supervised play and exposure to French or Dutch.
Special Educational Opportunities
There are a number of university level programs available in Belgium. Those who are interested in pursuing studies should write directly to the educational institution to request information.
Vesalius College of the Free University of Brussels (VUB) offers an English-language curriculum leading to the B.A. degree, with 15 majors offered. Vesalius College is located at:
tel: 32 (2) 629-3626
FAX: 32 (2) 629-3627
The historic Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, founded in 1425, has a wide choice of courses taught in English in several fields leading to B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees. Specialized programs for post law degree candidates are also available. Write or call:
Dienst Internationale Relaties
tel: 32 (16) 284-025 or
32 (16) 284-027
Boston University Brussels is an integral part of Boston University and offers academic programs of the Metropolitan College and Graduate School. An M.A. in International Relations and an M.S. in Management are currently offered in English. Established in 1972, the school shares the facilities of the Dutch-speaking Free University, Brussels (VUB). Write or call:
Boston University Brussels
Font St. Landry 6
tel: 32 (2) 268-0037
Local communal art and music schools offer instruction for adults and children. Advanced students might enroll at the Royal Conservatory of Music or at the High School for Architecture and Decorative Arts. Private instruction in music and art also is available in Brussels.
Americans play golf at: Royal Waterloo Golf Club in Ohain; the Royal Golf Club of Belgium in Tervuren; the Golf and Business Club at Kampenhout; and the Keerbergen Golf Course at Keerbergen. Fees and dues are expensive at the first two; Kampenhout and Keer-bergen are less expensive. Many golf courses in Europe restrict play to those who have a Golf Federation Card, which reflects current membership in a European golf club. If one does not have membership in a golf club, it is usually possible to play as a guest of a member. Most courses are not generally open to the public, but golf has become very popular and several new courses have opened in recent years, some with more liberal playing policies.
Soccer, field hockey, basketball, and horse racing are popular Belgian sports. But game shooting remains the traditional sport, with boar, deer, pheasant, partridge, duck, and other small game hunted. Hunting areas are strictly controlled, either by individuals or by clubs, and shooting is by invitation or by membership. Opportunities exist for camping, boating and sailing, fishing, and skiing in the Ardennes.
Brussels has many indoor and outdoor tennis clubs; fees and dues vary according to the facilities. Handball courts, indoor swimming pools, new indoor rock climbing walls, and modern bowling alleys are all available and enjoy considerable popularity with Americans. For horseback riders, there are bridle paths in the Bois de la Cambre and nearby forests.
The Brussels Sports Association, an English-speaking organization operated by parent volunteers, offers soccer, basketball, softball, and sanctioned Little League baseball for girls and boys, ages 6 through 15.
The Brussels American School (BAS), International School of Brussels (ISB), and St. John's International School provide junior varsity and varsity interscholastic sports programs. American football is offered only at BAS and ISB. St. John's and ISB offer baseball. All schools have basketball and soccer programs.
Skating enthusiasts enjoy roller skating in the Bois de la Cambre and ice skating at Foret National and Poseidon indoor ice rinks. Skates may be rented.
Touring and Outdoor Activities
Many fine parks in Brussels offer a variety of outdoor activities. The Bois de la Cambre, a large green haven, features pleasant vistas for strolling, rowing, bicycling, horseback riding, roller skating, and miniature golf. The Parc de Tervuren has beautiful walks around lovely lakes, boating, and play areas for children.
A pleasant spring and summer pastime in Belgium is "petanque" or "boule," an outdoor game played with weighted balls in a marked-off court. It originated in the south of France and reminds Americans of a mixture of bowling and horseshoes.
Swimming in indoor pools is a year-round activity in Brussels. The cool summers encourage only the hardy to venture into outdoor swimming areas. But beachcombers find the North Sea coast with its wide, sandy beaches well worth the 2-hour drive from Brussels. There are many resort areas; Ostend and Het Zoute are probably the best known and the most expensive. The season at the seashore is usually short and the water temperatures compare with those along the northern New England coast. Modern, comfortable summer cottages and apartments, as well as many reasonably priced pensions, are available in seacoast towns.
In addition to the many museums and attractions found in Brussels, its central location offers unlimited sight-seeing and travel opportunities, not only in Belgium but throughout Europe.
Brussels offers a full spectrum of entertainment. Opera, concerts, ballets, stage presentations (in French or Dutch), and visiting international performers provide an interesting range of cultural activities. British and American theater clubs present several productions yearly. Numerous movie theaters show films in French, English, Italian, and other languages. Usually a dozen or more American films are playing in Brussels at any one time. Most films are shown in the original language with subtitles.
Inexpensive discotheques with dancing and recorded music abound in the city. The few nightclubs offering floor shows are expensive.
Brussels' many good restaurants offer Belgian cooking (based on French cuisine), as well as Italian, Chinese, Serbian, Spanish, Middle Eastern, African, and other specialties. Prices range from very expensive at some outstanding restaurants to reasonable at smaller establishments. Dining out is a Belgian national pastime. Numerous small cafes do a brisk beer business day and night, and sidewalk cafes flourish in good weather. Belgian folk festival traditions with celebrations of every kind are some of Europe's richest. Especially colorful and exciting are those of the pre-Lenten season. The Carnival of the Gilles in Binche, a Shrove Tuesday event, dates from the 16th century when Spain ruled Belgium. It features the Gilles, those men and boys of the town entitled to wear the brilliant costumes topped with towering Incainspired feathered hats. With carnival enthusiasm, the Gilles dance through the town in Indian rhythm, beating drums, shaking bells, and tossing fresh oranges to the spectators. The Ommegang in Brussels and the Procession of the Holy Blood in Bruges are other internationally famous Belgian festivals.
Certain Brussels communes have public lending libraries, some of which carry a few books in English. Brussels also has excellent research and professional libraries. The Royal Library, in particular, has some valuable possessions, including manuscripts, prints, and miniatures. The British Council Library is a good source for English-language fiction and non-fiction. There is also a well-stocked library at the NATO Support Activity. There are several English-language bookstores. There are many other bookstores which carry some English-language materials. Books can be checked out from most libraries.
Among Americans: Organizations within the American community include the American Club of Brussels, the American Women's Club, the American Chamber of Commerce, the Cub Scouts, Boy Scouts, Brownies, and Girl Scouts.
All women are invited to join the American Women's Club of Brussels (AWCB). In addition to charitable work and other community services, the AWCB organizes excursions, lectures, luncheons, and activities classes, including bridge, yoga, and Japanese flower arranging. Participating in the club and its activities provides an opportunity to meet members of the expatriate American community. Within the AWCB are international members who have been sponsored by an American. There is also an active international group within the club which meets for various activities and for cultural exchange.
International Contacts: The Association Belgo-Americaine offers Americans a chance to meet Belgians interested in America and in knowing Americans through luncheons, lectures, and film showings. It promotes understanding and good will.
The Cercle Gaulois is a pleasant and sociable men's club with a good restaurant. Another club is De Warande.
Other organizations that welcome Americans include the Red Cross, Toastmasters, the American Theater Company, local scouting, sports and musical groups. Rotary, Lions, Kiwanis, and other service clubs are also active. Brussels has an extraordinary range of clubs and organizations, both American and international, which afford individuals an opportunity to pursue almost any type of interest during their tour here.
Belgian Telephone Numbers: The telephone numbers assigned to subscribers in Belgium by the servicing telecommunications companies consist of either a 6-or 7-digit configuration. Larger metropolitan areas normally issue 7-digit numbers; many rural and suburban areas utilize phone numbers consisting of 6 digits.
Exchanges with 7-digit phone numbers use a single digit city/local code; localities with 6-digit phone numbers have a 2-digit city/local code. The country code for all of Belgium is 32.
The phone/fax numbers listed are configured to reflect the following pattern:
country code (city/local code) local number
For 7 digit numbers, the configuration is:
32 (##) ###-####
For 6 digit numbers, the configuration is:
32 (##) ###-###
The European Logistical Support Office personnel (ELSO) is located in the Flemish speaking city of Antwerp in the Flanders region. Antwerp is known for both its historic and artistic legacy (the home of Rubens) as well as for its large, modern seaport. It is about 45 minutes north of Brussels by car or train, and the climate is about the same.
Catholic and Protestant religious services are held in English in Antwerp. Although no Jewish services are held in English in Antwerp, they are available in Brussels.
The Antwerp International School is located 10 km north of Antwerp in the suburb of Ekeren. It offers an American program pre-kindergarten through grade 12 culminating in either a U.S. High School accredited diploma or the International Baccalaureate diploma.
The EEC International School offers an English-language program from pre-kindergarten to grade 12 culminating in an American high school diploma of the University of Cambridge IGCSE and advanced level examinations.
Recreation and Social Life
A variety of recreational opportunities exist on the local economy. A limited number of social and recreational opportunities also exist with English speaking organizations such as the American Women's Club of Antwerp, the British Theater Arts Society, the Belgian-American Association, the international schools, and the churches.
Liège, whose Flemish name is Luik and German name Lüttich, is situated in eastern Belgium at the confluence of the Meuse and Ourthe Rivers, near the borders of both the Netherlands and Germany. Close to the Ardennes Plateau region, and 54 miles southwest of Brussels, Liège is the largest French-speaking city in Belgium. The city proper has about 185,000 residents. A major commercial, industrial, and transportation hub, Liège manufactures chemicals, textiles, furniture, motor vehicles, electrical and electronic equipment, and armaments.
Liège was established as a bishopric in the eighth century and, by the 10th century, it was the capital of an extensive ecclesiastical state, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1792. During the Middle Ages, it was an important cultural city, as well as a center for the textile and metal industries. Liège was seized by Napoleon in 1794 and was a part of France until 1815, when it was assigned to the Netherlands by the Congress of Vienna. In the 19th century, the city was the center of Walloon culture and development, which included rapid industrial growth and social unrest.
The fortifications of Liège were reportedly among the strongest in Europe, but the city fell to the Germans after a 12-day siege in 1914. It suffered defeat again in World War II (May 1940). Although it was liberated by U.S. forces four years later, it had suffered extensive damage from German rockets during the Battle of the Bulge, December 1944 to January 1945.
Today, Liège is, for the most part, a modern city with some splendid historic churches, houses, and museums which contribute to its popularity as a tourist spot. The Walloon Museum depicts everyday life in the 19th century, and is housed in a 17th-century convent. Among the city's ancient buildings are two 10th-century churches and a cathedral, also built in that period. The Palais de Justice is the 16th-century palace of the bishop-princes, and has magnificent interior decorations. Liège has a university (founded in 1816), concert halls, theaters, and an opera house where productions are presented from September to May.
Twenty-five miles northwest of Liège is the secluded reserve, Bokrijk, which has a park, arboretum, rose garden, several lakes, and an open-air museum. Here at the museum is a re-creation of a typical Kempen village, with farms, stables, and one of Belgium's oldest windmills. There are also a 12th-century church, and 17th-century thatched-roofed homes that contain period furnishings. The Ardennes Cemetery is 11 miles southwest of Liège, near the village of Neuvilleen-Condroz. Thousands of Americans killed in the Battle of the Bulge are buried here.
Schools for Foreigners
The International School of Liège is a coeducational school covering kindergarten through ninth grade. It was founded in 1967.
Aspects of the U.S. and U.K. curricula are combined at International School. French is offered as a foreign language. The school year extends from September through June, with vacations at Christmas, Easter, and midterm. Currently, there are six teachers and 17 students (capacity is between 40 and 60).
International School is located north of central Liège. It has five classrooms, a gymnasium, playing fields, swimming pool, and a 5,000-volume library. The mailing address is boulevard Leon Philippet 7, Xhovemont, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
Ghent (Gent in Flemish, Gand in French) is the capital of East Flanders Province. It is situated at the confluence of the Schelde and Lys Rivers, about 35 miles northwest of Brussels. Connected with the North Sea by the Gent-Terneuzen Canal and a network of other canals, Ghent is a major port as well as the chief textile, clothing, and steel manufacturing center of Belgium. Called the "city of flowers," it is also the trade center of a bulb producing region. With a current population of 224,000, Ghent is Belgium's third largest city.
First mentioned in the seventh century, Ghent is one of the country's oldest cities, developing around a fortress built by the first count of Flanders on a small island early in the 10th century. The town spread to nearby islets and today is still connected by many bridges. In medieval times, the city was a major commercial center and the seat of the counts of Flanders. Ghent had become one of Europe's largest cities and a major wool-producing center by the 13th century; the work force was comprised primarily of weavers, fullers, shearers, and dyers at that time. Social conflicts between the workers and the upper classes were frequent. The city was the site on November 8, 1576, of the Pacification of Gent which was an alliance of the provinces of the Netherlands to drive the Spanish from the area. The modern industrialization of Ghent began with the development of its port and the establishment of textile factories early in the 19th century. The city was also the site of a treaty signed December 24, 1814, marking the end of the War of 1812. German forces occupied Ghent in both World Wars.
Ghent has more historic buildings than any other city in Belgium. The landmark is the famous belfry, erected in 1300 as a symbol of freedom. Standing about 300 feet tall, the tower also has an equally famous 52-bell carillon. Despite the symbolic nature of the belfry, more travelers visit St. Bavo's Cathedral. Built sometime between the 10th and 16th centuries, the cathedral's architecture has both Romanesque and Gothic additions. St. Bavo's houses several art treasures, including Hubert and Jan van Eyck's polyptych "Adoration of the Mystic Lamb," in a side chapel. The painting, which dates from the 15th century, is an extraordinary example of Renaissance-style use of detail and vivid color. The masterpiece is also one of the great mysteries of the art world, as experts cannot differentiate between the various parts painted by each of the brothers. Other works of art found in the cathedral are Rubens' "Conversion of St. Bavo" and various crowns and jewels. St. Bavo's is open daily.
The architecture of Ghent blends the medieval and Renaissance styles. Narrow streets and houses built close together make the city very picturesque. Famous structures include the ruins of the Abbey of St. Bavo, dating to the seventh century; and the guild houses, located on the Graslei, built between the 12th and 16th centuries, and reflecting Gothic, Romanesque, and Renaissance styles. The city's town hall was so long under construction that it combines Gothic and Renaissance architecture. Ghent has several other cathedrals (St. Nicholas, St. James), parks (Citadel Park), palaces (Floralia), and castles (Kasteel D'Ooidonk, castle of Laarne) of interest. St. Jorishof, built in the 15th century, is Europe's oldest hotel; today it is widely known for its restaurant. All historic buildings are illuminated nightly from May through October.
Ghent has an opera company and many fine museums. The city can be toured by boat, leaving from Vleeshuisbridge and Korenlei, and by horse-drawn cart, leaving from Korenlei and St. Baafsplein. Ghent is surrounded by begonia fields, in bloom from late July through late September.
Bruges (Brugge), situated in northwest Belgium, is the capital of West Flanders Province. Located nine miles inland, it is connected by canals to Zeebrugge and Ostend, outer ports on the North Sea. A commercial, industrial, and tourist center as well as a rail junction, Bruges manufactures textiles, lace, ships, railroad cars, electronic equipment, chemicals, and processed food. With a population of about 116,000, Bruges, known as the "city of bridges," is 55 miles northwest of Brussels.
The town was founded in the ninth century on an inlet of the North Sea and, by the 11th century, it had become a major trading center with England. In the 13th century, Bruges was one of the chief wool-producing centers in Flanders. One hundred years later, at its peak of prosperity, it was among the great commercial and financial cities of Europe, as well as the residence of the dukes of Burgundy.
The decline of Bruges began when the Flemish wool industry faltered because of foreign competition early in the 15th century. In 1490, the inlet on which the city is located became clogged with silt, and Bruges lost its access to the sea and its outer ports. Also contributing to what would be a 300-year decline was Antwerp's rise to prominence as a major port. The revival of Bruges began in 1895 when repairs to the port were begun; in 1907, the canal to Zeebrugge (or Brugge-on-the-Sea) was completed.
Bruges was occupied by the Germans during both World Wars. Today, although its chief income comes from tourism, lace making, and horticulture, it has regained importance as a port, and new prospects in industry, technology, and commerce are now underway.
A visitor to Bruges may absorb the medieval aura of the city by various modes of transportation. The sights may be viewed from a boat on one of the many canals, from a horse-drawn carriage, or from walking the ancient cobblestone streets. Most of the interesting sites are clustered around the city's main square, the Markt. Noted structures here reflect a variety of architectural styles and include the Basilica of the Holy Blood, the town hall (Europe's oldest, 1376), the old recorder's house, and the baroque provost's house. The Romanesque architecture found in the Basilica of the Holy Blood is evident in the chapel's crypt; built between 1139 and 1149, its upper chapel was rebuilt in Gothic style in the 15th century. What are claimed to be a few drops of Christ's blood, enclosed in a gold reliquary, were presented to the city by Derek of Alsace, count of Flanders, in 1150. On Ascension Day in Bruges, there is a procession of the Holy Blood through the city streets, along with characters and scenes from the Bible. The Church of Our Lady, although primarily Gothic, actually combines several different architectural styles. Paintings by Gérard David and a white Carrara marble statue by Michelangelo entitled "Mother and Child" are displayed. The sculpture was purchased from the artist by a wealthy Flemish burglar and is the only statue of Michelangelo's to remain permanently outside of Italy. The 16th-century mausoleums of Charles the Bold and Mary of Burgundy are also found in this church.
Bruges offers other interesting buildings, museums, and art galleries: Belfort en Hall, the market hall or clothworkers hall, was active from the 13th through the 15th centuries. Its belfry offers visitors an excellent view of the city. A 49-bell carillon entertains here with concerts on Monday, Wednesday, and Saturday evenings and on Sunday morning from mid-June through September. At the Groeningemuseum, paintings by artists of the Flemish primitive school, accounting for about 30 masterworks, as well as collections of later and contemporary art, are displayed. The Gruuthusemuseum, housed in a 15th-century palace, has interesting exhibits of Flemish lace, pottery, and furniture. The Hans Memling Museum was the medieval St. John's Hospital, which accommodated travellers beginning in the 12th Century. Memling (1435-1494) was a painter who studied under Rogier Van der Weyden and lived in Bruges from 1465 until his death. His works exhibited at the museum include the triptych altarpiece, "The Marriage of St. Catherine" and "Shrine of St. Ursula," which is considered one of the seven marvels of Belgium. Beautiful handmade lace is a centuries-old industry in Bruges; the intricacies of creating this openwork can be studied here, and it is possible to watch the students at work with their bobbins. A profusion of small shops cater to the ever-increasing tourist demand for lace made in Bruges.
From June to September, the canals and buildings in Bruges are flooded with light at night, reminding the visitor of Venice, Italy.
Just seven miles beyond the city is the North Sea port of Zeebrugge, which offers lovely beaches and water sports activities. Zeebrugge, where the ferry crosses to and from England, drew international attention in March 1987 with the tragic sinking of a passenger vessel less than a mile from the harbor. A valiant rescue effort saved many lives, but 185 are known dead, either in the frigid waters of the North Sea or trapped in the overturned boat.
In the same area is the picturesque village of Lissewege. Medieval culture has been preserved here; there are windmills, a canal, low houses, a 13th-century church, and a 12th-century abbey.
AALST , with a population of about 76,000, is situated on the Dender River, 15 miles northwest of Brussels, in western Belgium. Founded in the ninth century, the city has been occupied by the Spanish, Germans, French, and Dutch from 1056 until Belgium's independence in 1830. Historical sites in town include the unfinished, Gothic style, 14th-century St. Martin Church and a statue of Thierry Martens, who established the first Belgian printing press here in 1473.
ANDERLECHT , with a population of 93,000, is a residential and industrial suburb of Brussels. Situated on the Charleroi-Brussels Canal, Anderlecht was the home of Erasmus, philosopher and scholar, from 1517 to 1521. His house is now a museum.
CHARLEROI is Belgium's fifth city in size, with a population of 208,000 (greater area). It is located in southern Belgium, on the Sambre River and Charleroi-Brussels Canal. Founded in 1666 and named for Charles II of Spain, it is the center of an area that produces iron and coal. Metal, glass, and other industries are also present. An important strategic position during the 17th-and 18th-century wars, Charleroi was the site of a victorious German battle in World War I. Today, the city has modern buildings and a technical university. Places of interest include the Industrial Exhibition Halls and the Palace of Fine Arts. Eleven miles southwest of Charleroi is the medieval village of Thuin, featuring old abbeys, hanging gardens, and a thousand-year-old tower. Six miles west of Thuin is Binche, known for its pre-Lenten Carnival and museum of carnival masks.
GEEL , located about 35 miles north of the capital, is known for its home-care system for the mentally ill. It has been a treatment center for the mentally impaired since the Middle Ages. When the tomb of St. Dympna became associated with the cure of insanity, people came to Geel in large numbers. The townspeople began to board the pilgrims in their houses. In 1850, the government assumed responsibility for the system. Industries in Geel include textile and cigar factories and breweries. The city's population is approximately 33,000.
KORTRIJK (in French, Courtrai) lies on the Leie (Lys) River, about 47 miles southwest of Brussels. By the 14th century, Kortrijk was the most important cloth manufacturing town in medieval Flanders. Today, with a population of close to 76,000, Kortrijk is an important linen and textile manufacturing center. The Church of Notre Dame here contains Rubens' "Elevation of the Cross." The Gothic town hall dates from 1526 and currently houses the tourist office. Ten miles northeast of Kortrijk, near the town of Waregem, is Flanders Field, the cemetery where Americans killed in World War I are buried—and touchingly remembered by grateful Belgians who still honor them with floral tributes and prayers.
LOUVAIN (in Flemish, Leuven), 17 miles east of Brussels on the Dijle River, was an important center of wool trade and of the cloth industry during the Middle Ages. It was the seat of the dukes of Brabant for centuries, but is best known for its university. Founded in 1425 by Pope Martin V, the university rapidly became renowned as a center for Catholic learning. Its 800,000-volume library is considered one of the finest in the world; it was destroyed in both World Wars, and restored twice. A long-standing dispute between Belgium's Flemish and French-speaking (Walloon) sectors resulted in the division of the university into two separate units in 1968. The Flemish-speaking University of Leuven is in the city; the French-speaking Université Catholique de Louvain is at Ottignies. Noted churches in Louvain are the 15th-century Gothic St. Pierre's and the baroque St. Michel's. The town hall, built in 1459 in flamboyant Gothic style, is one of the most attractive buildings in Belgium; it houses the local tourist office. Louvain's population is about 75,000.
MECHLIN (Mechelen in Flemish, Malines in French) is located on the Dijle River in north-central Belgium, about 12 miles south of Brussels. Once a center of Flemish cloth-weaving and known for its lace, Mechlin today is a commercial, industrial, and transportation center, manufacturing textiles, steel, and motor vehicles. It has 77,000 residents. The city was founded early in the Middle Ages, and was a fief for the prince-bishops of Liège until 1356. Although it has been damaged several times in wars, Mechlin retains many noteworthy buildings. The Gothic cathedral of St. Rombaut is considered one of the most beautiful churches in Belgium; built in the 13th century, it has a 319-foot tower and a 49-bell carillon. Concerts are performed on Sunday, Monday, and Saturday. A bell-ringing school attracts carillonneurs from all over the world. The cathedral houses Van Dyke's painting, "Crucifixion," and paintings by Rubens. The tourist office is located in the town hall, built in the 14th century and rebuilt in the 18th century.
MONS (also called Bergen) is located in southwest Belgium near the French border. With a population of 94,000, it is the capital of Hainaut Province and the processing and shipping center of the Borinage coal mining district, as well as a manufacturing center. Charlemagne made Mons the capital of Hainaut in 840; in 1295, it was the seat of the counts of Hainaut. Mons was occupied by Dutch, Spanish, and French forces in wars of the 16th through the 18th centuries, and was the site of several battles in both World Wars. A visitor today finds winding streets, quaint buildings, and magnificent mansions, remnants of the city's long history. The castle of the counts of Hainaut is mostly in ruins, except for some subterranean passages and the chapel of St. Calixte, whose belfry contains a 47-bell carillon. Collegiate Church of St. Waudru, a late Gothic structure, has 28 chapels, 16th-century stained glass windows, and the alabaster "Annunciation" by Dubrecq. Mons is the site of an annual pageant and festival of St. George. During winter, about three or four visiting ballet and opera companies and symphony orchestras perform monthly. Excellent shopping facilities, especially food stores, are available here. The town of Casteau, near Mons, is the site of Supreme Headquarters, Allied Powers in Europe (SHAPE).
NAMUR , or Namen, the capital of the eponymous province, is situated at the confluence of the Meuse and Sambre Rivers in south-central Belgium. About 35 miles southeast of Brussels, and with a population of 106,000, Namur is a rail junction as well as a commercial and industrial center, producing leather goods and porcelain. Pink brick houses, baroque churches, and lovely gardens add charm to the city. The 11th-century citadel and castle of the counts of Namur overlooks the town and may be reached by road or cable car. Other nearby castles include Corroy-le-Château, a military fortress; Mielmont (16th century); and Franc-Waret (18th century). The baroque St. Aubin Cathedral, built in the 18th century, contains paintings by Van Dyke and Jordaens and has copies of Rubens' work. Namur's archaeological museum is considered one of the richest in Belgium. During summer, boat excursions may be made to Dinant in the Ardennes. The tourist office is located on Leopold Square.
OSTEND (Oostende) is the largest and oldest of the Belgian cities on the North Sea coast. With a population of about 69,000, it is a major commercial and fishing port, industrial center, and seaside resort, connected by canals with Bruges and Ghent. Ostend was a port as early as the 11th century and played an important role in the Dutch struggle for independence. From May to October, it is the country's most popular seaside resort, with a three-mile beach, race track, casino, golf course, and facilities for other sports. Concerts, ballet, and other entertainment are presented at the casino during summer. Steamer trips across the channel to Dover, England, leave from Ostend's harbor.
TOURNAI (also called Doornik, in Flemish, and Tournay) is located in southwest Belgium on the Schelde River, nine miles from the French border and 43 miles from Brussels. A commercial and industrial center with a population of 68,000, Tournai manufactures textiles, carpets, and cement. One of the oldest cities in Belgium, Tournai was founded by the Romans in the third century and was destroyed in 881 by the Normans. It was part of France from 1187 to 1521, part of the Spanish Netherlands until 1714, and then was under Austrian rule. A cultural center since the 12th century, Tournai is also noted for its tapestries, china, and earthenware. The Museum of Fine Arts here displays works by Rubens, Brueghel, Manet, and others. The 13th-century belfry is the oldest in Belgium, and offers a fine view of the city. The Romanesque Cathedral of Notre Dame was built in 1171, and contains many sculptures, murals, and paintings. Château de Beloeil, 17 miles southeast of Tournai, is one of the finest castles in the province. It is complete with a moat and a garden-park. The Tournai tourist office is located at 14 rue du Vieux Marchéaux Poteries, opposite the belfry.
VERVIERS , located east of Liège at the foot of the Ardennes, is an industrial center manufacturing textiles and machinery. Its population is about 54,000. Surrounded by lush countryside, Verviers has an 18th-century town hall and Church of Our Lady. The castle of Franchimont, in nearby Theux, is said to be one of the oldest in Belgium. Henri-Chapelle Cemetery is about 12 miles north, and here, over 8,000 American military personnel killed in World War II are buried.
WATERLOO , situated south of Brussels in central Belgium, is important historically. The Battle of Waterloo, fought just to the south on June 18, 1815, was where Napoleon was defeated. Visitors may explore the battlefield; there are also several monuments and memorials to those killed in this battle. The headquarters of the duke of Wellington, who led the British forces against Napoleon, may be visited by the public. The current population of this Brabant provincial city is close to 29,000.
Geography and Climate
Belgium is small, about the size of Maryland, with an area of 11,799 square miles. Thirty-nine miles of Belgian seacoast line the North Sea, and 896 miles of frontier border the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and France. The Meuse River and its tributary, the Sambre, divide the country into two distinct geographic regions: a level, fertile area to the north and west, and the hilly, wooded region, the Ardennes, to the south and east. The capital, Brussels, is in the center of the Kingdom. With Ghent and Antwerp, it forms a triangle enclosing the most heavily built-up and densely populated area of Belgium. More than 50 percent (4 million acres) of Belgium is still farmland; forest covers another 18 percent.
Belgium's climate is characterized by moderate temperatures, prevailing westerly winds, cloudy skies, regular but not abundant rainfall, and little snow. The weather is variable. Summer temperatures average 60°F (16°C). Rare annual extremes are 10°F (-12°C) and 90°F (33°C).
Belgium has 10.3 million inhabitants. The principal cities are Brussels (population about 959,000 for the 19 municipalities of the capital region), Antwerp (447,000), Ghent (224,000), Charleroi (201,000), Liège (186,000), Bruges (116,000), and Namur (105,000). Geographically and culturally, Belgium is at the crossroads of Europe. During the past 2,000 years, it has witnessed a constant ebb and flow of different peoples and cultures. As a result, Belgium has people of Celtic, Roman, German, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Austrian origins.
Belgium is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch. Although the King, Albert II, is technically the executive authority, the Council of Ministers (Cabinet) makes governmental decisions. The Council of Ministers, led by the Prime Minister, Guy Verhofstadt, holds office as long as it retains parliamentary confidence. Elections are held at least every 4 years by universal suffrage with obligatory voting and a form of proportional representation.
The bicameral Parliament consists of a Chamber of Representatives and a Senate. The 150-member Chamber of Representatives is elected directly. The government ministers are responsible before the Chamber of Representatives. The Senate consists of 71 members; 40 are directly elected, 21 are appointed by the regional legislatures and 10 by fellow senators. The Senate has the right to review draft bills of the Chamber.
The 1993 amended Constitution and Devolution Acts have turned Belgium into a federal state composed of three economic regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels) and three cultural communities (Flemish, French, and German-language). The present government consists of a coalition of Flemish and Francophone Social Christians (CVP/PSC) and Socialists.
The judiciary is modeled after the French system. The King appoints court magistrates and court judges. The highest court is the "Cour de Cassation." There are 5 courts of appeal and 27 district courts. Courts do not pass on the constitutionality of legislation, but a special body, the Arbitration Court, rules in jurisdictional disputes opposing federal and regional legislatures.
Belgium is divided into 10 provinces, with executive power in each exercised by a Governor appointed by the King.
Arts, Science, and Education
Belgium is justly proud of its centuries-old artistic tradition. The country's past is studded with the names of masters—Rubens, Brueghel, Hieronymous Bosch, Van Eyck—whose works are displayed in museums and churches throughout the country. Equally famous are such Belgian art cities as Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, and Leuven. Belgium's art tradition does not end with the masters. James Ensor, Permeke, surrealists Rene Magritte, and Paul Delvaux are among the many considered to be outstanding 20th-century artists.
Brussels is a major center for the performing arts. Its Palais des Beaux-Arts offers a wide range of dance and music programs each season. The Theater Royal de la Monnaie is home of the opera. The Festival of Flanders, organized every summer in various Belgian cities, features concerts, theater, and dance performances. Brussels also hosts the Queen Elisabeth International Music Competition. Begun in 1951, it offers material and moral support to talented young artists: pianists, violinists, and composers.
Since the Middle Ages, Belgian educational institutions have been famous centers of learning. The Belgian Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of choice of education. Most schooling is state-financed from primary school to the university level. Belgian universities attract large numbers of foreign students, including many Americans. However, since 1977 foreign students must pay higher tuition than Belgian students.
The cost of this tuition varies according to the type of education (university or non-university) and even within these two subdivisions. Some exemptions from tuition exist: for the student whose parents work in Belgium and pay taxes, for the student whose parents work in an Embassy or with the European Union, for example. For those students who do have to pay, the fee varies. One should contact the educational institution to determine the charges applicable to the course of study one wishes to pursue.
Also well known are Belgium's cultural and scientific institutions, such as the Royal Observatory, the Royal Library, and the Institute of Tropical Medicine. Their valuable collections range from precious medieval manuscripts to specialized scientific collections.
Commerce and Industry
Belgium is the one of the largest trading nations in the world and belongs to the G-10 group of leading financial powers. Because of the long-standing importance of trade to its economic prosperity, Belgium has been a strong supporter of liberal trade policies and participates actively in international cooperation through the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU), the European Union (EU), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the World Trade Organization (successor to the GATT). Exports are equivalent to about two-thirds percent of gross national product (GNP) making Belgium not only one of the highest per capita exporters in the world, but also highly dependent on the economic health of its trading partners. Belgium imports many basic or intermediate goods, adds value, and then exports final products. Most of Belgium's foreign trade is with other EU countries, pointing up the country's importance as a commercial axis in Europe. Lying in the heart of the European Union, Belgium stands to benefit greatly from the developing single market.
Belgium and the U.S. have strong reciprocal trade relations.
Belgium is blessed with an excellent transportation network of ports, railroads, and highways. Major U.S. air cargo carriers have created one of the first and perhaps only European hub operation. Belgium has three linguistic communities: French, Dutch, and German. This diversity, combined with its history, location, and small, manageable size, makes the country an excellent test market and subsequent launching pad for the European operations of U.S. businesses. The Belgian market is highly competitive. Generous social payments help maintain a high standard of living but contribute to an unemployment level stuck at about 8 percent for several years.
The Belgian Government believes that the country's future economic prosperity is tied closely to the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Belgium became a first-tier member of the EMU on May 1, 1998. It introduced the euro as common currency in 1999. First used mainly by financial institutions, the euro became the country's only currency in 2002.
Brussels has an extensive public transportation network comprised of buses, trams (streetcars), and an underground rapid transit (metro) system. Special 10-ride and monthly or yearly tickets for combined Brussels transport facilities are available and afford great savings over the cost of one-ride tickets. Trains run frequently and on schedule. Taxis are fairly expensive, but the service charge or tip is included in the metered fare.
Brussels National Airport (in Zaventem) is a major international air terminal. American carriers and Sabena fly between Brussels and several major U.S. cities. Additional air connections to anywhere in the world can be made through London, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, and Paris, which are all less than an hour's flight from Brussels.
Excellent rail and highway systems link Belgium to adjoining countries and provide direct routes to major European cities. There are numerous "auto routes" (limited-access divided highways) which cross Belgium, connecting it to the main cities of Europe. There are no toll roads in Belgium and it is particularly easy to drive after dark because all major highways are illuminated at night, in part because of frequent fog.
Telephone and Telegraph
Telephone and telegraph services to and from Belgium are comparable to those in the U.S. Direct-dial service is available to the U.S. and most European countries. All Tri-Mission leased housing is equipped with one telephone. Additional extensions are at personal expense. Portable phones can be used but U.S. models require a transformer, which can be purchased locally. Monthly costs and long-distance rates are generally more expensive than in the U.S., as are charges for trans-Atlantic calls. Rates through U.S.-based telephone companies and call-back services may be cheaper than local carrier rates. Competition among carriers and services is driving prices downward.
Radio and TV
Belgian radio and TV systems are government-owned with a few commercial channels. French-and Dutch-language stations are separate. Dutch-language TV often carries American and British programs in English with Dutch subtitles. Most American and British programs on French TV are dubbed. BBC has two channels available on most cable systems.
Cable TV provides a variety of programs in French, Dutch, German, Italian, and English.
The Armed Forces Network (AFN) broadcasts television and radio programs 24 hours a day in Belgium. Stations are located in Everberg (near NATO headquarters) and at SHAPE. Transmitted live by satellite, AFN television features popular sporting events and current American TV programs. A special antenna, which can be purchased locally, is required to receive AFN.
Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals
La Libre Belgique, Le Soir, and La Derniere Heure are the most widely read French-language dailies published in Brussels. Het Laatste Nieuws and De Standaard are the most popular Dutch-language newspapers published in Brussels.
London and Paris papers, including The Times, Daily Telegraph, Le Monde, and Le Figaro, are sold in Brussels on the day of publication. The Bulletin, an English-language magazine catering to the substantial Anglophone community, appears every Thursday. Prospects is a monthly English magazine covering Belgian business topics.
The International Herald Tribune and the European editions of the Wall Street Journal and USA Today are sold the day of publication at Brussels newsstands or by subscription.
Several American periodicals, many of them European editions, are available on Brussels newsstands.
Health and Medicine
Many Belgian hospitals compare very favorably with good American hospitals. They are well-equipped to handle emergency situations, as well as long-term care.
Public health standards are equal to those in the U.S. Brussels has modern sewage and refuse disposal systems and water purification facilities. Tap water has a high calcium content, but is safe to drink. Dairy, meat, and other food products are safe.
Individuals should keep their immunizations current against typhoid, tetanus, diphtheria, and polio.
The climate is sometimes uncomfortable for those who suffer from sinus conditions or respiratory ailments. Colds are common in winter. Epidemic diseases are rare and are treated efficiently by Belgian public health authorities.
NOTES FOR TRAVELERS
Most travelers from the U.S. arrive at the Brussels National Airport at Zaventem.
Visas are not required for Americans transiting or visiting Belgium, as long as the stay is less than 3 months. Travelers who will remain in Belgium more than 3 months must obtain a visa from a Belgian consulate in the country in which they reside prior to entering Belgium.
Dogs or cats entering Belgium from the U.S. are not quarantined. Belgian law requires a certificate of good health and a valid rabies certificate dated not less than 1 month and not more than 12 months before departure from the U.S. Transportation of pets, including birds of the parrot order, from other geographical areas is subject to various frequently changing regulations.
Belgium's currency is the euro. No currency restrictions affect the import, export, purchase, sale, or use of American or European currencies. Purchases on the local economy are made with the euro. VISA and Mastercard are accepted by many local businesses, and ATM's are found throughout Belgium.
Belgium uses the metric system.
Jan. 1…New Year's Day
May 1…Belgium Labor Day
May 24…Ascension Day
July 23…Belgium Independence Day
Aug. 15…Assumption Day
Nov. 1…All Saints' Day
Dec. 25…Christmas Day
Dec. 26…Boxing Day
These titles are provided to give a general idea of the material published on Belgium. The Department of State does not accept responsibility for the accuracy of any information in the following publications.
Baedeker's Brussels. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, latest edition.
Belgium and EC Membership Evaluated. London: Pinter, 1992.
Belgium in Pictures. Minneapolis:Lerner Publications, 1991.
Carson, Patricia. Flanders in Creative Contrasts. Leuven, Belgium: Davidsfonds, 1990. An in-depth look at the Flemish: their roots, history, culture, values, evolution and contributions within Belgium and beyond its borders. Beautiful pictorial presentation accompanies the text.
Flynn, G. NATO's Northern Allies: The National Security Policies of Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, and Denmark. Totowa, NJ: Rowman, 1985.
Fodor's Belgium & Luxembourg. New York: McKay, 1991.
Hazlewood, Carole. Long Stays in Belgium-Luxembourg. United Kingdom: David & Charles (dist. in U.S. by Hippocrene Books), 1987.
Hill, H. Constance. Fielding's Benelux 1992: Holland, Belgium & Luxembourg. New York: Fielding Travel Books, 1991.
Keyes, Roger. Outrageous Fortune: The Tragedy of Leopold III of the Belgians, 1901-1941. London: Secker & Warburg, 1984. Historical biography of King Leopold and an examination of the social and political conditions in Belgium during World War II (1939-1945).
MacRae, Kenneth Douglas. Conflict and Compromise in Multilingual Societies: Belgium. Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University, 1986. Discusses multilingualism in Belgium and its effects on politics, government, and social conditions.
Matthijs, Koen. The Belgians. Tielt:Lannoo, 1992. This book examines the history of Belgian civilization.
Neuburg, Victor. A Guide to the Western Front: A Companion for Travelers. New York: Viking Penguin, 1989.
Simonet, Henri. Belgium in the Postwar Period: Partner and Ally. Washington: Georgetown University, 1981. Examines Belgium's role in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and in national security matters.
Stein, George J. Benelux Security Cooperation: A New European Defense Community? Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1990. Military relations, military policy and national security in Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
Wickman, Stephen B. Belgium: A Country Study. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1985.
1951-1991: Image of an Age. Brussels: Palais des Beaux-Arts, 1991. A close look at Belgium under Baudouin I, King of the Belgians.
"Belgium." Cities of the World. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410700117.html
"Belgium." Cities of the World. 2002. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3410700117.html
|Official Country Name:||Kingdom of Belgium|
|Language(s):||Dutch, French, German|
|Number of Primary Schools:||4,493|
|Public Expenditure on Education:||3.1%|
|Foreign Students in National Universities:||34,966|
|Educational Enrollment:||Primary: 736,782|
|Educational Enrollment Rate:||Primary: 103%|
|Student-Teacher Ratio:||Primary: 12:1|
|Female Enrollment Rate:||Primary: 102%|
History & Background
Belgium covers a small geographic area of 32,547 square kilometers and has a population slightly greater than 10 million (10,239,085 in the year 2000). The country is often described as being situated at the "center" of Europe, since the exact geographic center of the 15 member countries of the European Union is located in the Belgian province of Namur and the political seat of the European Union is located in Brussels, the nation's capital.
Belgium's history of numerous conquests by neighboring powers has given rise to strong cultural pluralism. Celts populated the area until the Roman conquest under Julius Caesar in 57 B.C.E. The ensuing period of Pax Romana was characterized by a blending of Germanic and Latin cultural influences and economic progress in the form of improved trade and the rudiments of an education system.
Christianity entered Belgium in the fourth century A.D., but receded temporarily with the conquests of the Franks one century later. Linguistic and cultural pluralism characterized the northern part of what is now Belgium. The establishment of a proto-Dutch language, a Germanic and Latin influenced language, was evidence of the variety in culture and language. Under the powerful leadership of emperor Charlemagne of the Carolingian dynasty, school education received its second rudimentary movement.
The Middle Ages saw the development of textile and metallurgy industries, and the lower southern countries became the crossroads of trade. In the fifteenth century various parts of the lower southern countries were united by the Dukes of Burgundy. Under their rule Belgium became a center of intellectual and artistic endeavors. Austrian rule began in 1500, under Emperor Charles V, and was followed by Spanish rule and the imposition of Catholicism. Belgium became part of the French empire when Napoleon rose to power in 1794 and the Code Napoléon became the basis of the country's civil law. After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo (in Belgium), the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) united the southern (Belgium) and northern (Holland) regions of the Netherlands, to establish a barrier against future French aggression. The forced union led to protests by Catholics against the influence of a protestant Dutch King in clerical matters, and by Belgian liberals who demanded more political freedom.
Revolution against Dutch rule led to Belgium's independence in 1830 and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, with an administrative division of the country into nine provinces (West Flanders, East Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Limburg, Hainaut, Namur, Liége, and Luxembourg) and more than 500 municipalities. Belgium's independence imposed its role as a buffer zone during the Congress of Vienna, and proved to be a political complication. The surrounding major national powers accordingly imposed neutrality on the newly independent state. Belgium nevertheless became involved in international conflict on several occasions, first as it established colonial rule in central Africa's Congo region under Leopold II, and subsequently during the two world wars.
Constitutional & Legal Foundations
Education in Belgium is regulated by the first Constitution of 1831, by the constitutional reform establishing cultural and linguistic communities (completed in 1993), and by several school laws. Article 17 of the Constitution of 1831 set "freedom of education," prohibiting efforts to hinder said freedom, and that the state would legislate publicly funded education. Article 17 has been consistently interpreted as meaning that the state must fund education but could not hold a monopoly in it, and that free institutions—in particular the Catholic Church—may provide public education parallel to the state. Accordingly, Belgium has several education systems, and the understandably numerous disputes between these systems have been settled primarily by means of supplemental legislation.
Legislative action of May 1914 instituted compulsory education, to begin in the fall of the year during which the child reached age six. Initially, education was compulsory for eight years. The legislative action also stated that a Belgian could become a primary school teacher having completed only two years of education beyond primary school. In 1983, however, Belgium initiated 12 years of compulsory education, from age 6 to age 18. However, children as young as two and a half years old can attend preprimary education. Of the 12 required years, 9 must be full-time, and the last 3 years (ages 15 through 18) may be spent going to school part-time.
The School Pact of 1958 (made into law in 1959) recognized two basic types of schools in the provision of primary and secondary education, official schools organized by state bodies, and free schools, most of which are Catholic. Parents were given complete freedom to select the type of school attended by their children. Moreover, the state was required to provide sufficient numbers of schools of both types within commuting distance, by direct provision of official schools, subsidies to free schools, or provision of school buses. Free schools that receive a state subsidy could not charge tuition or require fees for textbooks. The 1959 law also required official primary and secondary schools to provide two hours of instruction per week in religion or morals. While almost uniquely Catholic in 1959, religious instruction gradually came to be offered in other faiths, as well. Regardless of their religious beliefs, many parents elect to enroll their children in nondenominational moral instruction.
An immediate political problem generated by independence and affecting education policy was the selection of French as the national language, thereby essentially requiring bilingualism on the part of the Flemish population without parallel imposition on francophones. Throughout Belgium, all administrative offices, courts, hospitals, and other institutions functioned using French as their language. In the Flemish provinces, secondary and university education could only be obtained in French, while primary education was available in Flemish, taught in one of the dialects of the region. By the mid-nineteenth century, a Flemish political movement had developed under the leadership of Flemish intellectuals, who adopted the Dutch language spoken by their northern neighbor as a unifying language for the Flemish people, pushing the diverse multitude of local dialects into the background (a move that has come to be criticized by scholars who see in it the deepening marginalization and even disappearance of local culture and folklore). Legislation passed in 1898 recognized Dutch alongside French as an official language. However, the Flemish population continued to be treated as second best. While a 1932 law required that the language of instruction in primary and secondary education be that of the region (Dutch in Flanders, French in Wallonia and German in the municipalities of the eastern part of Belgium), the law also provided too many loopholes for the Flemish to give up demands for cultural equality.
After the Second World War, relations between the language and cultural communities of Belgium became increasingly strained, as the Flemish northern part of the country realized more rapid economic growth and had a larger population than the French speaking southern part. By the beginning of the 1960s several radical political parties gained popular power, notably the Volksunie and the Front des Francophones. A number of new laws, passed in 1962 and 1963, attempted to settle the language wars by establishing a linguistic frontier that ran horizontally through the middle of the country and requiring the language of instruction for primary and secondary schools to be that of the region. In the bilingual area of Brussels, children were to receive instruction in their "mother tongue," which was determined on the basis of a written declaration by the head of the family. The 1963 law further allowed teaching of a second language to be initiated in third grade, in primary schools that were located in the Brussels region, while primary schools located in Flanders and Wallonia were required to do so only in fifth grade. As a result, "frenchification" of the Brussels capital region, geographically located to the north of the language border continued, fueling the frustration of the Flemish population.
Continued demands for cultural self-determination led to a revision of the constitution and Belgium was transformed into a federal state through four stages of constitutional reforms, which were effected in 1970, 1980, 1988-89, and 1993. Belgian education policies are intertwined with its political progress towards federalism. An important step towards constitutional reform was the passage of language laws from 1873 to 1963, which ultimately recognized French, Dutch, and German as the three official languages of the Belgian state. In response to continuing Flemish demands for cultural autonomy, constitutional reforms of 1970 and 1980 established three geographic regions: the Flemish Region (Vlaams Gewest ), the Walloon Region (Région Wallonne ) and the bilingual capital region of Brussels (Région Capitale/Hoofstedelijk Gewest ), as well as three cultural/linguistic communities (Dutch, French, and German). Each cultural/linguistic community obtained its own parliamentary government. While the Flemish and Walloon geographic regions would also have their own government, the government of the Flemish region coincides with that of the Flemish community. The French language community does not coincide easily with the French region (Wallonia), since the French speaking population of the capital region of Brussels is large in comparison with that of Wallonia, while the Dutch speaking population of Brussels is small compared with that of the Flemish region. Complicating matters even more, the German cultural/linguistic community comprises the population living in the eastern portion of the Walloon geographic region.
The third phase of constitutional reform, initiated in 1989, operationalized the previously established Brussels capital region (Région Capitale/Hoofstedelijk Gewest ). It, too, was endowed its own parliamentary government. On July 14, 1993, the new Constitution was voted into law, with as its first sentence "Belgium is a federal state, constituted of several cultural/linguistic communities and geographic regions." Approximately 58 percent of the population lives in the Flemish region, 33 percent in Wallonia, and 9 percent in Brussels. Of those living in Wallonia, 70,000, or 2.1 percent are German and constitute the German community. Article 24 of the new Constitution decentralized educational authority and transferred it to the communities. Three types of schools coexist within each of the three communities: secular schools administered directly by the communities, grant-aided schools administered by provinces and local communes, and grant-aided free schools with or without religious denomination.
Education policy also is becoming more and more influenced by the needs imposed by Belgium's membership in the European Union (EU). The influence of the EU is especially evident in the teaching and utilization of technology in schools, provision of equal opportunity to children of immigrants, the equivalency ratings of diplomas obtained in other EU member countries, and access to educational exchange programs such as ERASMUS, LINGUA, and SOCRATES.
The linguistic configuration of Belgium is more intricate than evidenced by the three language communities, each of which oversees its own unilingual cultural institutions, since in each of these communities there are significant groups of "foreign" people whose mother tongue is different from that of the language community. These groups, constituting 11.3 percent of Wallonia, 4.2 percent of Flanders, and 27.2 percent of Brussels (Swing 1991/92), comprise educated European Community members as well as second and third generation immigrant workers whose origins are from Italy, Turkey, Morocco, and other countries. While direct immigration to Belgium has virtually come to a standstill, children and grandchildren of migrant workers continue to crowd Belgian schools and will comprise increasing percentages of the school age population. While close to 15 percent of the Belgian population is age 15 or younger, the percentages are the same, or are much higher among Belgians whose ethnicity is Italian (15 percent), Spanish (22 percent), Turkish (43 percent) or Moroccan (48 percent). While Dutch-language schools tend to attract relatively fewer "foreign" children, because children have been socialized in the French language, Belgian francophone children are increasing their participation in these schools owing to favorable student-teacher ratios, the recognition of the need for fluency in the Dutch language for economic advancement, and because of racist sentiments on the part of some parents. To deal with these realities of trilingualism, the European Community funded the experimental Foyer Project in 1981. The program recruited immigrant children into Dutch-language schools, where speaking and writing of both the native language and Dutch are stressed, and French is taught as a second language, even though many children are familiar with a street language version of French. The Dutch language is introduced gradually, for a few hours each week, until the child is literate in the home community language. Stressing the importance of the mother tongue is rooted in the belief that it provides the cognitive base for learning, together with Dutch, which eventually becomes the language of instruction for children enrolled in the program.
The approximately 850 square kilometer German-speaking area of eastern Belgium (Eupen-Malmédy) has seen substantial progress towards autonomy in the Belgian federal state. After the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, the two German regions became part of Prussia, remaining so until the end of World War I when the 1919 Treaty of Versailles granted it to the Belgian state. Education policy relating to the language of instruction has varied substantially in the schools of this region, including a period of German unilingualism during the annexation of the region by Germany, followed by a period of imposition of the French language in education and government between 1945 and 1963. The year 1963 was a turning point, marking a move toward decentralization and regionalization and emergence of a new generation of German-speaking intellectuals. The nation's constitutional changes, leading to the four-stage reform of Belgium into a federal state, provided important additional stepping stones in the region's move towards educational autonomy.
Linguistic legislation of 1963 provided that German would be the language of instruction in all classes. A survey of parents, teachers and school principals, conducted in 1976, showed that extreme positions relative to the use of French (no teaching in French or all teaching in French) were those of a minority. Schools in the region range from those in which all classes are taught in German to those where German and French languages exist side by side to schools in which all classes are taught in French. The third stage of the completion of the Belgian federal state, completed in 1989, gave near complete independence in education matters to the three language communities from the central government, including the small German-speaking language community. Today, the people of this region are no longer Walloons or even Germans-they have evolved into German-speaking Belgians.
Of the total population of 10.2 million, 2.4 million are 19 years or younger, roughly evenly divided by sex. The school population was 2,254,000 in the year 2000, with 399,000 children enrolled in preschool, 778,000 in primary school, 779,000 in secondary school, and 298,000 in higher education, of whom 128,000 were in universities and 170,000 in non-university institutions. The rapid aging of the Belgian population is evident in the numbers of school age children. In only five years, compared with the 1995-1996 school year, enrollments have declined from 428,000 to 399,000 in preschool, although higher education enrollments are still rising somewhat. In the following two decades, the pupil-teacher ratio will likely decrease in primary and secondary schools.
The education system is divided in four general parts: preschool education for ages 21/2 to 6, primary education for ages 6 to 12, secondary education for ages 12 to 18, and tertiary education in both university and nonuniversity format averaging four years. The general school year starts in September for preprimary through secondary education and in the second week of October at universities. School holidays and vacations include Christmas and Easter vacations, several single-day holidays, such as Armistice and Labor Days (November 11 and May 1, respectively), and summer vacation starting on July 1.
Owing originally to Article 17 of the Constitution of 1831 (which was retained as Article 24 in the new constitution), Belgium has more private than public schools, and almost all private schools are government subsidized. Federalization of education in 1989 gave the communities authority to organize education with federally provided financial resources and gave them very few areas of decision-making under federal control. The federal government determines the length of compulsory education, the minimum requirements for obtaining diplomas, and pensions and other benefits of teachers. Although at the community level the education authorities can set their own time tables, curriculum, and teaching methods, education has remained fairly comparable across the three communities. Belgian educators are well aware of the need to retain high standards in education, and to maintain its strong position among the world's 15 main trading nations.
Preprimary & Primary Education
Preprimary or preschool education (Enseignement préscolaire/Voorschool onderwijs ) is separate and not compulsory and is provided free of charge at three levels, covering the age groups of two and a half to four years old, four to five years old, and five to six years old. Parents may have to provide assistance in the form of meals, transportation, and activities outside the classroom. More than 90 percent of Belgian children are enrolled in the first level. The number of pupils in preprimary education runs at roughly more than 120,000 for ages three, four, and five. At age five, the number is only half as much, since children who are six years old before September enter primary school. Primary education comprises six years of instruction, divided in three cycles of two years each. The school week has 28 periods of instruction, consisting of 50 minutes each. With five days of instruction per week and 182 school days per year, annual instruction is 849 hours.
Upon satisfactory completion of the sixth grade, pupils receive a Certificate of Primary Education, which guarantees acceptance into secondary education. Primary schools are generally coeducational, with the exception of some denominational private schools. Subjects taught include the mother tongue, a second language, history, mathematics, music, physical education, science, social education, artistic activities, and geography. While compulsory subjects are determined by the community governments, they are very similar. For children 10 years of age in the third cycle of primary education, the number of hours of compulsory subjects totals 848-850 hours for the school year, distributed in the three communities. The time table for the German community closely emulates that of the French community, with the main difference in its 90 hours of compulsory foreign language instruction instead of a flexible time table, which is explained by the fact that the German speaking part of Belgium lies within Wallonia and familiarity with French is emphasized as early as preschool.
Secondary education in Belgium covers a six-year period, divided in three cycles of two years each, named the observation, orientation, and determination cycles. While a number of subjects are compulsory, students must make curricular choices beginning in the first year of study, ultimately leading to a variety of specializations that generally combine two lines of study. Compulsory subjects for students of ages 13 and 16, at the end of the observation and orientation cycles, generally include mathematics, natural sciences, human sciences, foreign languages, mother tongue, physical education, and artistic activities. The scheduling of compulsory subjects is identical in the French and German communities. While secondary schools in the Flemish community also require the same number of overall hours per year (849 at age 13 and 850 at age 16), they differ from secondary schools in the French and German communities by requiring fewer hours of instruction in the mother tongue, in physical education, and in the natural and human sciences, while requiring more hours in artistic activities, optional compulsory subjects, and other subjects.
A 1971 law drastically reformed the structure of secondary education that had been established during the school wars of the 1950s. It set up a Type I education track that paralleled the traditional education—called Type II—which provided students with very little curricular choice once they had entered lower secondary education in a particular subject area. The traditional education track was heavily influenced by classical languages (Greek and Latin), which could be pursued in their own right or in combination with sciences and mathematics. Type I is a modern education track, divided in three cycles of two years each (observation, orientation, and determination cycles), with a choice of orientation at the end of the first cycle. Although the allocation of school resources varies according to type of education, a single school may offer different orientations or streams. Type I coexists with Type II, and has become more common since its introduction. Of the 18 specialties that can be selected by pupils, eight are combinations with mathematics, six require Latin, and four require Greek. However, modern fields of study have been introduced, such as combinations involving physical education (tracks 7 and 8), economics (tracks 9, 16, and 17), modern languages (tracks 14, 15, 16, and 17), and tourism. Since the number of options and streams available to students has greatly increased with Type I education, so have public expenditures on education. Availability of the two types of secondary education has helped equalize opportunities for pupils from different cultural backgrounds and social classes, an important goal of education reform.
In lower secondary education, students follow a fairly common curriculum during the observation cycle, and then make a choice between general education leading to a university track, vocational education, technical, or artistic education. The option to transfer from one type of education to the other is used more frequently by students wishing to move from general to vocational education. Students in the vocational stream receive the same certificate as those in other streams, although they sometimes have to spend more than six years to obtain the secondary education certificate.
Students can obtain a general lower secondary education certificate after three years, a general upper secondary education diploma after six years in the general, technical, or artistic education streams, and after seven years in vocational education. There are no common examinations and inspectors are utilized to validate adherence to educational standards. The completion rate for the secondary education certificate is 65 percent and approximately one in three adolescents leave compulsory education without having obtained any qualifying certificate at the age of 18.
Education & Technology: Education authorities have begun to promote the inclusion of information and communication technology (ICT) in schools, especially within a national five-year initiative started in 1997-1998. Efforts are not equally aggressive at all levels of education, however. The French and Flemish communities have incorporated ICT in the primary education curriculum since 1997, but with a somewhat different perspective. In the French community, a 1997 decree on missions of the school system stipulated that ICT would be mainstreamed into education using skills platforms, which were introduced in 1999. The most common emphasis by the various education authorities in the French community is to promote ICT as a learning tool. Financing has focused on purchases of equipment, training by pupils and teachers, and use of the Internet. Computer hardware was distributed to all primary and secondary schools over a period of three years. Programming skills do not constitute a curricular objective at the primary level. In the Flemish community, the initiative focuses on acquisition and distribution of software by the Ministry of Education. The ministry also provides the planning framework and time schedule for introduction of ICT, and all pupils are expected to be proficient in the use of ICT and in data processing by the end of primary school.
The German community emphasizes introduction of ICT beginning at the lower secondary level and continuing through the upper level, giving attention to all areas except for computer programming. One hundred hours of compulsory instruction in ICT is incorporated in the curriculum of secondary schools in this community. In both the French and the German community, ICT subject competency must be demonstrated for students to progress to the next year. At the upper secondary level, the Flemish community is the only one of the three that has not yet included ICT in the curriculum, although it is in the process of formulating requirements that students should master by the end of the sixth year. In the German community, ICT is an optional subject at this level of study.
In the French and Flemish communities, basic ICT competency training is a compulsory component of the initial training of general class teachers and for those specialized in certain subjects such as mathematics. In the German community, in-service training is relied upon to achieve teacher ITC competency.
Tertiary or higher education is offered in universities, settings in which teaching and research are combined, and at other institutions of higher learning and training. The typical route into the university track is via the diploma of secondary high school education. Until 1965, higher education followed the traditional French system and was confined largely to four universities, of which two were run by the state (Gent and Liége), two used Dutch as the language of instruction (Gent and Brussels), and two used French (Brussels and Liége). Laws of 1965 and 1970 made possible the creation of new universities and other institutions providing higher education, and divided higher education into long-type and short-type. As a result of these reforms, Belgium obtained a total of 17 university institutions and 407 institutions for higher education. These institutions reflect its multifaceted pluralism in culture, religion, language of instruction, philosophy, and political leanings.
There are six long-standing major universities, of which two (Liége and Gent) are state universities, two are catholic (Leuven and Louvain-la-Neuve), and two are free universities (the Université Libre de Bruxelles or ULB and the Vrije Universiteit van Brussel or VUB). The Catholic University of Leuven was founded in 1425 by papal decree and is one of the oldest in Europe. In 1968 the Flemish university elected to remain in the Flemish city of Leuven, banishing the university's French component to a new location at Louvain-la-Neuve, a town in the middle of the Walloon countryside. Thence, the Katholieke Universiteit and the Université Catholique became two separate institutions. The medical faculty moved to the Brussels suburb of Woluwe. About half of the universities offer comprehensive programs, including philosophy, letters, social sciences, economics, law, natural sciences, and medicine. Including the Royal Military School and the joint research institute of the Free University of Brussels, there are a total of 19 universities in Belgium.
All universities offer two levels (called cycles) of university education. Students obtain the Candidature (Kandidaat ) after two years and the Licence (Licentiaat ) after four years. Universities in the French community offer a third cycle leading to the diploma of specialized studies (DES, diplôme d'études spécialisées ), the diploma of advanced studies (DEA, diplôme d'études approfondies ), teaching qualification (agrégation ), or the doctorate degree for which a thesis must be completed. The third cycle requires a minimum of one and up to three additional years of study. The university curriculum in the French community is organized in three sectors (human and social sciences; sciences; health sciences), containing 22 different fields of study overall. Professional and technical higher education pursued at nonuniversity institutions of higher learning (Hautes écoles ) comprises the long type (four to five years) or the short type (two to three years), and prepares students entering professions in industry, commerce, arts, and the fields of paramedical maritime studies.
In the Flemish community, non-university higher education in hogescholen and other institutions was reorganized in 1995-96 to make the curricular requirements similar to those in universities. Short-type and long-type tertiary education in those institutions was replaced by first-cycle and second-cycle coursework. The reforms caused the merger of 163 institutions of higher learning into 29 additional hogescholen. Students in hogescholen make up 60 percent of all higher education students in the community. Since Belgian universities have an open admissions policy, increasing numbers of Dutch students study at Flemish universities and other institutions of higher learning. Some observers believe that this open admissions policy contributes to the high dropout rate of nearly 50 percent in the Community. Flemish universities also have begun to collaborate with the universities of the Netherlands in the "open university" model, a distance education environment, serving a student body that includes many part-time and older students, and making use of modern technologies to deliver instruction. Multimedia technology is being widely applied to innovate and redesign curricula, to deliver instruction, and to enhance student learning. In the 1990s, cooperation between universities in the Flemish community with those in the Netherlands led to stringent quality control in the form of self-assessment by institutions and peer evaluation.
In June 1987 the council of the European Communities initiated the ERASMUS higher education program (European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students), designed to foster:
- students incorporating study in another member country, contributing to direct experience in social and economic life of members of the labor force;
- cooperation between universities and other institutions of higher learning of the member states;
- inter-university mobility of faculty;
- citizen interaction;
- development of a pool of university graduates experienced in inter-community cooperation.
Success of this ambitious program would require establishment of a European cooperative university network, thus far nonexistent, grant funding for both students and faculty, enhanced recognition of diplomas, length of study, and increased reliance on conferences and similar academic activities. The commission provides financial support to universities in the member states for the establishment of Inter-University Cooperation Programs (ICPs) that tie in with the five stated goals.
During the adoption of the second phase of ERASMUS, in the 1988-89 academic year, Belgian universities were involved in 191, or 17.5 percent, of the 1,091 funded ICPs from the twelve member countries, and Belgian ICPs provided grants to 219 university students, or 3.1 percent of the 7,031 total in the European Community. While European students entering the program in Belgium encountered a number of academic problems, particularly in relation to foreign language courses and examinations being administered in a foreign language, Belgian students experienced relatively few academic difficulties, with only 11 percent performing at a level below that of domestic students in the member countries' institutions of higher learning. Participation by Belgian students in ERASMUS had increased steadily from 1,385 students in 1989-1990, to a high of 8,111 in 1995-1996.
In the 1990s two new programs have been introduced in the European Union: SOCRATES and LEONARDO DA VINCI. While the latter supplants earlier vocational training programs, SOCRATES has replaced the community programs of ERASMUS and LINGUA (a community language teaching program) and is intended to provide a European dimension in education at all levels.
University Research: Basic research has been part of university activities and education since 1874, and several university institutes connected with Belgian universities have achieved international reputations in scientific research. The Center for Human Heredity at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven has achieved international recognition in gene technology research, and the Inter-University Microelectronics Center in Leuven, established in 1984, is a leader in computer chip technology. The Rijksuniversiteit Gent maintains a very large bacteria bank and its Plant Genetic Systems, established in 1982, is renowned for its research in developing insect-resistant plants. Several scientific research projects at Belgian universities have also become part of larger EU and international programs. The AIDS epidemic in Africa was first documented by Belgian epidemiologists and the European network for AIDS treatment is coordinated by a faculty member from the Université Libre de Bruxelles. Moreover, the faculty of agronomic sciences at Gembloux is a participant in the European program Biotech, and the Université de Liége has a space research department that collaborates closely with the European Space Agency.
Formal education requirements for teachers increase according to the level of education in which they are expected to teach. Initial teacher training for the preprimary and primary levels (21/2 to 12 years of age) requires three years of concurrent academic/teaching training and teaching observation at the Institut Supérieur Pédagogique (French) or the Pedagogische Hogeschool (Flemish). Prospective teachers graduate with a teaching diploma that details a specialty in either preschool or primary school. They are expected to teach all subjects. The initial training for teachers in lower secondary education (12 to 15 years of age) also takes place at the Institut Supérieur Pédagogique or the Pedagogische Hogeschool, where students pursue three years of course work in a specific and an optional subject and increasingly intensive training and practice in teaching, receiving a teaching diploma at the end of three years. Teaching in the upper secondary level (15 to 18 years of age) requires four to five years of university education. The requisite teacher training courses and practice can be taken alongside with the other courses during the last two years or the final year of university study. Alternatively, students may take a two-year part time course in teacher training upon graduation. Teachers at this level have the Licence or Licentie degree as well as a separate teaching diploma. A doctorate degree is generally required to teach in tertiary education, especially at the university level. It is not unusual for teachers with a doctorate degree in upper secondary education and who also are productive scholars to become university professors when they have matured. All teachers are employees of the respective community's administrative education authority and must go through a period of probation before obtaining a permanent appointment.
Belgian teachers have the right to pursue limited in-service training. Each of the communities make available noncompulsory continuing training for teachers, and certificates are awarded accordingly, making it possible to apply for higher level positions. In-service training covers a variety of subjects, including additional education in the sciences, development of communication skills, provision of pluralist education for immigrants and, above all, introduction of new computer technologies.
In the 25 years following the School Pact of 1958, the teaching profession was held in high regard, especially at the secondary and tertiary levels. Teachers in the upper secondary education level enjoyed an elite social status and enjoyed relatively high salaries. In the 1980s and 1990s, it had been suggested that the profession may be losing status, while at the same time demands on teachers were increasing due to curricular reform and the requirements of delivering pluralist education. However, surveys of teachers seemed to indicate continued high levels of job satisfaction. For example, a teacher survey on satisfaction levels in French-speaking Belgian schools in the Free Catholic System (Meuris 1993), revealed that teachers in nursery schools were more satisfied with their profession than were those in primary education, while those in the first cycle of secondary education conformed with the satisfaction levels of teachers in primary education. Generally, the experience of teachers was a positive one.
Belgian educators were faced with new challenges from the European Union. During the July through December period of the Dutch presidency of the European Community, teacher training received special attention. The Treaty on European Union (The Maastricht Treaty of 1992) made up for a shortcoming of the original Treaty of Rome (1957), which incorporated a specific provision for a common policy on vocational training (Article 128), but was silent on the overall area of formal education. The Maastricht Treaty began its Article 127 with the statement "The Community shall contribute to the development of quality education by encouraging cooperation between Member States and, if necessary, by supporting and supplementing their action, while fully respecting the responsibility of the Member States for the content of teaching and the organization of education systems and their cultural and linguistic diversity" (Rudden and Wyatt 1994). Teachers were mentioned in Articles 126 and 127. Article 126 aimed community action at "encouraging mobility of students and teachers, . . . the development of youth exchanges and of exchanges of socio-educational instructors, . . . and development of distance education," while Article 127 aimed action at encouraging "mobility of instructors and trainees." Educators were facing the challenge of providing access to the wealth of diversity of knowledge that comprised the people of the union.
Following independence in 1830, provision of education in Belgium has gone through several phases. Nearly a century and a half of cultural and language strife has ended with constitutional reform and the formation of a federal state. The concomitant introduction of reforms in education have progressively decentralized decision making from the federal government and towards the communities. Throughout the reform, Belgium has maintained the spirit of Article 17 of the Constitution of 1930, now Article 24 of the new Constitution, which guarantees that parents can choose the type of school (secular or denominational) they wish their children to attend, and that education will be financed by government funding. Compulsory education has progressively been extended to 18 years of age, with students given the option of going to school part time after their fifteenth birthday. Traditional secondary education, modeled on the French system and basically providing a transition to universities, has been reformed into Type I (modern) and Type II (traditional) education, greatly increasing curricular specialties ranging from general to vocational and artistic education, and providing opportunity to students to change direction after the observation stage and even between Type I and Type II education. However, completion rates are still only around 65 percent, leaving many young people without a secondary education diploma.
In universities and other institutions of higher learning, curricula and study cycles are becoming increasingly comparable across institutions and across national boundaries. Belgian students show significant participation in the programs organized by the European Commission; the pluralist cultural background and extensive language skills acquired in diverse Belgium helps them succeed in such programs. Belgium must continue to meet the challenge of providing high quality education to its people, as they are the primary resource for a nation of this small size. Despite the fact that education is organized by many different authorities, quality has remained high, and the required courses in the different communities are not diverging drastically over time.
The future holds a number of challenges. Financing a pluralist education system as diverse as that of Belgium leads to high costs per pupil. Although the population is aging, it does not mean that education costs are predicted to decline in the future, since adult life long education is becoming more important and the demands of technology and multimedia education drive up costs. Teachers requiring in-service training also contribute to cost increases. Belgium must continue to facilitate the recognition of diplomas and credentials across its own internal community borders as well as vis-à-vis present and prospective members of the European Union.
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—Brigitte H. Bechtold
Bechtold, Brigitte H.. "Belgium." World Education Encyclopedia. 2001. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409700029.html
Bechtold, Brigitte H.. "Belgium." World Education Encyclopedia. 2001. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409700029.html
|Official Country Name:||Kingdom of Belgium|
|Region (Map name):||Europe|
|Language(s):||Dutch, French, German, legally bilingual (Dutch and French)|
|Area:||30,510 sq km|
|GDP:||226,648 (US$ millions)|
|Number of Daily Newspapers:||28|
|Circulation per 1,000:||187|
|Total Newspaper Ad Receipts:||423 (Euro millions)|
|As % of All Ad Expenditures:||22.80|
|Number of Television Stations:||25|
|Number of Television Sets:||4,720,000|
|Television Sets per 1,000:||460.4|
|Number of Cable Subscribers:||3,840,870|
|Cable Subscribers per 1,000:||372.9|
|Number of Satellite Subscribers:||220,000|
|Satellite Subscribers per 1,000:||21.5|
|Number of Radio Stations:||87|
|Number of Radio Receivers:||8,075,000|
|Radio Receivers per 1,000:||787.6|
|Number of Individuals with Computers:||3,500,000|
|Computers per 1,000:||341.4|
|Number of Individuals with Internet Access:||2,326,000|
|Internet Access per 1,000:||226.9|
Background & General Characteristics
Belgium's media landscape—and position in European leadership—is not described by its small land mass of over 30 thousand square kilometers. Nor do its dense population of 336 people per square kilometers and its economic viability explain its lively and diverse press. To understand its press, one must understand Belgium's historical resilience as a nation often subjected to invasion and occupation, and its status as a multilingual but linguistically segmented country.
Before housing the leadership of the European Union (EU), Belgium, which derives its name from the Belgae Celtic tribe, was a province of Rome. When Attila the Hun invaded what is now Germany, Germanic tribes pushed into what is now Belgium. Next the Franks took control of Belgium. Oversight of Belgium next passed to the Spanish (1519-1713) and then to the Austrians (1713-1794). After the French Revolution, Belgium was annexed by Napoleon. It was made a part of the Netherlands in 1815. In 1830, after a revolution, Belgium declared its independence and established a constitutional monarchy. The result of a coalition of the intellectual and financial elite, Catholic leadership, and the nobility, the new nation's Constitution "may be considered a balanced compromise of the sometimes divergent interests of these social groups" (Lamberts 314). While Belgium was occupied by the Germans during both world wars, it survived and thrived when it was liberated in 1944 by Allied forces. The early and late occupations created a nation indebted to German, French, and Dutch influences. The nation has incorporated these languages and cultural elements into different parts of its geographic and cultural landscape. Belgium's characteristic compromise may be what makes it a desirable location for EU leadership despite its lack of central proximity.
The sustained balance of three diverse regions and language communities largely explains the development and fragmented organization of the press that serves its 10 million people. The Flemish, French, and German cultural communities were granted official autonomy with a 1970 revision of the Constitution that also established three separate economic regions: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. Today, after a 1993 Constitutional revision, Belgium is a federal state with three distinct regions, each with its own prime minister, council of ministers, and regional council. In the north, Flanders largely sustains a Dutch speaking community, previously referred to as Flemish, represented by a Flemish community council. In the south, Wallonia is the home of a largely French speaking community who are represented by a French community council; eastern Wallonia, however, houses a significant German speaking population who are represented by a German community council. Brussels, the capital, is a multilingual community; the French speaking people are represented by a French community council who also represent Wallonia, while the Dutch speaking members of Brussels are represented with the Dutch speakers of Flanders in a Flemish community council. While there are numerous political parties on the Belgian scene, the three major political groups—Socialists, Liberal, and Christian Social—have French-and Dutch-language parties, respectively, and are largely organized along linguistic lines. The Flemings make up 60 percent of the population (Flanders 55 percent), and the Walloons make up about 30 percent (Wallonia 35 percent). About 1 percent of the remaining Belgians are German speakers who live in Eastern Wallonia on the German border.
Literacy in Belgium is reportedly 98 percent or better. Preschool education, which begins at two and one-half years of age, is very popular and successful; more than 90 percent of Belgian youngsters attend. Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age. During comprehensive education, all students specialize in technical, vocational, or college preparatory curriculum. Its oldest university, established in 1425, is the Catholic University of Louvain. In 1834 the Free Masons established the Free University of Brussels. Because of the legally bilingual nature of Belgium, both universities operate separate French and Dutch speaking campuses. A state university system was also established in Ghent and Liege in the early 1800s; other schools have followed in the 1900s. The government subsidizes 95 percent of student expenses. All these factors contribute to a highly educated and skilled workforce.
While the Belgian people are highly literate, most do not subscribe to a daily newspaper. Increasing pressure to maintain or enlarge circulation has encouraged many dailies to adopt a "tabloid" style to their presentation. The World Association of Newspapers (WAN) reports that many newspapers have also decreased the number of pages in their daily publications, making the texts more compact. In 1995 "the overall circulation of the Belgian press amounted to 1,543,623, the Flemish press taking 993,229 or 64.3 per cent of sales, and the French-language press 550.394 or 35.6 per cent of sales" (de Bens 2). Only about 36 percent of Belgians were reported to subscribe to a newspaper in 1995 (2). While circulation figures have declined in the latter part of the 1990s, tabloid strategies have reportedly been adopted by many dailies to enhance their market share. From 1996 to 2000 circulation declined 3.3 percent overall in Belgium. While WAN further reports that Belgian daily circulation increased slightly, 0.2 percent in 2000, overall newspaper sales in the European Union have fallen 2.5 percent from 1996. A May 2002 conference hosted by WAN examined strategies to revamp Web sites and enlarge circulation in uncertain times. Overall, television and Internet expansion offer preferred choices to print media, especially in light of the consolidation of papers into major publishing groups with similar content.
Of the 41 newspapers published in Belgium, most are dailies. Belgians additionally have ready access to both EU and non-European publications. Circulation figures gathered within the 135th Edition of the Gale Directory of Publication and Broadcast Media (2001) indicate that 14 newspapers have a circulation of 100,000 to 500,000. About six publications have circulation figures in the range from 50,000 to 100,000, an additional six have circulation figures from 25,000 to 50,000, and five have circulation figures of 10,000 to 25,000. The rest have circulation rates of less than 10,000 copies. Of the 11 largest daily Belgian newspapers by circulation, 8 serve the Dutch speaking community; 3 are published in French. Note that these figures may vary from source to source. Of the Dutch publications, De Standaard/Het Nieuwsblad/De Dentenaar, established in 1914, has a circulation of 372,410; De Gentenaar, established in 1879, has a circulation of 372,410; Het Laatste Nieuws, established in 1888, has a circulation of 308,808; De Nieuwe Gazet, established in 1897, has a circulation of 306,240; Gazet Van Mechelen, established in 1896, has a circulation of 177,898; De Nieuwe Gids, established in 1955, has a circulation of 171,350; Gazet Van Antwerpen, established in 1891, has a circulation of 148,095; and Het Volk, established in 1891, has a circulation of 143,330. The French publications with large circulation figures are: Le Soir, established in 1887, which circulates 178,569 copies; L'Avenir Du Luxembourg, established in 1897, which circulates 139,960 copies; and Vers L'Avenir, established in 1918, which circulates 139,960 copies. The only German daily, Grenz Echo, a Catholic publication founded in 1927, has a circulation of 12,040.
The many newspapers vary not only in their language of publication but also in their coverage and target audience. De Standaard, one of two dailies that share the largest circulation status, is decidedly the most strident Flemish nationalist newspaper. Het Laatste Nieuws, which shares De Standaard's circulation breadth, De Morgen, La Derniere Heure are less nationalistic, characterized as progressive-liberal newspapers, with a "relatively lowbrow populist tone" (Elliott 187). Le Soir is a respected French daily; La Libre Belgique sports a "perceived upper-class readership and a firmly 'keep-Belgium-united' stance" (187). Business coverage comes in the form of L'Echo, French, and De Financieel-Ekonomische Tidj, Dutch. English favorites such as The Wall Street Journal, The Financial Times, The Times and the Herald Tribune are all reprinted for a Belgian audience.
Initially most newspapers were offshoots or instruments of a political party, union, or pillar, such as the Catholic Church, the liberals, and the socialists (Witte 290; Lamberts 328). While the Catholic Church and the liberals still hold a strong representation in newspapers, papers today are increasingly held by large conglomerates, thus making the papers a little more ideologically independent. Financial constraints have virtually eliminated small party representation in the press, and as such Socialist Party coverage was diminished entirely (the Volksgazet and Le Peuple ) or was redirected toward a more general public (De Morgen ), thereby obscuring party affiliation (Lamberts 291). Starting in the 1960s, newspapers have been increasingly absorbed by these large conglomerates, thereby decreasing competition. Of the cities with circulation statistics available, 29 appear to have competition, whereas 9 (roughly 25 percent) do not. Only about 10 newspapers are truly autonomous; the remaining publications vary only slightly in coverage and format from the market leaders (de Bens 1).
In Flanders three conglomerates dominate the newspaper business. Vlaamse Uitgeversmaatschappij (VUM) publishes De Standaard, Het Nieuwsblad, De Gentenaar, and Het Volk. De Persgroep owns Het Laatste Nieuws, De Nieuwe Gazet, and De Morgen. Regionale Uitgeversmaatschappij (de RUG), an alliance between N.V. De Vlijt and N.V. Concentra, publish Gazet van Antwerpen and Het Belang van Limburg (Witte 290; de Bens 1).
Until 1998 the Francophone press was dominated by three groups: 1) N. V. Rossel, who owns Le Soir, La Meuse, La Lanterne, La Nouvelle Gazette, La Province;2) IPM who owns La Libre Belgique and La Derniere Heure; and 3) Mediabel, who publishes Vers l'Avenir, Le Jour/Le Belgique, La Courrier de l'Escaut, l'Avenir de Luxembourg, and Le Rappel (de Bens 1). The Franco-phone press is nearing duopoly status because Vers l'Avenir acquired 51 percent of IPM in the late 1990s (de Bens 2). As a result, readers of one publication have banded together in a readers' association to demand diversity of the press and editorial staff independence (1998 World Press Freedom Review). Finally, while the German speaking region has Grenz Echo, published by an independent publishing house, Rossel now owns 51 percent of Grenz Echo shares.
In 1995 Belgian press circulation was 1,543,623; the Flemish press accounted for 993,229 or 64.3 percent of sales, while the French-language press accounted for 550.394 or 35.6 per cent of sales (de Bens 2). Only about 36 percent of Belgians are reported to subscribe to a newspaper (2). As circulation figures have declined in the latter part of the 1990s, strategies have reportedly been adopted by many dailies to enhance their market tabloid share (de Bens; Elliott). VUM and Rossel have adapted well and are market leaders in sales and advertising revenue (de Bens 2).
While newspapers are attempting to make an economic comeback, 1999 layoffs in smaller regional papers that regrouped in Sud-Presse and layoffs in the national wire service sorely tested efforts to offer diverse press coverage. It appears that readership in Brussels and the Dutch speaking regions of Belgium is increasing, as it is decreasing in the Francophone region (1999 World Press Freedom Review). The print media is largely free of subsidies that it was granted in 1975; subsidies were found to have little effect on market trends and/or to be too small to make a difference (de Bens 4). In 1999 Flanders eliminated direct subsidies because all of its newspapers had been bought by larger media groups. While direct subsidies are decreasing, indirect assistance remains. The print media continues to operate value added tax (VAT) free today, thereby assisting the struggling newspaper and magazine market.
Title II of the Constitution, "Belgians and Their Rights," includes three articles that have bearing on the press. Article 25 specifically grants Belgians the right to a free press: "censorship can never be established; security from authors, publishers, or printers cannot be demanded." It further states that when the author is a known resident of Belgium, neither the publisher, nor the printer, nor the distributor can be prosecuted" (Adopted 1970, as revised 1993). In addition to establishing a free press, Article 25 also protects Belgian journalists and publishers from prosecution—or, so it would seem. Contemporary cases that challenge this protection include the 1990s Dutroux pedophilia case and the 2002 fining of two De Morgen journalists.
Article 19 [Freedom of Expression] grants Belgians, "freedom of worship, public practice of the latter, as well as freedom to demonstrate one's opinions on all matters." The Constitution also includes a Freedom of Information clause; according to Article 32, "Everyone has the right to consult any administrative document and to have a copy made, except in the cases and conditions stipulated by the laws, decrees, or ruling referred in Article 134." In addition to its own constitutional provisions, as a member of the EU, Belgium is party to a Green Paper that seeks to broaden access to public documents and extend freedom of information across Europe.
The Belgian media is not tightly regulated by extra-constitutional legal provisions; most of the laws and statutes guiding press actions are characterized by insiders as ambiguous. Belgium leadership is therefore often criticized by human rights groups and liberals for pursuing a largely laissez-faire media policy (de Bens 4). To fill this regulation void, the Belgian Association of Newspaper Publishers, the General Association of Professional Journalists of Belgium, and the National Federation of the Information Newsletters came together in the Belgium Press Council and drafted the Belgium Code of Journalistic Principles in 1982. This Code articulates the importance of: 1) a free press; 2) unbiased collecting and reporting of facts; 3) separation of facts reported and commentary on the facts; 4) respect for a diversity of opinions and publishing of different points of view; 5) respect for human dignity and the right to a private life make it necessary to avoid physical and/or moral intrusion; 6) restraint from glorifying violence; 7) commitment to correct previously reported false information; 8) protection of source confidentially ; 9) thwarting efforts to prevent freedom of press in the name of secrecy; 10) editorial judgment when freedom of expression appears to conflict with fundamental human rights; 11) resisting outside pressure on newspapers and journalists; and 12) presenting advertisements in such a way as not to be confused with facts (International Journalists' Network). The Code continues to be the most important regulator of press conduct in Belgium despite efforts to draft laws and statutes that guide the behavior and legal treatment of journalists.
As of result of 1990s scandals, the Minister of Justice convened a hearing for interested parties such as judges, lawyers, politicians, journalists, and academic experts, where issues such as the protection of sources for journalists, treatment of press trials, and the need for an Order of Journalists were discussed. Conflict, particularly about ethical issues, made the implementation of laws too difficult; it was decided that the journalistic codes should continue to handle ethical problems. The Belgian Press continues to be self-regulated by the Federation of Editors—a body to which all newspaper editors belong.
Starting in the late 1990s, there was much discussion of bringing press violations such as advertising, tract distribution, and racism to magistrate courts, whereas "ordinary" violations would still be evaluated by a jury per the Belgian Constitution (1998 World Press Freedom Review). Amendments to the "right of reply" also have been examined but not enacted.
While a 1998 law had mandated speech to the press from the highest public prosecutor, journalists complained that contact was difficult to establish. Minister of Justice Tony Van Parys, therefore, ordered that prosecutors needed to designate spokespeople who could provide journalists with investigation updates in 1999 (World Press Freedom Review). Such a move was welcomed by journalists and press freedom groups.
Prior to 1980 the Belgian press was subject to the following laws: 1979 Press Law, 1987 Belgian Media Law, 1987 Flemish Speaking Law for Commercial Television, and the 1980 Royal Decree on Execution of the 1979 Press Law.
Oversight of the press comes primarily in the form of a Deontological Council of the Belgian Association of Professional Journalists and its Code of Ethics. While Belgium's Constitution encourages an independent media, journalists are increasingly being targeted for lawsuits and/or to divulge confidential sources. Since 1999 journalists and the papers that employ them have increased their insurance policies to cover penalties imposed by Belgian courts (World Press Freedom Review). While the trend is for courts to fine journalists, this trend is often offset in appeal. Cases continue to be brought before Belgian courts, however, and many press freedom groups lament the trend.
In June 2002 Douglas de Conick and Marc Vendemeir, journalists for De Morgen, were fined 25 euros (approximately $23 per day) for failing to reveal their sources for a May 11, 2002, story in which they reported that the Belgian State Railway had overshot its budget for a high-speed train. The case will likely join a similar 1995 case on the docket of the European Court of Human Rights, a Strasbourg court that has often affirmed the right of journalists to keep their sources confidential.
On August 9, 2000, a Belgian court granted an emergency injunction to stop L'Investugatuer editor Jean Nicolas from publishing a list of convicted or suspected pedophiles. The court further ordered that if Nicolas failed to comply, circulation of the list would lead to a fine of about $22,000 per copy (2000 World Press Freedom Review). The court found that publishing the list would violate the rights of the accused. Journalists and Belgian citizens, however, saw this action as another example of court indifference to victims and potential victims.
On November 16, 1999, two Le Soir Illustr journalists were fined 55,000 euros for implying that a police officer had failed to make a proper inquiry into allegations of sex abuse by a minor. Likewise, fines were levied on Michel Bouffioux and Marie-Jeanne Van Heeswyck, Télé Moustique reporters, who labeled the same police officer a "manipulator" in their story (World Press Freedom Review). Reviewers argue that the lower courts are increasingly siding with public officials and law enforcement officers against the press.
In 1997 the police searched the office of Hans Van Scharen, a De Morgen journalist, and confiscated items related to his coverage of a "hormone mafia" case; he was accused of improperly possessing judicial documents (1997 World Press Freedom Review).
The most controversial cases, however, concern the 1996 Marc Dutroux case and a 1997 child custody case. Dutroux, a pedophile, raped and killed young Belgian girls. The press was very active in the investigation, while the government was seen to have foiled the case. The complete transcript of the case was made available to a Web site by a journalist; the Web site was later ordered shutdown. In the custody case, the justice system and judiciary were criticized for potentially favoring a notary who was accused of molesting his two sons. In both cases, the justice system was seen at odds with efforts of the press to secure justice. The European Court of Human Rights ruled that accusations made by the journalists appeared to be justified and awarded them legal costs of 851,697 Belgian francs (about US$24,500) (1997 World Press Freedom Review).
Therefore, while censorship is officially absent, Belgian courts' rulings against journalists in libel and source confidentiality cases, particularly where government or judicial figures are criticized, appear to be growing as of the late 1990s and early twenty-first century. Human rights advocacy groups and press freedom groups continue to watch the situation closely.
As the press law and censorships sections suggest, Belgium's print press is not subject to strong state control. Its audiovisual media, however, is primarily state run, but commercial and foreign expansion efforts have met a favorable climate. Telecommunications are over-seen by the Minister of Telecommunications, while the print news media is self-regulated.
All forms of the press can and do criticize the government. Until the mid-1990s, journalists faced few attempts to interfere with their reporting. Recent court cases levied by state officials may indicate a change in practice. A 1996 case particularly concerns international journalists and human rights groups. A licensed Kurdish station, MED-TV, was forced to close when the Belgian police raided its offices and confiscated its archives. The International Centre against Censorship argued that Belgium was bound by Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which among other things guarantees freedom of expression and the right to "seek, receive, and impart information."
The Belgian government has also done little to limit the creation of media conglomerates. Broadcast monopolies were legally legitimate until the late 1980s. On the more positive side, increased access to prosecutorial spokespeople has liberated the flow of information from the state to the citizen on important government and criminal matters.
Attitude toward Foreign Media
As the home of EU leadership, Belgium is frequented by and home to many international journalists. If there is a complaint about coverage in Belgium, it is that regional and national coverage of Belgium itself is often diminished in favor of covering EU issues.
According to non-Belgian journalists, it is very expensive to have a full-time correspondent in Brussels because it is at the periphery of Europe. While large agencies and organizations like Reuters and the BBC have people based in Belgium, some smaller countries and networks contract with a freelance journalist who supplies coverage to more than one agency. Belgium's specific coverage in other European countries is often limited because the correspondents largely address their coverage to EU issues.
Belgium has its own press agency, Belga Press Agency, which covers both daily national and international news. It was originally offered as the Belgium Telegraphic Press Agency (Agence Belga ) in 1920. According to its home page timeline, the agency distributed its first press release on January 1, 1921, to 45 newspapers, 16 banks, the government, and 9 commercial companies. In 1925 Belga created its home desk; its editorial structure was split into a French-and Dutch-speaking desk in 1970. Using the Hermes system, Belga computerized its editorials and became the country's first electronic press company in 1981. This was followed in 1984 with real-time dispatches to the government's Bistel information network. A client-specific system was developed in 1986 to provide selective information to interested markets by fax or e-mail. Most recently in 2000 Belga entered a joint venture with news aktuell International, a subsidiary of the German Press Agency, to distribute specialized press releases. Today Belga dispatches information on politics, cultural issues, finance, sports, and public personalities in the public venue to the traditional media—newspapers, radio, and television. It also offers a subscription service for business and government clients. Belga's press releases are distributed to an international market, too, through contracts with the world's largest foreign press agencies. Belga prides itself for autonomy, accuracy, and timeliness
Foreign press agencies offer coverage in Belgium as well. Reuters Belgium is a regional office of Reuters International that supplies news information on business and finance. The BBC offers extensive coverage of Belgium.
Like the print media, television and radio are divided primarily along linguistic lines. As a result, many Belgians know their regional news and programs yet face limited access to information and stations of other Belgian regions in favor of programming from the rest of Europe and the United States (Elliott 184). It is quite likely that someone in Wallonia has more access to English and international programs than those from the Dutch regions of Belgium itself.
A number of private radio stations were aired after 1923, including Radio Belgique, which was supported by both the royals and the Belgian business world (Lamberts 359). The National Institute for Radio (NIR), a public radio network, was funded by the Belgian Parliament in 1930. It was modeled on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Unlike the BBC, the NIR, however, was required to allocate air time for party-affiliated organizations, thereby limiting its objectivity and political investigative scope (Lamberts 359). The three main parties demanded broadcasting time; staffing was also influenced by the pillars who sought and gained an employment policy of proportional representation (Witte 291). Thus, the Belgian network, public by statute, was dominated by the country's religious and ideological pillars (Lamberts 359). This public monopoly effectively controlled the radio waves until a 1987 law that allowed for private broadcasting.
Public service programming is supported by an annual licensing fee on automobile radios. Home radios are not subject to licensing (Elliott 185). A ban on radio advertising was revoked in 1985, thus clearing the way for more commercial stations. While the political parties ensured that change was slow to take hold, the public service radio broadcaster currently struggles to survive amid competition from Internet news programming and commercially supported programming in the twenty-first century.
The main radio stations today continue to be state run. RTBF1 and VRT offer mixed programming. Radio 1 is one of the five public radio networks offered by the VRT. Radio Vlaaderen International (RVI) offers programming like "Flanders Today" for the Flemish speaking community as well. Radio 1's news and current affairs programs explore social issues and controversies, economic indicators, and cultural events in depth. Radio 2 is Flanders' largest radio network. It provides its listeners with local news and popular music. Radio 2 offers regional program coverage in the five Flemish provinces. Radio 3 is a high-brow station, targeted to the more liberal, intellectual listener. Radio 21 plays current releases and news to the Francophone population, whereas StuBru offers such tunes and coverage to the Dutch speaking community. The BBC World Service is offered in both English and German. There are over 79 FM, 7 AM, and 1 short-wave stations as of 1998. There are over 8.075 million radios in the country; access to radio coverage and alternative programming, however, has broadened substantially with Internet radio coverage.
Belgian television began in 1953 and has become an important information and leisure tool. Like Belgian radio, television was initially dominated by a public monopoly. By the 1980s, however, these monopolies were challenged by commercial stations that were allowed to broadcast their own programs. Since the introduction of audiovisual media, the print media has lost subscriptions, leading to the many mergers. For a time before the mergers, starting in 1975, subsidies were used to sustain the print media (Lamberts 376). These were largely found to be unsuccessful in the face of competition from radio and television.
The main government TV networks are VRT in Dutch and RTBF in French. The Belgian Dutch are also served by VTM, a private station that developed after the implementation of a 1987 decree that allowed for one private station to be created (Witte 291). The Francophone region is also served by RTL.
Ninety-four percent of Belgian households with televisions are equipped with cable, making it the most densely cabled country in the world. When cable programming first became available, it primarily distributed national programming. In fact, only foreign public service stations were allowed cable access in the Belgian market initially (de Bens 3). Today viewers can access over 30 national and foreign channels. International news programming includes CNN, BBXI, and CNBC.
The Belgian market includes pay channels like Canal Plus and satellite dishes. While there is strong support for expanded television options in Belgian policy, pay television has not become as popular in Belgium as in the United States. For example, after 10 years of operation in Flanders, one such pay venture, Filmnet, only had about 120,000 subscribers. It merged with Canal Plus, but still has not attracted a significant number of subscribers (de Bens 4). Some locations in Belgium also have statutes that limit or prohibit such access.
As of 1997 data, there were over 4.72 million televisions for Belgium's 10 million people (CIA Factbook ). Like car radios, color televisions in Belgium must be licensed. There are additional fees for cable access (Elliott 185).
While public corporations still own and operate most radio and television systems, private ownership is growing. The public corporations that support public broadcasting receive most of their financial support from the annual licensing fees paid by owners of automobile radios and color television sets. As the economic market continues to influence the media, it is likely that commercial and alternative programming will grow to meet the needs of very specific audiences, while public sponsored media will diminish. In addition, the journalists themselves are occupying more presence in political and social debates.
Electronic News Media
Because Belgium is the most cabled country in the world, the Internet is easily accessible. All agencies, organizations, and government documents are accessible via the World Wide Web. Belgium has several Internet access providers. Belgacom is Belgium's telephone and Internet service provider. Belgium's country code is BE. Skynet is the nation's largest provider because it has a special relationship with Belgacom. Other providers include Aleph-1, Be On, and BIP. The list of providers and free providers is growing in the country daily.
Most large circulation national and regional print newspapers are available online. A survey of web news information sources reveals that the sites are very attractive with lots of color, photography, and links to additional information and news archives. Some publications, such as E-Sports (French), MSR (Dutch), Politics Info (French and Dutch), and Vlaamse Volksbeweging (German, French, Dutch, and Spanish) exist solely online as national publications. Belgian expatriates have several choices for news from home via the Internet, including Expatica.com and xPats.com . The Belgium Post, a foreign publication offered by WorldNews.com, offers daily coverage of Belgium for an English speaking audience. The trend for electronic news is growing because information can be updated throughout the day, and corrections can be made more efficiently.
The European Union is actively involved in creating policies for the dissemination of information on the Internet, including an Internet Rights Observatory. In 1997 Belgian journalists won a case over reuse of their work against Central Station, who had argued that it could reprint their work without permission or compensation.
Education & TRAINING
There are a number of European news organizations and training institutions available to Belgian journalists and editors; while these associations serve greater Europe and/or the European Union, some are based in Belgium itself.
The European Newspapers' Publishers Association (ENPA), a nonprofit organization, represents some 3,000 daily, weekly, and Sunday titles from 17 European countries. More than 91 million copies are sold each day and read by over 240 million people. Based in Brussels, ENPA works toward ensuring a sympathetic European legislative and economic environment for the independent newspaper industry. Its primary goal is to fortify freedom of both the editorial and commercial press. It lobbies for the inclusion of freedom of the press in a Charter of Fundamental Rights to protect newspaper publishers in the event of cross border disputes. ENPA promotes multimedia access and diversity as foundational structures of a democratic nation. Among its other important causes, ENPA actively promotes discussion of intellectual property rights in a technology transformed world; it fiercely defends author ownership of press content against unauthorized reproduction. Finally ENPA would like the European print press to be covered by a more coherent policy like that being drafted and enacted for the Internet.
The European Journalism Centre (EJC), founded in 1992, is an independent, nonprofit multimedia training support center based in the Netherlands, whose membership and services are widely utilized by Belgian journalists, editors, and educational institutions. EJC offers guidance on how to increase European media presence and thereby gain greater and more accurate coverage of European current issues. It provides an assessment of media developments in several countries, including Belgium, and describes the changing nature of Europe's media overall. It also provides media links and tools to help journalists conduct more effective research and to share their working knowledge.
The European Journalism Training Association and its member schools organize and facilitate conferences and colloquia on academic and pragmatic journalism education. It acts as a resource and information broker for its members and provides essays on educational and social challenges facing European journalism programs. The Institut des Hautes Etudes des Communications Sociales and Katholieke Hogeschool Mechelen/Afdeling Journalistiek-De Ham are Belgium member schools.
The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), based in Brussels, represents over 450,00 journalists in over 100 countries, including the organization's home country, Belgium. The largest of journalist organizations, the IFJ was initially established in 1926 and was launched again in both 1946 and 1952. IFJ exists to promote and defend freedom of the press, social justice, and independent trade union activities. IFJ is nonpartisan, but instead promotes a global human rights agenda. It opposes the use of media for propaganda and/or to promote hate. The IFJ is called upon to represent journalists within both the United Nations and the international trade union movement. It maintains a safety fund for humanitarian assistance for journalistic endeavors. The IFJ agenda is set by a Congress that meets every three years; its actions are carried out by the Brussels-based secretariat who works under the direction of an elected Executive Committee. In addition, since 1992 the IFJ has awarded the Lorenzo Natali Prize for Journalism, one of the world's most valuable journalistic prizes, awarded to print and/or online journalists who have demonstrated a striking insight and particular dedication to the reporting of human rights issues within the context of the development process.
The Pascal Decroos Fund promotes special journalism in the written and audiovisual press in Flanders by granting working grants to journalists who are willing to work on a special project. New and experienced journalists are encouraged to apply. Pascal Decroos (April 20, 1964 -December 2, 1997) was a prominent producer and journalist who died early in his career. He was known as a passionate journalist who promoted the cause of society's underprivileged and who brought a keen and critical eye to investigative journalism. His creed, "do not let yourself be carried along the stream of superficial news, but submerge. Do not content yourself with drawing the obvious conclusion, but investigate and probe until you find the truth," motivated the development of this scholarship that allows journalists to probe a topic deeper and provide more in-depth coverage than the average news story. This working grant is supported by the Flemish community, but is available to any qualifying journalist.
There are also three important media organizations in Belgium. The Association of Belgian Journalists (AVBB) in Brussels, the Belgian Association of Publishers (BVDU), and Febelma, the association of publishers of magazines.
Belgian and European educational institutions offer undergraduate and graduate courses of study in communication and journalism—institutions like Universiteit Leiden, which offers baccalaureate degrees in journalism and news media, Universitaire Faculteiten Sint-Ignatusia (UFSIA), which offers graduate degrees, and VLEKHO and Erasmushogeshool, which both offer postacademic training for journalists. Opportunities to study journalism are enhanced by generous course offerings in the use of technology for investigative journalism and online journalism in both the college and journalism organization settings.
On the one hand, Belgian press access is expanding with the daily increase of media outlets on the Internet. On the other hand, the coverage offered in mainstream newsprint is becoming more streamlined with media mergers in both the Dutch and the Francophone press. Barriers between French, Dutch, and German speakers continue to grow in this multilingual nation, as is evidenced by a separate higher education system, regional and national news coverage, and economic growth trends in their respective sectors. Press coverage within each region, however, appears to discourage interregional diversity. Smaller political and social movements find the Internet a friendly option for their ideas and publications, as they increasingly find the print media closed to them. While Belgium has sustained internal conflict throughout its history of occupation by different language speakers who ultimately shaped its regional triad, it remains to be seen if Belgium can continue to placate the various groups, as economic success moves closer to the Dutch population, who were once viewed as the inhabitants of a largely agrarian and recession-prone region. The French and German peoples are more and more overshadowed by Flemish radio, publications, and nationalism, which may lead to further conflict.
Belgium's situation as the economic and leadership center of the EU also influences the development of its press coverage. While its role as an economic leader and exporter grows, we must wait to see if its rich culture will be more visible and known to greater Europe and the rest of the world. Information about Belgium's history and culture is still not well documented in the West and English language publications. To further complicate matters, it appears that its EU membership will increasingly determine its position on such matters as freedom of information and Internet commerce.
While Belgium is not hostile to its journalists—it does not license, torture, or imprison them for their investigative work—documented cases of censorship and fines are cause for closer attention. It remains to be determined whether or not technological expansion will ultimately sustain or erode press freedom. While more voices are enabled to provide media coverage—some that have been virtually eliminated or never viable in print—the commercial and compact characteristics of most media present journalists and readers in Belgium with a contradiction. It may be that this contradiction will be sustained and absorbed, as has been the case in most of Belgium's political and social history. It may also be that the news media is changing globally to reduce the gap between entertainment, advertising, and investigative reporting. If that is the case, the news media will further become a menu of options for cultural and selective consumption, thus further reducing the importance of the news media, even as it expands.
- May 1997: Vers l'Avenir obtains 51 percent of IPM to create near-duopoly situation in the Fracophone press.
- 1998: Le Matin is taken over by Vers l'Avenir, a Catholic publication, thus placing the nation's only remaining leftist paper—whose sales have not improved—at risk of ceasing publication.
- Law enacted that limits press prosecution press releases to the highest public prosecutor. Minister of Justice Tony Van Parys later orders (1999) that prosecutors must designate spokespeople to provide journalist with investigative updates after complaints that the highest public prosecutor was too unavailable for comment.
- 2000: Belga Press Agency enters a joint venture with news aktuell International, a subsidiary of the German Press Agency, to distribute specialized press releases.
- August 2000: A Belgian court grants an emergency injunction to stop L'Investugatuer editor Jean Nicolas from publishing a list of convicted or suspected pedophiles.
- June 2002: Two De Morgen journalists are fined for failing to reveal their sources for a May 11, 2002, story in which they reported that the Belgian State Railway had overshot its budget for a high-speed train. The case will likely join a similar 1995 case on the docket of the European Court of Human Rights, a Strasbourg court that has often affirmed the right of journalists to keep their sources confidential.
de Bens, Els. "The Belgian Media Landscape." In European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre, 2000. Available from http://www.ejc.nl.
Boudart, Marina, Michel Boudart, and Rene Bryssinck, eds. Modern Belgium. Palo Alto, CA: Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship, 1990.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Factbook. CIA Publications, 2000. Available from http://www.cia.gov.
Elliot, Mark. Culture Shock: A Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Portland, OR: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Co., 2001.
Freemedia. "World Press Freedom Review: Belgium." Freemedia Home Page, 2000. Available from http://www.freemedia.at.
Lamberts, E. "Belgium Since 1830." In History of the Low Countries, Ed. J. C. H. Bloom and E. Lamberts. Trans., James C. Kennedy, 313-386. New York: Berghahan Books, 1999.
Stallaerts, Robert. Historical Dictionary of Belgium. Series: European Historical Dictionaries, No. 35. Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1999.
Witte, Els, Jan Craeybeckx, and Alain Meynen. Political History of Belgium from 1830 Onwards. Trans. Raf Casert. Brussels: VUB University Press, 2000.
World Association of Newspapers. "World Press Trends: On Circulation." World Association of Newspapers Organization Web site, 2001. Available from http://www.wan-press.org.
Sherry L. Wynn
Wynn, Sherry L.. "Belgium." World Press Encyclopedia. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409900029.html
Wynn, Sherry L.. "Belgium." World Press Encyclopedia. 2003. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3409900029.html
Belgium (bĕl´jəm), Du. België, Fr. La Belgique, officially Kingdom of Belgium, constitutional kingdom (2005 est. pop. 10,364,000), 11,781 sq mi (30,513 sq km), NW Europe. Belgium is bordered on the N by the Netherlands and the North Sea, on the E by Germany and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, and on the W and SW by France. Brussels is the capital and Antwerp is the chief commercial center and one of the world's major ports. Other important cities include Ghent and Liège.
Land and People
The terrain, low lying except in the Ardennes Mts. in the south, It is crossed by the Meuse and Scheldt rivers and by a network of canals. Belgium is one of the most densely populated nations in Europe. Historically, the country comprises two ethnic and cultural regions, generally called Flanders and Wallonia—Flanders embracing the northern provinces of East Flanders, West Flanders, Antwerp, Limburg, and part of Brabant, and Wallonia comprising the remainder of Brabant, Hainaut, Liège, Luxembourg, and Namur. The dividing line runs roughly east-west just S of Brussels.
Dutch is the official language in Flanders, while French is official in the south. The French-speaking people are commonly called Walloons, although the term once referred chiefly to those people in the area of the city of Liège who spoke Walloon, a French dialect. Brussels is bilingual, and German is spoken in a small section of Liège province. About three quarters of the population is Roman Catholic; the balance is largely Protestant, although there are Islamic and Jewish minorities in the cities. Many cities (most notably Bruges, Ghent, and Louvain) have preserved their medieval architecture and art, which attract thousands of tourists annually. The North Sea coast is popular in the summer.
Belgium has much fertile and well-watered soil, although agriculture engages only a small percentage of the workforce. The chief crops are wheat, oats, rye, barley, flax, sugar beets, vegetables, fruits, and tobacco. Cattle and pig raising as well as dairying (especially in Flanders) are also important.
Belgium's economy is reliant on services, transportation, trade, and industry. Coal mining, which has declined in recent years, and the production of steel and chemicals are concentrated in the Sambre and Meuse valleys, in the Borinage around Mons, Charleroi, Namur, and Liège, and in the Campine coal basin. Liège is a major steel center. A well-established metal-products industry manufactures bridges, heavy machinery, industrial and surgical equipment, motor vehicles, rolling stock, machine tools, and munitions. Chemical products include fertilizers, dyes, pharmaceuticals, and plastics; the petrochemical industry is concentrated near the oil refineries of Antwerp.
Textile production, which began in the Middle Ages, includes cotton, linen, wool, and synthetic fibers; carpets and blankets are important manufactures. Ghent, Kortrijk, Tournai, and Verviers are all textile centers; Mechelen, Bruges, and Brussels are celebrated for their lace. Other industries include diamond cutting (Antwerp is an important diamond center), glass production, and the processing of leather and wood. Over 75% of Belgium's electricity is produced by nuclear power. Belgian industry is heavily dependent upon imports for its raw materials. Most iron comes from the Lorraine basin in France, while nonferrous metal products made from imported raw materials include zinc, copper, lead, and tin.
Industrial centers are linked with each other and with the main ports of Antwerp and Ghent by the Meuse and Scheldt rivers and their tributaries, by a network of canals (notably the Albert Canal), and by a dense railroad system. Belgium exports machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products, and processed foods. The main imports are machinery, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and petroleum products. About 75% of trade is with other European Union countries, chiefly Germany, the Netherlands, France, and Great Britain.
Belgium is governed under the constitution of 1831 as amended; revisions in 1993 established a federal state. Its government is a federal parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the hereditary monarch; the head of government is the prime minister. There is a bicameral Parliament with a 71-member Senate and a 150-seat Chamber of Representatives (or Chamber of Deputies). Political divisions fall into three main groups—Christian Democrats, Liberals, and Socialists—each of these again divided into political parties constituted along linguistic lines. The country is divided into two regions (Flanders and Wallonia) that each comprise five provinces and the capital region; there are also three linguistic communities (Dutch, French, and German).
The Beginnings of Belgium
Belgium takes its name from the Belgae, a people of ancient Gaul. The Roman province of Belgica was much larger than modern Belgium. There the Franks first appeared in the 3d cent. AD The Carolingian dynasty had its roots at Herstal, in Belgium. After the divisions (9th cent.) of Charlemagne's empire, Belgium became part of Lotharingia and later of the duchy of Lower Lorraine, which occupied all but the western part of the Low Countries.
In the 12th cent., Lower Lorraine disintegrated; the duchies of Brabant (see Brabant, duchy of) and Luxembourg and the bishopric of Liège took its place. The histories of these feudal states and of Flanders and Hainaut constitute the medieval history of Belgium. The salient development was the rise of the cities (e.g., Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres) to virtual independence and economic prosperity through their wool industry and trade. In the 15th cent., all of present Belgium passed to the dukes of Burgundy, who strove to curtail local liberties. Simultaneously the wool industry declined, mainly because of English competition.
With the death (1482) of Mary of Burgundy a period of foreign domination began (see Netherlands, Austrian and Spanish for the period from 1477 to 1794). Belgium was occupied by the French during the French Revolutionary Wars and transferred from Austria to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797). After the defeat (1815) of Napoleon at Waterloo, just S of Brussels, Belgium was given to the newly formed kingdom of the Netherlands (the decision was made at the Congress of Vienna; see Vienna, Congress of).
Under King William I of the Netherlands, the Belgians resented measures that discriminated against them in favor of the Dutch, especially in the areas of language and religion. A rebellion broke out in Brussels in 1830, and Belgian independence was declared. William I invaded Belgium but withdrew when France and England intervened in 1832.
The Kingdom of Belgium
Belgian independence was approved by the European powers at the London Conference of 1830–31 (see under London Conference). In 1831, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was chosen king of the Belgians and became Leopold I. A final Dutch-Belgian peace treaty was signed in 1839, and the "perpetual neutrality" of Belgium was guaranteed by the major powers, including Prussia, at the London Conference of 1838–39.
The new country was among the first in Europe to industrialize and soon led the continent in the development of railways, coal mining, and engineering. Under the rule (1865–1909) of Leopold II rapid industrialization and colonial expansion, notably in the Congo, were accompanied by labor unrest and by the rise of the Socialist party in opposition to the reactionary and clerical groups. Social conditions improved under Albert I (reigned 1909–34), who also granted universal and equal male suffrage (the vote was extended to women in 1948).
After the outbreak of World War I (Aug., 1914), Germany invaded Belgium in order to attack France by the easiest route; this flagrant violation of Belgian neutrality shocked much of the world and brought Great Britain, as one of Belgium's guarantors, into the war. The unexpected resistance of the Belgians against such heavy odds won widespread admiration, and German atrocities in Belgium, publicized by the Allies, played an important part in consolidating U.S. opinion against Germany. All of Belgium except a small strip in West Flanders, which served as a battle front throughout the war (see, e.g., Ypres), was conquered by Oct. 10, 1914, and the people suffered under a harsh occupation regime. The Belgian army, under the personal leadership of Albert I, fought in West Flanders and France throughout the war. Under the Treaty of Versailles after the war, Belgium received the strategically important posts of Eupen, Malmédy, and Moresnet, and a mandate over the northwestern corner of former German East Africa.
In World War II, Germany, which in 1937 had guaranteed Belgian neutrality, attacked and occupied Belgium in May, 1940. King Leopold III (reigned 1934–51) surrendered unconditionally on May 28, but the Belgian cabinet, in exile at London, continued to oppose Germany. German occupation inaugurated a reign of terror. Liberation by British and American troops, aided by a Belgian underground army, came in Sept., 1944. The unsuccessful German counteroffensive of Dec., 1944–Jan., 1945 (see Battle of the Bulge), caused much destruction, adding to damage previously wrought by invasion and by Allied air raids.
Belgium's industrial plant had remained relatively intact despite the war, enabling the economy to recover far more rapidly than those of the other nations of Western Europe. The immediate political issue was the return of Leopold III, who was barred from Belgium until 1950. Popular discontent led to his abdication (1951) in favor of his eldest son, Baudouin. An economic union between Belgium and Luxembourg, formed in 1921 (the first of its kind in 20th-century Europe), was superseded in 1958 by the Benelux Economic Union, which also includes the Netherlands. An early proponent of a united Europe and a firm advocate of collective security, Belgium is the seat of many important European Union functions and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
In 1960 the Belgian Congo was given its independence, with subsequent economic and political turmoil in Belgium, especially after the eruption of violence in the Congo. Belgian forces helped the French in suppressing an indigenous rebellion in Congo (Kinshasa) in 1978. Long-standing tensions between the Dutch- and French-speaking elements flared during the 1960s, toppling several governments and making it increasingly difficult to form new ones. Sweeping constitutional reform begun in the early 1970s created three partially autonomous regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels) and three politically recognized ethnic communities (French, Flemish [Dutch speakers], and German), but ethnic discord continued throughout the 1980s. New reforms passed in 1993 gave the regions additional autonomy and created a federal state.
In Dec., 1981, the Christian Democrat–Liberal coalition, under the leadership of Wilfried Martens, came into power in Belgium. His prime ministership saw unpopular economic reforms, and interparty strife toppled the government in 1987. A year later, however, a new coalition took control of the government, again led by Martens, which was composed of Socialist and Christian Democratic parties and the Flemish Volksunie (nationalist) party. In 1992 a center-left coalition government of Socialists and Christian Democrats led by Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene of the Flemish Christian People's party came to power.
King Baudouin died in 1993 and was succeeded by his brother, Albert II. Following a food scare involving dioxins found in animal and dairy products, Dehaene's government fell in 1999, and Guy Verhofstadt became the new prime minister, leading a coalition of Liberals, Socialists, and Greens. Elections in 2003 resulted in a victory for the Liberals and Socialists, but the Greens lost most of their seats and were excluded from Verhofstadt's new government. In July, 2004, the Flemish Bloc, an anti-immigrant, Flemish separatist party, won nearly a quarter of the vote in regional and European elections in Flanders, but the party was subsequently convicted (Nov., 2004) of being racist and forced to disband and reform.
The parliamentary elections in June, 2007, led to gains for the Christian Democrats, and losses for the Liberals and Socialists. Ethnic and political divisions, particularly the question of increased devolution for Dutch Belgium, stymied the formation of a new government for more than six months. In December the king asked Verhofstadt to lead an interim government for up to three months, and in Mar., 2008, Christian Democrat Yves Leterme became prime minister of a five-party coalition government.
Four months later, Leterme submitted his resignation over the broad-based government's failure to reach an agreement on increased regional autonomy. The king, however, rejected it and called for further negotiations on autonomy. Accusations of government meddling in a court case concerning the sale of the Belgian operations of Fortis, a troubled bank and Belgium's largest private sector employer, led to the government's resignation in December. The same five parties subsequently re-formed a government, with Flemish Christian Democrat Herman Van Rompuy as prime minister. When Van Rompuy resigned (Nov., 2009) to become president of the European Union's European Council, Leterme succeeded him as prime minister.
Language-community-related issues led to the collapse of the coalition in Apr., 2010. The June elections resulted in a narrow victory for the separatist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA), but it only won slightly more than one sixth of the lower-house seats. The formation of a new government became an even more prolonged affair than in 2007–8, continuing until Dec., 2011, when Flemish and French Socialist, Christian Democrat, and Liberal parties formed a six-party government with French Socialist Elio Di Rupo as prime minister. In July, 2013, the king abdicated and was succeeded by his son Philippe. The May, 2014, parliamentary elections resulted in win for the N-VA, which increased its share of seats in the lower house to more than a fifth. The subsequent four-party government was formed by the N-VA (for the first time), French and Flemish Liberals, and Flemish Christian Democrats; Charles Michel, leader of the French Liberals, became prime minister.
See H. Pirenne, Early Democracies in the Low Countries (tr. 1963); J. Fitzmaurice, The Politics of Belgium (1983); A. Fletcher, Belgium (1985); E. Witte and H. Beardsmore, The Interdisciplinary Study of Urban Bilingualism in Brussels (1987); T. J. Hermans, ed., The Flemish Movement (1992).
"Belgium." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Belgium.html
"Belgium." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Belgium.html
There were signs of interest in Belgium for Freud and Breuer's research on hysteria as early as 1894. References can be found in Dallemagne's Dégénérés et déséquilibrés (Degeneracy and Mental Imbalance), but this appears to be an isolated case (Berdondini, N., 1987). During the twenties, a few attempts were made to introduce young psychiatrists to psychoanalytic concepts, but there was vehement opposition from the old guard. In literature a special issue of Disque vert appeared in 1924, entirely devoted to Freud. The Belgian authors included Georges Dwelshauwers, André Ombredane, and Henri Michaux. In his later writing, Franz Hellens, director of the publication, was also sympathetic to the work of Carl Gustav Jung. At the University of Louvain, following the initiative of the future cardinal Mercier, several professors took an interest in Freudian theory and established individual critical positions because of the emphasis placed on sexuality. The Jesuit J. Maréchal was also influential in promoting early acceptance of psychoanalysis.
In the midst of these still limited signs of interest, there emerged the figure of an educator from Gand, Julien Varendonck (1879-1924), who had the good fortune to meet Freud and become one of his students. He underwent a training analysis with Theodor Reik and spent 1923 in Vienna to continue his education. Upon his return to Gand, he opened his own office and was made a member of the Dutch Society of Psychoanalysis shortly before his premature death on June 11, 1924. In 1921 he published an important monograph entitled La psychologie des rêves éveillés (The Psychology of Daydreams), with a preface by Freud. Anna Freud translated the first part of the book. Unfortunately, because he was unable to find any students or an analysand with whom he could continue his research, his initiative remained stillborn.
The foundations of psychoanalytic practice were established by two Belgian pioneers, Maurice Dugautiez (1893-1960) and Fernand Lechat (1895-1959). The beginnings of psychoanalysis in Belgium reflect Freud's own solitary struggle during the first decade of the twentieth century. A closed and poorly informed medical establishment—the organic approach dominated psychiatry at the time—and a public opinion that remained hostile because of sectarian prejudices, explain why Freud's work had to wait for the arrival of two idealists who remained far outside the conventional sphere of training before psychoanalysis could take hold in the country. Both men were self-taught, curious and passionate individuals, who first met in 1933. Their encounter was the prelude to years of fruitful collaboration that enabled a psychoanalytic organization to gain a foothold in Belgium.
In spite of the dramatic context in which it occurred, another fortuitous event took place in 1933 or thereabouts. A Viennese Jew, Dr. Ernst Hoffman, a disciple of Freud and a brilliant student of Sándor Ferenczi, settled in Anvers to escape Nazi persecution. Dugautiez and Lechat, together with Mrs. Lechat, who was primarily interested in working with children, took advantage of Hoffman's providential appearance and began a training analysis with him. Unfortunately, Hoffman was arrested in 1942 and sent to a concentration camp. He never returned, and the nascent Belgian psychoanalytic movement suddenly lost its leader.
Beginning in 1936 Dugautiez and Lechat began undergoing supervised analyses under the supervision of Dr. Leuba and Marie Bonaparte. They were authorized to practice on their own in 1939; Mrs. Lechat began working with children at this time. After the war ended, both of them applied for membership in the Paris Psychoanalytic Society and were authorized, in 1946, to conduct training analyses and supervise their own students' first analyses.
On December 24, 1946, they founded the Association des Psychanalystes de Belgique (Association of Belgian Psychoanalysts) with Dr. Leuba as honorary president. They were sponsored by the Psychoanalytic Society of Paris. Doctor Ernest Jones, president of the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA), had encouraged this initiative. In 1947 the association, with the sponsorship of Marie Bonaparte, was accepted for membership in the IPA. The standing of the young organization was made more secure in 1948 with the organization, in Brussels, of the eleventh Conférence des Psychanalystes de Langue Française [(Conference of French-speaking Psychoanalysts). During the twelfth conference, in 1954, Fernand Lechat presented a report on "The Principle of Security." There were three further meetings in Brussels: in 1958, in 1972 (when a report was given by Danièle Flagey, entitled "Intellectual Inhibition"), and in Liege, in 1986, with a report by Andrée Bauduin, "On the Preconscious."
In 1953, Dr. Thérèse Jacobs Van Merlen, who had returned from her training in Paris with Sacha Nacht, Serge Lebovici, and René Diatkine, joined Dugautiez and Lechat. A stream of new members joined the association: Flagey, Bourdon, Vannypelseer, Drappier, Luminet, Pierloot, Labbé, Darmstaedter, Duyckaerts, and later, Watillon and Godfrind. The association has continued to grow since then. In 1960 the name was changed to the Société Belge de Psychanalyse (Belgian Psychoanalytic Society), also known as the Belgische Vereniging voor Psychoanalyse.
The society continued to grow, with the addition of a teaching committee, an enlarged administrative office, and an ethics committee. In addition to bimonthly meetings and working groups, the entire society met every two years for a colloquium. The Revue belge de psychanalyse, with Haber as its first director, was founded in 1982. The review made the society's ideas accessible to a much broader public. There was also a members' Bulletin, created in 1977.
Some twenty years after the creation of the current Belgian Psychoanalytic Society, various activities were established by psychoanalysts who had returned home from abroad and who were, for the most part, associated with the University of Louvain. These individuals either could not, or would not, become a part of the existing society. Most of them had met in Paris between 1955-1960, where they followed the activities of the French Psychoanalytic Society, which was then run by Daniel Lagache and Jacques Lacan, with the assistance of Juliette Boutonier, Françoise Dolto, and Georges Favez. Following a break in 1953 with the Paris Psychoanalytic Society, in 1964 the French Psychoanalytic Society experienced new upheavals with the departure of Lacan and the creation of theÉcole Freudienne. Although some activities of the new Belgian group began in 1964, the official foundation of theÉcole Belge de Psychanalyse (Belgische School voor Psychoanalyse) did not take place until 1969, under the impetus of Professors Jacques Schotte and Antoine Vergote.
Lacan's influence was decisive within the school, to the extent that its establishment can be considered an implicit extension of the situation in France. This allegiance to Lacanian positions, at least on the part of some, became problematic when the dissolution of the École Freudienne by Lacan led to divisions that subsequently gave rise to numerous offshoots, including Questionnement Psychanalytique (Psychoanalytic Questioning) and the Association Freudienne de Belgique (The Freudian Association of Belgium). These various groups are the result of the differences encountered concerning the importance of Lacanian ideas, in terms of setting and training, and more generally in terms of the theoretical corpus. Unlike the Belgian Psychoanalytic Society, these associations were not part of the IPA, some even took pride in their separatist stance. In 1984 theÉcole Belge de Psychanalyse began publishing a bilingual review, Psychoanalyse.
There were also Jungian psychoanalysts working in Belgium. The Société Belge de Psychologie Analytique (Belgian Society of Analytic Psychology), or SBPA, was founded in 1975. The majority of its members had been analyzed by Gilberte Aigrisse (1911-1995), who was trained in Geneva by Charles Baudouin. In 1994 some members of the SBPA left the organization to found a new group known as theÉcole Belge de Psychanalyse Jungienne (Belgian School of Jungian Psychoanalysis), or EBPJ.
Bauduin, Andrée. (1987). Du préconscient. Revue française de psychanalyse, 51, 449-538.
Berdondini, Nadine. (1987). L'introduction de la psychanalyse en Belgique: 1900-1947. Louvain-la-Neuve, reprinted 1995.
Flagey, Danièle. (1973). L'inhibition intellectuelle. Revue française de psychanalyse, 36, 717-798.
Lechat, Fernand. (1955). Du principe de sécurité. (rapport). Revue française de psychanalyse, 19 (1-2), 11-101.
Alsteens, Andr . "Belgium." International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435300148.html
Alsteens, Andr . "Belgium." International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. 2005. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435300148.html
Official name: Kingdom of Belgium
Area: 30,510 square kilometers (11,780 square miles)
Highest point on mainland: Mount Botrange (694 meters/2,277 feet)
Lowest point on land: Sea level
Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern
Time zone: 1 p.m. = noon GMT
Longest distances: 280 kilometers (174 miles) from southeast to northwest; 222 kilometers (137 miles) from northeast to southwest
Land boundaries: 1,451 kilometers (902 miles) total boundary length; France, 620 kilometers (385 miles); Germany, 167 kilometers (104 miles); Luxembourg, 148 kilometers (92 miles); Netherlands, 450 kilometers (280 miles)
Coastline: 66 kilometers (41 miles)
Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles)
1 LOCATION AND SIZE
Belgium is one of Europe's smallest and most densely populated countries. It is located in a part of northwestern Europe that was once called the Low Countries and today is known as the Benelux region (primarily due to Belgium's economic partnership with its neighbors Luxembourg and the Netherlands). Centrally located in Western Europe with few natural frontiers, Belgium has been called the crossroads of Europe. For much of its history, it was a battleground for the major European powers of France, Britain, and Germany. Today, its capital, Brussels, is the seat of both NATO and the European Union.
2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES
Belgium has no territories or dependencies.
Belgium has a temperate maritime climate with moderate temperatures in both summer and winter.
The mean temperature in Brussels ranges from 2.2°C (36°F) in January to 18°C (64°F) in July.
Rainfall averages between 70 and 100 centimeters (28 and 40 inches) per year and is evenly spread out over the twelve months. The elevated Ardennes region can receive as much as 140 centimeters (55 inches) of rain annually.
|Season||Months||Average Temperature: °Celsius (°Fahrenheit)|
|Summer||June to August||18°C (64°F)|
|Winter||December to March||3°C (37°F)|
4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS
Belgium can be divided into three major geographic regions: the coastal plains to the northwest, a low central plateau region, and the Ardennes highlands to the southeast. The country also has a distinctive ethnic and linguistic division, influenced by its proximity to its Dutch and French neighbors. The Flemish, who speak a form of Dutch, live in the northern part of the country, while the French-speaking Walloons live in the southern part. A small German-speaking minority also lives in the east, near the German border.
5 OCEANS AND SEAS
Belgium is situated at the southern tip of the North Sea.
Seacoast and Undersea Features
The coast of Flanders, a flat fringe of land reaching 8 to 16 kilometers (5 to 10 miles) inland from the sea, is protected from floods and tides by sand dunes and a network of dikes.
Belgium's coastline is nearly straight, with white-sand beaches. Behind the beaches lie dunes, and behind them are polders (wetlands reclaimed for agricultural use during the Middle Ages).
6 INLAND LAKES
Belgium has relatively few natural lakes. The largest complex of lakes is located in the southeast in the Ardennes region.
7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS
Belgium has two major rivers, the Schelde (Escaut) and the Meuse (Maas), both of which originate in France and flow east across Belgium. They gather numerous tributaries before continuing through the Netherlands and draining into the North Sea. Among the largest tributaries of the Schelde River are the Leie and Dender. In the south, the Sambre, Semois, Ourthe, and Amblève flow into the Meuse.
Belgium has no desert regions.
9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN
Belgium's northern lowlands belong to the Great European Plain. The western part of these lowlands is occupied by Flanders. The region northeast of Antwerp, which belongs to the delta of the Meuse and Rhine Rivers, is known as Kempenland, or the Campine.
10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES
The heavily forested Ardennes highlands extend south of the Meuse River valley, continuing into France. They range in elevation from 400 meters (1,300 feet) to between 580 to 700 meters (1,900 and 2,300 feet). The Hautes Fagnes near the German border, which are part of the Ardennes, include Belgium's highest peak, Mount Botrange (Signal de Botrange), at 694 meters (2,277 feet) above sea level.
11 CANYONS AND CAVES
A number of interesting caves may be found in the southeastern corner of the country, especially in the provinces of Namur, Liege, and Luxembourg, between Luxembourg and France.
12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS
Between the northern lowlands and the Ardennes highlands to the south lies Belgium's central plateau region. It extends across the middle of the country, from the Borinage area in the west to the Brabant region near the southeastern Dutch border. Elevations range from 20 meters (65 feet) to 200 meters (650 feet). The capital city of Brussels is located in this region.
13 MAN-MADE FEATURES
The coastal area of Flanders includes polders (reclaimed land) that were formerly marsh-land. The salt marshes of the region were transformed into rich farmland behind a barrier of dikes.
An extensive network of canals extends throughout the coastal plains and central plateau region, connecting Belgium's major cities and rivers to the sea. The major arteries are the Brugge-Zeebrugge, Charleroi-Brussels, Willebroek, and Albert Canals.
14 FURTHER READING
Blyth, Derek. Belgium. 9th ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000.
Fielding's Belgium: The Most In-Depth and Entertaining Guide to the Charms and Pleasures of Belgium. Redondo Beach, CA: Fielding Worldwide, 1994.
Fox, Renie C. In the Belgian Château: The Spirit and Culture of a European Society in an Age of Change. Chicago: I.R. Dee, 1994.
Belgian Federal Govt Online. http://www.belgium.fgov.be/en_index.htm (accessed February 8, 2003).
Belgium: Overview. http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/BELGCUL.html (accessed July 17, 2003).
"Belgium." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3425900028.html
"Belgium." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography. 2003. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3425900028.html
30,510sq km (11,780sq mi)
Federal constitutional monarchy
Belgian 91% (Flemish 55%, Walloon 34%), German, Italian, French, Dutch, Turkish, Moroccan
Dutch, French, German (all official)
Christianity (Roman Catholic 72%)
Euro = 100 cents
Climate and VegetationBelgium has a cool temperate climate. Moist winds from the Atlantic bring fairly heavy rain, and the Ardennes has heavy winter snowfalls. Brussels has mild winters and warm summers. Farmland and pasture cover c.50% of Belgium. The forests, especially in the Ardennes, contain trees such as beech, birch, elm and oak, but in the n, the birch forests and heathland have largely been replaced by plantations of evergreen trees.
History and PoliticsOne of the Low Countries, in the Middle Ages Belgium was split into small duchies, such as Brabant. In the 15th century, the country was united by the Dukes of Burgundy. From 1482 to 1794, Belgium was ruled by the Netherlands, Spain, and Austria. Occupied during the French Revolutionary Wars, it passed to France in 1797.
In 1815, Belgium was subsumed into the Netherlands. Dutch discrimination led to rebellion and Belgium declared independence in 1830. Leopold I became king. His successor, Leopold II, encouraged industrialization and colonialism, notably in the Congo. In August 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, prompting British entry into World War I. Belgium stoutly resisted German occupation and it formed a major battleground in the war. In May 1940, Germany again invaded Belgium and Leopold III capitulated.
In 1951, Leopold III was forced to abdicate and was succeeded by Baudouin. Despite the damage inflicted during World War II, the economy recovered quickly – helped by the Benelux customs union with Netherlands and Luxembourg (1958), and the formation of the European Common Market. Lying at the heart of Europe, Brussels is the administrative headquarters for the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Belgium's relationship with its former colony, Congo (Zaïre), has been problematic: after granting independence in 1960, it sent troops to deal with coups in 1964 and 1978. A central domestic issue is the tension between Dutch-speaking Flemish and French-speaking Walloons. During the 1980s, Belgium had a succession of coalition governments led by Wilfried Martens. In 1993, it adopted a federal system of government with three regional parliaments: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. In the same year, Baudouin died and was succeeded by his brother, Albert II. In 1998, a paedophile murder case revealed corruption among the judiciary and police. After a second scandal, involving the dioxin contamination of food, a centre-right coalition won a landslide victory at elections in 1999, and Guy Verhofstadt replaced Jean-Luc Dehaene as prime minister.
EconomyBelgium is a major trading nation (2000 GDP per capita, US$25,300) with a modern transport system. Antwerp is one of the world's largest ports. Belgium's coal industry declined in the late 20th century, and it now imports many raw materials and fuels. The leading activity is manufacturing – products include steel and chemicals. Other industries include oil-refining, textiles, diamond cutting, and glassware. Agriculture employs only 3% of the workforce, but the country is mostly self-sufficient. The most valuable activities are dairy farming and livestock rearing. Belgium adopted the euro in 1999.
"Belgium." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O142-Belgium.html
"Belgium." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O142-Belgium.html
Identification. Gallia Belgica was the Romans' name for the northern part of Gaul, the northern limit of their empire. In early modern times, the name was used as an erudite synonym for the Low Countries. After the 1830 revolution and the establishment of an independent kingdom, Belgium became the official name of the country.
Location and Geography. The country is located at the western end of the northern European plain, covering an area of 11,780 square miles (30,510 square kilometers); the neighboring states are France, Luxembourg, Germany, and the Netherlands. The two main rivers are the Schelde and the Meuse, both of which begin in France and flow toward the Netherlands. The land rises progressively toward the south. Flanders (northern part of the country) is less hilly than Wallonia (southern part). The German-speaking population lives at the borders with Germany and Luxembourg. Discoveries of coal in the hills of northern Wallonia led to the early industrialization of the area.
Demography. Belgium is one of the most urbanized and densely inhabited countries in the world with about 97 percent of the 10 million inhabitants living in cities in 2000. Brussels, the capital, has approximately 1 million residents, and the second city, Antwerp, has half a million. The central and northern parts of the country are covered by a dense network of medium-size and small cities, and people may live in one city and work in another. Around 55 percent of the population lives in Flanders, 35 percent in Wallonia, and 10 percent in Brussels.
The nation's cultural diversity has been enriched by international and local immigration. The high numbers of Flemish names in the south and Walloon names in the north indicate long time internal mobility. In the last hundred years the most important immigrant groups were Jews who form a sizable community in Antwerp; Poles, who came in the early 1930s and after the fall of communism; Italians (in the 1930s and 1950s); and North Africans and Turks, who arrived in the 1960s. There are many recent immigrants from other countries in the European Union as well as many expatriates working in or around European Union institutions and NATO headquarters. The percentage of noncitizens in the population is high at 15 percent nationally and 28 percent in Brussels.
Linguistic Affiliation. The main languages are Dutch and French; they are also the joint official languages. Although German is also recognized as the third national language, it is not used frequently in the national administration. French was introduced as the language of the political elite by feudal lords of French origin, particularly the dukes of Burgundy, who choose Brussels as their main city of residence. In the eighteenth century, French was widely adopted by the bourgeoisie, and in 1830, it was adopted as the official language. Through education and social promotion, French replaced the local dialects in Wallonia and Brussels, but it was not as widely adopted in Flanders.
In Wallonia, a series of Romance dialects rather than a single language were widely spoken but never had official status. Brussels was originally a Flemish city, but the influence of French has always been strongest here, and only a tenth of the population speak Dutch.
The language spoken in Flanders is Dutch, which is commonly called Flemish. The Taalunie, an official institution, guarantees the international unity of the Dutch language. There is a great diversity of Flemish dialects which differ in vocabulary and pronunciation. French is still spoken in Flanders by some people in the upper and upper middle classes as well as along the linguistic border and around Brussels. The presence of important Francophone minorities in some parts of Flanders has been the source of political conflicts and led in the 1980s to the resignation of several central governments.
Symbolism. Political symbolism differs with the region and the sociopolitical environment. The strongest national symbols are the Monarchy and the national soccer team. The national anthem, the Brabançonne, is not taught in schools and not widely known. The original song, written during the revolution of 1830, exalted the revolt against the "arbitrary" power of the Dutch king. It was later changed to a milder version that placed obedience to king and law on the same footing as liberty. Symbols are more numerous and more powerful in the Flemish political culture than in the other parts of the country or the nation as a whole.
Much of the mythology in Flanders involves the Lion of Flanders. The lion has been the symbol of the counts of Flanders since the Crusades, and became the symbol of Flemish emancipation since independence.
The oldest elements of Flemish symbolism were developed as Belgian "myths" before the emergence of the Flemish movement. A successful fourteenth-century revolt of cities in the former county of Flanders against a count from the French royal family became an expression of early Flemish/Belgian nationalism. The Flemish national day celebrates the victory of the Flemish militias over the royal French army at the Battle of the Golden Spurs, named after the trophies collected from slain French knights. The Flemish national anthem (the Vlaamse leeuw ) was composed in 1847. It was adopted as the Flemish movement's anthem in 1900 and became the official anthem of the Flemish community in 1973. Other strong Flemish symbols are the National Song Feast (ANZ) held annually in Antwerp since the early 1930s, in which Flemish songs are mixed with modern expressions of culture.
On the last Sunday of August, the Flemish movement gathers in a pilgrimage at World War I battlefields. Because of the Christian roots of the Flemish movement, the main slogan associated with this has a strong religious connotation. The Walloon movement borrowed the rooster from France as a cultural symbol. The Francophone community celebrates its national day on 21 September, but it is not emphasized heavily, and an anthem was not adopted until 1999.
In the Middle Ages, Brussels adopted Saint Michael killing the dragon as its patron saint and coat of arms. However, when Brussels became a separate region, its leaders felt they had to find symbols to support the separate identity of the region. They chose the iris and set the regional celebration day in the period in which that flower blossoms.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. Although the name of the modern state refers to the original Celtic inhabitants after the Roman conquest in 44 b.c.e., the population was Romanized and adopted the Latin language. Latin gave rise to a series of dialects including, in the southern part of the country, the Walloon dialects. The name "Walloon" derives from a Germanic word meaning "foreign," and refers to the Roman Empire.
Flemish culture came to northern Belgium as a consequence of the Germanic invasions of the fourth century. In the central and southern regions, the Germanic invaders formed small kingdoms and adopted their subjects' culture.
Until the eighth century, conquests and divisions modified the borders of these kingdoms. The last division took place at the treaty of Verdun (843) between the grandsons of Charlemagne, who divided the Holy Roman Empire into three parts, of which the central part, Lotharingia, encompassed the territories between the Netherlands and Italy, including present-day Belgium. However, Lotharingia was absorbed into the German Empire, and the idea of a state between France and the German Empire did not resurface until the fourteenth century. The Burgundian princes inherited, conquered, bought, or received in dowry most of the fiefs constituting the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern and eastern France. They established their court in Brussels and brought the French language to their states. The possessions of the dukes of Burgundy were inherited by the Habsburg dynasty in 1477.
In the middle of the sixteenth century, a religious civil war led to the division of the Low Countries into two parts. The north became the Netherlands, a Dutch-speaking, Protestant state. The south remained Catholic and was associated with the Habsburg dynasty until the French conquest in 1794. Under the Habsburg rulers, the use of Flemish progressively declined, but the position of French was reinforced during the French administration (1794–1814).
After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna established the kingdom of the Netherlands, including present-day Belgium. However, the policy of King Willem I van Oranje Nassau (1772– 1843) of favoring the Dutch language and the Protestant religion, led to the revolution of 1830, after which Belgium became independent.
National Identity. The Belgian state stipulated freedom of language in its constitution. However, partially as a reaction against the pro-Dutch policy of Willem I, French became the de facto state language. The new government made it the language of administration and education, hoping that it would replace Flemish, Walloon, and German dialects. A Flemish revival initiated by members of the lower clergy and some intellectuals (the so-called Flemish movement) led, over the next two centuries in Flanders, to the progressive replacement of French by Flemish as the language of education, justice, and administration.
In the nineteenth century, the Flemish cultural heritage was an important basis for the definition of a Belgian identity, emphasizing the religious difference with the Netherlands and the wars with France. Thus, the growth of the Flemish movement weakened the feeling of national identity not only in Flanders but in the entire country, leading to the growth of a distinct Brussels identity.
Ethnic Relations. The rehabilitation of the Flemish language met with strong resistance from the Francophone establishment and political parties. The "linguistic question" has been the source of political tension for more than a century. In reaction to the Flemish movement, a Walloon movement emerged, mostly linked to the Francophone socialist party. Although the Flemish are the majority population, the Flemish political parties have promoted reforms to protect their language against perceived Francophone domination.
Another Flemish grievance came from the emigration of Francophone inhabitants of Brussels to the surrounding Flemish villages, after which inflation in real estate prices made it impossible for the original Flemish population to stay. The main problem from the Flemish point of view is that the Francophone "migrants" do not learn Dutch but continue to live and work in French-speaking environments and send their children to French schools in Brussels. The Flemish "law of the land" holds that newcomers have to learn the official language of the region. The Francophone population appeals to an individual's rights to speak the language of one's choice, and resents administrative measures favoring the Dutch language in communes situated in Flanders where Francophones constitute 80 percent of the population. More generally, French speakers resent the suppression of French in public administration, public and private education, church services, and business relations. They stress the rights granted to the Flemish minority in Brussels and the petty humiliations faced by the Francophones in the Flemish suburbs. The Flemish feel that their rights in Brussels are justified because that city is the capital of the Flemish region as well as the Belgian state. Most conflicts along the ethnocultural cleavage are fought at the level of politicians, whereas the relations between the population groups remain peaceful.
The main threat to peaceful ethnic relations comes from the extreme-rightist parties, particularly the Vlaams Blok, which thrives on resentment against immigrant communities and the national state. The Vlaams Blok has also recruited some of the most radical elements of the Flemish movement. The rise of the extremist party was historically made possible by the ambiguous attitude of many mainstream Flemish politicians and journalists toward the wartime collaboration of a fraction of the Flemish movement with Nazi Germany. Collaboration in Wallonia was equivalent but was not linked to anything similar to the Flemish movement.
The extreme right in Wallonia has always been fragmented into very small parties, with little political influence. However, one of the main points of the Vlaams Blok, the resentment of the influence of the other language community, is also a major point in the program of the FDF party.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
Belgium is essentially a country of medium-size and small cities, many with long histories. In the central parts of these cities, rows of terraced houses are built among a network of ancient churches and marketplaces. Opulent buildings often feature a Belfry in the central marketplace, or, as in Brussels, a city hall and corporation houses.
In nineteenth century, many working-class cities were built in mining and industrial areas. In some cities, new middle-class suburbs were linked to urban centers by large avenues. The stylistic height of this expansion is illustrated by the Art Nouveau houses built by Victor Horta. In the first half of the twentieth century, garden cities were built to provide humane lodgings for the working classes. Today, as the population continues to leave the central cities, one-family houses are organized in small suburban villages.
There is some contrast between the north and south in the use of traditional, rural spaces. While the north has many isolated farms between villages, the southern farms tend to be grouped in villages on both sides of a road.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Bread and potatoes are the traditional staple foods. Most meals include, pork, chicken, or beef, and Seafood is popular in the northern part of the country. The national drink is beer, but wine is imported in large quantities. In northern cities, popular dishes include mussels with fries and waterzooi a broth of vegetables and meat or fish. Throughout the country, French fries are eaten with steaks or minced raw meat. Cooking is traditionally done with butter rather than oil; there is also a high consumption of dairy products. Immigration has ensured a diversity of "ethnic" restaurants and is gradually changing the eating habits of the residents in culturally mixed areas.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Christmas is an occasion for large family meals with grandparents and cousins. There are many other occasions for long meals at public and private celebrations, such as weddings, funerals, and the days devoted to city and parish saints. Pastries are associated with religious and civil occasions. At Christmas, people eat sweet bread in the form of the child Jesus; at Easter, children are told that eggs are dropped in the gardens by flying churchbells; and sugar beans are distributed to those who visit a young mother.
Basic Economy. Belgium is heavily dependent on foreign trade. Since the closing of its coal mines in the 1960s, the country has had to import most of its fuel, although it is an important producer of nuclear energy. Although less then 3 percent of the population is involved in agriculture, farm production is very intensive. The southern part of the country has not recovered from the closing down of steel plants and coal mines; the economy of the north, traditionally based on trade and textile manufacturing, has fared better.
Commercial Activities. Belgium is considered the world's diamond capital. The annual turnover of the diamond industry was about $23 billion (U.S.) in 1996 and contributed nearly $3 billion (U.S.) to the Belgian economy. Belgium is also an important producer of several industrial minerals, including limestone, dolomite, whiting, sodium sulfate, silica sand, and marble. Livestock raising is the most important single sector of Belgian agriculture, accounting for over 60 percent of agricultural production. In 1998 there were about 3.2 million head of cattle, 7.4 million hogs, 147,000 sheep, and 22,000 horses. Belgian farmers breed some of the finest draft horses in the world, including the famous Percherons.
Major Industries. Industry, highly developed in Belgium, is devoted mainly to the processing of imported raw materials into semifinished and finished products, most of which are then exported. Steel production is the single most important sector of industry, with Belgium ranking high among world producers of iron and steel. In 1998, Belgium produced 342,000 tons of crude copper. The country also produces significant amounts of crude zinc and crude lead. The bulk of metal manufactures consists of heavy machinery, structural steelwork, and industrial equipment. The railroad equipment industry supplies one of the most extensive railroad systems in Europe. The textile industry, dating from the Middle Ages, produces cottons, woolens, linens, and synthetic fibers. The chemical industry manufactures a wide range of products, from heavy chemicals and explosives to pharmaceuticals and photographic supplies.
Trade. Belgium is heavily dependent on trade, mostly with neighboring European countries (76 percent of exports and 71 percent of imports are with EU partners). More than half the energy is nuclear produced, which makes the country less dependent on imports of fossil fuels. Most of the trade, for imports as for exports, is in machinery, chemicals and metal products. An exception is the important place of cut diamonds in exports. In the past decade, an increasing number of spin-offs of universities has reinforced Belgian exports in high-tech products.
Division of Labor. Less than 60 percent of the population was employed as of 1999, including 19.5 percent in part-time jobs. The repartition in sectors is as follows: 73 percent in services, 25 percent in industry, and 2 percent in agriculture.
Classes and Castes. There is a relatively even distribution of wealth, with 5 to 6 percent living close to the poverty line. The majority of the population is middle class. The vast majority has equal opportunities for education and a professional life. There is a very inclusive social security system.
Deep societal cleavages have led to the construction of "pillars," integrated social structures based on ideology. Although "pillarization" is becoming less important in social life, its influence is clearly noticeable. These pillars encompass every aspect of societal life, including youth, sports and leisure movements, education at all levels, trade unions, health funds, newspapers, and political parties. The three main pillars are the Christian-democrat pillar, the socialist pillar, and the liberal pillar. Until the 1990s, the positions of these pillars were mutually agreed on and anchored through a complex system of "political nominations" in which people with a philosophical affiliation to one of the pillars were appointed to key societal positions as magistrates, top public officials, and leaders of state-controlled companies. The public is turning against this aspect of the pillars, but their influence and power are considerable, especially when their interests are challenged.
The major cleavages are ethnocultural (Flemish speakers versus Francophones), philosophical (the church versus liberals) and economic. The importance of these cleavages has changed over time, often leading to the establishment of new coalitions.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Wealth is most often expressed through houses and cars. In general, there are few external behavioral class markers. The upper classes act discreetly, and people make little distinction between classes or social strata. Exceptions sometimes appear in youth culture, where fashion can turn into a means of social distinction.
Government. Belgium is a federal state, consisting of its three language communities that are responsible for the control of culture and education, and its three regions that are responsible for controlling the economic development, infrastructure, and environment. In Flanders, the institutions of the Dutch-speaking community and the Flemish region have merged, leaving the country with six governments and six parliaments. This complex structure has resulted from the increasing federalization of the country, which in turn has resulted from the demands for more cultural autonomy in each language community, as well as demands for control over local economic development.
The political system is based on discussion and compromise between different interest groups. The term "Belgian compromise" applies to solutions reached in this way: complex issues are settled by conceding something to every party. The resulting agreements often leave room for interpretation due to their complexity.
Leadership and Political Officials. The major political parties are the Liberals, Socialists, and Christian-Democrats, complemented by regionalist parties as the VolksUnie and the extreme right-wing Vlaams Blok in Flanders. Their Francophone counterpart is the Front Démocratique des Francophones (FDF). In some communes on the linguistic border and in Brussels, Francophone and Flemish parties form cross-political union lists such as Union des Francophones (UF) or Samen. The green parties entered the federal government coalition in 1999. All political parties (with the exception of the regionalist parties), have evolved from unitary parties into a Flemish party and a Walloon party since the 1970s. Politicians often rise through the pillars, mostly in Flanders; in Wallonia and Brussels, on the other hand, politicians usually have a stronger local base, often as mayors. The few independent candidates with political potential are quickly recruited by the parties.
Social Problems and Control. Policing and the judiciary are organized at the national level. After a major police reform in 1999, there will be one police force with authority to operate in the entire nation. Delays in handling cases in Brussels are often related to a lack of bilingual magistrates. In recent years, civilian patrols without legal powers of intervention have come into existence, but their function is mainly to deter robbers.
Informal social control is much stronger in small villages and towns than it is in large cities. Organized crime is rare except in drug trafficking, prostitution, and illegal immigration. Organized crime is mostly controlled by foreign criminals such as the Russian mafia. There are relatively few murders and armed robberies. The most common crime is property theft.
Military Activity. Belgium is a member of NATO, and its military forces have been completely integrated into the alliance. The military has to live with tight budgets, and military expenditure is seen as a necessity, not a source of national pride. The military is professional and separate from the rest of society and is subject to strong parliamentary control.
Social Welfare and Change Programs
A series of Public Centers of Social Aid (CPAS) exist in the cities, supporting impoverished residents. A ministry of social promotion supports initiatives for the reduction of inequality.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
Belgium hosts many international organizations and hundreds of lobbying-groups, but their presence has little direct impact on social life. The most influential organizations are the Catholic Church and its affiliates and social organizations related to the pillars, such as trade unions.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. The occupational gender gap is decreasing, particularly among younger generations (67.5 percent of men working versus 50.2 percent of women working). In fact, the higher occupational rate of women is due to an increase in part-time jobs in services: less than 3 percent of men work part-time, but nearly 30 percent of women do.
The Relative Status of Men and Women. The unemployment rate in (1999) was slightly lower for men than for women. The wage differentials between men and woman are the lowest in the European Union, with women earning on average 91 percent of a man's salary.
Marriage, Family and Kinship
Marriage. There are no social or ethnic barriers to marriage, although proximity and social models influence the choice of a spouse. Young people marry and have children less often and later than former generations did. The divorce rate has increased to about one in three marriages.
Domestic Unit. The domestic unit usually is composed of the parents and up to three children, although immigrants from North Africa often have more children. Women still do more of the domestic work, but this is perceived as a matter of negotiation by the couple.
Inheritance. In the absence of a will, the children inherit equally from a deceased parent. However, if one spouse survives the other, he or she keeps the entire estate. The law limits the proportion of the estate that can be disposed of by will, depending on the number of children.
Kin Groups. The extension of the family group generally is limited to first cousins. However, there are a growing number of family associations in the upper and middle classes through which the descendants of an individual gather once or twice a year.
Child Rearing and Education. The values parents attempt to transmit to their children are honesty, good manners, tolerance, and responsibility, but there are regional and class differences. Obedience and cleanliness are considered most important in Flanders and among workers, the unemployed, and shopkeepers; loyalty and courage are important in Wallonia; and independence and autonomy are more appreciated in Brussels and among university graduates, executives, civil servants and shopkeepers. The trend, however, shows a weakening of these oppositions, most notably between religious and hard work values in Flanders and socialist values in Wallonia.
Since 1956 all public and private schools have been supported by the state, and education is virtually free. In theory, access to the best schools depends on grades, language, location, and social position influence parental choice. Children must remain in full-time education until age sixteen and in part-time until age eighteen.
Higher Education. In arts, business, teacher training, and nursing, higher education is organized outside universities. Education is federalized and is conducted in the language of the individual region. Although language education in generally very good, there are no official bilingual institutions. The Catholic University of Louvain and the Free University of Brussels are divided into Flemish and Francophone parts. State universities are located in provincial towns. A high percentage of young people enter higher education (there were 307,000 students in higher education in 2000).
There are not many interactions in the streets, as residential, working and leisure areas tend to be distinct. Among young people, especially Francophones, girls rarely shake hands but kiss other girls and boys.
Religious Beliefs. Catholicism is the main religious faith. The government financially supports the Catholic and Protestant churches as well as the Jewish and Muslim faiths. The Catholic Church controls an important network of schools with 70 percent of the pupils in secondary education and two main universities. Religious beliefs and practice declined during the twentieth century, but approximately 65 percent of Belgians believe in God. Many people who say they do not believe in God take part in religious rituals for major events such as baptisms, weddings, and funerals. Minority faiths include Muslims, Jews, and Protestants.
Medicine and Health Care
There is a modern health system with state, university, and private hospitals. Health insurance is mandatory and is paid for by employers. Self-employed people must have insurance for major risks and pay according to their income.
Many important secular celebrations are linked to the ethnic identity of the Flemish and the Francophones. Labor Day on 1 May and World War I Armistice Day are national holidays. The National Day on 21 July commemorates the taking of an oath of fidelity to the Constitution by the first king, Leopold I (1790–1865). Mardi Gras is celebrated in several cities.
The Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. Aspiring artists and musicians receive training in evening schools that are free of charge and accessible in most of the country. At the postsecondary level, there are many state-supported conservatories and art schools. An extensive network of art galleries supports avant-garde and traditional artists. Museums in the main cities also support artists by buying some of their work and making it known to the public.
Literature. Sometimes it is denied that there is a Belgian literature, with only Flemish and Walloon or French and Dutch writers who happen to be Belgian citizens. However, authors such as Charles de Coster (1827–1879) and Emile Verhaeren (1855–1916), wrote in French on Flemish themes. Another important Francophone writer from Flanders was the symbolist Maurice Maeterlinck. The main nineteenth-century Flemish writers were Hendrik Conscience and Guido Gezelle. Flemish and Francophone writers contributed to important literary movements such as symbolism, surrealism, and magic realism. Important themes are the hardness of life, the questioning of the nature of reality, and the quest for original ways to get through life. The distrust of authority was present in one of the oldest Flemish tales, Reynard the Fox, in which the small fox outsmarts the larger animals.
Graphic Arts. The golden age of graphic arts lasted from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth century and was embodied mostly in painting. The Flemish Primitives school of painting (fourteenth and fifteenth centuries) made the region the main artistic center of Europe outside of Italy. Artists such as Jan Van Eyck (1395–1441) and Rogier Van Der Weyden (1400–1464) were interested in spatial composition and psychology and rendered the colors and textures of living and material objects with realism. The main artistic figure of the next century was Pieter Breughel the Elder (1525–1569), with his lively paintings of peasant life.
Pieter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) was the most famous painter of his time, receiving commissions from European sovereigns. His main focus was on the human figure. Rubens influenced Anthony Van Dyk (1599–1641) and Jacob Jordaens (1593–1678). The graphic arts declined until the late nineteenth century, when James Ensor and René Magritte (in the twentieth century) revived the avant-garde. The most innovative works of living artists can be seen in contemporary art museums in Antwerp and Ghent.
Performance Arts. The Franco-Flemish style dominated European music in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, with composers such as Josquin des Prez and Orlando di Lasso. In the twentieth century, the most famous Belgian musician was the singer Jacques Brel. Several living classical composers are active. The harmonica player Toots Thielemans is the most famous jazz musician. The Blindman Kwartet combines jazz, pop, and classical music.
The presence in Brussels between 1959 and 1987 of the French choreographer Maurice Béjart stimulated a new generation of choreographers. The main theatrical centers are De Singel in Antwerp and the Kaai Teater in Brussels. Several theaters and orchestras are supported by the government.
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Schryver, Reginald de, ed. Nieuwe Encyclopedie van de Vlaamse Beweging. 1998.
Vande Putte G. Belgica Creola: Le Contact des Langues en Périphérie Bruxelloise/Taalcontact in de Brusselse Periferie, 1999.
Verstraete, Pieter Jan. Bibliografie van de Vlaamse Beweging: Deel 5: 1986–1990, 1998.
Voyé, Liliane, et al. Belges, Heureux et satisfaits: Les Valeurs des Belges dans les Années 90, 1992.
Witte, Els, Lode Vraeybeckx, Alain Meynen, Politieke Geschiedenis van België, 1990.
—Jean de Lannoy and Ruben A. Lombaert
DE LANNOY, JEAN; LOMBAERT, RUBEN A.. "Belgium." Countries and Their Cultures. 2001. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3401700030.html
DE LANNOY, JEAN; LOMBAERT, RUBEN A.. "Belgium." Countries and Their Cultures. 2001. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3401700030.html
■ FLEMINGS … 151
■ WALLOONS … 155
The people of Belguim are called Belgians. The ancestors of Belgium's present population are believed to have settled there during the fourth century ad. The Flemings, comprising about 60 percent of the population, are of Dutch descent. The Walloons, about 35 percent, are of French descent.
"Belgium." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1999. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435900047.html
"Belgium." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1999. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435900047.html
"Belgium." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Encyclopedia.com. (June 28, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-Belgium.html
"Belgium." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Retrieved June 28, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-Belgium.html
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The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is one of the most studied eukaryotic organisms and a central model for the human genome project. Introduced as an experimental organism in the early years of this century, the genetic prowess of D.melanogaster has placed this fly at the forefront of many areas of research, notably gene regulation, chromosome behavior, developmental biology, cell biology, neurobiology, population biology, ecology and evolution. Beginning in 1992, data on the genetics and genomics of D.melanogaster and related species have been electronically available over the Internet through the funded FlyBase, BDGP and EDGP informatics groups. These groups recognize that many (perhaps all) genome project and community data types overlap considerably, and that it would be of great value to present the scientific community with an integrated view of these data. Beginning in 1998, the BDGP, EDGP and FlyBase have begun the process of merging their data distribution efforts into a single project. In the short term, however, the data will be accessible only through independent servers, and so it is the purpose of this report to describe current aspects of the FlyBase, BDGP and EDGP public databases. However, it should be realized that the merger is in progress, and the specific aspects of database access will be in flux for the next several months. Some new merged efforts are also discussed.
The taxonomic scope of FlyBase is the family Drosophilidae. However, the vast majority of data concerns the one species D.melanogaster.
FlyBase represents abstracted and value-added curated genetic and genomic data from the Drosophila `literature', i.e., from the published scientific literature, accessions from nucleic acids, protein and other databases, written personal communications, and bulk submissions. All information in FlyBase is attributed, meaning that it is attached to a specific bibliographic citation. The current view of the D.melanogaster genome and the functions of individual genes is necessarily incomplete. Given this incompleteness, and the heterogeneity of the literature, it is an important function of FlyBase to attempt to integrate the literature, particularly by the use of structured terminology (controlled vocabularies and nomenclature).
The genetic data sets. FlyBase organizes genetic data in terms of chromosomal locations in the genome, and in terms of the products that the genes encode. Gene descriptions therefore include recombinational, cytogenetic, physical and sequence level information on map locations, functional, expression pattern and structural information on gene products, and biological roles based upon inferences from mutant phenotypes. Information on specific mutant alleles, chromosomal aberrations, transposons and transgenic insertions are also included, as are the strain lists of the publicly-funded stock centers and a few private collections. Because of the importance of related information from other systems, FlyBase includes numerous crosslinks to other databases, such as to accessions in nucleic acids and protein databases, and records of homologs in other species databases. As the FlyBase data set expands, it is becoming increasingly important to provide graphical data summaries wherever possible. Images within FlyBase include regional cytogenetic, physical and sequence level maps, as well as anatomical drawings and photomicrographs.Ancillary data sets. In addition to these core data sets, FlyBase provides other services to the scientific community. Contact information for the Drosophila community is available. Sets of data that are not themselves curated by FlyBase, but that may be of interest to the community are maintained in an Allied Data division of the FlyBase server. These data are posted directly in the form submitted to FlyBase. Most notably, in its Allied Data section, FlyBase mirrors `The Interactive Fly', a database of gene products and pathways produced by Tom and Judy Brody. In collaboration with the Brodys, FlyBase maintains a hierarchically organized index of cross-links between The Interactive Fly and FlyBase gene reports. FlyBase identifier numbers. Many data classes in FlyBase have unique identifiers in FlyBase. These allow FlyBase data objects to be cross-referenced, both within FlyBase and externally. FlyBase identifiers are of the form: FBxxnnnnnnn, where xx is a two-letter code signifying the type of identifier, and nnnnnnn is a 7-digit number padded with leading zeros. For example, a gene identifier would take the form of FBgn0001234, a bibliographic reference of the form FBrf0098765, and an RNA transcript of the form Fbtr0005678. Organization of FlyBase data. Some classes of FlyBase data are completely structured. These include nomenclature, map data, cross-links to external databases and a variety of controlled vocabularies. These controlled vocabularies include those describing the function and structure of gene products, subcellular and anatomical terms for describing phenotypes and gene expression patterns, mutagens, taxonomic species, transposon properties, etc. Other classes of FlyBase data are captured as free text. In general, the intention is that the structured data classes in FlyBase are the best approaches for interrogating the database and identifying relevant information, and the free text imparts additional information concerning these relevant items. While free text searches are available in FlyBase, their results are likely to be somewhat idiosyncratic, since by their nature, use of terminology is not constrained.A new FlyBase data class-annotated gene reference sequences. As part of the expanded project, FlyBase is now curating reference sequences of the genome. These reference sequences are being curated on a gene by gene basis. In these reference sequence reports, typically the reference sequence is based on finished genome project clone sequence. It synthesizes sequence level and physical map information about the locations of transcripts, polypeptides, regulatory elements, mutant alleles, transgenic rescue fragments and other features that can be tethered onto the reference sequence. These data are captured from primary nucleic acids database accessions, from the primary literature and from personal communications. These reference sequence reports will be submitted to GenBank as FlyBase-authored annotated sequences, and will be cross-referenced to FlyBase feature tables. FlyBase attribution. A key feature of FlyBase is a comprehensive bibliography of conventional and unconventional publications (e.g. films, archival material and even newspaper articles) on the family Drosophilidae, covering all aspects of its study. This bibliography includes the complete texts of all of the published Drosophila bibliographies, and information from major external resources, such as MEDLINE, BIOSIS, the Zoological Record and the Environmental Mutagen Information Center (by permission). The bibliography is updated from these and other sources. To ensure consistency there is a satellite file of all `multi-publication' sources, e.g., journals and edited publications, which includes full names, dates and places of publication, volume number ranges, and ISBNs or ISSNs and CODENS. By far the greater part of these data have been checked on the Library of Congress and British Library online catalogs. Bibliographic records are coded as to type (e.g., journal article, abstract, review, thesis, book, film).
FlyBase maintains a collection of offprints of publications on Drosophila, housed in Cambridge, UK. This collection is cross-referenced with the bibliography, and copies of obscure publications can be supplied on request.
Genomic sequence, clone libraries and physical maps. The BDGP is currently sequencing the euchromatic sequence of chromosomes 2 and 3. Partially sequenced clones are submitted weekly to the Phase 1 High Throughput Genomic (HTG) division of GenBank. Finished clones are submitted to the phase 3 division first as unannotated sequences, and in the near future as annotated entries. Finished clones are being analyzed computationally followed by human curation of those computed results. Sequence data on these clones are available on the Berkeley Fly Database (BFD) server; all available sequence data are in the public nucleic acids sequence databanks (GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ).
Libraries of clones serve both as primary sequencing templates and as reagents to the community. At this time, complete reports about these clones can be obtained only from the genome project Web sites, most completely using the Berkeley Fly Database search tools. There, data are available on the BDGP bacteriophage P1/BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome) clones and physical map, the EDGP cosmid/BAC clones and maps, and YAC (yeast artificial chromosomes) clones localized to the genome by in situ hybridization.
Data on STS's, also deposited in the dbSTS section of GenBank, are available on the genome project servers. Sequence tagged sites (STSs) are short sequences that were used to detect clone overlap and thereby, to construct the physical maps. Most come from sequencing of the ends of genomic clones, but others come from the sequence of known genes or regions flanking P element insertions.Expressed sequence tags (EST) and full length cDNAs. The EST section of FlyBase links to data from two different BDGP projects: the large BDGP/HHMI project sequencing the ends of cDNAs from libraries with a high percentage of full-length clones, and a small-scale project analyzing cDNAs derived from membrane-associated polysomes.
The BDGP/HHMI full-length cDNA EST project's goal is to sequence the 5[prime] ends of 80 000 cDNA clones made from high quality Drosophila cDNA libraries. The long-term goal is to generate the full-length sequence of representative clones for each gene and compare them to the genomic sequence to generate a transcript map of the genome. These full-length sequences will be available for querying and are being submitted to GenBank.
The membrane-associated embryonic cDNA clones, which are in general not full length, have been analyzed by whole embryo in situ hybridization. Data from this library can be queried for clones expressed in particular tissues using the FlyBase controlled vocabularies.Insertion lines. In order to correlate genetic and molecular maps of the genome the BDGP is characterizing Drosophila strains containing insertions of two types of P transposable elements. The first are insertions of P elements that have been selected because the insertion results in a readily detected phenotype such as lethality. The second are insertions of elements that allow controlled misexpression of a gene at the site of insertion. Flanking sequence data and phenotypic data, and in some cases expression data, are collected from these lines. The flanking sequence data are compared with both the genomic and EST sequences to precisely map insertion sites and to associate the phenotype produced by an insertion with a particular open reading frame.
The EDGP is sequencing the distal tip of the X chromosome from cosmid and BAC clones. Finished clone sequences are deposited in the EMBL DNA Sequence Data Library, first as unannotated Phase 3 sequences and then as annotated sequences, where genes and other sequence features have been predicted by computation. As soon as sequences are annotated, these are curated by FlyBase for identified genes and the relevant genetic information curated in FlyBase gene records.
FlyBase data are organized into a variety of data classes for ease of access. Query tools that permit field-specific searches, combinatorial queries and menu-driven selection of controlled vocabularies are available. A variety of tools permit graphical or textual querying by map location as well. Organized lists of `hits' to a given query are produced, and single or multiple items from these hit lists can be retrieved. Unless the full report of an item is itself relatively short, a summary (brief) report is first produced and the user is provided with several options for more extensive reports. Very large reports, particularly of some extensively-studied genes, exceed 1 Mb in size and might take some time to download. FlyBase is investigating approaches for breaking up such large reports.
Anatomical information (querying for phenotypes or gene expression patterns) will soon be accessible through graphical interfaces in which anatomical diagrams are used to enable queries of expression patterns or phenotypes by anatomical term. Hierarchical views of these anatomical terms can also be used to support expression pattern queries.
There are three methods available for searching and locating reports on the different BDGP data classes: query formulation, graphical browsing or preformatted tables. Simple queries can be made using a standard html form that allows some qualifications on the query. The Java-based graphical views of the genome enable users to search based on cytological or sequence location. Further, users can dynamically enlarge or reduce the view, and select customized subsets of the data classes to be displayed. The tabular reports provide summaries of information on sequencing status.
Reports on all genomic clones (P1, BAC, cosmid or YAC), STSs, and BDGP P element insertions can be found using the BDGP BFD textual or graphical query tools. These reports also link to information and graphical displays of the physical contigs made up of these clones. When available, the sequences of the genomic clones are presented as well as those of large contiguous regions formed by joining the sequences of individual clones.
The `BFD Map Viewers' item on the BDGP home page links to Java displays which allow interactive browsing of the genome at progressively higher resolution. At any level of viewing, from whole genome to the DNA sequence, users can select an individual graphic entity to retrieve a text report describing that data item. In some cases, these text reports operate through links to the FlyBase report of that entity. ChromoView and ArmView show the physical map at any cytological position in the genome, with physical contigs shaded as to whether sequence information is available. These contigs link to the physical map viewer, CytoView, which diagrams the STS links between genomic clones that make up physical contigs. Clones and STSs link to text reports, and the Clone reports link to the CloneView display of the annotated genomic sequence for that particular clone. For those clones inspected by a human curator, the most relevant results for each predicted and previously known gene identified in the sequence will be summarized and labelled with formal gene names or valid FlyBase symbols.
Users typically identify ESTs they are interested in by sequence similarity to a query sequence, for example by using the FlyBase BLAST server. The results of such a BLAST search will hyperlink to `clot' reports for the positive match, a clot being a group of cDNA clones with similar EST sequences. A Java alignment viewer in the clot report allows one to inspect the alignment of EST sequences in detail. Since the clots are also analyzed for sequence similarities using BLAST, the results of these searches can also be browsed by querying by key word. Finally, the EST Query page also allows one to access details about an individual clone using its clone or accession number.
The EDGP and BDGP jointly maintain BLAST servers for querying Drosophila sequence data. These servers are available from the EDGP and BDGP home WWW pages. EDGP cosmid and BAC clone data are integrated with the BDGP clone data, and can be accessed from the BFD search page.
The independent FlyBase, BDGP and EDGP servers are gradually merging into a single public database. Integrated reports of genome project and community information will be provided. The details of the layouts and formats of these pages, and the textual and graphical querying and browsing tools will be evolving.
FlyBase is built with a relational database management system (Sybase). The present schema has been implemented for most of the data and most files accessed via the FlyBase servers are the products of the Sybase tables.
FlyBase data are maintained by curators working from the literature and filling in standard forms that are parsed into the Sybase tables.
The BDGP public database (the Berkeley Fly Database) utilizes Informix as its database server. This database is directly accessed from the web via CGI scripts to respond to queries and generate reports. The EST portion of the data is still maintained in an earlier Illustra database and is accessed by the same techniques.
The BDGP data are the culmination and synthesis of output from various laboratory information management systems that rely upon a variety of different technologies reflective of each project's history, these include: Flydb (an ACeDB variant), Filemaker, 4D, Illustra, and Informix.
The EDGP production data are maintained in ACeDB. Downloads of these data are sent weekly to the BDGP and the BDGP reciprocates. These weekly exchanges keep the two BLAST servers and ftp sites in synchrony.
The primary FlyBase server has the following addresses:
|flybase.bio.edu (in /flybase)||ftp access|
Mirror sites are available in Europe, Asia, Australia and the USA. The FlyBase Views section indicates available mirrors. While network problems can be unpredictable, in general FlyBase recommends that users connect to a mirror site that provides the most rapid response time.
FlyBase WWW access now provides users with the option of customized report formats and database interconnections.
All sequence data are mirrored at the EDGP site.
Progress, and direct access to sequence data and annotations, are available from http://edgp.ebi.ac.uk/ . All sequence data are mirrored at the BDGP site.
A FlyBase Reference Manual is available from FlyBase servers in html format. A brief introduction, `Getting started with FlyBase', is included as the first section of the Reference Manual. Announcements of major database updates and new tools are made through postings to the bionet.drosophila newsgroup. FlyBase users are encouraged to use this newsgroup to track changes to FlyBase.
Descriptions of the BDGP graphical displays, frequently asked questions about the laboratory projects and methods are available in html format at the BDGP web site. Announcements of database updates and new features are posted on the home page.
Interaction with the user community is vital for the success of FlyBase. We encourage the submission of new data, the correction of errors, and ideas for making this database of even greater use to the community.
Requests for help and questions about FlyBase should be addressed to firstname.lastname@example.org. Reports of errors in FlyBase, or data updates, should be addressed to email@example.com. Mail may be addressed to FlyBase, Biological Laboratories, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. All such mail is automatically sent to all members of the FlyBase collaboration, including the newly incorporated genome projects.
We suggest that FlyBase be referenced as follows: FlyBase (1999). The FlyBase Database of the Drosophila Genome Projects and Community Literature. Available from http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu/ . Nucleic Acids Res., 27, 85-88.
We suggest that the abbreviation FB be used for FlyBase, regardless of the particular FlyBase product.
FlyBase is supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (National Human Genome Research Institute) and the Medical Research Council, London. The Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project is supported by a grant from National Institutes of Health (National Human Genome Research Institute), the Department of Energy to G. M. Rubin. Funding for the BDGP EST project is provided by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. The European Drosophila Genome Project is supported by a contract from the European Union (coordinated by D. M. Glover).
This page is run by Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP, as part of the OUP Journals
Comments and feedback: firstname.lastname@example.org
Last modification: 9 Dec 1998
Copyright© Oxford University Press, 1998.
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Canadian Patent Database. PatentStorm: U.S. Patents. United States Patent and Trademark Office. Library of Free Data Models from DatabaseAnswers.org. Canine Inherited Disorders Database - Introduction. HUNDDATA. The Ins and Outs of Pedigree Analysis, Genetic Diversity, and Ge. As dog breeders, we engage in genetic "experiments" each time we plan a mating.
The type of mating selected should coincide with your goals. To some breeders, determining which traits will appear in the offspring of a mating is like rolling the dice - a combination of luck and chance. For others, producing certain traits involves more skill than luck - the result of careful study and planning. As breeders, we must understand how we manipulate genes within our breeding stock to produce the kinds of dogs we want. We have to first understand dogs as a species, then dogs as genetic individuals. THE CAIRN TERRIER PEDIGREE SEARCH. Dogweb.
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My son did 3rd last year.
Long addition with carrying, long subtraction with borrowing, fractions, adding money, some basic geometry, and intro to multiplication and division. There was also some graph stuff.
Also word problems with higher addition/subtraction/mult/division.
This list is basic. Not all inclusive. You can get a list of what is typically taught in 3rd grade from the common core website.
Last edited by ktmelody; 02-07-2013 at 10:57 AM.
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Land constraints and growing population and urbanization throughout Asia underscore the need for environmentally sound technologies to sustain agricultural growth.
The first agricultural revolution occurred in Asia and involved the domestication of plants and animals. It is believed that vegeculture first developed in Southeast Asia more than eleven thousand years ago. In vegeculture, a part of a plant—other than the seed—is planted for reproduction.
The first plants domesticated in Southeast Asia were taro, yam, banana, and palm. Seed agriculture, now the most common type of agriculture, uses seeds for plant reproduction. It originated in the Middle East about nine thousand years ago, in the basins of the two major rivers of present-day Iraq, the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Wheat and barley were probably the first crops cultivated there. Although many plants were domesticated simultaneously in different parts of the world, rice, oats, millet, sugarcane, cabbage, beans, eggplant, and onions were domesticated originally in Asia.
Asia supports about 60 percent of the global population on only about 23 percent of the world’s agricultural land. As a result, Asian agriculture is far more intensive than on any other continent. Despite the population pressure on arable land, Asia has made remarkable progress in agricultural productivity.
Between 1966 and 1995, wheat production grew 5.5 percent annually, and rice production 2.2 percent. In Asia as a whole, food production has out-paced the growth of population. In most Asian countries, particularly in the low-income countries of South Asia, per-capita food availability has risen.
Most people in Asia are farmers, owning an average of about 2.5 acres (1 hectare) of land per family. Topographic and climatic conditions, to a large extent, determine farm size. Agricultural potential is limited in Nepal, for example, because of the Himalaya Mountains, and in Saudi Arabia because of the Arabian Desert. In these countries, average farm size is larger relative to countries like Bangladesh, which contains a vast, fertile floodplain and receives abundant rainfall.
Another feature of Asian agrarian structure is the inequitable distribution of farmland. For example, in India more than 25 percent of cultivated land is owned by less than 5 percent of farming families.
Farm holdings in most Asian countries are highly fragmented, and tenancy is widespread. Fragmentation of farms inhibits agricultural mechanization, and land consolidation efforts have had limited success in most Asian countries.
Most Asian farmers are subsistence farmers, cultivating crops for family consumption. Almost all farm operations are done manually or with the help of draft animals. Exceptions are found in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, where small-scale equipment similar to garden tractors is widely used.
Only recently have Asian farmers started to use chemical fertilizer; for water, they largely depend on rain. As a result, yields are low, which compels farmers to cultivate the land intensively. Double-cropping is the norm; some farmers grow three crops a year.
Therefore, only a small fraction of the arable land in humid regions of Asia remains fallow. Farming is labor-intensive, and the extended family is the main source of labor. This helps to explain why family size is generally large in agrarian countries of Asia.
Rice and Wheat
The coastal areas and inland river valleys of East, Southeast, and South Asia are the agricultural cores of the continent. More than half of the crop area of these regions is used to cultivate food crops such as rice and wheat. Rice is the principal food crop of all Asian countries located east and north of India and for the people of southern and eastern India.
Rice is the staple food of more than half of the world’s population, and 90 percent of it is grown in coastal and deltaic plains and in the river valleys of Monsoon Asia. This region encompasses a broad geographic area characterized by a distinctive climate, stretching from Japan in the east, through Indonesia in the south, and west to Pakistan. Rice farming there is practiced mostly at the subsistence level, using traditional methods.
Wheat is the primary food crop of northern and western India and all Asian countries located west of India. People of the wheat-producing region consume rice as a secondary staple. Eighteen of the twenty-five top rice-producing countries of the world are in Asia. India has the largest area devoted to rice cultivation of the world’s countries, but China is first in total production. Indonesia and Bangladesh rank third and fourth in world rice production.
With the exceptions of Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan, yields of all crops—particularly rice and wheat—are low in Asia compared to world standards. Although crop yields increased significantly after 1970, typical yields in Asia remained low for several reasons: Fertilizer use and the area under irrigation are among the lowest in the world.
Also, most Asian farmers practice traditional farming methods, where high yields are a typical. Another major obstacle to increasing crop yields is the preponderance of small farms. Because small farms do not have access to assured irrigation and cannot afford modern agricultural inputs, their average yield is generally much lower than that of medium and large farms.
In the tropical rain forests of Southeast Asia, the mountainous and hilly parts of South Asia, and in southern China, a type of primitive agriculture known as shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn agriculture is practiced. Shifting cultivators plant different crops, such as rice, corn, millet, yams, sugarcane, oilseeds, potatoes, taro, vegetables, and cotton, on one site.
These farmers must abandon their fields and establish new ones every few years. As a result, a large area of land is required to support a small population. The land devoted to shifting cultivation is declining at a rapid rate worldwide because of the demand for forest resources for other uses.
Farmers in the colder, drier parts ofAsia (northeastern China, northern Japan, southeastern East Asia, northeastern Southeast Asia, and the western half of South Asia) and the river valleys of the Middle East practice a system of intensive subsistence agriculture called peasant grain-and-livestock farming, or dry agriculture. The dominant grain crops are wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oats, and corn, while cotton, tobacco, and sugarcane are grown as cash crops.
In arid areas, such as the Middle Eastern river valleys, irrigation helps support dry farming. Traditional water-lifting devices, such as the shaduf (a counterweighted, lever-mounted bucket), and the naria (waterwheel), permit limited double-cropping in the dry season near the rivers of the Middle East.
In the arid and semiarid parts of South Asia and the Middle East, and in the dry and cold western two-thirds of East Asia, nomadic herders graze cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. Nomadic herders move from place to place with their livestock in search of forage. As in other places, nomadic herding is declining in Asia.
A distinctive type of subsistence agriculture, called Mediterranean agriculture, is practiced along the Mediterranean coast of the Middle East and in the northern part of Turkey that borders the Black Sea. Traditional Mediterranean agriculture is based on wheat and barley cultivation in the rainy winter season. Farmers of this region also cultivate vine and tree crops, such as grapes, olives, and figs, and raise small livestock.
Plantation crops such as tea, rubber, coconuts, and coffee are grown in Asia. Tea is indigenous to China, which is the world’s largest producer, followed by India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Tea is Sri Lanka’s largest export crop, accounting for about one-third of annual exports by value.
Tea is grown in the central highlands of Sri Lanka and in the hilly regions of northeastern India and Bangladesh. Rubber is grown in Malaysia and Indonesia—which account for about 75 percent of total world production—and Cambodia, India, and Sri Lanka. Malaysia, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka are world-leading exporters of coconuts and coconut products.
A dramatic growth in food production in Asia began with the Green Revolution in the late 1960’s, particularly for wheat and rice. Cultivation of the new varieties of rice and wheat caused an impressive increase in the use of fertilizer and the expansion of irrigation, particularly the exploitation of groundwater through tube wells. With proper and timely application of fertilizers and water, yields of wheat can be tripled, and yields of rice can be doubled.
Critics of the Green Revolution have concentrated on the negative impacts of increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which causes surface water pollution.With high-yield seeds, three crops a year can be cultivated.
Adopting this practice has two consequences: It causes overuse of land, a major source of soil degradation, and it leads to increasing monocultures of rice and wheat, reducing the genetic diversity of food crops.
Without the Green Revolution, feeding current Asian populations at prevailing nutritional standards would have been impossible. New agricultural practices enabled Asia to avoid the famine that was widely predicted in the 1970’s. The new rice and wheat varieties also have stimulated agricultural employment, because more people are needed to cultivate, harvest, and handle the increased production.
Throughout Asia, agricultural growth and the increase in food production were somewhat slower in the 1990’s than in the 1980’s. The opportunity for bringing more land under cultivation has largely been exhausted. Therefore, any increase in crop outputwill have to come largely from an increase in yields.
Rice and wheat yields are still relatively low in many Asian countries, primarily because of low use of modern agricultural inputs. For example, the use of chemical fertilizer in South Asian countries has not reached the levels of neighboring regions.
Demand for fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, milk, and eggs is likely to grow with the increased urbanization and industrialization of Asia. This will reduce the demand for cereal crops. In Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, consumption of rice has already begun to decline. Increased crop production is required to feed the growing populations of most Asian countries.
While increasing agricultural production, Asian policy makers must also promote environmentally sound technologies and implement effective land reforms to address the problems of inequality and poverty caused by landlessness. Better crop management and better management of irrigation water are also needed to sustain agricultural growth in Asian countries.
Forests of significant economic importance are found primarily in northeastern East Asia and Southeast Asia. The softwood forests of northeastern East Asia cover most of Japan and parts of North Korea. Trees grown there are used for construction lumber and to produce pulp for paper. Tropical hardwood forests cover all Southeast Asian countries and the south central part of China, several places in India, and the northern part of Iran.
Trees grown in those forests are used primarily for fuel wood and charcoal, although an increasing quantity of special-quality woods are cut for export as lumber. Nearly 80 percent of the world’s hardwood log exports in the early 1990’s came from Malaysia. Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Myanmar export large quantities of forestry products.
Overexploitation of hardwoods and conversion of forest lands for other uses have become serious concerns. Rates of forest conversion are most rapid in continental Southeast Asia, averaging about 1.5 percent a year. Deforestation has important local, regional, and global consequences, ranging from increased soil and land degradation to greater food insecurity, escalating carbon emissions, and loss of biodiversity.
Small-scale, poor farmers clearing land for agriculture to meet food needs and the gathering of wood to be used for cooking account for roughly two-thirds of the deforestation in Southeast Asia. Commercial logging and urban expansion account for most of the remaining deforestation.
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“I’m a microbiologist masquerading as an artist. Or am I an artist masquerading as a microbiologist?” says Zachary Copfer on his personal Web site, Science to the Power of Art. “I can’t seem to remember anymore.”
His confusion over how to describe himself is understandable. Copfer is an artist in a lab coat.
Copfer graduated from Northern Kentucky University with a bachelor’s degree in biological sciences and secondary education in 2006. He then worked as a microbiologist for Proctor & Gamble and Teva Pharmaceuticals for five years. However, he quickly learned that the commercial lab setting wasn’t the best fit for him. ”I began to lose sight of all that I had found romantic about science,” says Copfer, on his site.
Copfer instead channeled his creative energies into art, pursuing a masters in fine art in photography at the University of Cincinnati. “Photography developed into my new method of inquiry. Everything that I had missed about science I rediscovered in photography,” he adds. He completed his coursework in June.
Already, Copfer’s experimentations have led to the creation of a medium he calls “bacteriography.” Essentially, the microbiologist-turned-artist borrows techniques from traditional darkroom photography to develop recognizable images in growing colonies of—yes, you got it—bacteria.
Copfer has created a series of “bacteria portraits” of famous artists and scientists, including Leonardo da Vinci, Pablo Picasso, Charles Darwin and Albert Einstein. For each one, he covered a large petri dish, measuring 9.5 by 9.5 inches, in Serratia marcescens, a bacteria responsible for some hospital-acquired infections. “I use it because it is red and it pops and it gives you that great color,” Copfer told Cincinnati Public Radio.
Then, the artist placed a photograph in the dish. For instance, in one, he laid the famous photograph of Einstein sticking his tongue out, captured by UPI photographer Arthur Sasse on the scientist’s 72nd birthday. Instead of exposing the setup to ultraviolet light, as you would when developing a photograph in a darkroom, Copfer exposed it to radiation. The image cast a shadow on the bacteria. In that shadow, the bacteria grew, but in areas where the radiation passed through, they did not. Once those colonies of bacteria grew to his liking, and the piece was finished, so to speak, Copfer irradiated the portrait, killing the bacteria. Finally, he sealed the portrait with a layer of acrylic, so that it could be safely displayed.
The resulting portraits are bold, pop art-like reproductions of the original photographs. Comprised of red dots—each a tiny colony of bacteria—the images call to mind Roy Lichtenstein‘s comic-strip style of portraiture.
In the titles of his works, Copfer refers to artists da Vinci and Picasso as “scientists” and scientists Darwin and Einstein as “artists.” He believes that for many others, like himself, the titles are interchangeable.
“For me, the two seemingly disparate fields of study serve the same purpose, a way to explore my connection to everything else around me,” he says, on his site.
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© Intermountain Herbarium, http://herbarium.usu.edu/
Psorothamnus fremontii (Torr. ex Gray) Barneby
Scientific Name Synonyms:
Dalea fremontii Torr. ex Gray
Life Span: Perennial
Growth Characteristics: A finely branched, small shrub, growing 1 to 4 feet tall.
Flowers/Inflorescence: Inflorescence is a raceme about 5 inches in length. Intense, violet-blue flowers.
Fruits/Seeds: Fruit is a legume.
Leaves: Leaves numerous, fine textured, and hairy, gray-green in color with very pale, inconspicuous glands.
Stems: Branch tips are spiny. Bark is gray-green to white.
Indigo bush grows on dry hills and in valleys, from elevations of 2000 to 4000 feet.
Associated Species: Burrobrush, galleta grass, sand sagebrush, blackbrush.
Uses and Management:
Indigo bush has poor forage value for livestock and wildlife. It is suspected of being poisonous.
The principal value of this plant is the aesthetic value of its attractively colored vivid purple flowers. Native Americans used it as a dye.
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In computer science, a nominal or nominative type system (or name-based type system) is a major class of type system, in which compatibility and equivalence of data types is determined by explicit declarations and/or the name of the types. Nominal systems are used to determine if types are equivalent, as well as if a type is a subtype of another. It contrasts with structural systems, where comparisons are based on the structure of the types in question and do not require explicit declarations.
Nominal typing means that two variables are type-compatible if and only if their declarations name the same type. For example, in C++, two
struct types with different names are never considered compatible, even if they have identical field declarations.
However, C++ also allows a
typedef declaration, which introduces an alias for an existing type. These are merely syntactical and do not differentiate the type from its alias for the purpose of type checking. This feature, present in many languages, can result in a loss of type safety when (for example) the same primitive integer type is used in two semantically distinct ways. Haskell provides the C-style syntactic alias in the form of the
type declaration, as well as the
newtype declaration that does introduce a new, distinct type, isomorphic to an existing type.
In a similar fashion, nominal subtyping means that one type is a subtype of another if and only if it is explicitly declared to be so in its definition. Nominally-typed languages typically enforce the requirement that declared subtypes be structurally compatible (though Eiffel allows non-compatible subtypes to be declared). However, subtypes which are structurally compatible "by accident", but not declared as subtypes, are not considered to be subtypes.
Some nominally-subtyped languages, such as Java and C#, allow classes to be declared final (or sealed in C# terminology), indicating that no further subtyping is permitted.
Nominal typing is useful at preventing accidental type equivalence, which allows better type-safety than structural typing. The cost is a reduced flexibility, as, for example, nominal typing does not allow new super-types to be created without modification of the existing subtypes.
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Megan Saynisch is a freelance writer, cook, gardener and the creator of Brooklynfarmhouse.com.
This past weekend, I worked in my community garden in Brooklyn to clean up some of the damage caused by Hurricane Sandy and to prepare the growing beds for the coming winter. In a small, overlooked area of the garden, giant sunflowers had grown, some at least nine feet tall, with dark green foliage topped by clusters of sunny yellow flowers that drew bees by the dozen. As summer gave way to fall, the flowers had dropped off and the leaves started to brown; most of the plants were bent over in two from the winds of the storm.
Volunteers helped cut the plants down, and then another gardener started digging underneath the stalks. The sunflowers that had never failed to cheer me up in the summer had produced another gift — a pile of (aptly) named sunchokes. The little knobby nuggets flummoxed most of the gardeners who gathered around – most of them had never eaten a sunchoke and were unsure of what to do with them. I assured them that sunchokes are a versatile veggie, as delicious raw as as they are cooked.
Sunchokes, the vegetable formerly known as "Jerusalem artichokes," are the tuberous roots of a native North American plant in the sunflower family — neither from Jerusalem nor related to artichokes — originally cultivated by Native Americans. The Oxford Companion to Food says that the plant was noted in writing as early as 1603, when Samuel de Champlain (the same guy Lake Champlain is named after) described the root as tasting “like an artichoke,” ostensibly starting the naming confusion that has plagued the vegetable since its European debut.
Things get even weirder, etymologically speaking, because in much of Europe, the vegetable is known as topinambour (or some variation), a corruption of the name of an indigenous Brazilian tribe that was on "tour" (I won’t even comment on that one) in France at the same time the sunchoke was introduced (in 1613). "Jerusalem" is thought to either be a corruption of girasole — Italian for sunflower — or "Terneuzen", a Dutch town from where the root was first brought to England. These linguistic misunderstandings led marketers to rename the vegetable to the (sort-of) more pleasing "sunchoke" in the 1960s. (Though I question the marketing prowess of anyone naming a foodstuff with the word “choke” in it. I'm just saying.)
• Sunchokes enjoyed much popularity in Europe after their introduction, until they started developing a reputation for causing excessive amounts of flatulence.
• This actually has some basis in reality, as sunchokes contain a great deal of inulin, which does cause gas and bloating when eaten in excess.
• Sunchokes are adapted to colder climates, and taste better when harvested after the first frost.
• The bulk of sunchokes grown in Germany go toward the production of a liqueur called Topinambur, made from sunchokes and a mix of herbs.
• Sunchoke plants are considered weeds in some part of the country and can be quite invasive if left unchecked.
Although sunchokes are native to the US, they are not commonly cultivated here for food; the vegetable enjoys much more popularity in France and other European countries. Sunchokes don’t even rank on the Environmental Working Group’s Shopper’s Guide to Pesticides in Produce (*check out our vegetable rule of thumb.) However, the roots are used for the industrial production of inulin, employed more and more frequently in processed foods as a source of dietary fiber and as a substitute for sugar and other fillers. It’s unclear from my research whether sunchokes are monocropped in the US, or if other industrial agricultural practices (like heavy fertilizer and pesticide use) are used, but I think it is safe to say that if you're purchasing sunchokes from a local farmer that the plant’s environmental impact is fairly low.
Sunchokes are also touted as a possibility for ethanol production, for which the root has a long and rather sordid history: in the early 1980s, there was a pyramid scheme that involved selling sunchoke planting stock for ethanol production, even though no actual market for the plant existed. Many farmers went bankrupt, and the scam’s perpetrators ended up in prison. (If this scandal piques your interest, there is a whole book about it.)
In the US, sunchokes are in season from late fall through early spring.
Sunchokes are a great source of iron, potassium and thiamin. They are also low in calories and high in fiber. Inulin, the primary carbohydrate in sunchokes, minimally affects blood sugar and is touted as a diabetic-friendly carb.
A couple of different cultivars of sunchokes are readily available in the US. Some varieties have more knobbly bits, while others are smoother. Some varieties are elongated like fingerling potatoes. The veggie’s skin is usually light brown to creamy in color, but may also be pink or reddish, and the interior may be white, cream-colored, tan or even purple. When choosing sunchokes, select examples that are firm to the touch with no black spots or blemishes — the older the sunchoke, the sponger they get. Spongy is not a yummy sunchoke quality.
Sunchokes will keep in the produce drawer of the refrigerator for 2-3 weeks, though I swear I've kept them for even longer.
The sweet-nutty-crunchy qualities of sunchokes can be put to good use in an amazing number of ways. My favorite way to eat them is raw — shaved thinly as in this salad, with a drizzle of olive oil and a blanket of Parmigiano-Reggiano. (But that’s a little too easy — what vegetable doesn’t taste good like that?) When I prepare sunchokes raw, I usually leave the skin on, but for cooked preparations you may consider removing the skin with a swivel-blade peeler or paring knife (the skin tends to toughen when cooked). Raw sunchokes also make nice toss-ins to salads, and are crunchy enough to be made into slaw. They can be sliced and roasted like potatoes, sautéed or made into a delicious gratin. The French are famous for a creamy sunchoke soup, but the tuber is also good simply pureed (peel first) and mixed with cream and butter, like mashed potatoes.
Sunchokes oxidize when exposed to air, just like apples or potatoes. To prevent this, toss with lemon juice before cooking. There are a bunch of other fascinating tips for preparing sunchokes here — one of my favorites is a pointer about preventing sunchokes from turning gray when pureed or made into soup (their high iron content causes this to happen): add a pinch of cream of tartar or an acidic liquid (like lemon juice) to the sunchoke cooking water.
This recipe is so simple I hesitate to even call it a recipe — but either way, the idea is Marcella Hazan’s, from her awesome book, Essentials of Classic Italian Cooking. These sunchoke chips are especially good as a garnish or side for scallops or fish, but are delicious alongside any protein.
What You'll Need
1 lb. sunchokes, peeled and sliced very thinly (use a mandoline if you have one, but a very sharp knife will do)
Vegetable oil, for frying
1. Wash the sunchoke slices in several changes of cold water. Pat thoroughly dry.
2. In a large skillet, pour enough of the vegetable oil so that it comes about 1/4 inch up the sides of the pan. Turn the heat to high. When the oil is hot (but not smoking), gently add the sunchoke slices. Don’t crowd the pan. (You'll have to do this in batches.)
3. When they brown on one side, turn them over and fry on the other side.
4. Transfer with a slotted spoon to a large plate or platter lined with paper towels. Sprinkle with salt.
5. Repeat with the remaining sunchoke slices. Serve hot.
Makes 4 servings.
Sunchokes can be pickled — this recipe with tumeric and mustard seeds looks especially delicious. They can be frozen, too, but note that freezing sunchokes causes them to become mushy and may cause them to discolor, as well. To freeze: slice sunchokes or cut into chunks, blanch for 2-3 minutes in boiling water, plunge into an ice bath, then freeze on cookie sheets. Once frozen, transfer to plastic bags and freeze.
(*Vegetable rule of thumb: We think that first and foremost, in terms of nutrition, people should eat lots of fruits and vegetables whether they are organic or not. The EWG’s guide is a handy list, but we will point out here that the impacts of pesticides are not limited to your ingestion of them — agricultural chemicals also affect farmworkers and local waterways, both good reasons to buy organic, even those vegetables that carry a light pesticide load. Also, it has been demonstrated that produce grown by small-scale farmers, even those who are not certified organic, tends to have a lighter pesticide load than its industrially-produced counterpart, owing to industry’s tendency toward large monocrops.)
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Occurrence and Distribution of Enteric Viruses in Shallow Groundwater and Factors Affecting Well Vulnerability to Microbiological Contamination in Worcester and Wicomico Counties, Maryland
By William S.L. Banks, Cheryl A. Klohe, and David A. Battigelli
The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Maryland Department of the Environment and the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, conducted a study to characterize the occurrence and distribution of viral contamination in small (withdrawing less than 10,000 gallons per day) public water-supply wells screened in the shallow aquifer in the Piedmont Physiographic Province in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland. Two hundred sixty-three small public water-supply wells were in operation in these counties during the spring of 2000. Ninety-one of these sites were selected for sampling using a methodology that distributed the samples evenly over the population and the spatial extent of the study area. Each site, and its potential susceptibility to microbiological contamination, was evaluated with regard to hole depth, casing interval, and open interval. Each site was evaluated using characteristics such as on-site geology and on-site land use.
Samples were collected by pumping between 200 and 400 gallons of untreated well water through an electropositive cartridge filter. Water concentrates were subjected to cell-culture assay for the detection of culturable viruses and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction/gene probe assays to detect viral ribonucleic acid; grab samples were analyzed for somatic and male-specific coliphages, Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium perfringens, enterococci, Escherichia coli, total coliforms, total oxidized nitrogen, nitrite, organic nitrogen, total phosphate, ortho-phosphate, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potas-sium, chloride, sulfate, iron, acid-neutralizing capacity, pH, specific conductance, temperature, and dissolved oxygen.
One sample tested positive for the presence of the ribonucleic acid of rotavirus through poly-merase chain-reaction analysis. Twenty-nine per-cent of the samples (26 of 90) had bacterial con-tamination. About 7 percent of the samples (6 of 90) were contaminated with either male-specific coliphage, somatic coliphage, or bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis. About 3 percent of the sam-ples (3 of 87) had oxidized nitrogen concentra-tions that exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Maximum Contaminant Level of 10.0 milligrams per liter. A statistical analysis showed that no significant relation exists between the presence of bacteria or coliphage and all variables, except the mean temperature of the water sample as measured in the field. Additionally, the concentration of total coliform bacteria had a statistically significant, moderately strong cor-relation with the concentration of sulfate and sample pH as measured at the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Laboratory in Denver, Colorado.
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A Brief History of Allegheny College
Allegheny College was founded in 1815 by Timothy Alden, a Harvard graduate, who served as the first President of the College. One of Allegheny’s early achievements was the Act of 1870, which allowed women to attend Allegheny College. Initially, many students were opposed; yet five years later they became speechless during commencement when they realized that most of the first and second honors went to women.
Allegheny was built on the principles that its faculty and students must be free to travel the path toward knowledge wherever it leads and also have diversity in knowledge, thus enshrining the liberal arts tradition. Now, with President James H. Mullen at the helm, Alleghenians are confident that the College will equip young people with the knowledge to meet the challenges they will face in life.
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Parker Hannifin engineers state that they are seeing heavy interest in hydraulic valve technology from the marine industry (including those people who make those several-hundred-foot-long yachts) in applications as wide-ranging as bow thrusters and tugboat control to sail and winch control. The reason? Recent advancements in proportional valve technology, allowing for quicker and more accurate holding of an actuator's position. "At one point, the marine industry thought that electric motors would be the panacea that would solve all of their problems from reducing cost to lowering power consumption, and obviously eliminating the issue of hydraulic leaks," says Michael Gudhe, industrial product manager for the company's Hydraulic Valve Division. "Now they're rethinking hydraulics and recognizing the benefits they bring to the table," he says. Or perhaps he should say deck.
One way to keep a Formula One racing team moving at breakneck speed in the pit and at the test facility is to bring CAD drawings of the racing vehicleís parts down to the test facility and even out to the track.
Most of us would just as soon step on a cockroach rather than study it, but thatís just what researchers at UC Berkeley did in the pursuit of building small, nimble robots suitable for disaster-recovery and search-and-rescue missions.
Design engineers need to prepare for a future in which their electronic products will use not just one or two, but possibly many user interfaces that involve touch, vision, gestures, and even eye movements.
Focus on Fundamentals consists of 45-minute on-line classes that cover a host of technologies.
You learn without leaving the comfort of your desk. All classes are taught by subject-matter experts and all are archived.
So if you can't attend live, attend at your convenience.
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Straight Talk with Sam by Congressman Sam Graves
Thomas Jefferson is best remembered as the man who wrote the Declaration of Independence. He also served as third President of the United States, the second Vice President of the United States, the first Secretary of State and the Governor of Virginia. He knew a thing or two about how government works.
Jefferson said, "that government is best which governs the least."
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expert advice MORE
Potty Train a 1-1/2-Year-Old?
Q: My husband and I have a son who is one and a half years old. When is a good time to start potty training for him?
A: Parents often want to train as early as possible. Sometimes it can be difficult for families because specific child care arrangements are affected if a child is not fully trained. Although younger may be more convenient, I frequently recommend some patience because "Mother Nature" does need to be included in this decision process. I recommend waiting until your child is showing some signs of readiness for toilet training. This most often happens between the ages of one and three years.
Kids may show signs of understanding the words used with toileting, understanding how to use the potty and even wanting to sit on it, asking to be changed frequently, and trying to hold it some. They may have dry diapers for longer periods and may go off on their own behind the furniture for privacy. There are books that you can read to them and they may even want to push the issue. When they ask to be changed, don't necessarily drop everything -- tell them you'll do it as soon as you can. The sensation of a dirty or wet diaper can reinforce independent toileting.
Most importantly, be patient! Children should understand that it's natural -- everyone does it. Adults or older siblings can model positive behavior. Toileting should always be a pleasant experience. Be sure to encourage and praise them repeatedly, give them rewards for success and never punish or reprimand. Let them believe they are in control, and the toileting will happen sooner rather than later.
More on: Expert Advice
Henry Bernstein, M.D., is currently the associate chief of the Division of General Pediatrics and director of Primary Care at Children's Hospital, Boston. He also has an academic appointment at Harvard Medical School.
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| 0.971876
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Few experiences are as rich as getting lost in a character while reading a great novel. But be careful: Losing yourself could cause you to actually lose a bit of yourself. A new study finds that such “experience taking” can result in actually changing your thoughts and behavior to match those of the character, albeit perhaps only temporarily.
While it may sound a little creepy, the findings could be put to beneficial uses.
In one experiment, the researchers found that people who strongly identified with a fictional character who overcame obstacles to vote were significantly more likely to vote in a real election several days later.
“Experience-taking can be a powerful way to change our behavior and thoughts in meaningful and beneficial ways,” said Lisa Libby, co-author of the study and assistant professor of psychology at Ohio State University.
There are many ways experience-taking can affect readers.
In another experiment, people who went through this experience-taking process while reading about a character who was revealed to be of a different race or sexual orientation showed more favorable attitudes toward the other group and were less likely to stereotype.
“Experience-taking changes us by allowing us to merge our own lives with those of the characters we read about, which can lead to good outcomes,” said Geoff Kaufman, who led the study as a graduate student at Ohio State and is now at Dartmouth College.
Their findings are detailed online in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology and will be published in a future print edition.
Experience-taking doesn’t always happen. A person has to able to forget about themselves and their own self-concept and self-identity while reading, Kaufman explained. In another experiment, for example, the researchers found that most college students were unable to undergo experience-taking if they were reading in a cubicle with a mirror.
“The more you’re reminded of your own personal identity, the less likely you’ll be able to take on a character’s identity,” Kaufman said.
The study was funded by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship to Kaufman.
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By the President of the United States of America
"The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort and convenience, but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy." On the 63rd anniversary of the birth of the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., we honor an American who took a brave stand for justice and equality, even though his message of racial harmony met with stubborn, sometimes brutal, opposition.
Martin Luther King told us that, in spite of the cruel reality of segregation in the United States, "I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed . . . ." He believed that for this creed to be truly fulfilled, his children would "one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character."
Throughout his years as leader of the civil rights movement, Dr. King adhered to an ethic of nonviolence. Time and again, he urged his listeners: "Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. We must forever conduct ourselves on the high plane of dignity and discipline." King knew that it would take great patience, courage, and fortitude to wage a peaceful struggle in the face of sometime bitter resistance, but he also knew that acting in the spirit of nonviolence could make virtue out of suffering. "The nonviolent approach . . . first does something to the hearts and souls of those committed to it," he explained. "It gives them new self-respect; it calls up resources of strength and courage that they did not know they had." Dr. King urged his listeners to rely on the force of moral truth.
Recognizing the redemptive power of love and sacrifice, King labored to lead the civil rights movement in a manner consistent with its noble goals. "You can't reach good ends through evil means," he explained, "because the means represent the seed and the end represents the tree." Dr. King aspired not only to change laws but also to plant in the hearts and minds of the American people a new sense of brotherhood.
King's approach was more than a rejection of bitterness and violence; it was a resounding affirmation of the dignity and potential of each individual. Sharing the faith that had been nurtured in him from youth, he declared that the key to "peace on earth and good will toward men is the . . . affirmation of the sacredness of all human life. Every man is somebody because he is a child of God." That message is worth repeating today.
During the past few decades, our Nation has made tremendous strides toward ensuring equal opportunity for all. The Civil Rights Act of 1957, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 marked only the beginning of many important advances for minority men and women -- advances that continue to this day. However, while we have overcome the painful legacy of legal segregation in this country, we know that many challenges remain. At a time when too many lives are being claimed by violence in our cities, by drug abuse, or by unfulfilled potential; at a time when too many young Americans lack confidence in themselves and in the future, we do well to reflect, once again, on Martin Luther King's timeless message -- a message that underscores the importance of faith, family self-respect, and respect for others.
In his last public speech, given the night before he fell victim to the violence he so fervently opposed, Martin Luther King enjoined his listeners, "let us move on in these powerful days, these days of challenge, to make America a better nation . . . ." Recalling those words and his dream for America, let us make this occasion a time of renewed commitment to our familes and to our fellowman.
By Public Law 98-144, the third Monday in January of each year has been designated as a legal public holiday.
Now, Therefore, I, George Bush, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and laws of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim Monday, January 20, 1992, as the Martin Luther King, Jr., Federal Holiday.
In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand this seventeenth day of January, in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and ninety-two, and the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and sixteenth.
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Language of the Visual Arts
Tuesday and Thursday, 8:30-9:45, FA 166.
Web page: http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/ARTH200/ARTH200_Syllabus.html
Dr. Allen Farber, Associate
303 Fine Arts Center (436- 2558); E-Mail: FARBERAS@oneonta.edu
Office Hours: Tuesday and Thursday 10:00-11:00 and Wednesday, 1:00-3:00, or by appointment. Notes can be left in my mailbox in 222 FAC, or messages can be left through Voice-Mail at 436-2558. I would also encourage you to communicate with me over E-Mail.
General Education Outcome for AA2: Students will demonstrate: Understanding of at least one principal form of artistic expression and thecreative process inherent therein.
ARTH 200 The Language of the Visual Arts 3 s.h.
An introductory course designed to familiarize the viewer of art with the means to understand it. Examines philosophy, concepts, vocabulary, and processes of art though lectures, readings, slides, and exhibitions.
Prerequisite: SoS [is advisable.]
Purposes of the Course:
The visual arts (painting, sculpture, architecture, etc.) represent one of the principal vehicles of human communication. Just like the verbal language we use in ordinary speech, the visual language of art is used to articulate experiences of the world. Through the study of works of art we become aware of the variety of ways humans have conceived of themselves and their relationship to the surrounding world. We learn how individual works of art are formed by and form the values and attitudes that define a particular culture. As a consequence of this study, we become aware of how our own conceptions of the world are not absolutes but are articulated and constructed by our own cultural experience. It can be argued that art represents one of the ways the world is created.
This course is not a survey of art history. We will not be bound to a chronological sequence of works. This will allow us to compare and contrast examples from a wide variety of periods. Each semester I focus the course around a major theme or group of themes. This semester I have decided to focus the course around the idea of the artist and the social production of the work of art.
Caveat Emptor: Be aware that the points of view that I will be expressing in this course will be informed by Post-Modern critical theory, especially Feminist theory. I find these theories to be extremely useful for critically examining our social, cultural, political, artistic assumptions. By exploring how gender is represented in art, for example, we see how our attitudes (and our selves) are constructed within (and construct) our social context. I ask you to be willing to be open minded and to critically examine your basic assumptions. If you are not willing to do this, we will not be able to communicate across our differences, and I would encourage you to drop this course.
I hope that you will leave this course not only as a more informed and thoughtful observer of art, but also as a more critically informed human who can make intelligent decisions.
I understand my objective in this course to be very different from the other courses that I teach. When I teach my introductory or advanced surveys, I consider that it is my responsibility to present a given body of material. In this course, I consider it my purpose is to get you to become critically engaged in the study of art and your world..
Format of the Course:
This is not a lecture course. I plan to conduct this course as much as possible as a discussion group. Since a primary objective of the course is to help you to become a critical observer of art, it is important that you are actively engaged in the formulating of points of view throughout the course. The success of this course will depend largely on the quality and vitality of class discussion.
The World Wide Web presents us with a phenomenal resource in the studying of art. I intend to exploit this resource. Many of your reading assignments will be over the Web. I hope to have electronic versions of the course materials available. This will provide you texts and images that you should review in preparation for classes. I will maintain a page entitled "ARTH 200 Assignments" that will list and link to electronic versions of course materials. If you should miss a class, check this page to keep you up to date. The URL for "ARTH 200 Assignments" is:
There will be no formal textbook for this class, but you will find that there are extensive reading assignments on the Web. Be aware that many of these texts were written for a scholarly audience and not for introductory students. I expect you to be challenged by these readings, but if you put in the effort, you should get a lot out of them.
You will be evaluated on the quality of your class participation and on your performance on a series of written assignments. As part of your class participation, you will be expected to keep a journal of your work in this class. I expect you to keep in your journal notes on the reading assignments. As a way of initiating class discussion, I will frequently ask you a question, or seek your opinion about some issue, or ask for your responses to a text or work of art. Your responses should be recorded in your journal, and you should be willing to share your responses with other members of the class. Printouts of the material from the web are not journal entries. For each webpage that is linked to from the Assignments page I expect some critical response. I want to be able to use these questions as the jumping off points for class discussions. Remember that knowledge does not begin with answering questions but with asking questions. Learning to ask thoughtful questions is critical to academic success.
I prefer that you keep your journal in a one-subject, 8 1/2 X 11" spiral notebook. This journal will provide the foundation for your papers because this is where your ideas will begin to form and develop. Since the journal is intended to help you prepare to participate in class discussions, it is important that write your responses in your journals before the class in which the specific web page material is discussed.
Periodically the entry on the "ARTH 200 Assignments" will ask you to e-mail me your reponses to Journal assignments. These responses will be used as a basis for class discussion. You will be expected to e-mail your entries to me no later than 9:00 PM the night before the class. This will give me the time to review responses before class. I will keep a record of who has responded to these assignments, and this will be a factor in your final grade.
I strongly believe that good thinking and good writing go hand in hand. Therefore, you will be assigned three or four written assignments over the course of the semester. The papers will be of a variety of lengths. Note that I only accept paper copies of your papers. Please make sure that your papers are paper clipped or stapled when you submit them.
You are responsible for compiling a portfolio of your written work in the course. You will submit this portfolio to me at the end of the semester along with your journal.
Class participation and
journal - 50%
Paper Portfolio- 50%
I have very intentionally not included in this syllabus a schedule of classes. This is because I would like the dialogue between us to determine the sequence of topics and texts we explore.
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
In historical scholarship, a primary source is a document, or other source of information that was created at or near the time being studied, by an authoritative source, usually one with direct personal knowledge of the events being described. In this sense primary does not mean superior. It refers to creation by the primary players, and is distinguished from a secondary source, which in historical scholarship is a work, such as a scholarly book or article, built up from primary sources.
Types of primary sourcesEdit
The nature of a primary source depends on the historical problem being studied. In political history, the most important primary sources are likely to be documents such as official reports, speeches, pamphlets, posters, or letters by participants, official election returns, and eyewitness accounts (as by a journalist who was there). In the history of ideas or intellectual history, the dominant primary sources are books, essays and letters written by intellectuals. A study of cultural history could include fictional sources such as novels or plays. In a broader sense primary sources also include physical objects like photographs, newsreels, coins, paintings or buildings created at the time. Historians may also take archaeological artifacts and oral reports and interviews into consideration. Written sources may be divided into three main types.
- Narrative sources or literary sources tell a story or message. They are not limited to fictional sources (which can be sources of information for contemporary attitudes), but include diaries, films, biographies, scientific works, and so on.
- Diplomatic sources include charters and other legal documents which usually follow a set format.
- Social documents are records created by organizations, such as registers of births, tax records, and so on.
In the study of historiography, when the study of history is itself subject to historical scrutiny, a secondary source becomes a primary source. For a biography of a historian, that historian's publications would be primary sources. Documentary films can be considered a secondary source or primary source, depending on how much the filmmaker modifies the original sources.
Using primary sourcesEdit
History as an academic discipline is based on primary sources, as evaluated by the community of scholars, who report their findings in books, articles and papers. Arthur Marwick says "Primary sources are absolutely fundamental to history.". Ideally, a historian will use all available primary sources created by the people involved, at the time being studied. In practice some sources have been destroyed, while others are not available for research. Perhaps the only eyewitness reports of an event may be memoirs, autobiographies, or oral interviews taken years later. Sometimes the only documents relating to an event or person in the distant past were written decades or centuries later. This is a common problem in classical studies, where sometimes only a summary of a book has survived. Potential difficulties with primary sources have the result that history is usually taught in schools using secondary sources.
Historians studying the modern period with the intention of publishing an academic article prefer to go back to available primary sources and to seek new (in other words, forgotten or lost) ones. Primary sources, whether accurate or not, offer new input into historical questions and most modern history revolves around heavy use of archives and special collections for the purpose of finding useful primary sources. A work on history is not likely to be taken seriously as scholarship if it only cites secondary sources, as it does not indicate that original research has been done.
However, primary sources - particularly those from before the 20th century - may have hidden challenges. "Primary sources, in fact, are usually fragmentary, ambiguous and very difficult to analyse and interpret." Obsolete meanings of familiar words and social context are among the traps that await the newcomer to historical studies. For this reason, The interpretation of primary texts is typically taught as part of an advanced college or postgraduate history course, however advanced self-study or informal training is also possible.
Strengths and weaknesses of primary sourcesEdit
A primary source is not necessarily more authoritative or accurate than a secondary source. "Original material may be ... prejudiced, or at least not exactly what it claims to be." Secondary sources are often subjected to peer review, can be well documented, and are often written by historians working in institutions where methodological accuracy is important to the future of the author's career and reputation.
Historians consider the accuracy and objectiveness of the primary sources they are using and historians subject both primary and secondary sources to a high level of scrutiny. A primary source such as a journal entry, at best, only reflects one person's take on events, which may or may not be truthful, accurate, or complete. Participants and eyewitnesses may misunderstand events or distort their reports (deliberately or unconsciously) to enhance their own image or importance. Such effects can increase over time, as people create a narrative that may not be accurate.
For any source, primary or secondary, it is important for the researcher to evaluate the amount and direction of bias. For example, a government report may be an accurate and unbiased description of events, but it can be censored or altered for propaganda or coverup purposes. Every barrister knows evidence in a court case may be truthful, but it may be distorted to support (or oppose) the position of one of the parties.
Medieval historians must contend with forged documents created to create legal rights. For centuries the Pope used the forged Donation of Constantine to bolster the Papacy. The investigation of documents to determine their authenticity is diplomatics. Among the earliest forgeries are Anglo-Saxon Charters. There are a number of 11th and 12th century forgeries produced by monastries and abbeys to support a claim to land where the original document had been lost (or never existed). One particularly unusual forgery of a primary source was perpetrated by Sir Edward Deering who placed false monumental brasses in a local church. In 1986, Hugh Trevor-Roper "authenticated" the Hitler diaries which proved to be forgeries. Recently, forged documents have been placed within the UK National Archives in the hope of establishing a false provenance. However, historians dealing with recent centuries rarely encounter forgeries of any importance.
- ↑ Handlin (1954) 118-246
- ↑ Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier, From Reliable Sources, pp. 20-22.
- ↑ Cripps (1995)
- ↑ Primary sources; handle with care in Drake and Finnegan ( 1997)
- ↑ Handlin (1954)
- ↑ Marwick, Primary sources; handle with care in Drake and Finnegan (1997)
- ↑ David Iredale, Enjoying Archives
- ↑ Sommer and Quinlan (2002)
- ↑ Library of Congress (2007)
- ↑ A Camp, Everyone has Roots
- ↑ http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/news/stories/104.htm
- Jules R. Benjamin. A Student's Guide to History (2003)
- Kathleen W. Craver. Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking Skills in History (1999)
- Thomas Cripps, "Historical Truth: An Interview with Ken Burns", American Historical Review 100 (1995), 741-64. online at JSTOR
- Michael Drake and Ruth Finnegan (Eds), Sources and Methods for Family and Community Historians: A Handbook, (Cambridge University Press in conjunction with the Open University, 1997)
- Wood Gray, Historian's handbook, a key to the study and writing of history (Houghton Mifflin, 1964).
- Oscar Handlin et al., Harvard Guide to American History (1954)
- Martha C. Howell and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods (2001)
- Library of Congress, " Analysis of Primary Sources" online 2007
- Richard A. Marius and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing About History (5th Edition) (2004)
- Barbara W. Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan, The Oral History Manual (2002)
- - to primary sources repositories
- A listing of over 5000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources
- Find primary sources in the collections of major research libraries using ArchiveGrid
- - to all sources repositories
- Wikisource – The Free Library – is the Wikimedia project that collects, edits, and catalogs all source texts.
- - to essays and descriptions of primary, secondary and other sources
- Ithaca College Library - Primary and secondary sources
- "How to distinguish between primary and secondary sources" from the University of California, Santa Cruz Library
- "Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sources" from James Cook University Library
- Joan of Arc: Primary Sources Series -- Example of a publication focusing on primary source documents.
- Finding primary sources] from the University of California, Berkeley library
- "Primary versus secondary sources" from the Bowling Green State University library
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Posted 3 years ago on Sept. 29, 2012, 12:49 p.m. EST by flip
This content is user submitted and not an official statement
for those who do not want to read the whole thing here is the punch line - " So to talk about hyperinflation as if it is a domestic phenomenon is to ignore the fact that never in history has it been domestic. It always is a balance-of-payments phenomenon, associated either with war or a class war, as in Chile’s case"......and now the rest - "So the flip side of asset price inflation is debt deflation. More and more money has to be spent to carry the debt overhead. The problem is not central banks financing domestic government budget deficits. Every hyperinflation in history has come as a result of the collapse of the balance of payments. The Germans are most familiar with 1921, but they tend to forget that the Weimar inflation was a result of Germany trying to pay reparations abroad. They were ordered by the Allied powers to print Deutsche Marks not for domestic spending, not to run a domestic deficit, not to rebuild Germany, not to employ labor, but to throw reichsmarks onto the foreign exchange market to obtain the foreign currency to pay the Allies, so that the Allies could turn around and pay the arms debts for what they bought from the United States before entry into World War One. It was the collapse of the foreign exchange that caused the hyperinflation, not domestic spending. And Germany’s hyperinflation was not cured by the central bank creating less money. It was cured by setting up a triangular flow of international payments. American bondholders would lend money to German municipalities that would issue bonds. The municipalities would receive dollars, and turn them over to the Reichsbank. It then would issue German currency against this for local spending – using the dollars to pay the Allies. The Allies would pay America, and that would keep the circular flow going. But to do this, interest rates had to be held down in the United States, to make German and other European borrowing more profitable for international lenders.
The same thing happened in Chile, which is another textbook hyperinflation. Rogers wrote a book on the process of hyperinflation in France that also occurred in the 1920s. The classic study of German inflation is by Salomon Flink, The Reichsbank and Economic Germany. The book actually was printed in Germany at that time. The same thing happened in Russia in the 1990s. The Russia hyperinflation occurred as a result of the depreciation of the ruble. This was already determined in advance at the meeting in Huston, Texas, between the World Bank and the IMF and the other Russian authorities. All this was published at the time, even before break-up of the Soviet Union. So to talk about hyperinflation as if it is a domestic phenomenon is to ignore the fact that never in history has it been domestic. It always is a balance-of-payments phenomenon, associated either with war or a class war, as in Chile’s case.
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First explain to students the history of the Peace Corps and/or direct them to go to the Peace Corps website. Once students have a general understanding of the history and purpose of the Peace Corps have them select one of the countries on the Peace Corps interactive map.
Then have students go to the Development Education Program’s DEPweb to Explore Sustainable Development of The World Bank Group. On this site is an explanation of sustainable development as well as numerous learning modules. Have students use this web site to gain a better understanding of world economics as well as the place of their Peace Corps’ country in this economy.
Then direct students to research the history of their Peace Corps’ country and prepare a presentation for the class that must include charts, photos and other data in a PowerPoint presentation.
http://www.peacecorps.gov/index.cfm?shell=learn.wherepc.latinamerica(interactive world map)
U.S. Foreign Aid:
This lesson plan was inspired by the Development Education Program’s DEPweb to Explore Sustainable Development of The World Bank Group; retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/index.html.
This lesson was adapted by Debra L. Clark, Kent State University.
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What is Conservatism?
1. The inclination, especially in politics, to maintain the existing or traditional order. 2. A political philosophy or attitude emphasizing respect for traditional institutions, distrust of government activism, and opposition to sudden change in the established order.
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
Although the dictionary definition above doesn't capture all the facets of modern-day American conservatism, it does reflect the origins of the philosophy and the basic platform on which the movement has taken hold.
The U.S. has never had a "Conservative Party" but the term entered American politics in full force in the middle of the 20th century, invoking European antecedents which, in the words of THE OXFORD COMPANION TO UNITED STATES HISTORY, focused on "tradition and the mystique of history to countervail any present generation's fascination with newness and change."
In the United States, this reading of conservatism initially competed with other forms. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the Gilded Age, conservatism came to be associated with minimal government principles laissez-faire and found its major voice in the judicial branch of government as it became a bulwark against state regulation of business activity.
With the Cold War, anticommunism became part of the conservative philosophy. And in the later twentieth century, a new kind of conservatism became dominant: populist conservatism. It was the momentum of this movement that helped Ronald Reagan win office. A new group of "neoconservatives," made up of former leftists, were unhappy with liberalism for its stand on issues such as affirmative action. They directed their anger at liberal elites for what they saw as dominance in the spheres of higher education, the media, and government.
The OXFORD COMPANION explains:
Reagan combined important strands of American conservatism in a significant new way, employing populist rhetoric while working in the interests of corporate America and the wealthier classes. Insisting that 'the problem is government,' he saw a great economic future for America once business enterprise was liberated from government restraint.
The collapse of communism and the end of the Cold War set the stage for a rise in American conservatism. Current President George W. Bush has embraced the term in his slogan "compassionate conservatism." Learn about the origins of this concept and find out what compassionate conservatism is all about.
Sources: THE OXFORD COMPANION TO UNITED STATES HISTORY; The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
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Sustaining a fishery or fighting natural change?
Largemouth bass populations are slowly replacing walleye in some northwestern Wisconsin waters. As biologists determine the causes, can and should they take steps to restore walleyes as the dominant fish in these waters?
Call it the case of the missing walleye. Ol'marble eyes, anglers' No. 1 target and the ultimate shore lunch, is disappearing from some lakes in northwestern Wisconsin.
Adult walleye populations are dropping in these lakes and natural reproduction is sputtering. The stocking of small fingerling walleye, successful in the past, is netting next to nothing.
Frustration is setting-in in some communities where walleye has long been king of the creel and a top tourism draw that feed the local economy.
"The number one complaint I hear from anglers locally is, "We want our walleye back," says Heath Benike, DNR fisheries biologist for Polk and Barron counties since 2003.
"We've tried increasing our walleye stocking rates and adding more walleye spawning habitat, and that did not help increase walleye survival or solve the existing problem."
Right now, the leading suspects are:
Popular sentiment and some fish biologists finger largemouth bass as the leading suspect, but there's no smoking gun, says Steve Avelallemant, a DNR fisheries biologist in northern Wisconsin for the last 25 years and top fisheries supervisor in the region.
"There is no clear cause-and-effect relationship between the increase in bass and decline of walleye in waters where this relationship has been observed," he says. "It's likely that many factors contributed."
Studies are underway in Wisconsin and in Minnesota, where they're seeing similar trends in some waters, to help solve this walleye "whodunit." Wisconsin is trying to "flip" target waters back to walleye dominance while also learning something about what contributes to their decline and which, if any, management approaches work best.
The Department of Natural Resources wants to test these ideas on 21 target lakes by removing bass size limits, stocking larger walleye, and protecting all walleye under 18 inches in order to more rapidly rebuild these fisheries, hoping the combination of tactics will work.
"We don't know if there are enough anglers out there who are willing to help by harvesting limits of largemouth bass, but we should be making it as easy as possible for anglers to do so," Benike says.
"If we can't get the harvest we need, at least I can say we tried to do our best to correct the situation on a select group of lakes, which is important to our local anglers and lake organizations."
Other biologists are concerned that removing size limits will only sacrifice the 10- to 14-inch bass now providing good fishing action for many anglers in those lakes with no guarantee that it will improve the walleye fishery.
Largemouth bass are found in all three drainage basins in Wisconsin – Lake Michigan, Mississippi River and Lake Superior. George Becker, author of the seminal work, Fishes of Wisconsin, and other fish experts have suggested that bucketmouths are here, especially in northern counties, because they were introduced to new waters.
Walleye got a helping hand as well. Originally confined to Wisconsin's larger lakes and waterways, extensive stocking of walleye fry and fingerlings over the last century spread the species widely across the state. Now, however, bass and walleye are on opposite trajectories in some waters.
Big Butternut and Ward lakes in Polk County are classic examples of how some northwestern Wisconsin waters have flipped from waters dominated by walleye to a sport fishery dominated by largemouth bass, Benike says.
Walleye were introduced into Ward Lake, a 92-acre seepage lake east of Luck, Wis., in 1934. Stocking stopped in 1954 because abundant natural reproduction was sustaining the fishery, he says. Twenty years ago, DNR electrofishing survey crews caught walleyes here at a rate of 160 per hour and largemouth bass at rates of less than 20 fish per hour. By 2000, the catch rate for walleye decreased to 13 fish per hour while largemouth bass abundance increased to 133 fish per hour. Walleye natural reproduction is now absent, and stocking of small walleye fingerlings in 2003 and 2005 failed. Angler harvest isn't up significantly and tribal spearing has never occurred on Ward Lake.
Big Butternut Lake similarly saw walleye densities drop, from a high of about 4.7 fish per acre in 1990 to one fish per acre in 2003, as largemouth densities have steadily increased during this same time period, Benike says.
He thinks the 14-inch bass size limit is a major reason largemouth bass have become more abundant on local waters.
"Recent studies conducted on Wisconsin lakes suggest that walleye and largemouth bass can have negative interactions," he says. Most recently, DNR fisheries colleague Andy Fayram documented that largemouth bass were the only game fish to become more abundant at the same time managers noted significant declines in walleye populations. Smallmouth bass and other game fish populations show no such tendencies. Fayram also documented that largemouth bass affect the survival of stocked walleye. Several other studies throughout North America have documented poor survival of stocked walleye in lakes with good largemouth bass populations. And UW-Stevens Point fisheries researcher Nancy Nate found higher densities of largemouth bass and northern pike in lakes where walleye populations are maintained by stocking than in lakes where they are sustained by natural reproduction.
Past survey information and current population modeling suggest that smallmouth and largemouth bass were significantly less abundant before 1989 when the first minimum size limit was put in place. Growth rates of bass were somewhat faster then, but high angler harvest resulted in very few large fish. Other bass regulations such as reduced bag limits and the early catch-and-release season did not affect bass harvest as much as implementing the 14-inch minimum size limit.
"It's debatable if this is a cause-and effect relationship or if it is driven by some other factors, however, there is enough evidence to suggest we should do something," Fayram says.
Fayram says his study is one piece of "fairly strong circumstantial evidence that when largemouth bass and walleye interact, the largemouth bass win."
Whether it's strong enough to tip a fishery is another matter.
"I found walleye in bass stomachs (during a study), but bass eat anything," he says. "So if there are walleye in the lake, they'll eat them. Do they eat enough to reduce the walleye population in the long run? That we don't know."
He favors the hypothesis that climate change creates conditions more conducive to bass at the same time anglers are releasing far more bass.
"It looks like climate change is a suspicious character in this whole thing," Fayram says.
UW-Madison climatologists who have analyzed weather data collected in the last 50 years have documented that the annual average temperature has risen by 1.1 degrees Fahrenheit statewide and average precipitation by about 10 percent. Most significantly, there are big differences across the seasons and across geography. For example, temperatures have risen fastest in winter and spring, while summer and fall have actually cooled a bit. Winters in northwestern Wisconsin have warmed by as much as 4.5°F.
Northeastern Minnesota has seen similar climate changes and increases in bass populations. Don Pereira, fisheries research and policy manager for the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, says that even small temperature increases can benefit bass, which prefer warmer water temperatures.
Warmer temperatures may mean that young-of-the-year fish can feed later in the year so that they are larger, are in better condition heading into winter, and survive in greater numbers.
"The dominant thesis is that longer growing seasons lead to higher survival rates for young fish," he says.
Pereira and colleague Mike McInerny caution that Minnesota has limited long-term data on smallies and largemouth bass, making it difficult to quantify the rate or magnitude of increase in bass populations. McInerny hopes to get a handle on that in coming years. He is in the early stages of looking at first-year growth rates in bass over the last 20 to 30 years.
For now, he is skeptical that bass are preying on walleye to any great degree.
"If bass are preying on young walleye, it has to occur during a relatively short period during the summer because age one and older walleye should be big enough to avoid predation by most bass," he says.
Pereira says Minnesota is putting together a plan to investigate causes and work on this issue.
The drought in northern Wisconsin may be another factor contributing to declining walleye populations. Low water levels on some waters have left walleye spawning substrate high and dry, making spawning success even more tenuous than normal, Avelallemant says. At the same time, the lower lake levels can also spur weed growth in the lake, which favors bass.
Once female walleye deposit their eggs and the eggs are fertilized, neither parent cares for the eggs nor the young fry. Weather can result in year-classes of walleye that can vary considerably from year to year.
Rapidly warming water can cause eggs to hatch early. Prolonged cool weather can delay and impair hatching. A cold snap after the hatch can suppress the production of microcrustaceans that walleye fry eat.
Bass reproductive success also depends a lot on the weather, but their parenting habits would appear to give their eggs and the resulting fry a better shot at making it to their first birthday.
Male bass guard the nest until the eggs hatch and mature into a swarm of fry. They strike at intruding fish but do not eat them– at least until the fry leave the nest upon growing to one inch. Then the bass start feeding again and may eat any young bass they encounter, including their own.
John Lyons, a longtime DNR fisheries researcher and member of the statewide bass management team, believes that the strong catch-and-release ethic that's developed among bass anglers is a potential factor that tipped some lakes toward bass dominance.
"People keeping or not keeping fish has driven a lot of this and may be the single most important factor," he says.
The growing popularity of bass fishing tournaments over the last generation, and the catch-and-release practice promoted by those tournaments and by B.A.S.S. (the Bass Anglers Sportsman Society), have taken hold nationally and in Wisconsin.
Anglers reported harvesting only 5.46 percent of the 10 million bass they caught during the 2006-7 license year, according to a random, statewide mail survey. That's an even lower harvest rate than anglers reported for musky, 5.59 percent of the 223,101 caught.
Meanwhile, walleye are still turning up on anglers' plates at a much higher rate. The fish biologists rule out overharvest of walleye as a cause, noting that walleye harvests have not increased significantly in northwestern Wisconsin waters in recent decades and that such a trend would be quickly noticed. Walleye harvests are the most closely monitored harvests in the state under a 1983 federal court ruling that reaffirmed the Chippewa tribes' rights to hunt, fish and gather wild rice on lands they ceded to the federal government in treaties signed in 1837 and 1842.
Lyons says that changing the harvest dynamics raises social issues that DNR's fisheries program and anglers will need to grapple with.
"Some of the questions we need to engage are almost in the category of value judgments," he says. "Some lakes where walleye may be replaced by bass were marginal walleye lakes to begin with," he says. "It may be we're fighting Mother Nature."
"There's also this idea that having lots of small to medium bass is a bad thing. But 11- and 12-inch fish are easier to catch and it's fun. The numbers of big fish aren't getting worse, it's just that now you catch 10 fish and one might be legal instead of in the old days, when you caught two fish and one would be legal."
"Where is the problem? We're complaining about something that's pretty good."
Despite differing takes on what's behind the walleye's demise and whether Wisconsin can actually flip the target lakes back to higher walleye populations, there's some consensus among biologists that largemouth bass preying on young walleye would hamper efforts to restore naturally reproducing walleye populations. And there is consensus that the most effective tool for reducing bass abundance through angling will be to remove minimum length limits, Avelallemant says.
So, with concern mounting among some local biologists that time may be running out for some walleye lakes, the Department of Natural Resources asked anglers at the Spring Fish and Wildlife Rule Hearings April 12th to weigh in on a proposed three-part plan seeking to restore walleye populations on 21 lakes in Barron, Bayfield, Burnett, Polk, Rusk, Sawyer and Washburn counties. All of the lakes have been primarily managed for walleye, and each has had a walleye population sustained by natural reproduction during the past 20 years.
The plan seeks to:
Benike says those managing the study waters also hope that reducing bass abundance will cull some of the small, stunted fish from lakes with overabundant bass and result in fewer but bigger bass. As bass populations on Half Moon Lake in Polk County grew, for example, bass tournaments became more popular on the lake. But now, with small fish abundant, tournament organizers are going elsewhere, Benike says.
David Butler, who's fished Half Moon Lake for the past 30 years, favors efforts to bring back the walleye. "I fish for walleye all the time, but catch nothing but largemouth bass. I didn't catch a walleye all year in 2009. The few large walleyes I have caught have been in deep water in the area of 30 feet where most people don't bother to fish."
The lake's protection and rehabilitation district recently voted to spend $5,000 to buy walleye fingerlings.
Stephen Hjort, Conservation Director of the Wisconsin Bass Federation, said his organization doesn't back regulation changes on those waters and feels that in the past the Department of Natural Resources has been pressured by some legislators, resort owners and lake associations to remove bass length limits.
"I feel that with the current scientific observations relating to climate change in our region, we need to study these issues and not change regulations that have improved black bass populations for the benefit of the general public over the last 30 years. The Wisconsin Bass Federation is in favor of good science playing the leading role in regulation change, not politically motivated agendas, anecdotal evidence or wishful thinking."
Benike says that one of the keys to helping the walleye recovery plan work is helping bass anglers understand that DNR fisheries biologists aren't trying to get rid of all the bass on all lakes, but only reduce bass populations on the 21 study lakes that have historically been managed for walleye.
"There are about 346 named lakes in my management area in Barron and Polk counties," Benike says. "We are going to leave things alone on 98 percent of the lakes but try something different on these two percent to see if we can learn something to better understand and manage the fishery that anglers prefer and desire."
Fayram, Lyons and Avelallemant, all members of an ad hoc team the DNR fisheries program has pulled together to work on the issue, hope the plan also helps biologists learn more about what is causing population shifts in the two species, including the effectiveness of stocking large walleye fingerlings. Such information will be critical for addressing future problems and helping the Department of Natural Resources allocate its shrinking resources in the best way.
And the findings that emerge from the walleye recovery plan are just the start of the research and discussions that are needed, they say.
"We have more work to do analyzing data and forming policies before June 2010 9 we can continue efforts to change bass populations through angling regulations," says Avelallemant.
Specifically, he says, we need to look further at:
DNR Fisheries Biologist Frank Pratt in Sawyer County is convinced that once walleye decline, if largemouth bass are waiting in the wings, walleye recovery is severely impeded and further management activities are warranted.
One thing that all seem to agree on, however, is that anglers hold the key in the walleye recovery plan. We need anglers' help, Fayram says. "We don't know if we have the capacity to flip it back or fight it in the target lakes," he says. "We don't know if anglers will keep enough bass to make a difference." One potential difficulty is that reducing fish populations a little can increase consumption by the remaining fish with every remaining fish growing faster and eating more.
"We just have to kick it, and kick it hard enough," he says.
Lisa Gaumnitz is the public affairs manager for DNR's Water Division including the Fisheries and Habitat Program.
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Experiment of the Month
The previous discussion of the Foucault Pendulum was intended for use as a supplement to AP physics. This edition is intended for general science students whose technical skills are not as extensively developed as AP physics students. The plans were developed by Maureen Dooley, B.S.Ed. They are presented here with permission of the author.
The eleven plan sequence is intended to develop first the idea that there is a question: Does the earth move or is the earth fixed? Evidence is developed and tested with earth-fixed and earth-spinning models. A discussion of the overall picture is provided here.
The Foucault pendulum is observed throughout the sequence. In lesson 4, the class begins keeping a log which leads to the observation that the plane of oscillation of the pendulum is rotating clockwise. In the final "jury trial," the motion of the Foucault pendulum is conclusive in favor of a spinning earth as the simplest model that works.
The plans, as well as two worksheets and a vocabulary are listed below.
- Rather than explain, science describes.
- The simple pendulum and the driven pendulum
- The pendulum is driving in a manner that is like pumping a swing.
- The Foucault pendulum plane of oscillation rotates.
- Motion is relative.
- Models for a rotating plane of oscillation
- The Foucault pendulum at the north pole
- Build a sundial.
- Track the sun with the sundial.
- Apply the models to the sundial observations.
- Apply the models to the foucault pendulum.
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Historically, food systems in the Appalachian Mountains relied on tight-knit communities working together to create food security on a local level. These traditional agricultural systems made food and food production an intimate and inextricable part of daily life. But today those everyday interactions — with the plants, animals and the practice of raising them — are becoming less and less common.
In 1790, 90 percent of Americans were farmers. Today that figure is less than 1 percent. The change is particularly noticeable in the South, which up until the 1950s, was a largely agrarian society. Now, some are calling for a rebuilding and supporting of a locally focused food system, which used to be prevalent in Appalachia.
“Traditional agriculture in Appalachia was highly local,” says James Veteto, executive director of the Appalachian Institute for Mountain Studies in Celo, who teaches at Western Carolina University. “It was supplemented by hunting, fishing and wildcrafting of a wide variety of locally available, seasonal wild foods and medicines … and there was a fair amount of trade.”
Veteto and others at AIMS are working to foster food systems that blend Appalachian environmental knowledge with modern technology. They hold classes on traditional agriculture, permaculture, wild food and medicinal herbs, supporting a resurgence of the principles of older “folk systems” into a modern economy.
“Folk systems typically rely on and utilize a much broader array of biodiversity than modern agriculture,” says Veteto, who notes that modern “folk agriculture” — often a hybrid of folk systems and modern adaptations — is generally more sustainable than mainstream industrial agriculture.
That focus on sustainability is driving the return to these traditional systems for many local growers who also want to see the concept brought into urban areas.
“Where we live, work and play is where we should be producing all the foods and things best eaten fresh or right away,” says Sunil Patel of Patchwork Urban Farms. “Putting this back into our urban areas, where it belongs, is what I’m trying to envision happening.”
At Patchwork, Patel employs traditional farming methods, including crop rotation, planting cover crops to enrich the soil naturally, composting and animal integration. Patel also uses waste from restaurants and households to produce compost, as well as animal protein sources such as the larva of the black soldier fly. He adds biochar to the soil, a method he notes goes “way back to pre-colonial South America.”
“I don’t use any synthetic pesticides, herbicides or fertilizers,” Patel says. “I use biodynamic methods and pay attention to the energetic effects of the Earth, moon, planets and stars on the growth of plants and animals.” He adds that even his irrigation methods, including earth-shaping and rainwater catchments, take advantage of natural systems.
Patel says he believes these methods bring the farmer in closer connection to the food system. And when the yield is shared or sold at tailgate markets or local restaurants, the concept spreads out from the farmer and into the community, he notes.
“I feel our connection to our foods system has been lost, and that’s why we need to bring it back,” Patel says. “If we see it enough as a culture, we’ll be able to reconnect with it in a big way.”
Growers seeking to incorporate folk agriculture back into the local economy have been aided by the re-emergence of farmers markets and roadside farm stands. Ordinances passed by Asheville City Council over the last decade have allowed farmers markets to operate in residential areas and removed the permitting requirements for accessory structures — such as greenhouses and hoop houses — and residential farm stands.
“It reflects a focus on returning food security to the neighborhood level,” says City Councilman Gordon Smith in an email to Xpress. “Food access used to happen in lots of places in our lives, not just at grocery stores and restaurants. These changes will mean more food being grown where people live and distributed to people who live there.”
Veteto says the principles of folk systems can also be used noncommerically when neighbors trade their harvests or share the yield of communal gardens.
“There are lots of stories of people, churches, etc., in historical Appalachian communities that cooked meals for people who were suffering from food insecurity,” Veteto says. “I think the role of community used to be much more prominent in proving for community food security and health.”
In fact, Veteto adds, feeding families and communities is the focus of folk agriculture.
“Producing your own sustenance gives you a sense of self-worth, independence and connection to the natural world,” he says. “It is a fundamental, elemental type of empowerment.”
For more information on Appalachian Institute for Mountain Studies, visit facebook.com/AppalachianInstituteMountainStudies. You can find Patchwork Urban Farms at Wednesday Tailgate Market at the French Broad Food Co-op and at a roadside stand open Tuesdays 3-7 p.m. at 124 Choctaw St. For more information, visit patchworkurbanfarms.com.
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Did Stanford's Solar Car Project build the fastest solar-powered car ever assembled by human hands? Possibly. We'll now for sure when the vehicle, called Xenith, hits the pavement in Australia during the World Solar Challenge. Updated.
The event is held every two years, with changing qualifications proposed by organizers each time, meaning teams must be on their toes to adapt to new rules and regulations. The major change this year was that the driver needed to be seated in an upright position, like a normal gas-powered car. Previous contests allowed the driver to adopt a lying down position for better aerodynamics.
This year's race will stretch 3,000 kiometers from Darwin to Adelaide, Australia between October 16-23.
One glaring omission from the CNET photo gallery: Xenith's "fastest ever" speed. Guess we'll have to wait and see.
Update: Stanford wrote us just now to explain why that omission might be: They never claimed to be the fastest in the first place! Says their PR rep in an email to Gizmodo:
We cannot officially claim to have the world's fastest solar car yet. However, our car has an incredibly efficient motor and we believe that our panels have a chance to break a world record for silicon panel efficiency. We are confident that we are in the running to win the World Solar Challenge this October, but the race hasn't even started yet. That race will be the benchmark for our car and we hope to pursue independently verified tests for speed, motor efficiency, and panel efficiency later in our build cycle.
We've changed the headline of this article to reflect this more accurate information, direct form the source. [CNET]
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ERIC Number: ED315883
Record Type: RIE
Publication Date: 1986-Dec
Reference Count: N/A
Classroom Management Techniques and Student Discipline.
This paper reviews concepts and research findings on classroom management techniques and explores how these techniques are related to student discipline strategies. The first section surveys descriptive and experimental research recently accumulated on classroom management practice, concentrating on strategies for monitoring and guiding classroom activity systems. Classroom activities research confirms the relationship of different activity types, classroom physical characteristics, and student choice and mobility to student (mis)behavior and the classroom management demands made on teachers. Management is a cognitive activity based on a teacher's knowledge of classroom event trajectories and the way certain actions will affect situations. Specific management skills are useless without this basic understanding of classrooms. The second section focuses on classroom rules, procedures, and common discipline forms, particularly reprimands and other "desists" to keep order. Research suggests that classroom rules and procedures must be both announced and enforced, and that rule making involves complex interaction processes and negotiations of meaning. The third section examines punishment and supension's effectiveness as discipline strategies for serious classroom disruptions. Also discussed is the applicability of behavior modification procedures to classroom settings. The concluding section evaluates the state of classrooom management and discipline research and identifies implications for research and practice. (92 references) (MLH)
Publication Type: Information Analyses
Education Level: N/A
Sponsor: Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC.
Authoring Institution: N/A
Note: Paper prepared for the Student Discipline Strategies project.
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The active ingredient in psychedelic mushrooms decreases brain activity, possibly explaining the vivid, mind-bending effects of the drug, a new study finds.
The decreases were focused in regions that serve as crossroads for information in the brain, meaning that information may flow more freely in a brain on mushrooms. The findings could be useful in developing hallucinogenic treatments for some mental disorders.
"There is increasing evidence that the regions affected are responsible for giving us our sense of self," study author Robin Carhart-Harris, a postdoctoral researcher at Imperial College London, wrote in an email to LiveScience.
"In other words, the regions affected make up what some people call our 'ego.' That activity decreases in the 'ego-network' supports what people often say about psychedelics, that they temporarily 'dissolve the ego.'" [10 Most Destructive Human Behaviors]
Quieting the brain
Psilocybin, the chemical that gives mushrooms their trippy properties, has long-lasting effects beyond the initial high. A recent Johns Hopkins University study found that a single experience with psilocybin in a controlled environment can alter personality long-term, making people more open to new experiences.
"Healthy people given psilocybin often describe their experiences as among the most meaningful of their whole lives, comparable to such things as the birth of their first child or getting married," Carhart-Harris said. "We wanted to know what is going on in people's brains to produce such profound effects."
The researchers asked 15 people who had used mushrooms in the past to lie in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fRMI) scanner, which measures blood flow in the brain to determine brain activity in different regions.
After a few minutes, the researchers injected either psilocybin or a placebo into the participants' veins. (Each volunteer participated in two scans, so everyone had one experience with the hallucinogen and one with the placebo.) They then continued the scan to find out what changes occurred in brain activity.
A promising treatment?
The scans revealed a surprise: Psilocybin never increased activity in the brain, but only decreased activity in places, especially information transfer areas such as the thalamus, which sits smack in the middle of the brain.
"'Knocking out' these key hubs with psilocybin appears to allow information to travel more freely in the brain, probably explaining why people's imaginations become more vivid and animated and the world is experienced as unusual," Carhart-Harris said.
The researchers used multiple fMRI methods to validate their findings, and controlled for outside factors to be sure, for example, that psilocybin didn't cause breathing changes that, in turn, changed the brain. What actually seems to be happening, Carhart-Harris said, is that psilocybin mimics the effect of the brain chemical serotonin. In the brain, psilocybin sticks to serotonin receptors on brain cells, inhibiting the activity of those neurons. The effect lasts about a half-hour for a moderate dose given as an intravenous shot, Carhart-Harris said.
The researchers plan to further investigate these brain-bending effects as a treatment for depression. The regions quieted down by psilocybin are overactive in depression, Carhart-Harris said, so this mushroom ingredient could be an alternative treatment to lift mood.
But the findings aren't a license for anyone to start self-medicating with mushrooms, Carhart-Harris warned. The participants in this and other psilocybin studies have all been experienced and healthy psilocybin users in a controlled environment; some people can experience terrifying "bad trips" on psychedelics, he said. Without proper psychological care, the effects can be long-lasting and harmful.
"These are preliminary results, and a lot more research is required before claims can be made about the therapeutic value of psychedelics," Carhart-Harris said. "However, the initial signs are promising."
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SAN ANTONIO -- Foreign-born children who did not have allergies when they came to the U.S. became more likely to develop them after 10 years of residence, researchers found.
Compared with foreign-born children who had lived in the U.S. for 2 or fewer years, children who lived in the U.S. for over a decade were at three times the risk for developing any allergic disorder (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 3.04, 95% CI 1.08 to 8.60, P=0.03), particularly eczema (aOR 4.93, 95% CI 1.18 to 20.62, P=0.03) and hay fever (aOR 6.25, 95% CI 1.70 to 22.96, P=0.006), according to Jonathan Silverberg, MD, PhD, of St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center in New York, N.Y., and colleagues.
Although their risk of developing allergies does increase the longer they stay in the U.S., foreign-born children start out with an advantage when it comes to allergies. So, overall, birthplace outside of the U.S. and having one or more parents born outside of the U.S. offered a protective benefit against most allergic conditions (P<0.0003), they reported at a poster session during the meeting of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology.
Silverberg noted that allergic disease is much less common in other countries -- such as Mexico and China -- than it is in the U.S., which may be in part due to conditions including socioeconomic status, ethnicity, urban living, nutrition, adiposity, and pollutants.
However, even after adjusting for ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and urban residence, the investigators found that U.S. residence of foreign-born children over long periods of time was "a previously unrecognized factor in the epidemiology of atopic disease."
To study this association, the researchers gathered data from 78,853 participants in the 2007-2008 National Survey of Children's Health on prevalence of allergic disorders. The sample included 1,989 children born outside of the U.S. and 76,864 U.S.-born children.
Researchers asked participants' parents questions on whether their child had been diagnosed with ever or current asthma, eczema or other skin allergies, hay fever, and food allergies. They also assessed place of birth for the mother, father, and child, as well as length of U.S. residency for the child.
Other characteristics included the child's age, sex, and ethnicity, as well as household income, residency in a metropolitan area, and history of moving to a new address.
Among foreign-born participants, children were a mean 11.5 years old and most were Hispanic (53.4%), white (17.2%), or black (12.5%) and lived in a metropolitan area (94.7%).
Children whose parents were born outside of the U.S. were significantly less likely to have an atopic disorder than those whose parents were born in the U.S. overall.
Children born to foreign mothers were significantly less likely to have any allergy overall, asthma, eczema, hay fever (P<0.001 for all), or food allergies (P=0.001). Those born to foreign fathers had protective effects against any allergy overall, ever asthma, eczema, food allergy (P<0.001 for all), current asthma (P=0.009), and hay fever (P=0.01).
Birthplace outside of the U.S. also offered a protective benefit against allergic disease, including against any allergy overall, ever or current asthma, hay fever (P<0.001 for all), or eczema (P=0.003), but there was no significant difference in rates of food allergy (P=0.46).
The longer foreign-born children lived in the U.S., the more likely they were to develop allergies. "The odds of developing allergic disease significantly increased after residing in the U.S. for a decade or more," Silverberg presented, noting the difference between those who had lived in the U.S. for more than 10 years with those who lived there 2 years or less (P=0.03).
"This suggested that foreign-born U.S. residents might be at increased risk for later onset of allergic disease," the authors concluded.
The authors declared no conflicts of interest.
- Reviewed by Zalman S. Agus, MD Emeritus Professor, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and Dorothy Caputo, MA, BSN, RN, Nurse Planner
American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and ImmunologySource Reference: Silverberg JI, et al "Reduced prevalence of allergic diseases in foreign born American children is reversed after U.S. residence" AAAAI 2013; Abstract 512.
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Ankle Fracture Overview
Ankle injuries are among the most common of the bone and joint injuries. Often, the degree of pain, the inability to walk, or concern that a bone may be broken is what might cause you to seek care in an emergency situation.
For the most part, your concern is the same as the doctor's: Is there a broken bone? It is often impossible to diagnose a fracture (broken bone) rather than a sprain, a dislocation, or tendon injury without X-rays of the ankle.
- The ankle joint is made up of 3 bones coming together.
- The tibia, which is the main bone of the lower leg, makes up the medial, or inside, anklebone.
- The fibula is a smaller bone that parallels the tibia in the lower leg and makes up the lateral, or outside, anklebone.
- The far ends of both the tibia and fibula are known as the malleoli (singular is malleolus). Together they form an arch that sits on top of the talus, one of the bones in the foot.
- These 3 bones (tibia, fibula, and talus) make up the bony elements of the ankle joint.
- A fibrous membrane called the joint capsule, lined with a smoother layer called the synovium, encases the joint architecture. The joint capsule contains the synovial fluid produced by the synovium. The synovial fluid allows for smooth movement of the joint surfaces.
- The ankle joint is stabilized by several ligaments, which are fibers that hold these bones in place.
Ankle Fracture Causes
When you stress an ankle joint beyond the strength of its elements, you injure the joint.
- If only the ligaments give way and tear, you have sprained the ankle.
- If a bone gives way and breaks, you have an ankle fracture.
Fractures can occur with simultaneous tears of the ligaments. You can do this in several ways:
- Rolling the ankle in or out
- Twisting the ankle side to side
- Flexing or extending the joint
- Applying severe force to the joint by coming straight down on it as in jumping from a high level
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