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Geoscience Australia is the custodian for Commonwealth vertical and oblique aerial photography. Dating from 1928, the photos provide an accurate historical record of the land, and form an important part of Australia's spatial information.
Selecting your photos
Aerial photography is recorded on flight line diagrams, which show; aircraft paths (also known as runs), the centre of the photos in relation to ground features, and film reference numbers.
Use Geoscience Australia's online catalogue of flight line diagrams to select your photos.
Each photo has a photo title strip containing the following information:
- film number
- aircraft run number
- photo number
- time and date of photo
- altitude of aircraft/scale.
- Digital prints (from the whole photo)
- Enlargements to a specific scale - eg 1:50 000; or by ratio, eg 2x, 4x (from the whole photo or part of it)
- Photos taken on colour film can be reproduced as black and white
- Photo mosaics involve joining together several aerial photos to form a single non-rectified image. This enables large areas to be covered by one image similar to a satellite image
- Orthophotos are photo mosaics with some text annotation. They are available over selected areas
- Prints may be ordered individually or in blocks to give either plain or stereoscopic cover
- Both black and white and colour images can be provided in a variety of formats eg. tiff, jpeg, ecw, etc.
How to order
- area of interest - can be marked on a suitable map. A flight line diagram can be supplied on request
- date of photography - indicate if a particular year or group of years is required. Photography up to 1987 can be viewed at the National Library
- product required - black and white digital print and colour digital print. Data format required if not requesting hardcopy product
- product size - digital print (230 mm square) or enlargement. Please indicate a specific scale or ratio. See the ready reckoner for assistance
- plain or stereoscopic cover
- purpose - please indicate your particular purpose so that we can provide advice
- copyright - permission to copy can be obtained when placing your order, so please indicate whether you wish to reproduce the images.
Routine orders will be despatched approximately 10 working days after receipt. Delivery is by overnight courier to a street address, unless specified otherwise.
For further information please contact United Photo and Graphic Services (below).
Acknowledging Geoscience Australia
Please ensure the following acknowledgment accompanies any of Geoscience Australia's aerial photography:
© Commonwealth of Australia (Geoscience Australia) year of publication.
Payment and price list
All orders valued at less than $100.00 must be accompanied by payment. Photos can be ordered by mail or fax (accompanied by a purchase order) or by telephone using a credit card. Company orders and cheques should be made out to our contractor - UNITED PHOTO and GRAPHIC SERVICES Pty Ltd.
United Photo and Graphic Services
United Photo and Graphic Services (UPGS) of Melbourne manage all customer service operations, production and delivery of Geoscience Australia's aerial photography product range.
133 Abbotsford Street
NORTH MELBOURNE VIC 3051
PO Box 369
NORTH MELBOURNE VIC 3051
Telephone: Within Australia: 03 9328 3444, International: +61 3 9328 3444
Fax: Within Australia: 03 9326 6476, International: +61 3 9326 6476
Website: United Photo and Graphic Services website
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Discover how math can be taught without words in this TED talk. Be inspired by the fact that Matthew is dyslexic and because of it, he discovered how to teach math to diverse learners like himself.
"In school, the dominant way of conveying ideas is through words. Words can be great barriers to learning. Matthew Petersen shows and explains how we can learn without words.
Matthew Peterson, Ph.D., is Co-Founder, Senior Institute Scientist, and Chief Technical Officer of the MIND Research Institute. He is the creator of MIND's Math instructional software that teaches math to students using a unique non-language-based approach. Matthew was recently featured on Discovery Channel's "Profile Series." His focus is on developing math learning environments that initially convey sophisticated concepts visually, enabling students to gain a solid conceptual understanding of mathematics regardless of language proficiency. Matthew's cutting-edge teaching methods are currently benefiting over 300,000 students. He is the author of "MIND's Algebra Readiness" textbook, adopted in California in 2008, in addition to other technical and scientific publications."
Be amazed on the equations that were created to design graphics on this free online graphing calculator! Desmos set out to re-imagine the graphing calculator from the ground up, building on the best technologies available. They are driven by a few core beliefs:
> "every student deserves access to the best tools for learning > it's a travesty that educational tools have fallen so far behind as technology in general has catapulted forward > learning is a process of exploration and discovery, not a series of answers > everyone can learn and enjoy math, given the right environment > math is beautiful and surprisingly fun."
"Is there is a way to narrow the middle school science and math gap for children with disabilities? According to one researcher, Dr. Matthew Marino of Washington State University, perhaps it has already arrived, via a STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) curriculum in a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework underpinned by nascent assistive and instructional technology. "
A "must read" on UDL and STEM published by The Family Center on Technology and Disability.
Sharing your scoops to your social media accounts is a must to distribute your curated content. Not only will it drive traffic and leads through your content, but it will help show your expertise with your followers.
How to integrate my topics' content to my website?
Integrating your curated content to your website or blog will allow you to increase your website visitors’ engagement, boost SEO and acquire new visitors. By redirecting your social media traffic to your website, Scoop.it will also help you generate more qualified traffic and leads from your curation work.
Distributing your curated content through a newsletter is a great way to nurture and engage your email subscribers will developing your traffic and visibility.
Creating engaging newsletters with your curated content is really easy.
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Driving simulation vehicle testing system reproduces movement on a real vehicle
Saginomiya is developing a vehicle testing system that combines an actual vehicle with computer simulation.
"Broadly speaking, we're using two types of test system. On the right is a driving simulator, which is for sensory evaluation, basically evaluating how the steering feels to the driver. For example, it can be used for tuning the suspension or the steering ECU."
This simulator calculates the vehicle's motion based on how the car is driven, and it reproduces the vehicle's behavior in real time, using a six-axis motion table. By relating actual component testing to the test driving of the model vehicle, components can be designed more fully before the vehicle is completed. This helps to reduce the time and cost required for development.
"The system on the left has a vibration system installed. Actuators on the rack end reproduce road reaction and kick-back in real time, and transmit the vehicle's behavior to the steering wheel."
"What makes this very different from a game is, it uses the vehicle models that are used as development tools. So the model works within physical laws of motion. A game uses patterns, so for example, the vehicle slips if it hits the rumble strips on the edge of the road. But in this system, all behavior is reproduced using the relations between road conditions and the driver's movements. What's more, with our technology, dynamic motion is reproduced in real time, in a real vehicle with no delay, through a system with good responsiveness."
- This Week
- This Month
- All Time
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Scanning Electron Microscopy allows scientists to enter a miniature world full of fantastic creatures and otherworldly objects. When viewed on such an incredibly small scale, the most mundane objects and textures become an alien wonderland.
(Images via hhmi, stopcancerblog, thenewsonline, katoque)
Cancer cells are a terrifying prospect, and though on the surface they appear just as alien as anything else viewed with an SEM microscope, it’s impossible to tell the danger they represent from images alone.
(Images via theschoolmarm, cynical-c, dartmouth, flatrock)
The face and of a mosquito, the hooked claw of a microscopic beast, and the bisected tongue of a hummingbird all look like aliens from a high-budget film. These close-up portraits are proof that real life can be stranger than fiction.
(Images via salemstate, safa)
The bane of sinuses across the world, pollen doesn’t look so frightening up close.
Microscopic creatures are frighteningly alien. Lurking on a level below our awareness, many of these organisms’ lives are entirely dependent on the detritus from larger organisms.
(Images via physicsforum, randommization, morrisonworldnews, izismile)
It is difficult to imagine anything more alien in outer space than what is already present on the planet we call home. Try not to think about the millions of creatures that live entirely off of dead skin cells, or it may be difficult to fall asleep tonight.
(Images via melodymaker, umn, wikipedia, startwithaseed, howstuffworks)
Normal materials take on a beautiful quality when viewed with scanning electron microscopes. A nylon stocking becomes a giant web, pollen appears as spiky balls, and the surface of a strawberry looks like an alien landscape.
(Images via waiting-for-october, crawlerscrawler, trashitects, chemoton, onelargeprawn)
Insect heads are terrifying prospects when viewed in detail. With sharp mandibles and multifaceted eyes, insects are far from attractive.
(Images via astrographics, designyoutrust, scienceline, sciencephoto)
Extraterrestrials are overrated when one gets used to seeing scanning electron images. One can see creepy crawlies covered in tiny hairs, with hook-like claws and dangling antenna. SEM images definitely make one glad that these creatures are below our everyday awareness.
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Exploring our Coral Reefs - LEGO WeDo and Animal Set
**UPDATE** LEGO no longer produces the Animal set that this book was written for. The programming section is still very relevant, but unless you already have the Animal set along with your WeDo kit, you may struggle to build the models. As such Fay and Damien have released the book as a free download. Enjoy!!
This book utilizes both the LEGO WeDo and LEGO Animal sets to build a series of fun, interactive and engaging creations. Included are a variety of activities such as research assignments and creative writing opportunities based around the theme "Exploring Our Coral Reefs".
Student worksheets and full color building instructions are included to save time and help the teacher get their class up and running as quickly as possible.
Free PDF Download - Exploring Our Coral Reefs (10Mb)
Table of Contents
- LEGO 4 C’s Approach
- Classroom management
- Connect: Setting the Scene
- Research Assignment
- Create: Build it!
- Creative Writing Assignment
- Contemplate: What have we learned?
- Continue: What Next?
- Student Worksheet
- Building Instructions – Scuba Diver
- Building Instructions Tropical Fish
- Building Instructions Manta Ray
- Building Instructions - Sea Turtle
- WeDo Backgrounds and Sounds
- Story Board
- Coral Reef Vocabulary
- Standards relating to this Unit
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1. During what dynasty was this novel written?
2. How long did the Song Dynasty last?
3. What is the Divine Teacher disguised as?
4. How many demons are locked in the Suppression of Demons Hall?
5. Who is the only officer who does not come to pay respects to Gao Qui?
6. From where does Gao Qui's dislike for Wang Jin come?
7. What is Wang Jin's profession?
8. With how many weapons does Wang Jin teach Shi Jin to be adept?
9. What does Shi Jin do to save his bandit friends?
This section contains 4,337 words
(approx. 15 pages at 300 words per page)
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Solvency is the status of a person or entity who has sufficient assets to cover their liabilities. It is distinguished from insolvency, in which a person is unable to pay their debts and may possibly file for bankruptcy.
Different methods exist for determining the solvency or liquidity of a company. These ratios seek to determine the ability of a firm to avoid financial distress in the short-run. The two most important short-term solvency ratios are the current ratio and the quick ratio. The current ratio is calculated by dividing current assets by current liabilities. The quick ratio is calculated by dividing current assets less inventories by current liabilities.
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It looks like you're using an Ad Blocker.
Please white-list or disable AboveTopSecret.com in your ad-blocking tool.
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Originally posted by Regenmacher
I suspect there will be a renewed interest in isolating Africa as a whole.
East Africa Wheat Fungus may Pose Global Threat - Report
NAIROBI - A resilient new strain of wheat fungus from east Africa is threatening to spread to the Middle East, Asia and the Americas and bring catastrophic crop damage, scientists said on Thursday.
Researchers said the new Ug99 form of stem rust could be spread by the wind and attacked many varieties of spring and winter wheat that were resistant to other strains of the fungus.
Fish-Stocking May Spread Amphibian Disease
Science Daily — New research shows that hatchery-reared fish can spread a fungus implicated in the mass deaths of amphibian embryos in the Pacific Northwest. This is the first evidence that fish- stocking can spread amphibian diseases.
Rise of a Deadly TB Reveals a Global System in Crisis
The outbreak is not limited to Africa. Dr. Paul Nunn, a tuberculosis expert at the World Health Organization, told the meeting here that one or more cases of XDR-TB had been found in at least 28 countries. Extrapolating from data about the multidrug-resistant form of tuberculosis, Dr. Nunn estimated that two-thirds of the XDR-TB cases were from China, India and Russia.
The recipe for spreading the disease is the same throughout the world: inappropriate use of antibiotics. ...
...XDR-TB may be just as infectious as regular tuberculosis and may be highly transmissible. And that is worrisome, Dr. Weyer said, because “most public health facilities in the developing world lack airborne infection control procedures.”
....earlier this month, as if to illustrate the logistical hazards of caring for XDR-TB patients, 100 people walked out of a hospital in East London, South Africa, after paramedics wearing head-to-toe protection brought in eight patients with the disease.
In medical journals and at scientific meetings, some doctors in South Africa and elsewhere have advocated enforced confinement of XDR-TB patients. But civil liberties aside, many experts say, these advocates have not thought through the practical aspects of such isolations. Enforced isolation “is much more difficult to implement than one would think,” Dr. Weyer said.
Because XDR-TB is believed to be incurable, such patients could be detained for life or until they die. All the while, infected patients may spread the disease to others.
Moreover, the disease is an occupational hazard for the health workers caring for patients; 4 were included among the 53 in the Tugela Ferry outbreak. Two additional cases in health workers were identified later.
So Dr. Weyer raised these questions, among others: What facilities would be used? Who would volunteer to take care of XDR-TB patients? How would these workers be protected? And without getting permission, how would health officials legally detect the many health workers who are infected with H.I.V.?
Drug-resistant TB may cause pandemic
A virulent strain of tuberculosis that is resistant to most available drugs is surfacing around the globe, raising fears of a pandemic that could devastate efforts to contain TB and kill people with immune-deficiency diseases such as HIV/AIDS. ...The strain is known formally as extensively drug-resistant TB. It has been detected in 37 countries.
A retrospective analysis by the CDC found 49 cases of the new strain in the U.S. since 1993.
A report by Yale University researchers said the superbug raged through a rural hospital in South Africa in 2005 and early 2006, killing 52 of 53 who contracted it.
Global Challenges: Examining the Global Spread of XDR-TB
The Washington Post on Thursday examined how extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis -- TB that is resistant to the two most potent first-line treatments and some of the available second-line drugs -- is "raising fears" of a pandemic that could "devastate" efforts to control TB and "prove deadly" to people with HIV/AIDS and other diseases. According to the Post, XDR-TB has been detected in 37 countries. Some health experts say that at least half the people who contract XDR-TB will die of the disease.
According to Mario Raviglione, head of the World Health Organization's Stop TB Department, XDR-TB likely will mutate into a completely drug-resistant form of TB if it is not contained. "We will be left with surgery and prayers," he said, adding, "It's a desperate situation." Doctors and medical ethicists also are attempting to address the situation of people with XDR-TB who are not cooperative with treatment. Some have said that countries will have to consider forcing these people into isolation. "We have to face the possibility that restrictive measures may be necessary to control what could become a global pandemic," Ross Upshur, director of the University of Toronto's Joint Center for Bioethics, said. He added that although he is not advocating detention as a first response, "if voluntary measures fail, people do not have the right to infect others." Other experts have said forced isolation is impractical in poor countries and might drive the disease underground.
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Wind instrument of ancient origin formerly made of wood but now of silver and other metals. From medieval times two methods of producing sound were used: (a) blowing across a round mouth-hole as on the panpipes or transverse (side-blown) flute; (b) blowing into a whistle mouthpiece (end-blown) as on the recorder or flageolet.
The word flute was used indiscriminately to denote both types during medieval times, but in the baroque period flute or flauto specifically meant the end-blown recorder. The modern flute is descended from the German (transverse) flute. Whereas today it is cylindrical in bore, stopped at one end, until the early 19th century it was conical. The player's breath sets in vibration the column of air inside the tube. Acoustically, the tube acts as an open one; the mouth-hole serves to prevent its acting as stopped and thus sounding an octave lower. The body orginally had one thumb-hole and from four to eight finger-holes. The first key was added in 1677, the second in 1726 by Quantz, flute teacher of Frederick the Great. The great flute virtuoso of the Bavarian Court Orchestra, Theobald Boehm, used an eight key flute, but revolutionized the instrument in 1832 with his 'ring key' system. In 1847, he produced a fifteen hole metal instrument with 23 keys and levers.
Read more on Wikipedia.
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On a sweltering August day, student Hendrick Estrella sits on a sailboat, dragging his hand through the waves and reveling in the coolness of Boston Harbor. The day before, he had touched – and tasted – a striped bass, gathering details for a book he is writing about fish.
He is one of 35 rising fourth-graders from Boston's Harvard/Kent Elementary School who immersed themselves this summer in five weeks of salty, splashy fun while boosting their math and literacy skills.
It's all part of an innovative approach that Boston Public Schools and many nonprofit partners here are taking to prevent "summer learning loss" – the slide in math and reading skills for low-income children who lack structured opportunities.
For all the accolades that Massachusetts receives for high academic achievement, it still faces stark achievement gaps. In third-grade state reading tests, for example, fewer than 40 percent of Latino and African-American students scored at or above the proficient level in 2011, compared with nearly 70 percent of white students. Similar gaps show up in eighth-grade math.
"We are working hard in what are called our gateway cities, especially, to try to close those gaps, and the state is experimenting with many different ways of doing that," says Paul Toner, president of the Massachusetts Teachers Association.
Summer learning loss accounts for a sizable portion of achievement gaps, education research shows.
Mitchell Chester, the state's education commissioner, says he's put more focus on closing achievement gaps overall – for instance, by incorporating various measures of student gains in the teacher evaluation system. The state has also taken over the schools in Lawrence, a district riddled with corruption and dismal achievement.
Moreover, teachers statewide are undergoing intensive training to improve the education of English-language learners, which was deemed inadequate last year by federal civil rights officials.
Boston's Summer Learning Project serves about 1,600 students with the support of private funds, and it's being studied to see if it's a model worth replicating.
The Harvard/Kent students spent their mornings in academic activities related to marine life. In the afternoons, they split their time between sailing, hands-on science, and lessons tied to the USS Constitution, or "Old Ironsides" – the famous War of 1812 ship.
They wrote and illustrated books on a marine animal of their choosing. "They have a product they are proud of.... They see a purpose to their reading," said Maria D'Itria, a retired teacher overseeing the class.
"We get to eat fractions," the children exclaimed after third-grade teacher Linda Yip asked students to practice math by divvying up glazed donuts.
The program is about closing so-called opportunity gaps as well. With instructors from Courageous Sailing, one of the school's nonprofit partners, the children have learned a bit about tacking and jibbing – some of them realizing for the first time that the ocean is salty. They've also boosted their self-esteem, communication skills, and teamwork.
In a tent "classroom" near the docks, they've explored live lobsters and simulated an oil spill in a bowl of blue water to learn about protecting natural resources.
"Students have had successful learning experiences here," says Sara Murphy, Courageous Sailing's head instructor. "They've expressed that, 'I've never been good at learning things before'; but because it's so hands-on and so involved, they're even noticing how much better they're feeling about learning."
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Milton says, "I need a tip! Do you have a really spiffy idea that may of interest to other hobbyists? Send me an E-Mail explaining your suggestion, idea, etc. If we publish it on our website or in our newsletter, we'll send you a $5.00 gift certificate to spend in our store!
Not all tips will be printed -- only those that we think are the best!"
A Transformers & Power Packs Tutor
The basic difference between a transformer and power pack is that a transformer provides Alternating Current (A.C.) while the power pack supplies Direct Current (D.C.) to your model railroad. Power packs used to power model railroads can either be of the alternating current (A.C.) or the Direct Current (D.C.) type.
A.C. transformers are used on O-gauge, three rail train systems such as MTH, Lionel, K-Line, Williams, Weaver.
A.C. transformers have a 120 volt A.C. input and via an internal transformer provide a variable 0 -18 volt A.C. output for track power.
The transformers generally have a direction button, a horn/whistle button and/or bell button. The horn/whistle and bell buttons impose a D.C. (direct current) pulse (of opposite polarities) to the track to trigger those functions on engines equipped with these features.
Some A.C. transformers are equipped with one or more fixed voltage Accessory Terminals for operating accessories, such as track switches, building lights, operating signals, etc., and separately from the variable track power.
D.C. Power Packs
D.C. power packs are used for G, S. HO, N & Z gauges, which are two-rail systems.
D.C. power packs have a 120 volt A.C. (alternating current) input and via an internal transformer and rectifier provide a variable 0 - 18 volt D.C. output for track power.
Some power packs have a slide switch for reversing the direct current polarity to the track for directional operation of the train while some will use the throttle level one way and the other for this feature.
Most are equipped with fixed voltage A.C. Accessory Terminals for operating accessories such as track switches and building lights.
Digital Command Control
Train operating systems have now expanded with computerized control of more than one train on a track at one time. These systems use micro-chip technology to address directly the train rather than send power to the track as the transformers and power packs do. Digital command is available for the D.C. train systems and for the A.C. train systems.
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Difference Between Renewable and Non-renewable Resources
Renewable vs Non-renewable Resources
Nature has gifted us with a lot of products without which we would not be in the conditions we are today. Today, we might say that we are “developed,” but it would not have been possible without the gifts that the Mother Earth has provided us.
Almost all types of resources from nature are used by human beings. Some resources are limitless and some are limited and will soon be extinct along with their tracks on this planet. Some might be used again while some will lie around unused and simply go to waste.
Renewable resources are those resources which can be renewed or replaced over time. Great examples of infinite, renewable resources are: wind, sunlight, tides, biomass, etc. Some of the renewable resources are supposed to have continuous supplies, such as wind energy and solar energy, while some others take a greater time in their renewal like wood, oxygen, etc.
Geothermal energy is another good example of renewable resources. It is the source of energy which is extracted from the heat which is stored under the surface of the Earth. This source is considered to be cost efficient and mostly sustainable. It is found in the form of inactive volcanic sites and hot springs. This form of energy may be utilized in heating, generating electricity, and heat pumps. Geothermal energy is a sustainable source as the hot water seeps down into the crust again.
A biomass is also considered a renewable resource if used properly.
Non-renewable resources are those natural resources which cannot be renewed once they are completely consumed. The resources which are replenished very slowly are also considered non-renewable resources. This is because these resources will not be available again or available only after a long time.
The best examples of non-renewable resources are fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases. Fossil fuels are produced by the decay of animal and plant matter. Their rate of production is very slow as compared to the rate of their extraction and consumption.
Another example of a non-renewable resource is our lifetime. Once used up, any individual cannot get back lost time. Other good examples of non-renewable resources are; nuclear fuels, minerals, and shale.
Water is a controversial resource which can be categorized as both a renewable and non-renewable resource. The cyclic change of water makes it a renewable resource while its unmanaged usage is making it a non-renewable resource.
1.Renewable resources are those which can be used again and again while non-renewable resources are those which are used only for a limited time and rate.
2.Renewable resources have a higher rate of decomposition than their rate of consumption.
3.Non-renewable resources have a lower rate of decomposition than the rate of consumption.
4.Examples of renewable resources are all the biodegradable materials and infinite, renewable resources are sunlight and wind.
5.Examples of non-renewable resources are minerals and man-made products.
Other than only resources, we also have renewable sources of energy like sunlight and wind energy while non-renewable sources of energy are like batteries.
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This article will show two of several ways where the hoof abscess could be opened and drained.
The yellow area shows the thin part of the sole that was very sore, even to the pressure of hand. No need for hoof testers. The area shows a little of blood at the opening.
The same opening after it was drained and dried and before it was flushed with iodine.
The soles were fairly flat and shallow, so only small amount of vita-derm was applied to the soft spot of the sole and the draining wound
A rubber pad was added to the shoe to prevent debris entering the draining wound as well as preventing further damage to the already too thin sole. Further more the pad prevented balling up, since the horse went to live outside and his feet were left uncared for.
The first case shows a hoof
that was left unattended for several months. The horse was shod about six
months ago and the shoes were left on the horse. The shoes have finally
fell off in time and what remained was a weakening in the sole caused by
prolonged balling up of the hoofs with the snow and mud over the winter
and spring months. I was finally called about three weeks later after the
horseís lameness was noticed. The prolonged balling up will in most
cases cause thinning and bruising of the sole. In most cases it is taken
care of before it will abscess, because the horses go lame from it.
However, in this case I have suspected that the inside of the sole (yellow
frame) was abscessed, because the horse was lame for such a long time. For
this reason I found it necessary to make only a slight opening to drain
the abscess. Since the sole in the afflicted hoof was very thin, Iíve
used the farrier knife to open it. In many cases the veterinarians will
attempt to do the same but they usually remove too much of the sole, which
in return will create more problems later on since it takes some time for
the sole to grow back, especially after it was deprived of sufficient
blood circulation to enable good sole growth. Once when Iíve opened the
effected part of the sole a decayed blood came out, which had a distinct
foul odor that proved my suspicion to be correct and that the area was
infected and abscessed. After the area was drained, the opening was
flushed with iodine and the area was covered with
Since the sole was sensitive and the opening could not be covered by the
shoe, the addition of protective rubber pad to the shoe was prudent. This
not only prevented further infection of the opening but it also helped in
preventing further bruising to the sole. This horse was sound the next day and
ready to work.
The second case shows a
typical abscess caused by bacteria. This is more likely to happen in
horses that were somewhat neglected in the farrier care department. In
other words this horse was left without being trimmed for several months
and during the hot summer days the bacteria infestation of the hoof is
very common. After the trim, the
were used to
localize the abscess, in which case this was fairly easy because of the
obvious black spot (hole) caused by bacteria. A small dip was cut out with
the hoof knife and using just the hoof nail the abscess was punctured and
opened. The ďHoof
Abscess Treatment no 1Ē was implemented (without the
soaking part) and the horse was sound
the next day.
In both cases, no
medication was used, since there was no severe infection spreading,
because in either case there was no swelling above the fetlock joint.
When opening an abscess one has to
know what he is doing, and it is recommended that only the farrier does
this, especially when it comes to similar situation as in the first case.
I do not recommend that you let your veterinarian do this, because they
often lack the experience and often damage the hoof to the point that the
horse is lame from missing too much of the sole. In other words, the horse
is not sound next day or two but keeps on being lame for several days on
account of the damage in the sole caused by inexperience. All we need to
make is a fairly small opening whenever we need to drain the abscess. This
can be done in the above methods or in some cases
the drill is very practical, but in the latter case one really
needs to know what heís doing.
After the trim a simple nail is used to drain the abscess
A larger view of the same
The "Hoof Abscess Treatment no 1" was implemented without the soaking of the hoof.
If you have diagnosed abscess (hoof testers) and you think it should be drained, I recommend that you call your farrier and not the veterinarian.
Alternative Treatment no. 1 of an abscess in the hoof.
Alternative Treatment no. 2 of an Abscess in the Hoof. (deep abscess)
All my comments are merely my opinions and beliefs gained from 40 years of professional life with horses. All drugs should be used only by the consent of a veterinarian and according to his instructions. A person who is with the horse everyday, should know him better than anyone else.
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You and your buddies are out on a camping trip reconnecting with nature and your masculinity. You’re taking a day hike to see some ancient Indian hieroglyphics, when all of sudden you feel the acute pain of two razor sharp fangs entering your flesh. You’ve just been bitten by a snake. Do you know what to do?
Just the sight of a slithering snake can send a shiver down even the manliest spine. And with good reason-with just one nibble, and in only a few hours, these feetless, cold-blooded serpents can snuff out your life. While only 9-15 people in the United States die every year from snake bites, if you don’t know how to treat them correctly, you or your loved one could become part of those statistics. Knowing how to deal with snakes and snakebites is essential man knowledge.
The best way to “treat” a snakebite is to avoid getting bitten in the first place. So in Part 1 of the Art of Manliness’ Guide to Snakes, we’ll give you a dossier on all the bad boys you need to look out for.
In Part 2, we’ll discuss ways to avoid becoming some snake’s snack and how to treat a bite if you do get bitten.
Know Your Enemy
If you were a Boy Scout, you were probably taught an old mnemonic to help you identify venomous snakes:
Red and black, friend of Jack. Red and yellow, kill a fellow.
Or in other words, if a snake has adjacent red and black colors on its skin, it’s not venomous. If red and yellow are adjacent, that snake is venomous.
But as a man, you’re past simple maxims. You want to know how to identify and name a snake. You want to know the habits of your nemeses. So, here’s a description of the various poisonous snakes found in North America and around the world.
Know Thine Enemy: Coral snakes are easy to spot by their distinctive coloring. They have alternating, red, yellow, and black bands. Did you get that? Red and yellow are touching each other, meaning this bad boy is poisonous. Be on the look out. There are counterfeit corals that have alternating red, black, and yellow bands. These aren’t poisonous.
Coral snakes are shorter than other venomous snakes. They average about 40 inches and have smaller mouths and fangs.
Their hideout: Corals are found in the southern and eastern United States, and in other places around the world. They can usually be found slithering in dry areas with lots of shrubs. They frequently spend their time underground or buried under leaf litter, and don’t pop out to say hello very often. You’ll see them most frequently after it rains or during breeding season. There are also some aquatic species that loiter in your favorite swimming hole.
How mean are they? They’re not aggressive or prone to biting, but if they do bite-watch out. Their venom takes longer to deliver, so when they bite, they hold on and won’t let go.
Rattlesnakes are easy to identify because, well, they have a rattle at the end of their tail. When threatened, the rattlesnake shakes its rattle as a warning to his would-be nemeses. Luckily for us, it’s a pretty damn loud warning; its peak frequency is equivalent to that of an ambulance siren. Did you ever wonder what a rattlesnake’s rattle was made of? Yeah? Me too. It’s basically composed of modified scales that slough off from the tail. Each time a rattlesnake sheds its skin, a new segment is added. When the snake shakes its tail in the air, the segments rattle against each other. Contrary to popular belief you can’t tell a rattlesnake’s age from counting the number of rattle segments; while they do add more segments on a regular basis, they also lose them during travels. Word of warning: if the rattle gets soaked from wet weather, it will no longer emit its noisy warning. So tread lightly in those conditions.
Several varieties of rattlesnakes exist and their habitats range from Canada to South America. The diamondback rattlesnake, the mojave rattlesnake, the sidewinder rattlesnake, and the timber rattlesnake are three species common to the United States
The Diamondback Rattlesnake
Know Thine Enemy: The different species of rattlesnakes have varied colorings, but all can be identified by their skin’s telltale diamond pattern. Most diamondbacks are about 3.5-5.5 feet long, although the Eastern diamondbacks, the biggest of the bunch, have been found in the 7 ft range.
Their hideout: Diamondbacks are generally found along the southern border of the United States, from Florida to Baja California and into Mexico. Rattlesnakes like to sun themselves and come out in the early morning or afternoon to bask in the sun’s rays. You therefore often find them sunning themselves on rocky ledges. While not typically adept climbers, species like the eastern diamond back have been found 32 ft off the ground. Some are excellent swimmers as well; eastern diamondbacks slither for miles in-between islands in the Florida Keys.
How mean are they? Some diamondbacks will retreat if given a chance. But often they will stand their ground and may strike repeatedly. They can strike from a distance up to 2/3 their body size and strike faster then the human eye can see, so stay as far away as possible. They have some of the fiercest venom of any snake; victims can die within hours of being bitten.
The Mojave Rattlesnake
Know Thine Enemy: Generally 3-4.5 ft long, it has grayish diamond shape markings on its back like the diamondback, but it’s overall coloration is more green than brown.
Their hideout: The mojave rattlesnake primarily lives in the desert of the southwestern United States, so be on the look out for it when you’re riding a burro down the Grand Canyon.They are common in wide expanses of desert and can often be found near scrub brush. They hibernate during the winter.
How mean are they? Although there isn’t scientific date to back it up, mojaves have a reputation for being quite aggressive, especially towards people.
The Sidewinder Rattlesnake
Know Thine Enemy: The sidewinder gets its name from its trademark sideways locomotion. The reason they do this is to reduce the amount of contact they have with the hot desert sands and to increase their movement’s efficiency. Just watching this thing move puts you on notice that it’s a killing machine. Smaller than its rattling cousins, the sidewinder usually is 1.5-2 feet long. The sidewinder is light in color with darker bands on its back. In addition to its trippy sideways movement, evolution has given the sidewinder another killer advantage: it can survive in the desert without a single drop of water. They get all the water they need from the prey they devour. That’s right. When a sidewinder sees you walking along, you’re not only lunch, but also a canteen. Watch out.
Their hideout: These snakes can be found in the desert of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. During the cooler months (about December to February) the sidewinder is nocturnal. They are diurnal the rest of the year.
How mean are they? Their venom is weaker than their cousins, but still can cause a serious health threat. Tread lightly.
Know Thine Enemy: Timber rattlesnakes have a yellow, brown, and rust orange coloring and are typically 3-4 ft in length. The timber rattler was immortalized during the American Revolution where it served as the symbol in the “Don’t Tread on Me Flag.” It also serves as the First Navy Jack.
Their hideout: Unlike many of its rattlesnake cousins who live in the deserts of the West, the timber rattlesnake is found in the eastern United States; it’s the only rattlesnake to make its home in the Northeast.
How mean are they? Timber rattlers are a much mellower breed of rattlesnakes, so they don’t bite too often. And they tend to rattle a lot before striking, giving you time to hightail it out of there.
Know Thine Enemy: The Cottonmouth is one scary snake. No one wants to see it slithering toward them at their favorite watering hole. Cottonmouth snakes are usually around 2 ft in length, although some have grown to a size of nearly 6 ft. Their brown, gray, tan, yellowish olive or blackish coloring, is segmented by dark crossbands. When threatened, cottonmouths will throw their head back and open their mouth wide, displaying the white interior from whence it derives the name “cottonmouth.”
Their hideout: The cottonmouth is an aquatic snake found in the south and southeast part of the United States. Cottonmouths make creeks, streams, marshes, and lakes their home, although they can also be found on dry land. Because of their affinity to water, cottonmouths are also known as water moccasins. Cottonmouths can be active during the day and night. But when it’s hot, they are usually found coiled or stretched out in the shade.
How mean are they? Despite their vicious reputation, in many cases the cottonmouth’s hiss is worse than its bite. Cottonmouths often engage in a showy threat display without attacking. This routine includes shaking their tail and letting a musky secretion rip from their anal glands. The scent of this snake fart has been compared to that of a billy goat; so if you smell goat, flee in the other direction.
Know Thine Enemy: Copperhead snakes are identified by their coppery colored head and neck. Adults reach lengths of 2 to 4 feet.
Their hideout: Copperheads are mainly found in the eastern part of the U.S. They make forest and woodlands their home. However, they do prefer to live closer to water.
How mean are they? Copperheads will only bite if they feel directly threatened, i.e., if you try to pick up or touch them. But this contact can happen inadvertently. Unlike many venomous snakes that usually slither away when humans are around, copperheads will freeze in place, often resulting in humans stepping on them and getting bitten. A bite from a copperhead is extremely painful but is not fatal if treated properly.
Cobras are probably the most famous of all the venomous snakes, thanks in part to Johnny and the gang at Cobra Kai Dojo in the Karate Kid. (I hate Johnny. What a prick.) Several species of cobras exist. What they all have in common is the distinct “hood” they make when they are threatened. In order to create this distinct cobra hood, cobras will flatten their body by spreading their ribs.
The King Cobra
Know Thine Enemy: The King Cobra is the world’s longest venomous snake, growing to a length of between 12 and 13 feet Wowza! Their olive green, tan, or black skin has pale yellow cross bands down the length of the body.
Their hideout: King Cobras are found in South and Southeast Asia. They can also be found in some parts of India. King Cobras typically live in dense highland forests near rivers and streams.
How mean are they? The King Cobra is one scary mother. The King Cobra doesn’t just feed on small rodents, this bad boy is cannibalistic- it eats other snakes. While the King Cobra is shy, it will attack if it is provoked. The venom from a King Cobra consists of extremely potent neurotoxins that attack the victim’s central nervous system. A single bite from a King Cobra can kill a full grown Asian Elephant. It can kill a man in half an hour.
The Red Spitting Cobra
Know Thine Enemy: Red Spitting Cobras vary in color from red to gray. They can grow to about 4 feet in length. What makes this cobra unique is its ability to “spit” or project their venom at their prey. Watch out!
Their hideout: Red Spitting Cobras are native to Africa are most common in that continent’s northeast region. They make their homes in brush and forests. The red spitting cobra is nocturnal, so make sure you zip up your tent!
How mean are they? Like the King Cobra, the Red Spitting Cobra is a timid and shy snake and will only attack when threatened. Unlike the King Cobra with its ultra toxic venom, the Red Spitting Cobra’s venom is much milder. While it may cause extreme sickness, a bite from a Red Spitting Cobra will probably not cause death. However, if the venom gets in your eyes and is not treated quickly, it can cause blindness so still take caution.
The Black Mamba Snake
Know Thine Enemy: The black mamba is the largest and most deadly snake in Africa. It also happens to be the fastest moving snake in the world. In short, this snake is a killing machine. The Black Mamba gets its name not from the fact that it has black skin, but because it is black on the inside of its mouth. The skin of a black mamba is actually gray to olive green. Black mambas can grow to a length of between 7 and 13 feet.
Their hideout: Black mambas make their home in the grasslands of Africa. You can find them primarily in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
How mean are they? Black Mambas are mean mothers. They will readily attack when threatened. They’ll make multiple attacks, aiming at the head and body. With each bite, they inject their super deadly venom. One bite from a black mamba has enough venom to kill 120-140 men. The venom paralyzes the muscles used for breathing and the victim consequently dies from suffocation.
An important note: While all this “enemy” language is in good fun, snakes actually play a vital role in our ecosystem. Without them, vermin and critters of many kinds would overrun us. These tips should help you avoid snakes, not seek them out for destruction. Unless it’s a do or die situation, leave the snake alone and move in the other direction.
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The terrifying pictures of California wildfires recently brought home how not only people, but pets perish in disasters. Here's a new study from the American Humane Association that gives some interesting stats to putlic attitudes towards the resuce of animals during times of crisis.
- Forty-seven percent of Americans would refuse rescue assistance if it meant leaving without a family pet
- Three out of four people agree that there should be formal evacuation plans for pets. Not surprisingly, the support for formal disaster plans for pets and companion animals was strongest in the South (74 percent) and West (76 percent) - areas most closely associated with hurricanes and wildfires
- Fifty-five percent of dog owners would refuse evacuation efforts, compared to 43 percent of cat owners
The Association offers these five quick and easy steps to help pet owners quickly and safely evacuate from a disaster zone:
- 1) Assign a keeper. Designate a member of the family to be in charge of getting the pets in the event of an emergency. Know where this person will attempt to go - be it a house or pet daycare - and plan a meeting place in case cell phone coverage is poor.
- 2) Prepare an emergency kit. Keep a set of leashes, collars, extra ID tags, bottled water, food, medications, copies of vaccination and health records, a first aid kid, vet contact information with authorization to treat pets and photos to prove ownership. Pack it up in a bag or bin and place it near (but out of reach) of a pet carrier.
- 3) Keep extra medications on hand in the event of a disaster. Keep pet vaccinations up to date. If a pet is on medication or treatment, see about having extra on hand during natural disaster season.
- 4) Know where pets can go. Find animal shelters and boarding facilities nearby that are prepared to house animals during a disaster and have the ability to evacuate the pets if needed. Don't assume pets can be brought to an evacuation site.
- 5) Update pet IDs. Include a cell phone number or an out-of-state family member's contact information.
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It is probably the greatest, biggest and most expensive experiment on earth. It is the most powerful physics experiment ever built. It lies underground on the French-Swiss border, and is nearly 27 km in circumference – 26 659 m, to be exact – or, if you prefer, some 17 miles. It belongs to the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (better known by its French acronym, Cern). It is the $9-billion-odd Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
Its job is to try to answer some of the most fundamental questions in science. Where does mass come from? What is dark matter? Does the universe contain more than the four dimensions everyone is familiar with (length, breadth, height and time) and, if it does, how many, and where are they exactly? What was the universe like just after the Big Bang? And so on.
It will do so by accelerating protons, confined and directed (in a vacuum in the ‘beam pipe’ inside the LHC) by magnetic fields produced by some 9 300 magnets, to speeds just slightly below the speed of light in a vacuum, and then smashing them into one another, and observing what happens. These collisions will produce temperatures more than 100 000 times hotter than in the heart of the sun.
To achieve all this, and more, has required the building of a mighty machine that is itself an impressive monument to modern technology. The LHC’s operating temperature is 1,9 ˚K – and 0 ˚K is absolute zero, below which temperatures cannot fall – using liquid helium as the coolant.
The operating temperature of the LHC is colder than the temperature of deep outer space. Indeed, part of the LHC is the world’s largest fridge, equivalent to 150 000 domestic refrigerators. The LHC vacuum is comparable to the vacuum of outer space.
The combined strands of the superconducting cable in the LHC would, if laid end to end, encircle the equator 6,8 times – if all the filaments of these cables were separated out, and then laid end to end, they would cover the distance to the sun and back five times, with enough left over to stretch to the moon and back a few times as well.
The cavern that holds the LHC’s Atlas experiment is big enough to contain the nave of Paris’s Notre Dame cathedral. When in operation, it will consume an average of 120 MW of power.
Under the circumstances, it is not surprising that it suffered a glitch a few days after first being switched on, in September – a faulty electrical connection between two magnets caused a leak of the supercold helium, leading to damage which forced the shutdown of the LHC and required the repair and cleaning of 53 magnets, at a cost of some £20-million.
However, the LHC is programmed to be shut down every European winter anyway – electricity costs would be too high to operate it – so the delay is not as great as it would initially seem. It should be restarted this coming European summer.
Although the LHC belongs to, and is operated by, Cern, scientists from all over the world are involved in its fundamental experiments. These scientists include South Africans, who are involved in two of the LHC’s four suites of experiments, including the flagship Atlas experiment.
More precisely, a team at the University of Johannesburg (UJ) is involved with Atlas, while a team from the University of Cape Town (UCT) and the iThemba Laboratory for Accelerator Based Sciences (iThemba LABS) is participating in an experiment designated Alice.
Atlas is an acronym for A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS, and the core of the experiment is a detec- tor in the form of a gigantic barrel, 46 m in length, with a diameter of 25 m, and a mass of 7 000 t, containing eight 25-m-long superconducting magnet coils arranged to form a cylinder around the beam pipe, which runs through the centre of the detector.
Alice stands for A Large Ion Collider Experiment, and its detector is also in the form of a barrel, smaller but heavier than that of Atlas, the Alice detector being 26 m in length and 16 m in diameter, with a mass of 10 000 t.
“Atlas is the largest LHC experi- ment – it’s got about 2 500 scientists in it, and it’s asking the most important questions for which the LHC was designed,” explains UJ associate physics professor Simon Connell, who heads the UJ team involved in the experiment. “One of these would be: Is there such a particle as the Higgs Boson? But attached to that is the nature of dark matter and the question of hidden dimensions.”
The Higgs Boson, or the Higgs particle, is currently a theoretical construct to explain how mass exists. Saying that mass is inherent in matter is simply not good enough, especially when dealing with matter at the quantum (sub-atomic) level.
“The aim of particle physics is to be able to explain the universe with a small set of particles. The smaller the number of particles, the better,” highlights UJ PhD student and Atlas researcher Claire Lee. Everything and everyone in the universe are made up of these particles, in differing combinations.
These particles rejoice in such exotic names as quarks, muons, gluons and neutrinos, and there are different versions of each of these – such as top quarks and bottom quarks.
Thus, protons and neutrons, once thought to be fundamental (nondivisable) particles, are now known to be made up of different combinations of different types of quarks, held together by gluons. Electrons, however, are still considered to be fundamental particles.
The Standard Model
“Now, we’ve got this theory, called the Standard Model. And the Standard Model explains the electromagnetic force, which includes visible light; it explains the strong nuclear force, which holds protons and neutrons together inside the nucleii of atoms, and it explains the weak nuclear force, which is responsible for nuclear decay and without which the sun would not burn,” she elucidates.
“So these are three out of the four fundamental forces we know of – the fourth is gravity. Unfortunately, the Standard Model is not compatible with gravity. But, when you look at the small distance scales and the small masses of subatomic particles, gravity isn’t really that important. So the Standard Model works exceptionally well, even without gravity.”
It is important to understand that forces and fields do not exist in and of themselves; they are all carried by particles – each force or field has its own carrier particle. Thus, light is carried by photons.
“The beauty of the Standard Model is that it gives us a whole bunch of particles and it tells us what particles make up the proton, the neutron – which themselves are the particles that make up the nucleus of an atom – and it also tells us why the nucleus is the size it is,” she says. “But what it doesn’t tell us is why the masses of the particles in the atom are very different.
The electron, for example, is something like two hundred thousand times lighter than the top quark. We know that it’s lighter, but we don’t understand why. Everything has mass, but, in the Standard Model, the easiest way we can write things down means everything is massless. That’s obviously a big problem. We need something to explain why particles have mass.”
It was in 1964 that British physicist Peter Higgs came up with the basic idea of how matter gets mass. Refined over many years with contributions from other physicists, the concept is that the universe is permeated by a field, now called the Higgs Field, carried by specific particles – Higgs Bosons.
As other particles move through the Higgs Field, the Higgs Bosons impose a kind of drag on them, which gives them their mass – this drag is their mass. Different types of particles interact with the Higgs Bosons to different degrees – the more interactions with the Higgs that a particle has, the greater its mass.
“It’s much the same as if you have a room full of people, and somebody famous walks in, and all the people want to meet this famous person, so they cluster around him, and that celebrity is slowed down as he moves through the room, because of his interactions with the people.
But an unknown person who enters the room is not slowed down so much, because people don’t cluster around him and so he has fewer interactions,” says Lee, citing the metaphor of University College, London, professor David Miller.
Even with the LHC, the Higgs cannot be detected directly. It exists, independently, for such a short time that it cannot be picked up by any detector. But it does decay into other particles, and these particles can be detected. It is these latter particles that the Atlas detector will pick up, and the scientists will add up the momenta of these decay products and, if the result comes out at a mass close to that predicted for the Higgs particle, that will strongly suggest that the Higgs Boson exists.
“The problem is that there are at least ten different ways the Higgs particle can decay. A Higgs could decay, for example, into four electrons, or into four muons, or into two photons,” she cautions. “So there are a whole series of different teams in the Higgs research group, and each is looking for different decay patterns for the Higgs. We, at UJ, are probably going to be involved in looking for Higgs decay into exotic particles – that is, things beyond the Standard Model.”
Exotic particles are also, currently, purely theoretical, but could, if they exist, help make up the mysterious dark matter – so called because it neither emits nor reflects light – which makes up 23% of the universe. (Normal matter and energy comprise less than 5% of the universe, while the very mysterious dark energy accounts for 72%.)
Although Alice is getting less media attention that Atlas, South Africa’s involvement in this LHC experiment began earlier and involved the design and construction of a key part of the detector. South Africa joined Atlas last July, but has been part of Alice since 2003.
“South African involvement was originally to design, construct, and implement the Di-Muon High Level Trigger for Alice,” reports UCT/Cern Research Unit researcher Dr Bruce Becker. “An online system was designed to decide, in real time, whether to record an event from a collision detected by Alice or not.
Hence, its designation as a trigger – it triggers data readouts, which happen at a rate of about a kiloHertz (1 000 times a second). The Trigger is a filter on all the data coming out of the experiment, and it has been installed and is located right at the front end of the electronics processing chain of the Alice experiment.”
Alice seeks to examine the first few moments of the universe, immediately after the Big Bang, when matter was superhot and superdense, and not even protons and neutrons, let alone complete atoms, existed.
“Alice seeks to condense matter, by colliding it, to get back to the densities of the very early universe,” he explains. “The aim is to recreate a strange state called deconfinement, a state in which quarks and gluons moved around freely, not bound in neutrons and protons, in what is called a quark-gluon plasma. The intent with Alice is to recreate this situation and measure its properties.”
Free quarks do not exist in nature today, so the quark- gluon plasma that will be created in the LHC will exist only very briefly. “But it will leave signals which will show it existed,” he points out. “We, in Cape Town, are particularly interested in what physicists call quarkonia, which are combinations of quarks and antiquarks, and especially the heavy ones, the beauty quarks and antibeauty quarks, and the charm and anticharm.” (The different types of quarks have whimsical names.) “These decay into pairs of muons, and we can detect muons. So we can use these to study the quark-gluon plasma.”
But how does a team in South Africa use the results of incre- dibly high energy proton colli- sions in the LHC, in Europe? The solution is the Grid.
“Grid computing is federating computer resources,” explains Becker, who is also coordinator of the South African National Computer Grid. “In Europe, national networks have been federated together to study experiments and the concept has taken off hugely there. It is used in many fields, such as earth observation, bioinfomatics, and not only particle physics.
South Africa has never had anything like this. Only recently have we created a national research network, known as SANReN. So we are now developing computer sites in this country, using this concept, and employing the relevant software.”
“The Grid is a massive, new, computing infrastructure, invol- ving both network linkages and high-performance computing clusters, linked around the world,” sums up Connell. “It provides tens of thousands of computers, working together with very fast interconnections.
And all the data from the LHC is going to just flow on to the Grid. So, from anywhere in the world, you can launch applications – imagine them as Web robots – that go and find the data you seek, and analyse it. It’s really the advances in computing that have made it possible for all countries, everywhere, to participate.
Here, at UJ, we have set up such a high-performance computing cluster, loaded on the special software, including authentication and security, so that we can access the Grid, launch analysis tasks on to all the Cern data from Atlas. This way, we will be able to do our own search for the Higgs Boson.”
In exactly the same way, the Alice research team in Cape Town will be able to access the LHC data they require, without having to travel to Europe.
There are many other mysteries and theories that the LHC will explore over the coming decades, and the instrument is bound to throw up as many questions as, if not more than, it answers.
One such theory which needs testing by LHC experiments is supersymmetry. “This is the idea that every normal particle has a supersymmetric partner, a kind of shadow particle that we don’t see,” says Connell.
Supersymmetry makes possible the concept that, just after the Big Bang, there was only one force in the universe, not the current four, and only one class of particle. “So the universe would have been in an incredibly simple and symmetric state. That is necessary if you want to imagine the universe essentially emerging out of a vacuum, in a very simple state.”
And if the results of the LHC experiments confound expectations, and do not give the hoped-for results? “The theoretical physicists will be very happy,” admits Lee. “Because that would mean we don’t actually understand the universe as well as we think we do. And there’s always more excitement in not knowing what you’re looking for, knowing that there is something else out there that you don’t understand yet.”
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Determining the shape of molecules can be a tricky business.
Carbon dioxide (O=C=O) has a central atom (C) with two atoms bonded to it and it has a linear shape.
Water (H-O-H) has a central atom (O) with two atoms bonded to it, but it has a bent shape.
Here’s a demonstration to help you students visualize molecular shapes. And catch your students attention!
Use balloons to represent the number of “things” around a central atom.
As mentioned before, carbon dioxide has two atoms around the central atom, so we tie two inflated balloons together, and voila! The linear molecule is formed:
How about carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) or another molecule that has four atoms surrounding the central atom? Tie four balloons together (I make two pairs of balloons and twist them together) and you’ve got the tetrahedral shape!
Now, back to that tricky water example….
If you draw the electron dot diagram for water, you’ll notice that there are not just two atoms around the central atom, there are also two electron pairs hanging out there. Those need to be accounted for as “things” around the central atom.
So… The oxygen atom in water has four “things” around it that need to be represented with our balloons. Just like with the carbon tetrachloride, I make two pairs of balloons, only this time, I make each pair out of a different color (one color represents the atoms, one color represents the electron pairs).
Twist the two balloon pairs together, and…
Let’s say the green balloons represent the hydrogen atoms…take a look, the green balloons are bent down into a bent shape. The yellow balloons are pushing them down, just as the electron pairs push the hydrogen atoms down!
Try it yourself and see what happens if you have 3, 5 or 6 “things” surrounding a central atom.
This activity was presented by C. Lee in a workshop entitled “The End of Boring Biology and Confusing Chemistry” at the 2006 New Jersey Science Teachers Association Convention
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"Birth of the Mardween"
by Jordan S. Bassior
IntroductionShort for "Martian Bedouin," the Mardween are an Arab-derived culture of Sunni Muslim religious fanatics who emigrated to Mars in the late 21st and early 22nd centuries to practice their Wahabbist cult with strictures increasingly-illegal on Earth, including extreme patriarchy, honor-killings and the enslavement of non-Mardween. The Mardween were implacable enemies of Western Civilization in general and of the American Mandate in particular: in truth they deeply hated all life and civilization other than their own. In the end they became merely a force for chaos and destruction, a taint on Mars and Mankind.
The First Martian Hegira
The culture was founded by Ahmed Jabril ("The Founder") Farouk who on January 15th, 2089 led the first Hegira to landfall on Mars, with the intent of eventually dominating Mars by demographic expansion. Farouk's followers first setled around northern oases, and were tolerated by the other Martian settlements as long as they refrained from raiding them. There, they built conventional domed outposts and shallow subterranean settlements, architecturally-similar to (if a bit better-fortified than) those constructed by the other Martian cultures. In these early days, these Muslim colonists were still sufficiently weak -- and sane -- to avoid provoking a war of ethnocide from the other settlements: indeed they participated in the 2097 declaration of the Martian Confederation, and fought for the Confederation against both the abortive 2150-51 attack by Lee III and the successful invasion in 2154-55 under Lee IV.
The Second Martian Hegira
When the American Mandate finally conquered Mars, in 2155, Farouk's eldest son and successor, Abdullah ("The Grim") led the most fanatical of his followers south of the equator into the deep deserts, in what was called the Second Hegira. There, they at first attempted to build normal colonies, though well-concealed from the American authorities, in the hopes that risings would sweep the American presence from Mars, allowing them to return to the Founder's plan. Part of Abdullah's strategy was to refrain from raiding as much as possibe, and to conduct such raids only by indirect and deniable means, so that the blame might be put upon "bandits."
In 2169, however, an astute investigator for the American Forces Military Police successfully proved to the satisfaction of General Sutton that Farouk's Wahabbists were actually behind the raids. US forces descended upon Abdullah Farouk's capital of Sira by near-total surprise and captured the colony, finding ample evidence of Wahabbist misdeeds, including slaves taken from other Martian settlements, and stores missing from military convoys and depots. Abdullah the Grim was slain in the fighting, but intelligence captured from his computers and some of his other followers allowed Sutton to roll up and occupy the Wahabbist settlements.
Here, the Mandate missed a major opportunity, because Sutton did not have the authority to disperse the Wahabbist civilians and hence end their culture. Some of the most fanatical Wahabbists were able to escape into the unsettled deserts, where they set up heavily-stealthed subterranean encampments and made only the most minimal contacts with civilization, even Muslim civilization. The populace in the Muslim settlements, both northern and southern, strongly sympathized with these fanatics -- for the first time called "Martian Bedouin" -- and young hotheads frequently ran off to join them.
When Sutton tried a partial dispersal in 2171, through mass arrests in the most egregiously-rebellious settlements, to cut off supplies to the Bedouin, he aroused political opposition amongst liberals back home, who argued that he was unfairly persecuting a rich and unique culture that merely wanted to be left alone to their traditional way of life. The new Commander Nicole Lee, fifth of her dynasty and one who imagined herself to be highly enlightened in the European mode, repudiated Sutton's actions, released his prisoners, and sent Sutton back to Earth, to take control of the continental defense of Antarctica.
In 2176, the shocking pornographic broadcasts made by Nicole Lee, as part of America's Quadricententennial Celebration, outraged many people throughout the Solar System, and in particular its Muslim population. The terrorist atom-bombing of Washington DC was seen by many religious fanatics of all stripes as a sign that Armageddon was upon the Universe. On Earth, there was widespread Muslim rioting. On Mars, these events both offended the Muslims, and heartened them when they saw Nicole Lee's incompetent and cowardly reaction to the attack on Washington DC, which included a pointless persecution of the Changists (a group hated by orthodox Muslims and blamed by Lee V for the attack) -- in an effort to avoid having to confront mainstream Islam.
In 2177, Lee V made matters worse by dispatching her favorite LaRousse, whom she had made a Marshal in the American Forces, to Mars to serve as Governor. Marshal LaRousse was despised by much of the American military because of his inept response to the Muslim attacks of 2176, and the appointment was a deliberate attempt to remove him temporarily from the Terrestrial scene so that he might be returned at a future date, his sins overlaid by more recent blunders by other high officials.
LaRousse was a very poor choice for a Governor. To begin with, he viewed his appointment primarily as a golden opportunity to line his own pocket through bribery, graft and outright extortion. The wise policies of the late Commander Lee IV had led to a Martian economic boom, with the combination of superior Martian technical skill and access to the huge Terrestrial and Lunarian markets proving immensely profitable for Martian commerce. To LaRousse, these thriving enterprises were so many geese to be plucked -- or even slaughtered -- for his own benefit.
So highly-skilled Martians, in control of a sizable and modern industrial infrastructure, who had been reconciled by Lee IV to American administration on the proviso that their economic growth was encouraged, were now being plundered by the disgraced favorite of Lee V, and plundered so ruthlessly that they were thrown into recession. The Martians had been free a scant 22 years earlier -- just one generation past -- and they were far from tamed to the point that they would submit meekly to such treatment.
Formal delegations were rebuffed with scorn. Public demonstrations were dispersed with lethal force. Angered, and mourning the death of some of their own youth, the Martian political leadership readily accepted arms smuggled in from the League of Europa -- and supplemented them with many more munitions forged in Martian factories. Survivors of the original wars of 2150 and 2154-55 provided leadership; the new generation was already old enough to provide ample recruits.
The rebellion against LaRousse erupted in 2178, just two yearsafter the appointment of that venal Governor. Among the Martians joining in the rising included the Muslims, which was ironic because LaRousse's malfeasances included an almost complete suspension of patrol and law enforcement activity against the Muslim settlements (he preferred to use his forces to intimidate the wealthier non-Muslim towns, the better to fleece them). LaRousse was so plainly a despicable, licentious coward that all this attempt at appeasement produced was utter scorn on the part of even the more moderate Muslims, let alone the fierce Bedouin of the South.
In the encounter, LaRousse's forces -- led by political favorites and supplies stripped by embezzlement -- proved woefully below the normal Mandatial standard, and far less able than were the Martian rebels. In a mere month the rebels seized control of the whole planet and its orbital facilities; only the forts on Deimos remained in American hands, and these were so besieged that the commanding officer at Deimos, Brigadier Leonard Oswald Ferrell (a more competent nephew of that Terrence Ferrell famously ambushed at Blackrock in 2121) was barely able to keep enough lasers and casters working to prevent a precision bombardment of his works.
With this victory the Bedouin -- led by Hakim ("The Cruel") Farouk, younger brother of the slain Abdullah, ran wild. They were just sufficiently sane to avoid attacking their fellow rebels, but they did make prisoner various American and other foreign personnel, both military and civilian, and upon them visited the most horrible abuses. Many were mutilated and enslaved; others simply slain, with or without slow torture. Some of the worst atrocities were actually comcast to Earth, by way of defiance.
These actions horrified not merely the Mandate but also all sane men throughout the Solar System -- including most of the Martian rebels. When Morton Blythe Stanek formed the Second Martian Confederation, it was with great reluctance that the Muslims were represented, and it was generally understood by the other Martians that the Muslims were to be kept away from any real decision-making powers -- which politically-weakened the revolutionary regime.
Marshal LaRousse survived the defeat of the Mandatial forces by fleeing Mars -- not for Deimos, which he judged doomed -- but for Luna. Faced with political embarassment and strategic disaster, Lee V brought General Sutton back from his Antarctic obscurity, made him a Marshal, and put him in command of the American Martian Expeditionary Force, tasked with recovering Mars for the Mandate, and suppressing the rebellion.
Sutton swept swiftly to Mars, taking the calculated risk of leading with a strong force of assault carriers, strike cruisers, destroyers and fast tenders, while the main body of battlefleet lagged behind. Consequently, he was able to arrive in early 2179, before the Martians had sufficiently fortified Phobos, and though his light forces took losses from the enemy defenses, his torpedoes battered and then his marines captured the inner Martian moon, allowing Ferrell to reopen the port on Deimos and opening the port on Phobos to the American transports.
Now with strong superiority in Martian orbital space, Sutton brought up his battleships and bombarded the Martian surface defenses into uselessness, gaining complete orbital supremacy. Massing his forces rapidly but with precision, he bombarded local defenses around Bradbury and effected a landing at that port, seizing and strongly garrisoning a wide worldhead. He was able to hold it against desperate Martian counterattacks, within which could be landed further reinforcements. The Martian ability to concentrate against his landing was limited by orbital interdiction fire, and Sutton's own ability to make raids and even secondary landings as required elsewhere on the planet.
As for the Second Martian Confederation, following the fall of Bradbury its political disintegration was rapid. Sutton was almost as canny a diplomat as he was a general officer, and he knew Mars well enough to grasp where lay the political faultlines. He covertly treated with all the major Martian factions, even the Muslims, and offered all pardons and good treatment should they submit to the American Mandate. As one after another settlement and faction surrendered even before his troops rolled up to their gates, he was as good as his word toward most of the factions -- but not the Southern Wahabbists. The Martian Bedouin, of course, kept on fighting -- though after Hakim the Cruel died in an American raid on October 26th 2179, they fought as independent bands, clans and families rather than as a united force.
Sutton had seen firsthand the barbarity of their culture in his 2169-71 campaign, and was well aware of the Bedouin atrocities of 2178. After he had firmly garrisoned all Martian settlements -- especially those of the Muslims -- he conducted a thorough investigation into all actions committed by the Martian Muslims from 2171 on which would be considered criminal even in most Outie polities, such as rape, slavery, torture and the murder of prisoners. All the while he recomcast the original atrocities, with tantalizing leaks from his investigations to outrage not only the population of the Mandate but also the reconquered Martians. The final straw -- for the Martians -- was when he produced evidence showing that such abuses had also been committed against other Martians who had somehow fallen afoul of Muslim ire.
With this revelation, he sprung the trap. The Martian Muslims were assigned almost all blame for both the revolt and its atrocities. The other Martians gladly agreed with this notion. Virtually every Muslim who had been an officer, official or even combatant in 2178-79 was convicted of war crimes. Sentences ranged from death to mental enslavement to long prison terms. Every child belonging to their families was judged to be in an unfit environment and put in fosterage. The Muslim colonies themselves were confiscated in reparations for the atrocities and their lands and other assets put up for sale; their populations forcibly evicted and dispersed among other settlements, both on Mars and elsewhere.
The Third Martian Hegira
As one would expect, the most fanatical of the surviving Muslim Martians refused to accept this grim edict. With the death of Farouk the Cruel, they had no overall leader, but the surviving Sheiks were able to organize escapes of families with considerable amounts of war-surplus equipment into the deep Southern deserts, far from even the old Wahabbist settlements. There, the Mars-Bedouin were determined to make a stand for their religion, for their culture, and for their way of life -- including raids against and the enslavement of the unbelievers.
At first, of course, they were hiding far more than raiding. American Forces pursued them, but desultorily -- as long as they stayed away from convoys and settlements, and did not make their presence obvious, the Americans were too busy rebuilding Mars to be able to devote the tremendous effort needed to find and neutralie every single Mars-Bedouin holdout.
Marshal Sutton would have liked to get them all, of course, but in 2180, less than one year after he had completed his conquest of Mars, the Second Great Muslim revolt erupted on Earth. With significant portions of Earth itself under rebel Muslim control, Sutton could not keep most of his forces: they were shipped back to the Terrrestrial System to support Marshal Hispano's Arabian campaigns. While Sutton did not wholly abandon the field to the Mars-Bedouin, even in the deepest deserts of the south, all he could do was to guard scattered outposts, escort convoys, and carry out the occasional search-and-destroy operation -- usually in reaction to a Bedouin raid.
It was during this period that Sutton's troops -- often overstretched, tired, and increasingly-cynical about the prospects for long-term victory against such an elusive foe, began to call the Martian Bedouin simply the "Mardween" -- and the culture received the name under which it would be finally known to history.
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A research team at Georgia Tech makes a game-changing breakthrough for the solar industry -- fiber optic solar cells that can work indoors (or even underground).
November has been a breakthrough month for the solar industry. On the heels of an announcement by an Australian research team that broke the 43 percent efficiency barrier in solar PV technology, another team at the Georgia Institute of Technology headed by Dr. Zhong Wang pioneered a new kind of solar cell that uses fiber optics to generate electricity.
This is one of the biggest breakthroughs in the industry, promising an eventual "liberation" from the traditional solar panel and the potential to produce electricity without having to max out your south-facing roofs with heavy and expensive rigid solar cells.
The researchers call it "3D" solar because protons are allowed to move in multiple directions via a bundle of transparent fiber optic cables coated with zinc oxide. The tips of the cable bundle would be exposed to direct sunlight, and as the photons collected moved through the cables, they generate electricity. Then each photon bounces back, allowing the cable to collect additional energy missed in the first pass.
The polymer cables are tiny (just slightly thicker than human hair) but they provide a low-cost method of producing electricity on demand. A single 10 centimeter cable can produce 0.5 volts, and a 10 watt light bulb could be powered by a 10-cm long bundle (equivalent to handful of human hair — 10,000 cables).
What the cables lack in efficiency (3-8 percent) they make up for in ease of production, low temperatures and no silicon. And because the cables are protected from outdoor weather, they could be made from cheap plastic. A great use, in my book, for petroleum.
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Milwaukee ruins: Layton School & Gordon Park bath house
Sometimes hidden, sometimes in plain site in parks, along roadsides, at the lakefront, are remnants of Milwaukee's past scattered. While Milwaukee has preserved parts of its past built environment, many buildings and bridges and other structures have long disappeared.
Meanwhile, stray bits of that past can still be seen. Here are a few...
Layton School of Art, Prospect Avenue
About halfway down the bluff on the east side of Prospect Avenue, just north of Ogden Avenue, stand a pair of reinforced cement columns sprouting rebar out the tops. These are the remains of the Layton School of Art, sort of...
Originally located adjacent to the Layton Art Gallery on Jefferson Street, the Layton School of Art was always pressed for space. By the close of the 1940s, School Director Charlotte Partridge had located and acquired a new site for the school, on Prospect Avenue and one of the school's industrial design teachers, Jack Waldheim, designed a striking glass box that was one of the most exciting modernist buildings in Milwaukee at the time.
The plan included a long pavilion that cantilevered out over the bluff. That part of the building would be supported by two square reinforced concrete columns. However, says, John Eastberg, co-author of "Layton's Legacy," cost overruns spelled changes.
"The school turned out to be wildly over budget and that part of the building, which had an auditorium, was never built," he says.
So, in effect, these columns – which stand long after the building was closed in the summer of 1970 and demolished soon after – are actually the remains of something never built.
The rest of the school was built, however, to critical acclaim.
"I had heard your school was the most beautiful art school in the United States," said respected photographer Yousuf Karsh during a visit. "Now that I have seen it, I must say that the previous report sounds like typically British understatement."
The Gordon Park Boat / Bath House, Milwaukee River at Locust Street
The Milwaukee River was once a center for recreation to a degree that we almost can't imagine anymore. There was a swimming school at North Avenue, a resort in what is now Riverside Park (a long staircase remains) and other swimming and boating sites.
At Locust Street, on the west bank of the river, stands a wall with an opening that is the final bit of the Gordon Park Boathouse (also sometimes referred to as the Gordon Park Bath House), built in 1913.
Though the wall is now yards and yards away from the water, it once was right up at the edge and connected by a bridge to a wide wooden dock perfect for diving – or sliding – into the dip. In the photo above you can see the gap in the wall where the wooden bridge out to the dock intersected.
Megan Daniels has some more background on this wall – as well as a 1940 boathouse built higher up the bluff – and images here.
Unknown building elements, lakefront
Much of what we know and enjoy as the lakefront today sits atop a former lake bed. And I don't mean tens of thousands of years ago. Much of it is the result of landfill deposited over the past century, and some of it has even been created in the 30 years I've lived in the city.
A lot of the landfill is stone and soil dug up during the creation of other projects, like the deep tunnel, for example. But, when the weather begins to cooperate, stroll along the lakefront south and north of the Linnwood water treatment plant and you'll find decorative capitals and other architectural elements from unknown buildings. There are photos of some of these to be found on Flickr, like this one.
Stay tuned for another installment of Milwaukee Ruins.
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Parker's book consists of an enormous amount of misdirection, and evasion of most of the best evidence for human evolution. All the old creationist favorites such as Piltdown Man, Nebraska Man, Ramapithecus and Nutcracker Man are discussed. Of course, these have little or no relevance to the modern study of human evolution, and some of them never did.
Piltdown Man is a famous fossil fraud which was accepted as legitimate for decades. It adversely affected the study of human evolution for decades, but by the time Skeletons was published the hoax had been exposed for 45 years. Nebraska Man, however, was never widely believed to be a human ancestor and had no impact on the study of human evolution prior to its correct identification only a few years after its discovery. Ramapithecus is a fossil ape which, between about 1960 and 1975, was often considered a human ancestor on the basis of some overenthusiastic speculation, but has not been important in human evolution since then.
Parker spends a couple of pages discussing the 'Zinjanthropus' or 'Nutcracker Man' fossil. This is a legitimate fossil, the skull of a robust australopithecine, named OH 5, discovered in 1959 by Louis and Mary Leakey. Parker implies most scientists believed that OH 5 was a human ancestor and a tool user, and did so until 1972 when Richard Leakey found modern human bones buried at a deeper level.
In fact, Louis Leakey was the only scientist to ever seriously entertain the idea that OH 5 was a human ancestor - to most other scientists, it seemed obvious that it was some sort of robust australopithecine. And even Leakey quickly abandoned the idea, because less than a year and a half later he discovered other hominid bones (OH 7, now allocated to Homo habilis) below OH 5. The 'modern human bones' discovered by Richard Leakey aren't modern human bones, and were actually discovered at another site far away.
Parker mentions three other "huge mistakes": an alligator bone, a horse's toe bone, and a dolphin rib, all supposedly misidentified as hominids. The first two of these are so obscure that I have never been able to find out the details about these fossils or who misidentified them. Whatever they were, they are irrelevant - they were never accepted or even named as hominid species, and sank without a trace.
As for the dolphin's rib, it's almost as irrelevant. Parker says that "... the evolutionist who found it thought he could prove it was an ape-man who walked upright!" but the truth is somewhat different. The scientist who found the fossil spent considerable effort trying to identify it, and finally decided that it was probably hominid, but other scientists at a conference identified it as a dolphin's rib. It too was never named as a hominid, and its discoverer never claimed he could prove it walked upright - that detail was just invented by Parker.
In contrast to the space devoted to these irrelevancies, legitimate fossils are either ignored or misrepresented.
Homo erectus barely gets mentioned, and only in connection with the Java Man and Turkana Boy erectus fossils. The Turkana Boy is claimed, wrongly, to be identical to modern humans, and Java Man is waved away as a mistake (Parker apparently believes that the Java Man skullcap belongs to an ape), in spite of the fact that the skulls of these two fossils are very similar. The fact that dozens of erectus fossils exist and that their skull anatomy in particular is quite different from modern humans is concealed. Readers could easily get the impression from Parker that the species of Homo erectus doesn't even exist.
Homo habilis, one of the most important species in human evolution, never even gets mentioned. (Many creationists now claim that habilis isn't a valid species, but that isn't true.) One habiline skull is mentioned indirectly (ER 1470, on p. 37) but its bones are wrongly claimed to be "like those of modern man".
Irritatingly, Parker gives no references for most of his important claims. There are only 8 references in the whole book, mostly for unimportant points, and all but one of them refer to other creationist sources. I wrote to Parker twice, asking him for references for many of his claims, including most of the points listed below. I never received any reply.
Here are a number of the more questionable claims from the book:
Parker says that Dubois "didn't tell anyone for over thirty years about the human [Wadjak] skulls he discovered". This is also false; in fact Dubois published three articles mentioning the Wadjak skulls soon after their discovery.
Parker says that "At least Dubois finally told the truth, and no informed scientist calls the Java mistake an ape-man anymore." What do they call it then? Parker doesn't say, but this sounds like a rehash of the old creationist canard that Dubois eventually decided that the Java Man skullcap was just a giant gibbon and nothing to do with human evolution. Wrong again; Dubois never abandoned his claim that Java Man was a human ancestor. This discredited claim has been abandoned even by Answers in Genesis, who include it in their list of Arguments we think creationists should NOT use.
"Mom: ...But other scientists didn't just look [at Lucy]; they took measurements.As far as I can tell, this is complete fiction. I have never heard of any scientific papers claiming that Lucy did not walk upright. I can only imagine that Parker has some muddled memory of a well known paper by Charles Oxnard (1975), in which Oxnard claimed some functional similarities between some australopithecine bones and orang-utans. However, Oxnard was examining South African specimens of A. africanus, not Lucy (which is in A. afarensis). And, Oxnard did not say that A. africanus could not have walked upright.
Dana: What did the measurements show?
Mom: They showed that Lucy did not walk upright. In fact, another ape, an orangutan, would have walked more like a person than Lucy could."
The similarity as depicted in Zihlman (1984) with chimp on left, Lucy on right
The similarity as depicted by Parker
Except for having small rather than large teeth, and a quadrupedal rather than a bipedal pelvis, pygmy chimpanzees are remarkably like early gracile australopithecines in their skeletal dimensions.
An unpleasant aspect of the book is Parker's continual denigration of scientists, in both word and picture. A few cartoons depict scientists as either overweight or scrawny (but always unattractive), and foolish or dishonest. This is pretty rich, coming from someone with Parker's carelessness with the truth. Here are a couple of examples:
The discoverer of 'Nebraska Man', daydreaming about his find.
This scientist has a bubble saying "These bones obviously belong to a female 'ape-woman' with an I.Q. of 47 who was carrying one of her 3 children as she walked upright."
Accompanying Parker's claims about the Wadjak skulls (discussed above) is an illustration showing a masked man under cover of night putting a human skull into a box labelled "Evidence to hide - Man before Ape-man".
Later he claims that Donald Johanson deliberately and fraudulently altered the pelvis of Lucy to make it look as though she was bipedal. This is based on the first episode of the NOVA series In Search of Human Origins, where Johanson does make statements that could, for those of a conspiratorial turn of mind, be interpreted as an admission of having doctored the bones. Reading the transcript carefully, however, it is clear that the bones had been originally been broken and the pieces fused together during fossilization. As scientist Owen Lovejoy explained on the show, the bones were originally in an 'anatomically impossible position', so he broke a cast of the fossil (not the original!) in an attempt to reverse the damage which occurred during fossilization. (For more information see: Creationist Claims About the Reconstruction of the "Lucy" Pelvis)
Elsewhere, one of the Parker children asks rhetorically whether museum displays aren't being dishonest in displaying fossils such as Java Man and Nutcracker Man. Indeed they would be if the fossils were being misrepresented, but there's no evidence that that is the case. Java Man is correctly classified as Homo erectus in museums, and Nutcracker Man as a robust australopithecine not ancestral to humans. If Parker has any reasons to claim these aren't correct identifications, he should state them rather than casting slurs on the honesty of museums.
Parker, like many creationists, can't resist the urge to smear evolution with the racism tag, and brings up cases where scientists have claimed that aboriginals or Negroes were subhuman. Such cases do exist, though it's impossible to evaluate Parker's examples because of the lack of references. I suspect, however, that these cases are aberrations of individual scientists and that the claims were not the standard scientific thinking in their day. And, of course, Parker doesn't mention that creationist scientists both before and after Darwin were often equally racist.
Referring to the Tasmanian genocide, Parker says "The settlers believed so strongly that the Tasmanian natives were part animal that they formed a human chain across parts of the island to hunt down and kill all the native peoples." Although he is obviously trying to pin the blame for this on evolution, it occurred in 1830 - some thirty years before Darwin published his theory. The settlers were not evolutionists, but were mostly Christians - maybe Parker should reconsider his belief that evolution is responsible for racism.
Although Parker brags about his scientific credentials (and even once says, nauseatingly, that "...I'm a scientist who spends a lot of time studying fossils. It's my business to know things like that") there is no evidence from this book that he has any first-hand knowledge of the scientific literature on human evolution. As far as I could tell, all of the material in Parker's book could have been recycled from other creationist sources, and probably was; it is hard to see how someone familiar with the scientific literature could get so much wrong. I doubt that he was even paying much attention to his creationist sources - Parker is so sloppy with his facts that I suspect he was often working from memory.
I'll admit that I did not come to this book expecting to be impressed by it. Still, I was surprised at how appallingly bad it was. Parker is, after all, an important figure in the world of creationism (see his bio here). He was prominent in the Institute for Creation Research for many years, and then founded Answers in Genesis along with Ken Ham. He has legitimate qualifications including a doctorate in science education. And yet often he seems unaware even of what fellow creationists are saying about human evolution, let alone real scientists. Parker's book is an example of the worst of creationist literature, a shoddy collection of recycled misinformation.
This book not only contains no reliable scientific information, but is dishonest to the core as well as being blisteringly incompetent. Any kid who relied on Skeletons in your Closet wouldn't have a hope of being able to participate in a discussion of human evolution, and wouldn't even be able to understand the discussion. Even creationists should be embarrassed by this book.
1. The discoverer of the dolphin rib was Noel Boaz. You can read more about this incident in Boaz's book Quarry, and in Lucy's Child by Johanson and Shreeve. Return to text
2. For example, the virulently racist creationist Louis Agassiz, as described by Stephen Gould in his book The Panda's Thumb. Darwin, by contrast, was remarkably non-racist for his time and a passionate opponent of slavery. Return to text
3. Actually, the purpose of the "Black Line" was not to kill the remaining aborigines, but to capture them. Return to text
Though they apparently aren't. Both Answers in Genesis and the Institute for Creation Science sell Skeletons, with ICR calling it a "landmark book".
[Update Sep 2008: Hmm, it now appears to have disappeared from ICR's catalogue. AIG still has it, but with a "... this item is no longer available" banner.]
[Update May 2011: Now it appears to have disappeared from AIG's catalogue too. Maybe they were embarrassed by it.] Return to text
Oxnard C. (1975): The place of the australopithecines in human evolution: grounds for doubt? Nature, 258:389-95.
Zihlman A.L. (1984): Pygmy chimps, people, and the pundits. New Scientist, (15 November 1984)39-40.
This page is part of the Fossil Hominids FAQ at the talk.origins Archive.
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Due to our work at feynlabs, I was recently asked – What’s the best book to get started with programming?
There are many great books – and some programmers would recommend books like Kerninghan and Ritchie .
They are being snobbish ofcourse
But K and R really is not a starter book.
Today, one could recommend any python book – and I love Python especially as a language to get started with programming ..
But my recommendation for one of the best books to get started with programming is a not so mainstream book called Getting Started with Arduino by Massimo-Banzi
But this book is not so well known.. and when it is reviewed, it is from a perspective of working with LEDs etc.
In contrast, my approach and review for this book is as an ideal book to get started with programming (which is perhaps not intended by the author – but it works for us!)
There is an excellent TED talk by Conrad Wolfram on Teaching kids real math with computers. This talk was one of my big inspirations for teaching computing .. the same issues Conrad wolfram talks about with respect to maths also apply to programming (teaching of)
So, if you extrapolate to programming, you need to teach programming in ways in which it could be used (and not give kids unrelated problems which have little bearing in real life)
Specifically, this book talks of ‘interactive devices’ – which in my view are one of the major new future trend for computing itself.
Computing is changing – fundamentally – Both hardware and software are becoming Open Sourced. Value will lie in human innovation where we will use a combination of HW SW and Algorithms to create value.
If you accept this future for computing, then Arduino, Raspberry Pi etc are key devices and they shape the future of computing.
Interactive devices(below from the book) follow a simple process of set-up and loop i.e. waiting for inputs
This trend brings us to a larger world of ‘Physical computing’ which is simplified through devices like the Arduino
So, why does this book help learn programming?
a) It ties the physical computing / interactive devices idea very easily and leads very quickly to real life problems
b) It is only 118 pages!
c) There is a very useful appendix C from pages 95 to 107 which coves variables, control structures, operators, IO, math functions, comms. Essentially, this brings many computing concepts very quickly to the forefront and in a real-life context.
Hence, Aditya and I found it a great book to get started with programming!
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Teaching introductory calculus: approaching key ideas with dynamic software
Zachariades, Theodosis, Pamfilos, Paris, Christou, Constantinos, Maleev, Rumeen and Jones, Keith (2007) Teaching introductory calculus: approaching key ideas with dynamic software. In, Conference on Excellence in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics (CETL-MSOR 2007), Birmingham, GB, 10 - 11 Sep 2007. 9pp.
- Accepted Manuscript
Available under License Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial.
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While, commonly across the world, selected key ideas of the Calculus are introduced to students in the final years of schooling, and are thence built upon as students take a full course in Analysis at University, there remains much to learn about how best to introduce such ideas and how to develop and expand the ideas at University level. This paper reports on the work of a European-funded project involving four countries in which the potential of dynamic software was exploited in the teaching of topics such as infinite processes, limits, continuity, differentiation and integration. Amongst the approaches adopted in the project, problem-solving situations were developed through which students, while their knowledge may initially be inadequate, could approach intuitively the central mathematical notion in ways that are consistent with formal mathematical definitions. Amongst the implications of the project, in terms of the debate about what is suitable preparation for students embarking on a course of analysis at University level, are that it might be useful to think in terms of two categories of learning activity – the first is introducing student to relevant concepts and the second focuses on the teaching of theorems. These two categories entail a different design of learning activity.
|Item Type:||Conference or Workshop Item (Paper)|
|Keywords:||calculus, teaching, learning, currriculum, pedagogy, analysis, school, collge, University, dynamic geometry, software, ict, computer, infinite processes, limits, continuity, differentiation, integration, concept, theorem|
|Subjects:||L Education > LB Theory and practice of education > LB1603 Secondary Education. High schools
L Education > LB Theory and practice of education > LB2361 Curriculum
Q Science > QA Mathematics
|Divisions:||University Structure - Pre August 2011 > School of Education > Mathematics and Science Education
Faculty of Social and Human Sciences > Southampton Education School > Mathematics, Science & Health Education (MSHE)
|Date Deposited:||19 Mar 2008|
|Last Modified:||31 Mar 2016 12:28|
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This essay originally appeared in the Journal of Law and Education, 17, 1 (Winter 1988) 91-98. Copyright © 1987, Peter Suber.
for Teaching Legal Reasoning
Peter Suber, Philosophy Department, Earlham College
- Case Type One
- Case Type Two
Legal reasoning is not the same as the reasoning in mathematics or the physical sciences. It is like them. Specifying the likeness in more detail, and deciding whether there is more likeness than unlikeness, are the kinds of tasks that legal reasoning is better adapted to do than mathematical or scientific reasoning.
There is more to legal reasoning than deciding cases by precedent, anticipating decisions by reference to precedent, or deciding when and how far a case fits under a rule, but those are the clearly its chief tasks. The rule to follow precedents is called stare decisis (stand by the decision). It is notoriously vague and hard to pin down. It does not demand slavish deference to the past. It permits (a) decisions that bring rules up to date with changing technology and social circumstances, as when cases of horse and buggy negligence were applied to automobiles. It permits (b) decisions that favor one set of binding precedents over another, to avoid inconsistency, to promote predictability, or even to pursue a worthier social policy. It permits (c) decisions that limit the application of older rules and it even permits (d) decisions that overrule 'bad' decisions. A rule that said in effect, 'follow all and only existing valid law', could not permit any of these things.
(In this short essay I assume that the type of analogical reasoning used in common law cases is the same as that used to interpret or apply statutes. In a longer piece I would not reject this bald claim, but qualify it.)
But even when we must follow existing valid law, we must know two things that are very difficult to ascertain: which law is relevant, and what it means to 'follow' it. Deciding these things is a task for legal reasoning, and cannot be reduced to an exact science. (The pretense sometimes taught in law school that there are scientific methods to help out here not only overlooks the ideological element in legal decision, but the role of analogy in legal reasoning.) Reasoning by analogy, while clearly a kind of reasoning, is inherently inexact.
If the world's first automobile loses control and plows up your garden, how do courts 'follow existing valid law' when no law whatsoever refers to automobiles? There is law for the horse and buggy, law for public nuisance, law for trespass, and law for captive wild animals that have escaped captivity (to cut the list arbitrarily short). Which of these is the rampaging automobile most like? Is it more like a horse and buggy than a pig sty within the city limits? Is it more like either of these than a trespassing vagrant whose campsite ruins the garden? Is it more like any of these than a marauding circus bear? The liability of the owner, driver, seller, and manufacturer of the automobile depend on which analogy we think is strongest.
This is the first occasion to think analogically. If we are led to look at horse and buggy law, then we must 'follow' it only after we make the requisite changes in the rules to reflect the fact that we are only dealing with something analogous to horses and buggies. Refracting the law 'properly' or 'justly' is the second occasion to think analogically. The two occasions are united in the common law maxim to treat like cases alike.
Clearly the law deals with just this kind of problem every day. We do not need revolutionary new technology to test the boundaries of our categories or the fit of rules to life. We need only the rendezvous of rich experience with abstract rules. Because even the comparatively 'concrete' rules of a 900 year old common law are no match for the manifold of experience, the task of subsuming cases under rules and applying cases to one another cannot become automatic or deductive. But even when a case falls uncontestably under a certain rule (e.g. the statute defining murder) it may raise an analogy problem if it is a borderline case of an exception, excuse, or justification (e.g. self- defense, insanity) as provided in a different or higher body of law.
If cases were limited to the significance of their own unique facts, they could not serve as precedents for other cases. Horse and buggy cases could never be applied to automobiles. In fact, a case about John Smith committing libel could never be applied to a case about Jane Doe committing libel. All cases have the power to expand analogically so that they apply to, have something to say about, have implications for, all 'like' or analogous cases. If they lacked this power, we would not only be unable to decide cases by precedent (by reference to other cases), but we would even be unable to state the narrow rule of a case in isolation from others. Is a particular horse and buggy case about the negligence of vehicles or animals? about the liability of owners or operators? It could be cited in future case for any of these points, as well as for principles of evidence, procedure, jurisdiction, or a thousand other things. We only know what a case is about, when we know what other, analogous cases are in line for decision, or when we know why we want to know.
Let's be a little more specific about deciding the rule of a case. What does the court judgment in the case of John Wilkes Booth say that is of legal significance? Obviously not simply, "John Wilkes Booth is guilty of murder when he kills an American President in a theater with a handgun on a Friday, while wearing..." But if we must abstract from some of the detail of a case to see a legal rule let alone a rule applicable to other cases then we must know what to leave out and when to stop leaving things out. If we left out the 'wrong' set of detail, we might get a rule like, "A white male commits murder when he is a citizen of the same nation as the victim, wears a moustache, is present in a theater when the victim is shot with a handgun, and is found with a broken leg within one week of the victim's death." This rule would explain why John Wilkes Booth and only John Wilkes Booth was guilty of the murder of Abraham Lincoln. But it is a bad rule. We could probably say why if we tried; if we tried, we would be using legal reasoning to help us articulate our sense that 'the salient points' (as if there were just one set!) had been missed. If the rule left out more detail, it could explain Booth's guilt but could not explain the innocence of others, e.g., "An actor commits murder when he is fully clothed in the theater where a person is killed."
If a case is best used as a precedent when we abstract only from its 'inessential' detail, then to reason well we must know what is essential. But what is essential depends on the relationship between the precedent-case and the new case before us that demands a judgment, the case for which it will be a precedent. The reason is that what is essential and what is secondary (hence, even what is 'holding' and what is 'dictum') depends on what the case is used as an analogy to. We would and should see the essential detail of the Booth case differently if we were to cite it in a murder case, a tort case on the negligence of theater owners, a case on trespass within reserved theater boxes, a constitutional case on what creates 'reasonable cause' for an arrest, or a case on sentencing discretion.
Determining what is essential is difficult enough. Now we see that the essential varies with different purposes. There is no single rule of a case. Every case is the intersection of a thousand strands of historical meaning. By itself it points in no particular direction. It becomes 'directional' only when we have a new case to decide and go back to the older case in order to explore its similarities and differences with our own case. As in geometry, it takes two points to make a line.
When we examine a case as a precedent, we may discern many rules; the rule that we take as the guiding or controlling rule of the case depends, then, on what sort of case it is to be precedent for. It may well depend too on how we want our own case to be decided. Clearly, there is more art than rigorous science to legal reasoning. (And the space left for art is just as much space left for politics and ideology.) Yet, the art can be learned and, within limits, rules for its practice can be described.
Good lawyers are good at legal reasoning. This means that they can find the rule of a case that is 'better' than its alternatives for a given new application. It does not mean that they can explain how they do this. Law students acquire the skill of legal reasoning by reading hundreds of cases. They get better and better at finding the stronger or more defensible holdings for a given case insofar as these are to be a function of the applicable precedents. But they may not get any better at explaining how this is to be done. What they are learning is to recognize complex and important similarities in cases, that is, to recognize critical ways in which they are analogous. This is much like the commonplace but extremely subtle process by which we all learn to recognize family resemblance in faces, rejecting irrelevant similarities and fastening only on those most indicative of kinship. As a logical problem, this recognition boggles the mind and should lead us to astonishment that it is so often done reliably. At first, each process is ineffable; but their general reliability shows that there is some structure here that can be learned, and perhaps discussed.
The following exercises are designed to simulate legal reasoning. To do them is to acquire the experience that law students acquire by reading hundreds of cases, as well as the experience judges acquire by judging hundreds of cases. They will at least give non-lawyers an idea of what legal reasoning is. They should also give one (lawyer and non-lawyer alike) a greater skill at legal reasoning and, it is hoped, a basis to articulate how it is done.
The exercises omit one element about legal reasoning that only cases themselves can include: content. By omitting content, they ignore the dominant values of the state, and to that extent fail to simulate a critical aspect of legal education and legal reasoning. In deciding cases by precedent, and in anticipating decisions by reference to precedent, knowledge of these values is at least as helpful as practice in analogical thinking. My hope is that focussing on the form of reasoning by analogy can teach something valuable by itself. But I go further, and suggest that articulate form can do some of the work of content. The formalism that makes these exercises possible excludes the actual values of the state, but is capable of sufficient internal differentiation to simulate the weak and strong tugs of analogy that real content provides in real cases.
These exercises are adapted from a very stimulating article on analogies and artificial intelligence by Douglas R. Hofstadter, "Metamagical Themas," Scientific American, September 1981, pp. 18-30. It has been reprinted with a P.S., P.P.S, and a P.P.P.S., in his book, Metamagical Themas, Basic Books, 1985, pp. 547-603.
Case Type One
You are in a very simple legal system on the second day of its existence. On the first day one decision was made:
Justice is 1 2 3
4 5 4 3 2 1
That is all you know. It is your only precedent for making future decisions. It is not a rule, but a case and a very abstract kind of case at that! You must decide what rule it stands for and apply it to the cases below. To 'decide' a case is to circle the number in the string of numbers that makes the string most analogous to the precedent. Justice demands the strongest analogy, the best fit. You must treat like cases alike.
If the principal case above is all you know about justice (if it is your only precedent), then decide what justice demands in the other cases below. Formulate a rule to justify your answer in each case.
For example, if the next case were 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5, then you might answer:
- the first 4, because the rule is to pick the first 4;
- the first 2, because the rule is to pick the number just to the left of the 'turn';
- the second 4, because the rule is to pick the 4 in the ascending part of the double series;
- the second 2, because the rule is to pick the number in the ascending part of the series right next to the 'turn';
- the first 5, because the rule is to pick the greatest of the repeated numbers, and of the repeated instances to favor the one on the left side of the turn;
- the second 5, because the rule is to pick the greatest of the repeated numbers, and of the repeated instances to favor the one in the ascending part of the series.
(Of course many other answers and rules are possible.)
Here are the cases that must be decided by 'following' the one and only precedent:
1 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1
1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 4 4 4 3 2 1
2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5
9 8 7 6 5 6 7 8 9
9 8 7 6 5 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 9 8 7 6
5 4 3 3 4 5
0 1 5 4 0
0 1 9 8 0
1 2 3 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 3 2 1
1 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 3 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5
5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 4 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
1 3 4 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
1 2 3 0 5 4 3 2 1
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 5 4 3 2 1
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 1 2 3
3 2 1 3 2 1
1 0 0 0 2 3 2 1
1 2 0 0 0 3 2 1
1 2 3 0 0 0 4 3 2 1
5 6 7 8 9 4 7 6 5
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 4.0 0.3 0.2 0.1
100 200 300 400 500 4 300 200 100
11 22 33 40 55 44 33 22 11
1 5 2 6 3 7 2 6 1 5
99 98 97 4 95 96 97 98 99
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 2 3 4 4 5 4 3 2 1
2 3 4 5 4 5 4 3 2
1 2 3 4 6 5 5 6 4 3 2 1
1 20 300 4000 50000 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
(Write some of your own!)
Provide rules for several of the possible answers to the same case in the first level task. Whenever possible provide more than one rule per answer.
Take several of the possible answers to the same case in the first level task and argue that one is best or strongest. Be as specific as possible in citing reasons. Begin to formulate a general theory of 'strong' analogies.
Have someone else (1) give an answer to any single case and (2) formulate a rule to justify the answer. Construct a new case for which the best answer violates the rule just given. Get your friend to give the rule for the new case. Construct a third case for which the best answer violates both rules so far formulated. Continue as long as you can. Is it possible in principle to construct a case for which the best answer violates all rules given in analogous cases, indefinitely? Can you develop a rule or a technique for the construction of such cases?
Do the cases in order. For each case, assume that all cases decided up to that point are applicable precedents for the next case. Decide the next case in light of all the precedents. Be as specific as you can in explaining which 'line of cases' is most applicable to the present case, and what it requires.
Get some 'authoritative' answers to the fifth level task (e.g., the vote of a class). Take one of the decisions. Can you concoct a consistent and plausible theory that reconciles all the applicable precedents with one another and with the authoritative decision in the given case? Can you reconcile the decision in the given case with all precedents? If not, can you explain why some precedents are stronger guides to decision in the present case than others? If some precedents are apparently inconsistent with each other, how did you determine inconsistency and how did you decide which precedent of the inconsistent pair was killed off by the other for purposes of deciding the present case?
Case Type Two
In the first type of case, the judge had to pick among a small set of possible answers by analogy with the precedent(s). In the second type of case, the judge will be asked to craft an answer by analogy with the precedent(s). No list or menu of possible answers is given for the judge's contemplation.
These cases have three elements. The first two stand in a relationship that determines the rule of the case. The third stands to the missing fourth in the same relationship.
For example, if justice converts ACB to ABC (in a precedent case), then justice would convert VSUT to what? Possible answers are:
- VUST, because the rule is to switch the second and third letters;
- VSTU, because the rule is to switch the last two letters;
- VTSU, because the rule is to switch the last letter with the unit between the first and last letters;
- VRVT, because the rule is to replace the second letter with its predecessor and the third letter with its successor;
- STUV, because the rule is to put all the letters in alphabetical order;
- ABC, because the rule is to convert anything to ABC;
- VSBC, because the rule is to convert the last two letters of any string to BC.
(Of course, many other answers and rules are possible.)
If justice converts ABC to ABD, then how would justice convert the following?
[The following set did not appear in the published version of this essay.]
ABC : QBC :: CBA : ?
ABC : ZBC :: XYZ : ?
MRP : ZRP :: EG : ?
TARP : TZRP :: MGZ : ?
FDMZT : FDMAT :: MGA : ?
NEEEYTK : XEEEYTK :: RBJKLMNE : ?
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Department of Philosophy,
Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana, 47374, U.S.A.
email@example.com. Copyright © 1988, Peter Suber.
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Many councils were held in Braga, some of them important. The authenticity of the so-called council of 411 is very doubtful. It was probably invented by Father Bernardo Brito. It the council of 563 eight bishops took part, and twenty-two decrees were promulgated, among others the following: that in the services of the church the same rite should be followed by all, and that on vigils and in solemn Masses the same lessons should be said by all; that bishops and priests should salute the people with Dominus vobiscum, as in the Book of Ruth, the response being Et cum spiritu tuo, as was the custom in the East, without the alterations introduced by the Priscillianists; that Mass should be sail according to the ordo sent from Rome to Profuturus; that the form used for baptism in the Metropolitan See of Braga should not be altered; that bishops should take rank after the metropolitan according to the date of their consecration; that bishops should not ordain candidates from other dioceses without dimissorial letters from their bishop; that nothing should be sung in the church but the Psalms and parts of the Old and New Testament; that all priests who abstained from eating meat should be obliged to eat vegetables cooked in meat, to avoid all suspicion of the taint of Priscillianism, and that if they refused they should be excommunicated; that suicides and catechumens should not be buried with great ceremony, nor should anyone be buried inside the church; that priests should be appointed for the blessing of the chrism.
The second council held in 572, presided over by the aforesaid St. Martin, was held to increase the number of bishops in Galicia. Twelve bishops assisted at this council, and ten decrees were promulgated: (1) that the bishops should in their visitations see in what manner the priests celebrated the Holy Sacrifice and administered baptism and the other sacraments, thanking God if they found everything as it should be, and instructing the priests if they were found wanting in knowledge, and obliging all catechumens to attend instructions for twenty days before baptism and to learn the creed; (2) that the bishop must not be tyrannical towards his priests; (3-4) that no fee must be accepted for Holy orders, and the holy chrism must be distributed free; (5-6) that the bishop must not ask a fee for consecrating a church, that no church should be consecrated without the bishop being sure of the endowment of the ministers, and that no church built on private property for the purpose of emolument should receive consecration; (8) that if a cleric should accuse any one of unchastity without the evidence of two or three witnesses he should be excommunicated; (9) that the metropolitan should announce the date of Easter, and have it made known to the people after Christmas, so that they might be prepared for the beginning of Lent, when litanies were to be recited for three days; on the third day the Lenten fast should be announced after the Mass; (10) that any one saying Mass without fasting, as many did, as a result of Priscillianist tendencies, should be deprived of his office. This council was attended by the bishops of the suffragan sees of Braga, and by those of the Diocese of Lugo, and Pope Innocent III removed all doubt as to its authenticity.
The Third Council of Braga was held in 675, during the primacy of Leodegisius, and in the reign of King Wamba. Eight decrees were promulgated at this council; (1) that no one should dare to offer in sacrifice milk and grapes, but bread and wine mixed with a drop of water in a chalice, nor should bread soaking in wine be used; (2) that laymen should be excommunicated, and ecclesiastics deprived of their office, if either put the sacred vessels to profane uses; (4) that no priest should have any woman but his mother in his house; (5-6) that bishops, when carrying the relics of martyrs in procession, must walk to the church, and not be carried in a chair, or litter, by deacons clothed in white; that corporal punishment was not to be inflicted on youthful ecclesiastics, abbots, or priests, except for grevious faults; (7-8) that no fee must be accepted for Holy orders, and that the rectors of the churches must not require that members of their ecclesiastical household to do work on their private farms; if they did so they must recompense the church for the injury done thereby. There were other councils in 1278-80, 1301, 1328, 1436, 1488, 1537, besides various diocesan and provincial synods of lesser importance.
Hefele, Concilieng. (2nd ed.), II, 104, and passim.
APA citation. (1907). Councils of Braga. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02729a.htm
MLA citation. "Councils of Braga." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02729a.htm>.
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Brenna Green.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. 1907. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York.
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From Common Dyes and Their Properties
Classification of Dyes
Dyes are classified based on their origin, application, and chemical properties. Dye manufacturers classify dyes according to their chemical properties, while dyers classify dyes based on the method of application.
Classification Based on Origin of Dyes
Most dyes are organic molecules and are complex in nature. The synthesis of organic dyes began with azulene synthesis. Before that, colors were made from pigments.
As a result, dyes can be classified as natural and synthetic, according to their sources of origin.
Natural dyes are derived from nature through organic and inorganic materials or sources. Logwood is a natural dye obtained from plants. It saturates silk, wool, cellulose acetate, and nylon with a deep black color. Tyrian purple is obtained from animals and Prussian blue is an inorganic dye obtained from naturally occurring minerals.
Synthetic dyes became popular because they were easy-to-use, less expensive and had wider range of colors. Synthetic dyes are obtained by adding chemicals to natural dyes. For example, artificial alizarin is a synthetic dye synthesized from coal tar anthracene. Synthetic dyes are used for modern clothing.
Classification Based on the Dyeing Process
Dyeing process is accomplished by dissolving or dispersing the colorant in a suitable solution (usually water) and bringing this system into contact with the material to be dyed. According to the process of dying, dyes are classified into the following types:
Acid dyes are anionic dyes soluble in water.
Products & Services
Topics of Interest
Bonding of a Dye to Fiber The process of dyeing depends not only on the type of the dye but also on the type of fiber. Fibers can be natural or synthetic. Natural fibers are cotton, linen, flax, hemp...
3.1 Introduction to Manual Valves 3.1.1 Definition of Manual Valves By definition, manual valves are those valves that operate through a manual operator (such as a handwheel or handlever), which are...
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Mana and Tapu
Mana and tapu are concepts which have both been attributed single - worded definitions by contemporary writers. As concepts, especially Maori concepts they can not easily be translated in to a single English definition . Both mana and tapu take on a whole range of related meanings depending on their association and the context in which they are being used.
This chapter aims to outline some of the complexities of both mana and tapu and the impact each had on Maori society. The authority of mana and tapu derives from the kawai tipuna and tipuna. Maori inherited the qualities of mana and tapu from the kawai tipuna and recognised the need to maintain mana and tapu to the highest degree. This was particularly evident in the rangatira class. Maori vigorously defended both mana and tapu in everyday matters and tried to enhance them whenever possible.
Individuals could also acquire, increase or lose their mana through the deeds they performed. Mana influenced the way in which people and groups conducted themselves, acting as a reference point for the achievements and successes in one s life. Similarly, the mana that was attached to natural resources, whakapapa and inanimate objects could affect the behaviours of individuals and groups.
Tapu is examined in terms of how a person s undertakings can be restricted through the placing of tapu on people and things. Tapu was used as a way to control how people behaved towards each other and the environment. Examples of when and how tapu is used in society illustrates the dynamics of the concept.
Origins of Mana and Tapu
Ko te tapu te mana o nga kawai tipuna
Tapu is the mana of the kawai tipuna
Mana and tapu are two of the many fundamental concepts that governed the infrastructure of traditional Maori society. Along with most Maori tikanga, mana and tapu emanated from the kawai tipuna who have reign over specific areas of the world. The kawai tipuna are extremely tapu because of their extraordinary ability to create living things, and because the evidence of their creative efforts and authority over nature is reflective of their mana.
Our mana as human beings is a mana that is linked with the kawai tipuna, since the creation of human beings was the work of the kawai tipuna. And because the kawai tipuna are our immediate source of mana, they are also the source of our tapu. The relationship between mana and tapu are so closely intertwined as to be almost interchangeable in nature. The mana of a person will determine the comparative tapu of that person.
In some areas of New Zealand, however, exactly which of the kawai tipuna Maori derive their mana from is questionable. Some tribal areas suggest that Maori are linked with Tumatauenga, as humans adopted the war-like nature he displayed during the separation of Ranginui and Papatuanuku. He also displayed the ability to control most of his siblings through karakia. Tumatauenga could not exert this influence over Tawhirimatea though, and it is for this reason that humans do not have the power to restrain the elements. According to other traditions, our existence is due to the mana of Tane, as it was he who created the first woman Hineahuone out of the clay from Papatuanuku and from there derived the human race.
Personal mana of a human being can be overcome and annihilated, but the mana of the kawai tipuna cannot. To emphasise the fact that Maori did not possess intrinsic mana and tapu and that it was through the kawai tipuna which a person could have mana, Maori Marsden explains, Man remains always the agent or channel never the source of mana. This quote can also be applied to tapu.
The Acquisition of Mana and Tapu All things of nature possess mana and tapu. However, there are varying degrees of mana and tapu associated with something or someone, depending on their association with the kawai tipuna. The hierarchical structure of Maori society illustrates this. The kawai tipuna were extremely tapu because they held the positions at the top of Maori whakapapa. Since mana and tapu are concomitant with each other, the more tapu a person, the higher the mana, hence the idea that all things have mana and tapu but in varying degrees. This also applies to the whakapapa of animate and inanimate objects.
"The relationship, for Maori, is first and foremost genealogical. Ancestral ties bind the people and the [environment] Just as land entitlements, personal identity, and executive functions arose from ancestral devolution, so also it is by ancestry that Maori relate to the natural world. Based on their conception of the creation, all things in the universe, animate or inanimate, have their own genealogy, genealogies that were popularly remembered in detail. These each go back to Papatuanuku, the mother earth, through her offspring gods. Accordingly, for Maori the works of nature the animals, plants, rivers, mountains, and lakes are either kin, ancestors, or primeval parents according to the case, with each requiring the same respect as one would accord a fellow human being."
A person is imbued with mana and tapu by reason of his or her birth. In Maori society, high-ranking families whose genealogy could be traced back directly to the kawai tipuna were thought to be under their special care. This meant that the mana and tapu associated with those born in chiefly ranks descends directly from the kawai tipuna, which in turn makes high-ranking families very powerful. It was a priority for those of ariki descent to maintain the mana and tapu and to keep the strength of the mana and tapu associated with the kawai tipuna as pure as possible, therefore inter-tribal marriages were carefully selected in order for the classes to remain.
The tuakana children of ariki would be prepared for the time in which they would succeed their fathers in rank and in power. Those who were inducted into the role of ariki were usually male because of the laws of tapu and noa. They would receive the greatest amount of respect from everyone within the tribe. Although teina received mana and tapu from the kawai tipuna, they were not given automatic rights to lead the tribe as the tuakana had been given.
A simplistic diagram of a whakapapa illustrates how the inherent mana and tapu from the kawai tipuna is passed down to those of chiefly lineage. It shows how the first-born child of the ariki is regarded as ariki and this will continue to be so throughout the generations:
The mana and tapu of an ariki takes on a similar meaning to power and prestige . The tuakana inherits the right to rule and direct the tribe because of his position within society. This right to exercise his mana takes effect once his father has died or when his father has retired from the position. He also inherits the prestige of his position, and the greater the prestige acquired by the family and the tribe, the greater the mana and tapu that is inherited.
There are many responsibilities of a rangatira, but the most important is the responsibility to uphold his tribe and its mana. This would include taking responsibility for avenging wrongs to the tribe and any of its members, maintaining hereditary feuds and alliances, and offering hospitality to visitors. In short, the chief must take full responsibility for individual s or the tribe s actions.
The waiata, He Oriori mo Te Ua-o-te-Rangi, expresses the aspects of tikanga, mana and tapu held within an infant. The waiata refers to Te Ua-o-te-Rangi, who was a son of Tamati Purangi. Te Ua-o-te-Rangi was of Ngati Porou descent and he died as a child. The importance of the whakapapa of Te Ua-o-te-Rangi was referred to in the following lines:
At times it is difficult to differentiate between a breach of tapu and a breach of mana. An example of this is the particular protocol relating to whaikorero in one tribal area.
"Sometimes I have difficulty in sorting one from the other. An example of mana and tapu has to do with where I'm sitting on the pae... I've always been taught that if you get up to speak, you either stay in one place or you move to your left, so that when you come back to sit down you re coming back to the right-hand side to sit down. If I'm on the pae that contains people from other iwi, I try and practice this as much as possible. If there's a form there, I'll just step over the form and walk around the back of them to the left. You can read this in two ways. One is, I am doing that because the tikanga or the kawa is tapu, or secondly, that you do not want to tread or trample over the mana of the others who are yet to get up and speak, so you give recognition to their mana. If you do step in front of them, you might say "turuki whakataha" and then explain why you said that. It's a kind of protection for you. The practice is tapu and it is complementary in that the people you are showing deference to, have mana..."
The Functions of Mana and Tapu
The mana and tapu principles were the source of both order and dispute in Maori society. Mana and tapu were the practical forces of the kawai tipuna at work in everyday matters, and the need to defend mana and tapu against attacks by insult, excessive generosity, war or makutu through utu, made life turbulent at times. On the other hand, mana and tapu was the principle responsible for inspiring great hospitality and feasting, aristocratic rituals and alliances, the construction of pa, and wharenui, to name a few examples. In the Maori world, virtually every activity, ceremonial or otherwise, has a link with the maintenance of and enhancement of mana and tapu. It is central to the integrity of the person and the group. Many everyday measures, threaded into the fabric of existence, are designed, consciously or otherwise, as maintainers of mana and tapu.
Not only is mana inherited, mana can also be acquired by an individual throughout the course of their life. Joan Metge describes that an individual s mana can be seen as a lake filled with water fed into it by several streams. These streams represent the ways in which an individual acquires mana in different forms by different routes, but these all belong to the individual. In traditional times when a child was born, the tohi rite was performed and the child was dedicated to kawai tipuna such as Rongomatane, Tumatauenga or Hineteiwaiwa. The child acquired mana from the kawai tipuna and it was the responsibility of the whanau to protect this mana throughout their lifetime. The extended whanau took total responsibility for looking after the children. Their actions would determine the amount of mana they acquired.
A person could acquire mana through displaying prowess in warfare, being industrious, displaying exceptional skills in the arts, and having great knowledge of history and tikanga. However, a person s mana could fall if the individual abused their talents and skills, such as a misuse of leadership power, or failure to complete tasks successfully, and through insults and injuries inflicted by others. Mana could also be lost through carelessness and through a person s actions. Although this illustrates the way in which a person s mana can fluctuate, the individual s mana can be restored. It is never fixed, but continually rises and falls, as does the water level in a lake.
Additional mana could be acquired through the way rangatira conducted their actions during their reign as leader. The mana of the rangatira is enhanced when the people recognise and acknowledge the ability of the rangatira to succeed in defeating other tribes or forming new alliances with other tribes. The mana of a rangatira was integrated with the strength of the tribe, which was the result of these achievements. The success of the rangatira may have been because of the advisors or other leaders within the tribe assisting him or her, but outsiders will give sole recognition to the rangatira as the figurehead of that tribe.
A person who displayed power, prestige, authority, control and influence was seen as being looked upon favourably by the kawai tipuna and hence earned the respect of the tribe. Similarly, if a person possessed a certain skill which was well recognised, for example, if a tohunga was noted as being successful at karakia for healing the ill, or if a person continually experienced a good kumara harvest, it was thought that the mana of the tohunga or kaimahi mara had caused it, therefore their mana would increase. If a person failed to recover from illness, or if a person experienced a bad harvest, this too was a reflection of their mana and it was deemed a failure to be heard by the kawai tipuna. On the other hand, the cause of a bad harvest was sometimes due to people failing to follow the instructions of the tohunga.
Although chieftainship was a birthright due to whakapapa, this did not necessarily mean that the tuakana would be the rangatira. Low rank or a small following did not bar a teina rangatira who was determined to make his mark. All he needed was confidence, and the support of his hapu. Marriage was also a way for a teina rangatira to increase his mana considerably if he married a high-born woman of another hapu. He could also gain leadership from inheriting the mana of another teina rangatira who had also achieved leadership.
Te Rauparaha is a famous rangatira who was not of rangatira descent. When the rangatira Kawhia died, they asked who should replace him. Nobody came forward, so Te Rauparaha volunteered. He proved his worth by his deeds, and his reputation enhanced his mana so much that he was recognised as one of the successful rangatira in Maori society. If a rangatira did not prove his worth and the iwi considered it crucial to uphold their mana, they would find someone who they were confident in being able to do so and replace that rangatira. This illustrates how it was deemed possible for an ariki who had inherited the right to lead, to be replaced by a rangatira if he was considered a threat to the mana of his iwi.
The mana of a group could also be enhanced when a person of high ranking was killed in battle. The waiata, He Tangi Mo Te Kuruotemarama, illustrated how the mana of one hapu of Nga Puhi was increased when they killed Te Kuruotemarama, the rangatira of a rival hapu of Te Arawa. A Nga Puhi raiding party was heading towards Rotorua seeking utu for the killing of a relative at Motutawa (Green Lake) . When Te Arawa heard that Nga Puhi were coming for war, the tohunga advised that Mokoia Island would be the most secure area for them to go, as the invaders could not reach the island without canoes. However, the war party, led by Hongi Hika did cross the lake and consequently Te Kuruotemarama was tortured and killed. The following lines from the tangi illustrate the concepts of mana and tapu.
In these lines the composer accentuates the mana and tapu of Te Kuruotemarama, and introduces the relationship between Te Kuruotemarama and the kawai tipuna, Aitu and Maru, the kawai tipuna of disaster and death. In addition, the mana and tapu of Te Kuruotemarama was extracted from him through his subsequent torture and death. Therefore, Nga Puhi enhanced their mana and tapu following the death of Te Kuruotemarama at their hands.
Mana Pertaining to Objects
Natural resources also possessed mana. The mana of the land derives from Papatuanuku. However, it was the duty of Tane to dress his mother in a beautiful korowai of things pertaining to nature, such as the forests and rivers.
When Maori arrived in Aotearoa, nature s objects became significant landmarks acting as identifying features of a certain area. As demonstrated to us in numerous sayings, tribal pride and landmarks were connected with the hapu of a certain area and were sources of self-esteem or mana. When Maori introduce themselves to people, they recite their whakapapa, which lists the tribal landmarks renowned in their area. Those who are listening recognise the whakapapa and are able to identify which part of New Zealand this person is from. A person s whakapapa has been recited for generations linking a person with their ancestors and the land.
Inanimate objects also had the ability to possess as much mana as animate things. An example of this is the Taiaha-o-Tinatoka , which is sometimes called Nga-Moko-a-Te-Aowhea . This weapon is very effective in single combats and it never failed. A further example of the mana of weapons is when the children of Ranginui and Papatuanuku decided to separate them. Tane used a toki called Te Awhiorangi , which was fashioned out of the stone of Ngahue . Because the toki was exceedingly tapu, it also had great mana and it was seen as the prototype for all toki. The toki descended in the line of elder sons from Tanetokorangi down to Rakaumaui and from him to his great grandson Turi, who brought it across the seas in the Aotea canoe to Aotearoa. The toki was eventually hidden in the Taranaki region. An object is considered as having great mana if it was useful to humans or it had a link to the kawai tipuna as the Taiaha-o-Tinatoka did.
Mana was the practical force of the kawai tipuna at work in everyday matters. In the Maori world virtually every activity, ceremonial or otherwise has a link with the maintenance and enhancement of mana.
To inherit or acquire mana, a person, object or thing had to have either a direct link with the kawai tipuna or possess a skill that was noted as worthy to society. This was the reason therefore, as to why mana was defended jealously. Examples of displays of mana could be seen through the work of individuals trying to achieve rangatira status. The mana of the collective group was also linked with the mana of the rangatira. If the mana of the rangatira fell, so did the mana of the group.
The mana of the whanau, hapu and iwi was linked to the self-esteem of the individual and reflected how others perceived them. This was obvious through the numerous sayings and whakapapa that related to them and identified them. Inanimate objects were also capable of possessing mana because of their association with people imbued with a lot of mana or because they were used by Maori in significant events.
Tapu is a principle which acts as a corrective and coherent power within Maori society. It acted in the same way as a legal system operated, as a system of prohibitory controls, effectively acting as a protective device. The advantage was that these prohibitions were dynamic and could change with the times and environment as needed. Tapu placed restrictions upon society to ensure that society flourished and to ensure the continued growth of the tribe in the future. Thus it can be said that tapu is an analogical term and its meaning derives from the context in which it is applied.
The nature of tapu is innate and has an untouchable quality. In contemporary terms, the concept of tapu is generally perceived as sacred, holy or forbidden. More traditionally, tapu was said to imply prohibition, and from this it has been described as a quarantine law.
"It was the major cohesive force in Maori life because every person was regarded as tapu or sacred. Each life was a sacred gift, which linked a person to the ancestors, and hence the wider tribal network. This link fostered the personal security and self-esteem of an individual because it established the belief that any harm to him was also disrespect to that network which would ultimately be remedied. It also imposed on an individual the obligation to abide by the norms of behaviour established by the ancestors. In this respect, tapu firmly placed a person in an interdependent relation with his whanau, hapu and iwi. The behavioural guidelines of the ancestors were monitored by the living relatives, and the wishes of an individual were constantly balanced against the greater mana and concerns of the group..."
The Nature of Tapu
"Major offences were considered a breach of tapu, and if it was breach of tapu then it affected just about everyone, it affected the community as well..."
Tapu can isolate and restrict the activities of individuals, practices, and natural resources. All people, animals, animate and inanimate objects in their natural state are tapu to a degree. Because they are tapu they have the ability to influence the actions of society.
A thing or person becomes tapu when it is imbued with the mana of a kawai tipuna. The tapu thing is no longer for the common use of the people and has fallen under the protection of the kawai tipuna; hence it must be respected and observed in this manner.
In Maori society everything also has a wairua and mauri. Mauri is the life principle and wairua is the spirit. The mauri of a thing is to be respected. People cannot alter or fundamentally change the character of things without the appropriate karakia to the associated kawai tipuna. Further, they have to provide evidence that the change is necessary for the wellbeing of the related people. If the mauri is not respected, or if people assume to assert some dominance over a thing, it will lose its mauri, ie, its vitality and force, and those who depend on it would ultimately suffer.
In the first instance tapu is inherited through a person s ability to whakapapa to the kawai tipuna. Hierarchy determined how tapu a person was or how much tapu they possessed. Those at the top of the hierarchy, ie, the rangatira class, had the requisite tapu to lead the people by right. The nature of personal tapu is similar to mana in that the more direct a person s lineage to a kawai tipuna, the greater the individual tapu of that person, because tapu, like mana, was of the kawai tipuna, and like mana, it was acquired at birth.
Things could also be deemed tapu when circumstances required. Tapu, makutu and rahui were applied to control human behaviour and protect natural resources. Objects of importance to the community, eg, large canoes and eel weirs, attracted considerable tapu. The tapu attached to objects and objectives intensified according to their degree of social importance.
Making an object tapu was achieved through rangatira or tohunga acting as channels for the kawai tipuna and applying the mana of the kawai tipuna to that thing that needed to be tapu. For instance, if a seabed ran out of mussels, the rangatira would place a rahui over the area by saying a karakia to the appropriate kawai tipuna. That area would then be tapu to the community, prohibiting them from collecting mussels until supplies were replenished. As explained by the Waitangi Tribunal:
"A system of tapu rules combined with the Maori belief in departmental gods as having an overall responsibility for nature s resources served effectively to protect those resources from improper exploitation and the avarice of man."
Members of the community would generally know about the prohibitions created by their rangatira. They would not violate the tapu for fear of sickness or catastrophe which would follow as a result of the anger of the kawai tipuna. When the tapu of an individual is violated, or when an individual violates a tapu, the consequences can be psychologically manifested.
However, strangers would often breach tapu, either because they were not aware of the tapu status of an area or thing, or because they did not feel compelled to obey the tapu because the rangatira of another tribe had created the tapu. If a stranger breached the tapu area or thing, the community would be compelled to exact utu from, or even kill, the intruder. This requirement would ensure that the kawai tipuna did not take retribution against the community for the unrequited affront. Moreover, possessors of mana were impelled to demonstrate it, by boldness and by constant concern for their names and stations.
Personal Tapu Maori society operated in a way whereby those with great knowledge and skills and hence, great tapu, would be able to lead the society in a prosperous fashion, therefore ensuring the survival and growth of the people. An example of this is Uenuku. Uenuku was an ariki in Hawaiki before te hekenga mai o nga waka. Based upon his whakapapa and direct lineage to the kawai tipuna, Uenuku was imbued with mana and tapu of the highest rank and he could use his power to make things tapu.
"He Waiata Tawhito Mo Whatitata"
This waiata retraces the story of Te Huripureiata and the conflict between Ruatapu and his brothers. It illustrates the nature of a dispute at whanau level and shows the concepts of mana, utu, and tapu inherent in Maori culture.
Initially it is the concept of tapu which is first introduced to the reader in reference to the lines, "Kua pano ano ki te iwi no paraoa". In Maori society, a whale is considered tapu, as a guardian or taniwha. When a whale dies, the bones are considered to be sacred, and highly prestigious taonga such as tiki, heru, or patu are made from them. The composer of the song refers to whale bones found by Whatitata. Whatitata brought the bones home to fashion a war club and Uenuku took possession of the bones and made a comb for himself.
Essentially, the dispute identified in this waiata concerns a comment made by Uenuku about his son Ruatapu. The mother of Ruatapu, Paimahutanga, was a captive of war. She was of rangatira descent, being descended from Pou-matangatanga, Rata and Wahieroa. Although she was of senior lines her whakapapa was still subservient to the whakapapa of Uenuku. Uenuku refered to Ruatapu as a bastard son, which prompted Ruatapu to seek utu by attempting to murder all the other sons of Uenuku. If he were to achieve this, he would then have become matamua. This dispute illustrates the varying degrees of tapu inherent in the characters. Ruatapu, in his need for utu, breached the individual tapu of his half brothers.
The power of a rangatira was a source of control which could be used to tapu property or person, to make a crop safe from trespass, to set aside a tree for canoe-building, or to conserve a stretch of forest or shellfish ground for an important feast.
However, at times the tapu of a rangatira could be considered more of a burden to both the rangatira and his people. A tapu person risked making common things tapu through mere touch, thereby endangering the lives of the people. The people s use of resources became restricted and they violated the tapu if they consequently touched the object made tapu by the rangatira. If the tapu was breached, the kawai tipuna withdrew their protective influence over the mauri of the offender, leaving him or her vulnerable which may have caused sickness and even death.
Descriptions of Tapu
The human person is tapu. It is the responsibility of everyone to preserve their own tapu and respect the tapu of others. This includes the tapu of places (wahi tapu) and the tapu of waters (wai tapu).
A woman is considered most tapu when she is pregnant. When a woman was closer to giving birth, she was taken to a whare kohanga away from the rest of the hapu. While she was there she had her own kaiawhina to take care of her. Separating pregnant women from the rest of the tribe ensured two things. Firstly, it removed most of the duties a woman would have had to perform, letting her rest and stay strong while carrying the child. Secondly, by remaining separate from the rest of the hapu, the risk of sickness and disease was greatly reduced; hence the mother avoided any unnecessary duress during pregnancy. Obviously the tapu of the woman in this context ensured the survival of as many children as possible, to keep the hapu strong.
Once the child was born, the whare kohanga she lived in during the pregnancy was burnt to the ground. There were spiritual reasons for doing this. The practical reasons were to destroy any disease, which may have developed during the birthing process. This protected the rest of the tribe from sickness and maintained a standard of hygiene. If the next pregnant mother were to live in the house she would contract any disease left by the last occupant.
Warriors travelling to battle were considered tapu, and under the protection of Tumatauenga. The people could not approach them during this time. One reason was so that the warriors remained focused on the looming battle and were not distracted by everyday matters, so that they could fight to their greatest potential.
Similarly, tohunga whakairo are extremely tapu due to the nature of their work. They must not be approached while carving and food can not be eaten near the carvings. The practical reasons are that all focus of the tohunga whakairo is on the job, ensuring that when they are carving, no mistakes are made. In addition to the tohunga whakairo being tapu, so too are the materials they work with. Any waste, such as the chips are not discarded or used in fires.
Material from the natural environment is tapu. All things including flora, fauna and minerals are descendants of the kawai tipuna and hence protected by the respective kawai tipuna. Once permission was granted to remove material from the natural environment, it was common practice to return any waste to where it was removed.
When flax was utilised, only the outer leaves were used, leaving the central shoots to continue to sprout. Any waste was returned and lain at the base of the plant. This was done to ensure that the flax could always continue to grow and not die, and returning the waste gave back to the plant the nutrients that were removed. This was done so as not to offend the kawai tipuna who protected it by breaching the tapu of the plant. In this way tapu acted to protect the environment in which the Maori lived, ensuring it could sustain generations to come.
Tapu is a supernatural condition. Animate and inanimate objects have a direct genealogical link with the kawai tipuna, particularly Tane, whose attempts to produce the human element resulted in all these things. The tapu of humans, animate and inanimate objects is about the relationship between the physical and spiritual realm. Examples of these relationships are found in waiata and karakia, each having its own tapu nature.
Everything was regarded as tapu. Individuals and groups have responsibilities and obligations to abide by the norms of behaviour and practices established by the tipuna. Tapu acted as a protective mechanism for both people and natural resources. Making something or someone tapu could either protect the environment against interference from people or protect people from possible dangers they may encounter.
157. Maori Religion and Mythology above n 23, 53
158. The Relevance of Maori Myth and Tradition above n 6, 19, 21
159. Mana above n 136, 220
160. Maori Marsden "God, Man and Universe" in Michael King (ed) Te Ao Hurihuri: The World Moves on: Aspects of Maoritanga (Hicks Smith, Wellington, 1975) 191, 194 [God, Man and Universe]
161. Waitangi Tribunal The Whanganui River Report Wai 167 (GP Publications, Wellington, 1999) 39 [The Whanganui River Report]
162. The Coming of the Maori above n 16, 337-338
163. The title of 'ariki' was given to the tuakana or first-born child of another ariki. The siblings of the ariki were known as 'rangatira'.
164. The Coming of the Maori above n 16, 343-347
165. Exploring Maori Values above n 14, 152
166. See A Collection of Behaviours, Philosophies, Emotions and Cultural Influences for an explanation of 'oriori'
167. Ripeka Pai-a-te Hau "He Oriori mo Te-Ua-o-te-Rangi" in Apirana Ngata and Pei Te Hurinui Jones Nga Moteatea: He Marama Rere No Nga Waka Maha (The Songs: Scattered Pieces from many Canoe Areas) A Selection of Annotated Tribal Songs of the Maori with English Translations Part II (The Polynesian Society Inc., Auckland, 1986) 80 81
168. Trampling or treading on someone else's mana is referred to as takahi mana. See A Collection of Behaviours, Philosophies, Emotions and Cultural Influences for a further explanation of takahi mana.
169. Kaumatua Interview, Wellington, 13 February 1999
170. See A Collection of Behaviours, Philosophies, Emotions and Cultural Influences for an explanation of 'makutu'
171. Joan Metge In and Out of Touch: Whakama in a Cross Cultural Context (Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1986) 68 [In and Out of Touch]
172. The Coming of the Maori above n 16, 353
173. In and Out of Touch above n 171, 72. See also 'he moana ke ta matawhanui, he moana ke ta matawhaiti' under A Collection of Behaviours, Philosophies, Emotions and Cultural Influences for an illustration of how rangatira may increase their mana
174. In and Out of Touch above n 171, 68
175. The Coming of the Maori above n 16, 345
176. Ann Parsonson The Pursuit of Mana in W H Oliver and B R Williams (eds) Oxford History of New Zealand (Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1981) 140, 141 [The Pursuit of Mana]
177. Leadership: Inherited and Achieved above n 102, 86, 87
178. Kaumatua Interview, Wellington, 9 April 1999
179. Tiaka Tomika "He Tangi mo Te Kuruotemarama" in Apirana Ngata and Pei Te Hurinui Jones Nga Moteatea: He Marama Rere No Nga Waka Maha (The Songs: Scattered Pieces from many Canoe Areas) A Selection of Annotated Tribal Songs of the Maori with English Translations Part I (The Polynesian Society Inc., Auckland, 1988) 22 -27
180. Michael Shirres Te Tangata: The Human Person (Accent Publications, Auckland, 1997) 55
181. Elsdon Best "The Maori as he was" in Sidney Moko Mead (ed) Nga Taonga Tuku Iho a te Maori: Customary Concepts of the Maori (2 ed, Department of Maori Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, 1984) 91 [The Maori as he was]
182. Exploring Maori Values above n 14, 108
183. God, Man and Universe above n 160, 194-197
184. H W Williams Dictionary of the Maori Language (GP Publications Ltd, Wellington, 1992) 385
185. The Maori as he was above n 181, 91
186. James Cowan "The Maori Yesterday and Today" in Sidney Moko Mead (ed) Nga Taonga Tuku Iho a te Maori: Customary Concepts of the Maori (2 ed, Department of Maori Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, 1984) 92
187. He Whaipanga Hou above n 3, 41
188. Kaumatua Interview, Wellington, 8 April 1999
189. For the purposes of this chapter, things refers to all those that have just been listed
190. The Whanganui River Report above n 161, 39
191. See A Collection of Behaviours, Philosophies, Emotions and Cultural Influences for an explanation of makutu
192. Muriwhenua Fishing Report above n 4, 3
193. Ngai Tahu Fisheries Report above n 12, 97, 5 WTR 517
194. A Show of Justice above 106, 6
195. Ngati Kahungunu "He Waiata Tawhito mo Whatitata" in Apirana Ngata and Pei Te Hurinui Jones Nga Moteatea: He Marama Rere No Nga Waka Maha (The Songs: Scattered Pieces from many Canoe Areas) A Selection of Annotated Tribal Songs of the Maori with English Translations Part II (The Polynesian Society Inc., Auckland, 1986) 64 -67
196. A Show of Justice above n 106, 6
197. Ranginui Walker "Maori Sovereignty: The Maori Perspective" in Hineani Melbourne Maori Sovereignty: The Maori Perspective (Hodder Moa Beckett Publishers Limited, Auckland, 1995) 26-27
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Setting the scene
Team selection can be extremely challenging! No matter who the coach chooses there's almost always someone who says they've got it wrong.
The following scenario highlights some of the issues and emotions that surround team selection. As you read through the material, think about what you'd do in each situation.
It is the last minor round game for the season for the under 12 netball team. If the team wins, they're in the finals. If they lose, they're out.
The coach has rotated the players evenly all season, however given the importance of this game she decides not to play Rayna, the weakest member of the team, but to use her as a reserve. She tells Rayna of her decision after training. Rayna is very upset, as is her mother, who phones the coach that evening to express her disappointment and question the coach about the reason for Rayna's exclusion.
Follow the discussion between the coach and Rayna's mother.
Scene 1: Exploring different opinions
The coach and Rayna's mother have a difference of opinion. Click through the conversation to better understand both the coach's and parent's perspectives.
Coach: "This is a very important game for us and the team has to win to make the finals. It would be silly not to play our strongest team."
Parent: "But this isn't the final, it's just another minor round game. You've rotated the girls all season, so why change the rules now?"
Coach: "The girls have worked so hard to get to where they are, they'd be devastated if they lost this game and missed out on the finals. I just don't think it would be fair on them."
Parent: "Well it wouldn't be fair on Rayna either if she missed her turn. She's devasted by your decision - it's discrimination! I thought junior sport was supposed to be about having fun and playing as a team!"
Coach: "The girls understand they're an important part of the team and it doesn't matter whether they're on the court or cheering from the sidelines."
Parent: "Well you've made Rayna feel like she's not an important part of the team at all!"
Scene 2: What action should the coach take?
Now that you're familiar with the positions expressed by the coach and Rayna's mother, what do you think the coach should do?
A) Keep Rayna as the reserve, after all the coach must think of the team's best interests, not just Rayna's.
It is not in the team's best interest to have a 'win at all costs' attitude. Sport at this level should be about learning, enjoyment and equal participation. We want young players to acquire a life-long love for physical activity and to develop social, physical and life-skills - this won't happen if the coach doesn't consider the well being of each child. Excluding someone from the team because they're not 'good enough' may result in them dropping out of all physical activity. And if the team does make the finals, what happens to Rayna? Is she on the bench again?
B) Give Rayna the full game as per rotation.
Good choice. The coach has had a rotation system in place all season and it's only right that it should remain for the last minor round game. Players and parents need to know that procedures will be followed and that all players are regarded as making a valuable contribution.
If players are to develp a true sense of self worth and belonging and a love for physical activity, then participation and positive experiences need to be equally distributed amongst the players.
C) Give all players half a game so everyone can experience the pressure of an important minor round match.
This could be a good choice, but it does deviate from the rotation. If the coach were to adopt this position she'd need to make sure that all players understood why she'd made the change and communicate this to the parents.
D) Give Rayna time on the court if the team is winning.
This strategy shows everyone that the coach believes winning is more important than team enjoyment, members doing their best or Rayna having her rightful turn.
In this situation Rayna may not end up playing at all. And if she is to play, how far ahead does the team need to be? How long should she play? Will she remain on the court if the other team make a comeback and look like equalling the score? Should she be taken off if her performance is mediocre?
These are all difficult questions a coach adopting this response would need to consider and may result in Rayna feeling worse about the situation than not playing at all, especially if the team were to lose and Rayna were to be 'blamed' for the loss.
Scene 3: The finals
The team has made it through to the finals with Rayna playing in the last round. The coach, team and the parents are pumped. The coach has some hard decisions to make, particularly as there are real skill differences between the players. But it's the first chance a junior team in this club has a chance of winning the competition.
What should the coach do?
A) Play the best team
Finals can be very emotional but if the coach plays the best team for the whole game she has lost sight of the importance of junior sport being fun - for all the players not just the best players. If it is a close game this may be difficult, especially if parents and even other children pressure the coach. But the coach sets the standard of behaviour and the culture of the team. She should have a strategy to involve all players and explain this to the players and their parents before the game. A negative experience during the finals may result in a child not wanting to play the following season.
B) Start with the best team.
It is not the best response but could be an acceptable strategy if:
- This has been the team selection policy from the beginning of the season and both parents and players have been informed about the policy.
- The team is in the upper age of the grades of junior competition.
- All players get a fair amount of time in the game.
If you start with the best team this should be explained to both the parents and children so that everyone is clear about expectations.
C) Keep playing on rotation and put on whose ever turn it is.
This would be a good response, particularly if the players were in younger age grades. It is important that coaches do not create a culture of 'playing for sheep stations' as junior sport is about creating a life-long love of physical activity.
However balancing competition and participation becomes more challenging in finals, particularly as teams move up through the junior age grades.
Scene 4: The coach and the administrator reflect on the issue
Coach: "I didn't think this would be such a huge and messy issue to deal with."
Administrator: "Yeah, I know. But look, at least it is over with. I think we just need to make sure it doesn't happen again."
What would be a better response from the administrator?
A) Leave the decision to the coach regarding selection issues.
This is not a good choice because the club should be providing guidance and support regarding participation and team selection.
Allowing coaches to make their own decisions can also result in very different outcomes, depending on the coach and his/her values. This is likely to lead to confusion, hostility and claims of discrimination and unfair practices.
Parents who coach their own children are in a particularly arkward situation and would benefit from having a policy to follow.
B) Use your experience from this season to deal with the situation if it happens again.
That's an understandable strategy, especially as club administrators are extremely busy and have enough to do running the club, getting enough players, coaches and so on. But what if the same coach is not there next season? What if there is a new coach and they have a win at all costs mentality? It is important that the club develops a junior sport policy (that emphasises a balance between participation and competition) as a guide for coaches and other personnel.
C) Develop a club policy on team selection before next season.
This is a good choice and a club's committee needs to provide leadership on this issue. However it will also be important to look at the grading of the junior teams. It might be necessary to regrade teams in the same age group so there's a better skill balance. Also developing a policy on junior team selection is only the first step. It is important that policies are distributed to all members, coaches and other personnel. A policy will assist and support coaches and provide information and clarity for parents and players.
Scene 5: Preparing for the next season
Team selection can be challenging. The selection of junior teams involves balancing individual participation with skill development and shift towards greater competition as children mature. Coaches and junior sport administrators both have a role in managing the selection process and should understand that:
- Junior sport should be fun, safe, enjoyable and inclusive and maximise individual participation.
- Children are less likely to enjoy sport if there is an overemphasis on winning, they don't get enough playing time or they don't play with their friends.
- Providing children with a broad range of experiences in different team positions adds variety, sustains interest and fosters skill development.
- Well graded competitions allow for better skill development and cater to children, particularly those in their teenage years, who seek competitiveness.
For more information about managing junior team selection click on your role below:
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1900-1910 Hairstyles - Time of Transition
This decade saw a transition in hairstyles, from the more confined styles of the Victorian era to looser, fuller hairstyles. Curiously, both long and short styles were popular, with longer, free-flowing hair slowly gaining more converts as the decade progressed. Volume was the theme that ran through most of the popular hairstyles, regardless of hair length. Longer hairstyles featured hair parted in the middle (with a noticeable part), and long wavy tresses hanging below the shoulders. Shorter hairstyles generally began around the ears and 'poofed' up over the head in several updo styles, often held in place with barrettes and adorned with bows, or large, wide hats.
1910-1920 Hairstyles - Waves & Accessories
As the 1900s moved into the 1910s, hairstyles started off with an emphasis on long hair that was either pinned up in elaborate updos, or made wavy and flowing. Hats and bows were increasingly popular accessories. Nevertheless, in the mid-1910's, a sea change occurred that would affect women's hairstyles for years to come. This was the short bob haircut.
As these very short styles caught on and swept America, the range of elegant hairstyles for formal events and nights out on the town diminished. The focus shifted to what women put in their hair. The most popular accessory was a headband, often adorned with fancy beads and stitch-work designs. One hairstyle that gained a lot of popularity (and some notoriety) was called "curtain hair." This entailed parting short hairstyles down the middle, then letting the hair fall across a headband worn around the middle of the head, just above the ears. For more elegant hairstyles, women often constructed ringlet curls all along the headband, or added jeweled pins.
1920-1930 Hairstyles - Footloose & Fancy Free
The 1920s was a decade of huge societal changes in America. Women got the right to vote, a world war had just ended, hard liquor was banned, and the economy was booming as industry titans emerged. A unique time in the history of hairstyles, the 1920s saw the birth of the 'Flapper' era, highlighted by women with very short hair, bold new fashions, and a carefree attitude.
First noticed on famous ballroom dancer, Irene Castle, the 'Castle bob' swept the nation in the late 1910s and early 20s. Variations sprang up as the 1920s progressed, a result of women who began feeling their wild oats and experimenting with newfound freedoms of expression.
Formal hairstyles in the 1920s were often limited by the extremely short styles that were so popular then. To make up for this limitation, many women chose to wear wide-brimmed hats with elegant designs and bands. They wore their hair in very simple styles as a result. When a hat was not practical for a particular formal event, women often used curls and mini-updos to accentuate hairstyles that were crafted from rather plain-looking everyday styles.
The times always have an effect on fashions and hairstyles, regardless of the era. In just three decades, from 1900-1930, America went from very conservative styles as the Victorian era was ending, to the wild-eyed, carefree days of short Flapper hairstyles. All of which proves that it's impossible to look at current hairstyles and fashion trends and make anything more than a wild guess as to where things will be in a few years. We'll just have to wait and watch.
Please see the model - the model's hair today and the past you might be interested again making your hair into the hair during its trend ..
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The commonly observed condition where the heel of one front foot is
higher than the other has ramifications that extend well beyond the
effects on the foot itself. This condition is also observed in the
hind feet, though less frequently. However, because of limitations
and scope, this chapter will direct its attention primarily to high
heel/low heels of the front feet.
Pat Thackery, a well known and very educated farrier from Idaho, has stated that 60% of the horses in his practice have asymmetrical heel heights. We need to decide what that means and whether it is normal—and thus an inconsequential finding. Do some need to be corrected while yet others do not need corrective procedures? Since nearly everyone I have ever known has grown up in a dysfunctional family, it must be “normal,” to be from such a family, but is it good or healthy in a mental or physical sense to be imbalanced? We cannot simply dismiss the syndrome that lightly.
How to best deal with the condition has remained a “hot topic” among farriers and veterinarians for a very long time. It is the aim of this chapter to explore some of the biomechanics and often unrecognized ramifications—such as creating difficult saddle fit problems, muscle imbalances, and changes in posture. All of these can result in loss of performance and are a potential source of lameness. When there is asymmetry in the body or limbs, there is compensation. Where there is compensation there are postural changes. Where postural changes exist, locomotion will be affected. When locomotion is no longer symmetrical, performance and eventually soundness will suffer.
Many, if not most, of the veterinary and farrier professionals are
of a mind that asymmetry is the normal state and is associated with
brain lateralization, creating a dominant side (referred to in the
human as handedness). It is felt that the heel/hoof capsule asymmetry
is associated with grazing patterns, perhaps genetically related and “what
you see is what you get – live with it.” The question that
comes to mind is, “How much or what degree of asymmetry is normal
and how much asymmetry can be tolerated before deleterious changes
in biomechanics exist?”
I think that, whatever the source, a case can be made that the limit of the body’s tolerance for asymmetry is not infrequently exceeded and in these cases, horses need all the help they can get. Especially, that is the situation if they are to be ridden and even more so the situation if a high level of performance is expected. There is a remarkable body tolerance for asymmetry of most structures. Our job as veterinarians, farriers, and riders is to be able to recognize where asymmetric tolerance ceases and pathologic change and damage commence? Why is it exceeded?
In a natural state, if wild horses exceed the range of functional
asymmetry, they become part of the food chain. In our domestic world,
without judgment, we tend to breed any-and everything, and discard
or cull nearly nothing. By our management practices, it is my contention
that we place many horses into the gene pool whose asymmetries go beyond
the balance tolerance point and create pain, performance deficit,
subclinical lameness and eventually overt lameness. The problem is
compounded by many factors. These include: inappropriate riding, inappropriate
trimming, inappropriate shoeing, inappropriate musculo-skeletal manipulation,
inappropriate saddling and inappropriate veterinary procedures.
In my career as a veterinarian specializing specifically in performance horse issues and subclinical lameness, muscle tension, imbalances and symmetry since 1990, I deal daily with muscle issues, saddle-related problems, shoeing-related problems and back pain. These problems constitute as much as 95% of my practice. That has afforded me ample opportunity to observe and evaluate the relationships of asymmetric heel height to pathologic consequences on a first-hand basis.
Awareness of some of the problems came to me about many years ago via Moses Gonzales, journeyman farrier. He demonstrated to me the effects that a low heel/high heel syndrome had on the horse’s posture and performance. Farriers and veterinarians, all too often, counter Gonzales’s observations with skepticism or antagonism. Healthy skepticism is always appropriate, so let us try to examine the issues on their merits. I believe that antagonism needs to be challenged and skepticism addressed. At the very least, this subject needs to be revisited with an open mind. Appropriate trimming and/or shoeing combined with appropriate bodywork and riding remains the key to soundness.
Significant awareness has come from recognizing that the syndrome
can grossly alter the shape of the shoulder and the back. Altering
the posture and shape of the shoulder and wither area creates problems
with saddle fit. The resulting posture of the horse affects not only
saddle placement but also alters the rider’s posture and balance,
and ultimately the rider’s soundness.
More on this later.
Which foot is the “abnormal” foot?
To begin to answer this, it is necessary to talk about the possible reasons why the horse has the syndrome in the first place. Also, it is important to define what we are calling a low heel and/or what we are defining a high heel. You will note that not infrequently, the so-called “high” heel is actually of a very acceptable height and the limb shows a good pastern axis and hoof angle. Radiographs of this foot may be very acceptable. In this case, the low heel is likely under-run to some degree and exhibits a long toe with flare present. This is a common form seen with the issue of laterality, i.e. “left or right handedness.” In the horse’s case, it is better expressed as right or left forelimb dominance. Since this is a source of asymmetry, there may well be a genetic predisposition. Let me emphasize, however, that which foot is high heeled and which is low heeled does not always fit the model provided by laterality. We need to look further.
In a second scenario, the low heel may be the one showing a very acceptable height and be providing a good pastern axis. Radiographic findings may be normal. The higher heel is the problem in this horse. This scenario is more often associated with some form of trauma. That trauma can come from several sources:
For any of the above reasons, the foal may choose a pain-compensating posture that will allow it to graze. If the foal has adapted its stance because of pain or discomfort, it eventually becomes a habit—and can then last beyond the period of pain. It is for these reasons that I consider the “grazing pattern” more of a symptom and a consequence rather than the initiating cause of most high heel/low heel problems. The exception is the ones where laterality is a major issue. More on that later.
Let us first discuss the overall postural deviations that are a direct consequence of the lower of the two heels. This chapter is not specifically addressing an anatomically “short leg” syndrome, (though to a cursory evaluation, the limb with the lower heel may give the appearance of a shorter leg). The low heeled limb is functionally shorter—not likely to be anatomically shorter (the limb of the high or clubbed foot would tend to be anatomically shorter in cases of true limb length disparity). It is the variance in joint angles that changes the functional length. The joint angles are governed by the action of muscle tension on the joints.
A lower heel creates obvious changes in the joint angles at the pastern, fetlock, elbow and scapulo-humeral joint (shoulder joint). Compared to the limb with the higher heel, the angles on the low-heeled limb will open (get larger), and the limb will become more vertical than its counterpart throughout its length. The pastern joints and fetlock will be placed in more extension (and possible subluxation). The elbow angle will be more open. As the scapulo/humeral joint (shoulder joint) opens, the “point” of the shoulder will be moved caudally, so its position is farther back than on the higher-heeled limb. The position of the scapula becomes altered so that it rotates more vertically. This verticality creates a bulging appearance to the shoulder and over-development of the associated muscles on the lower-heeled limb. This asymmetry in the shoulder will cause the saddle to not sit straight on the horse. The pressure that a “crooked” saddle places on one side of the thoracic spinous processes leads to pain and primary chiropractic issues of the upper thoracic vertebrae as well.
Observe that the horse usually has a marked tendency to lean on the
shoulder of the lower-heeled limb. This may leave some observers to
conclude that the measurements that are described are “off” only
because the horse is leaning on that shoulder and that if one pushes
the horse to an equal weight bearing that the measurements tend to
even up. However, this point must be addressed and clarified. We must
answer, why, given a choice, does the horse choose to lean on that
shoulder? I contend that it is because of the heel height asymmetry
that the horse returns to leaning on the shoulder of the low-heeled
side when allowed to do so. This is the compensatory
posture that the horse seeks in order to be comfortable.
Commence assessment of the forelimbs by observing the horse’s posture, its joint positions and angles from several directions. To be meaningful, the horse must be on a flat even surface. The horse must be standing “squared up” on all four feet, and allowed to be bearing weight in its chosen posture. Ideally, the assessment is best performed after the horse has been trimmed and balanced. Having one hoof placed even 3 to 4 inches ahead of, or behind the other, can alter the accuracy of the evaluation.
Start the observations from six to eight feet away, in a position directly in front of the horse. Observe—progressively from the foot upward—the position and relative heights of the joints. The foot with the lower heel will usually be significantly larger. Often, the greater the size difference, the longer the low heel/high heel condition has likely been present. Difference in hoof size is a prime indicator that High Heel / Low Heel exists. (Also while in this observation position, evaluate the coronary band for possible evidence of medial lateral imbalance. Note this is only one factor in medial lateral balancing.
The fetlock joint on the lower-heel side is generally lower than the higher-heeled side. Next, check the position of the styloid process of the radius. This is the “bump” or “top of the shelf” on the upper medial side of the carpus (knee). It is commonly lower on the low-heeled side. As the next step, evaluate and compare the height and symmetry of the points of the shoulder (scapulo-humeral joint). Generally, it will be noted that the joint appears lower on the low-heel side, and that there is hypertrophy of the descending pectoral muscles on the side with the higher heel. With practice, it can become evident that the shoulder point on the lower heeled side will also be placed more rearward.
For an overall picture of the asymmetry, it can be very helpful to look at the spatial symmetry created by the inner margins of each limb and of the ventral aspect of the chest wall. In other words, look not at the limbs themselves but use them as a “picture frame” of the space between the limbs.
Next, stand several feet away from the shoulder, at a 90-degree angle
from the horse’s direction of stance. From this position, it
is easy to see difference in pastern angle. In many instances, from
this position, the pastern axis can be observed to be “broken
backwards.” Broken-back pastern axis is accompanied by varying
degree of subluxation of the pastern and coffin joints. The toe may
appear to be longer on the low heel side (see chapter 22). The shoulder
joint can now often be seen to be anywhere from ½ inch to 2
inches rearward of the shoulder on the limb with the higher heel. The
difference in heel height and angle is best seen by positioning one’s
self another 45 degrees toward the rear of the horse and from about
six to eight feet away.
Next, the horse should be evaluated from behind and slightly above the croup. In order for a shorter person (or when examining a very large horse) to adequately make this evaluation, it helps to stand on a sturdy object of some sort. It will be noted that the shoulder of the limb with the lower heel will usually appear to have a significant lateral “bulge” and it will appear to be higher than its counterpart. This is because the scapula has been rotated into a more vertical position. The shoulder with the higher heel will often appear to slope or fall away in an exaggerated manner.
From a chiropractic standpoint, I often find significant dysfunction and pain in the 6th and or 7th cervical vertebrae. These dysfunctions are most often on the side of the higher heel, and relate to the animal’s response of trying to maintain its proprioception (knowing where the body is in space) by keeping its eyes on a horizontal plane. The horse has to twist his head and neck to keep the eyes level. Horses therefore, often exhibit muscle pain, stiffness and spasm at the base of the neck. Moreover, because of dural torque (the tube in which the spinal cord is suspended and anchored), vertebral dysfunction and fixation occurs at the base of the neck. This, then, accounts for the muscle tension and pain around the sixth and seventh cervical vertebrae. It also causes dural torque (twisting) at the level of the poll and at the lumbo-sacral connection. Chiropractic issues are therefore common at all three levels as a result of the High Heel/Low Heel
Now, let’s step back to again consider the consequences of this condition on the fit of a saddle. The larger shoulder tends to exhibit some degree of muscle hypertrophy in the Trapezius muscle, the Semispinalis muscle and the Serratus thoracis muscle. Other involved muscles may include the Rhomboids, Deltoid, and Subscapularis muscles. The Trapezius muscle and the Longissimus muscles support the fork (the “points” or gullet bar in the fork or head of the saddle). These muscles support the forward part of the bars or panels as well. This applies to both English and Western saddles
Saddles are, for obvious reasons, built symmetrically, so when placed
on a horse with muscle hypertrophy (enlargement) on one side, and vertical
rotation of the of the scapula on the low side, the tree rotates diagonally.
By doing so it establishes a more equal contact pressure on both sides
of the “wither pocket.” Torque of the saddletree, however,
may make contact and place excessive pressure on one side of the lightly
covered (no muscle cushion) thoracic spines and leaves more open space
on the opposing side. Pressure exerted in areas close to bone (with
little muscle covering) result in a significant magnification of the
pressure. The result of this unilateral pressure is pain, and loss
of ability to perform bending and lateral movements. The pressure can
also create chiropractic joint issues in the thoracic vertebrae of
the withers. The shoulder that is “bulged” laterally may
strike the edge of the panel or bar as the scapula moves through its
range of motion. This can create significant muscle bruising and serves
to further twist the saddle.
Because the opposite shoulder typically has more slope, the saddle may tend to fall or slip to the sloping shoulder side of the horse. This is a second reason for pressure on the thoracic spinous processes. The problem of slipping to the side is particularly troubling if the croup is also involved and is lower on the same side. This is can occur when a high/low condition exists in the hind feet as well (very subtly, the diagonal hind is always involved when the fronts are mismatched). When the horse is observed in motion, the croup raises more on one side than the other — it relates to muscle balance, chiropractic or joint issues in the hind limbs. Regardless of cause, it creates an even worse scenario for slippage when combined with shoulder asymmetry. The resulting hypertonicity can and does lead to lameness via the following biomechanical factors.
The consequences for the horse are muscle pain in the shoulder(s)
and shortening of stride. When any animal experiences pain, the response
is to alter the posture. This leads to inappropriate loading of a limb
while moving within the required gaits. When the skeletal system support
is inappropriate or inadequate, the muscles attempt to take on the
load. Performance is compromised, as the condition leads to subclinical
and eventually outright lameness. A rider who must alter his/her position
and posture because of improper position of the saddle will eventually
create further performance problems and increase the risk of lameness
for the horse.
Most “crooked riders” have slowly allowed their bodies to compensate and are usually quite unaware of their compensation until it is brought to their attention. Thus, the rider may end up with chronic back, hip or knee pain. The crooked saddle and side slipping saddle causes the rider to place more weight in one stirrup than the other. This also contributes to creating a “crooked” traveling horse and, therefore, is a cause of subclinical and eventually clinical lameness. There are many other postural deviations of the rider that can add to the problem. Horses and humans are masters of compensation and adaptation. Both require good bodywork to overcome the adaptations and correct the compensations.
Upper thoracic (wither) vertebral chiropractic problems are one of the most common reasons for a horse to react badly to the tightening of the cinch or girth. Dysfunction here creates neuromuscular irritability in the muscles of the shoulder and in the area covered by the girth or cinch. Girth pain is too often considered “normal” or just a bad “behavioral” response. I contend that 90% of these horses are reacting to pain.
The pain from the saddle creating pressure, and the neuromuscular stimulation of the shoulder muscles creates a chain of muscle shortening in the caudal shoulder and forelimb muscles that can and does lead to superficial digital tendon strain and suspensory strain and eventual suspensory tears.
As a side note on performance issues, these horses typically experience trouble with a lead or lead change and may tend to cross canter. In cases not complicated by other musculo-skeletal issues, it occurs in the lead on the side of the higher heel. About 80% of horses are low-heeled on the left front foot, so in most (uncomplicated) cases, the horse has more of a problem picking up or maintaining the right lead.
With regard to the foot itself, the syndrome produces a long toe with
the heel becoming under-run. This leads to inadequate support of the
caudal foot, and to a lack of development of the digital cushion and
lateral cartilages (see chapters 1, 3 and 19). A lack of internal caudal
foot development leads to a “broken pastern axis” that
is very difficult, and in some cases impossible, to correct. It is
not uncommon to see large, flat and splayed out frogs (prolapsed frogs)
accompanying the foot with a degenerated digital cushion., The frog
growth is a functional compensation for the lack of internal support
in the back of the foot.
There is also an obvious consequence to be recognized with regard to major factors that lead to “navicular syndrome.” Among these factors, a horse with long toe/low heel tends to “break” the pastern axis and place much more chronic stress on the deep digital flexor tendon. The deep flexor tendon is, in turn, putting pressure on the navicular bursa and impar ligament. Another very important component is that these horse land toe first, and as Dr. Bowker has shown, this also contributes to the development of “navicular syndrome” (see chapter 1).
There is a wonderful adage that when one finds a problem one needs to look elsewhere for the source. There have been many theories about the reasons for high/low heels. Regardless of the originating factor, whether genetic or acquired, we are all aware that the horse—once the condition is established—will typically graze with the lower heeled limb advanced. It is certainly a reasonable theory that pressure (on the heel), maintained through many grazing periods, distorts the hoof capsule, unbalances the foot, advances the break-over location and causes the heel to become under-run. Pressure over time creates distortion. Distortion equals an unbalanced foot. So the foot must be addressed, but that is not the full story.
It is axiomatic that bones assume the position that muscles dictate. The bones of the forelimb are no exception and heel height is thus affected. The joint angles that are formed with the consequence of one limb being functionally shorter are typically associated with tension in muscle groups. So, one can certainly postulate that some initiating trauma has placed the muscles of one limb in tension and functionally shortened that limb—leading to a functionally different limb on that side. The trauma may exist from birth or from later-acquired trauma; but either way, it leads to a habituated muscle shortening. This is an aspect that can often be addressed by appropriate bodywork in many forms: including acupuncture, chiropractic, deep massage, myofascial release work, stretching, and corrective riding exercise. Correct saddle fitting is also a key part of the equation.
By laterality, I am referring the human equivalent of being right-handed
or left-handed. In the equine, it is better described as right or left
forelimb dominant, or as the Germans have described it for centuries: “the
naturally crooked horse.” What this essentially means is that
horses are crooked in their bodies, and the hoof capsules change from
normal in response to that crookedness. The degree of front limb dominance
varies from severe to mild. The horse that is more ambidextrous will
show the least tendency to asymmetry and will also be a more athletic
animal. Most horses show a significant degree of laterality.
To understand why laterality is significant, it is useful to compare the human as a biped with the quadruped horse and understand the biomechanics that come into play. To keep things simple, I am always going to refer to a right dominant person or horse. Obviously, left dominance will present a mirror image. The percentage of humans or horses that are right forelimb dominant is approximately 75 to 80 percent. Understanding how it works in the horse can be a bit confusing—that needs to be addressed. Most horses tend to have their left side hollow (the easy side) and the right as their difficult lead and stiffness, so it would be easy at first glance to conclude that most horses are “left-handed.” It is an inaccurate conclusion; so let me explain.
If you are right-handed, you are dominant with your right leg as well. If a right-handed biped loses his or her balance and starts to stumble or fall, that person will automatically catch him or herself with the right leg and use the right arm to regain balance. If the person continues to fall, the right-handed biped will stop the fall with the right arm.
Now consider that the horse that, by nature, is a grazing animal. It is designed, to be on the forehand in order to support a comfortable and efficient grazing pattern. Thus, sixty percent of the standing horse’s weight is carried on the front legs. Metaphorically, this means that the forelegs are the posts that keep it from falling on its face when it grazes or moves forward. So, as it moves to the next bites of forage, the hind limb propels the horse forward and it catches and braces itself with a forelimb so as not to stumble or fall. The right forelimb dominant horse, like the right handed human will preferentially use the right front leg to prevent “the stumble or fall” and as the principal supporting limb.
Typically, the right forelimb will show more muscle tone (tension), and actually tone to the point of hypertonicity in the shoulder muscles. This means the horse has typically develops an excess degree of muscle tone or tension that produces pain. As a consequence, the right shoulder does not advance as much as the left and the foot flight/stride has a slightly shorter stance phase than the left front. (The horse will then carry itself asymmetrically in order to travel in a straight line.) The effect of a shorter stride means that the foot’s balance point will be farther forward. There is not as much weight placed on the heel at impact and this will result in a higher heel developing on the right side. The front foot on the left will reach farther forward and its balance point will be more rearward (palmar). The result will be a strong tendency for the left front to exhibit an under-run heel and longer toe. Flare of toe is usually an accompanying consequence. Perimeter shoeing of this foot can only make the problem worse.
Right forelimb dominance is so often the reason for heel height asymmetry, and is why we see the higher heel more commonly on the right side. Now let’s address grazing pattern. Because the right forelimb dominant horse supports itself more significantly on its right front leg, it will, while grazing, place the left forelimb forward of the right front. The grazing pattern will aggravate the under-run heel and long toe syndrome, but the root cause of the asymmetry lies in the forelimb dominance – the “natural crookedness of the horse.” However, it is still imperative that we recognize the other possible causes of crookedness that are addressed in this chapter. In those other trauma-induced scenarios, the high heel of a right dominant horse may be over-ridden by other pathology and result in the left front exhibiting the higher heel (to the point of being “clubby”) even though the horse is right forelimb dominant. For the same reasons, the grazing pattern that becomes established in these other scenarios can aggravate the lower, under-run heel.
The trimmer or farrier should evaluate the movement and gait analysis of every horse that he or she works on. The evaluation should be done both before and after working on the feet. What will be observed with the right forelimb dominant (RFD) horse is that when walked in a straight line (or watched ridden on a straight line), the left hind foot will track toward the midline and the right hind foot will track to the outside of the right front foot. They will often carry the croup to the right as well. There is also a tendency for the right hip to appear to drop with each stride.
Sometimes the tracking is easier to see when the horse is returning
to the person doing the observing. There, the left hind will appear
to be traveling in a line between the two front feet and the right
hind is carried to the outside of the track of the right front. The
pattern may be more obvious at the trot than at the walk. Also, observe
the motion of the chest. The Descending pectoral muscle (the breast
muscle that is observed when looking at the horse “head-on”)
will rise up more on the right side than on the left. This is absolutely
consistent in the right forelimb dominant horse and will be seen on
the left Descending Pectoral muscle on the left forelimb dominant horse.
The thorax is actually being torqued in a counterclockwise direction.
Other aspects of the standing posture and evaluation of the hoof capsules:
Typically, the horse, in its chosen posture, will stand with both the right front and the right hind turned slightly outward (often more observable in the hind foot). It is also common to note that the left front foot and the right hind foot are slightly advanced in front of their counterparts. When the foot is picked up, the medial wall at the junction of quarter to heel will appear longer on the right hind. The left hind foot may also show a slightly longer medial wall, but not as predominant as the right hind. A similar growth pattern may show in the right front. The left front may appear to be the most symmetrical of the four. Note also the grazing pattern. Which foot is forward? If it is the left front, think of right forelimb dominant, but recognize that trauma may be the underlying cause of asymmetry in some horses. (Realize that the pattern will be the opposite in the left forelimb dominant horse.)
Above all, note that I am saying, “managed” – not
cured. Cure is only possible through skilled longeing and riding
technique to minimize laterality and emphasize ambidexterity. The
fact that 95 percent of the horses will live their entire lives without
corrective longeing and riding means that the trimmer or farrier
will never run out of cases. With every trimming or shoeing, it is
essential, when the low heel is the problem, to set breakover back.
Ensure that at least 50 percent to 60 percent of the support is in
the caudal foot, i.e. behind the center of rotation of P3 (see chapters
19, 20 and 22). Shoot for heel support extended to the buttress of
the frog. Flare must, of course, be addressed but in addition, one
must keep after the medial wall height. When the horse is barefooted,
the medial/lateral imbalance can be addressed more frequently and
better controlled than when a shoe is present for six or eight weeks.
In laterality cases, as well as all other causal factors of asymmetric heel heights, management is enhanced by a team effort. The trimmer or farrier’s work becomes more effective when utilizing integrative therapies such as acupuncture/chiropractic and/or good bodywork. This is even more important when the high heel is the pathological one.
It is so valuable to educate our clients about the role of laterality and why any person who is involved in veterinary medicine, integrative medicine, professional hoof care, massage or any other form of bodywork cannot “fix” their horse. We can only help them manage the consequential effects. That we can do very well! We can only hope to inspire them to learn more about how to longe and train the horse.
Much of what I have learned about the nature and movement of the crooked horse and its correction has come from working with Gabriel and Klaus Schoeneich in Germany. They have been working with and rehabilitating horses with the “natural crookedness” for 25 years and are a wonderful resource. They have a book that is titled Correct Movement in Horses. The subtitle is Improving Straightness and Balance, Kennilworth Press. If the horse is showing a lot of signs of laterality and the feet are a problem as a result of the laterality It is a book well worth recommending to your clients. It covers the methods of the groundwork and the riding work.
General Thoughts on Correction
To achieve desirable results, there must be a team effort between
the veterinarian/body worker, the farrier and the rider/trainer.
An unacceptable level of heel height asymmetry goes hand-in-hand with asymmetry and pathology at the level of the topline. Therefore, for the many reasons presented, I feel quite strongly (even in the absence of appropriate body work, etc.) it is inadequate to address the foot without appreciating the consequences on the topside of the horse. We must recognize that without seeking and correcting the root cause(s) any other treatment is only palliative.
By properly addressing the high heel/low heel syndrome, the trimmer/farrier
can be of enormous help to both the rider and the horse. I do not advocate
any of the several possible "corrections" such as wedges,
lifts, etc. unless I have performed a thorough examination (static
and moving) and know the horse’s history and way of going indicate
that mechanical intervention is needed. I evaluate by use of reactive
trigger and acupuncture points, evidence of inadequate or inappropriate
vertebral segment motion, muscle palpation and recognition of pain
within a muscle or group of muscles. It is also important to palpate
for pain or pathology of the tendons and ligaments. The role of the
saddle and its proper fit needs to be critically evaluated as it may
be a very key link. This is an area where well-educated body workers,
chiropractors and acupuncturists can be of great help to the veterinary
profession and to the farrier.
What is the appropriate shoeing for this condition? I feel that in shod horses, it is more critical to identify which foot or feet are pathologic. Is it the higher heel or the lower heel, or do both need to be addressed? Many times, a higher heel is evidence that there is heel pain and that the horse is landing toe-first to ameliorate that pain. In these instances, I have found that correct barefoot trimming has frequently addressed the problem better than corrective shoeing. At any rate, whether the horse is bare or shod, appropriate trim and balance is critical. But even with shod horse, they can most-often be best helped by a barefoot period. This barefoot period may be assisted by the use of hoof boots during the rehabilitation phase.
There are many potential causes for caudal foot pain. All lead to further foot pathology; so the need to identify them is imperative. Most commonly, the problem is in the trimming or balancing, where too much sole is removed in order to make the foot “look good and be cleaned up.” The same is true regarding significant trimming of the bars or the frogs. There are few if any legitimate reasons to cut/trim into healthy (or non-exfoliating) sole/bar/or frog tissue. Doing so leads to lack of protection for the internal structures.
Other sources of heel pain that need to be diagnosed or differentiated
include thrush that may coincide with contracted heels. When there
has previously been a lack of adequate frog pressure, the heels will
contract. If there are contracted flexors, tendon injuries or joint
injuries, the horse may not be able to place the heel fully on the
ground and consequently they will develop higher heels that will contract
and be more susceptible to thrush. We all tend to look for a single
pathology, but must remember that there may be multiple pathologies
Additional problems are incurred if the heel of a true “clubbed foot” is lowered excessively without the aid of good muscle therapy. Structures in the muscles called spindle cell receptors and receptors in the musculo-tendonous portion called Golgi bodies provide signals from the muscle or tendon to the spinal cord. This data provides information to the central nervous system (CNS) about the tension that exists in the muscles and tendonous structures.
When the heel is lowered on a clubbed foot, the receptors in the deep
flexor tendon are activated and signal the central nervous system that
there is too much tension on the tendon. The response from the CNS
is to issue a signal to shorten the muscle or tendon structures to
prevent injury. This response provides one of the reasons why, by the
end of a shoeing period, a clubfoot that has had the heel excessively
lowered usually looks as bad (or worse) than when originally seen.
Lowering the heel on a non-clubbed foot—but one in which the heels have been allowed to be high—must be done in small increments over several trimmings, combined with appropriate bodywork.
I am a veterinarian and make no claims to be a farrier. However, I have undertaken the study of foot issues, shoeing and podiatry for many years now, because no horse’s body issues can be fully corrected if the feet are not reasonably balanced. Simply put, my work will not achieve long-range solution without attention to the feet.
My experience, until recently, had lead me to the conclusion that the best course of correction in shod horses is the use of wedges as orthotic devices applied on the lower heel in order to achieve the same heel height and pastern angle as the more upright foot. Pads and wedges certainly can have negative consequences such as crushing the heels. This is especially true if they are improperly applied. Sometimes it is has been necessary to also use a “lift” such as a rim (or full) pad on the same or opposite foot as well, in order to create functional leg length symmetry and allow the muscles to adapt. Selection of wedge height or of a rim pad thickness (on the same or opposite foot), is best determined after the horse has been trimmed and balanced. Again, it is emphasized that this evaluation must be made with the horse standing squarely on a firm level surface and reassessing as earlier described [Note: when indicated, wedging can also be quite successfully done with hoof boot insoles, by trimming the sole of a hoof boot, with epoxies, and/or with casts].
For evaluation, have the horse stand on the trial orthotics (wedges,
or a combination of wedges and rim pads) and evaluate for improvement
in symmetry. Use the same examination process as previously described.
In review, check factors such as the symmetry of the space between
the legs, height and angle of the joints, and the height of the styloid
processes. Note whether the “point” of the shoulder now
comes into symmetry with the opposite side. Again observe from above
and behind to determine the effect on angle and symmetry of the two
scapulae. Sometimes the changes observed during this procedure are
dramatic. In long-term cases (especially in older horses) the changes
are subtle, and immediate results are not as evident, but will show
improvement in symmetry and performance over the course of multiple
shoeings or trimmings.
Just shoeing alone for high heel / low heel syndrome may manage the case, but after years of observation, I am of the opinion that by far, the largest percentage of cases are being managed, but not corrected or cured. In other words, the horse is rendered ride-able, but is not made sound.
I am a realist and recognize that that is the most we can ever hope for with some horses and some clients, so I do not mean this as a condemnation of the role of shoeing. However, the true cause must be found and ameliorated or eliminated to have a chance of cure and resolution. An in-depth understanding of the back of the foot may, with proper trimming and re-habilitation work (including bodywork) have a better chance of a “cure” through healing the structures in the caudal foot. I have personally experienced resolution with five horses of our own.
Whether one is working with shoeing or with barefoot methods, without proper attention to break-over and heel support, the overall condition of the foot can be made worse with the use of wedges. How can this be ameliorated? When shoeing with wedges, the break-over must be set significantly back to approximately 6 mm ahead of the tip of the coffin bone. (Good quality radiographs with the frog apex marked are very helpful.) An improved heel support, often achieved by slight lowering of the heel, should be used to extend the buttress of the heel more rearward. If wedging up the lower heel, the wedge should then extend roughly 1/8 inch beyond the heel of the shoe. If breakover is set as described, the lowering will be compensated and pastern axis will remain correct. If necessary, a higher-degree wedge can be utilized after lengthening the heel by the lowering.
The goal is to maintain appropriate pastern axis while giving extended
heel support. As with shoeing, the barefoot trimmer must pay the same
attention to breakover and heel support—and be sure to modify
hoof boots to the same mechanics as well.
Following these precautions helps to prevent the heel from further crushing. If the walls are already rolling under at the heels, it is sometimes necessary to trim them lower yet to a level where there is sound, straighter wall growing in the proper direction and not rolling under (see chapter 22). This does not mean cutting into live tissue! If the low heel is lowered more, it follows that the heel should be wedged or treated by other means in order to create the appropriate heel height and pastern angle. When wedges are used, I prefer an open bar wedge and where indicated, rim pads instead of full pads. Frog support may be helpful. An alternative is to use a shoe with a built in wedge, i.e. a wedged shoe.
A technique using an acrylic product such as EquiloxTM or Vettec SuperfastTM can be used to build both sole and heel to bring the low heel to balance with the high heel. Caution should be used not to carry the material forward of the widest part of the foot.
If there is evidence of a lack of digital cushion and lateral cartilage development, the best course is routine barefoot trimming and maintenance to develop the caudal foot. If shoeing is the course followed, it may be necessary to use full pads and impression material as well as a frog support. Again, shoeing may manage a situation where the internal foot has not properly developed. In the long run, however, it will never allow the internal foot to develop. A barefoot approach has a better chance of helping.
In younger horses, there is a better rate of success in re-directing the hoof wall growth, re-balancing muscle development and maintaining a back that can appropriately accommodate a saddle. Quite a few such horses may be taken out of all support after a short period of rehabilitation. Older horses with very long-standing problems and under-developed digital cushions may be best kept in the appropriate orthotics on an ongoing basis. In this case, the owner of the horse should be aware that the case is being managed—not cured.
Younger horses may respond to therapy well enough to become fully rebalanced. Older horses may require some form of correction during the remainder of their riding career. In all cases of significant heel height asymmetry, the best results are achieved if the appropriate foot corrections are accompanied by appropriate body/muscle work. For muscle re-balancing to occur following postural correction, the horse must be in work. There is always concern with how much work is acceptable and how soon should work resume after trimming and shoeing corrections have been done. It is, of course, always preferable to err on the conservative side. Work the horse lightly for the first week or ten days. However, I have seen horses remain in athletic competition immediately after the trimming or shoeing changes and suffer no apparent negative effects.
I very much believe that an interdisciplinary approach to heel / foot
asymmetry provides the best-case outcomes. Cause, effect, and solution
require good detective work.
All high-heel/low-heel horses are crooked horses. Straight horses are sound horses, so the corollary is that all crooked horses are headed in the direction of performance problems and eventual unsoundness. All high/low horses deserve our attention and our best efforts at maintenance and management
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Most managers, when asked, will say that their most important
asset is their people. Of course, they’re not talking
about flesh and bones... they’re talking about minds.
use the term "knowledge" very loosely with dozens
of definitions for it, many of which make rather vague distinctions
among data, information, knowledge, and intelligence.
I like to cite A.C. Foskett’s distinction between
knowledge and information:
is what I know, Information is what we know."
getting into more detail, I like to establish a common vocabulary
and share my definition of related terms, which may vary
from other publications.
concept of Intelligence is built upon four fundamental principles:
Data, Information, Knowledge,
and Wisdom or Intelligence.
The basic compound for Intelligence is data -- measures
and representations of the world around us, presented as external
signals and picked up by various sensory instruments and organs.
Simplified: raw facts and numbers.
is produced by assigning meaning to data relevant to mental
objects. Simplified: data in context.
is the subjective interpretation of Information and approach
to act upon in the mind of perceiver.
As such, knowledge is hard to conceive as an absolute definition
in human terms.
or wisdom embodies awareness, insight, moral judgments,
and principles to construct new knowledge and improve upon
Bank example would illuminate the definitions:
- Data: The numbers 100 or 5, out
- Information: Principal amount
of money: $100, Interest rate: 5%
- Knowledge: At the end of Year
I get $105 back
- Intelligence: Concept of growth
are living in an era of ever-increasing pace of technological
Beside increasing the performance and reducing the size,
we are left with only one possible progress path . . . a
move toward more “knowledgeable machines” (I
would rather use the term “knowledgeable” instead
of “intelligent” for the next few years!).
more knowledge available to machines, the more automation
can be achieved and the closer we get to true intelligent
is more valuable than putting information to effective use
in an automated manner and that can only be achieved by
deploying more structural knowledge into our technical life.
such the most important area in computer industry in the
coming years would be the means to deal with knowledge as
matter, referred to as "Knowledge Modeling".
Modeling is the concept of representing information and the
logic of putting it to use in a digitally reusable format
for purpose of capturing, sharing and processing knowledge
to simulate intelligence. Among others it can address business
matters such as Agility, Compliance, Consistent Decisioning,
Reasoning and Knowledge retention (baby boomers retirement,
development going offshore,...).
Although unbelievable today, I can clearly envision a day
when we are able to perform a full-blown modeling of a person’s
entire knowledge base. That operation would be referred to
as “SoulByting”, which is outside the scope of
this website. Now back on earth ...
Following diagram (courtesy of VentureChoice.com)
illustrates a sample knowledge model for venture capital decision
The most common applications of knowledge modeling are used
for education, decision support, alerting and automation.
In marketing and consumer research space knowledge modeling
is utilized to model the decision process of an individual
or segment in a particular context (referred to as Choice
There are already established techniques and methods to facilitate
Knowledge Modeling activities, such as data mining for knowledge
discovery, collaboration tools and document management systems
for Knowledge sharing and rule engines, BPMS and Expert Systems
to capture, process, simulate or react the knowledge inquiries.
In general, knowledge can be categorized into two distinguishable
knowledge - Can be articulated into formal language,
including grammatical statements (words and numbers), mathematical
expressions, specifications, manuals, etc. Explicit knowledge
can be readily transmitted to others.
This type of knowledge can be easily "modeled"
using various computer languages, decision trees and rule
knowledge - Personal knowledge embedded in individual
experience and involves intangible factors, such as personal
beliefs, perspective, and the value system. Tacit knowledge
is hard (but not impossible) to articulate with formal language.
network offers the best possible method for modeling tacit
In the simple form, a Knowledge Model would be designed
with the purpose of receiving data produced from various
sources and generate outputs that could trigger actions.
models can be implemented as software applications, hardware
components, object library, web-services, and many other
forms and shapes using various techniques. The closest natural
reassembled technique to human brain for modeling knowledge
is Neural Network.
a bridge between academic and business world, MAKHFI.COM
intends to help people understand and apply this unimaginably
powerful science to their everyday projects.
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Caspar David Friedrich
Click on the picture to see an enlarged version.
After settling in Dresden, the capital of the central German state of Saxony, Friedrich seldom left. Except for vacation trips along Germany's northern seacoast, he spent the rest of his life in the area of softly rising mountains, called the Riesengebirge.
In this picture, he has captured the first rays of the sun floating down on the undulating hills of eastern Saxony. Friedrich was an avid hiker and loved to climb to the top of these hills. As is true for many areas of Germany, the highest peaks of the Riesengebirge would usually be crowned with a cross, so this scene could be merely a landscape painted true to life.
But Friedrich was imbued with a deep religious mysticism. So his cross is exaggerated in height, and comes with a corpus (body), the figure of Jesus can be clearly seen. It would be most unusual for an outdoor mountain cross to be a crucifix (the proper term for a cross containing a corpus). So Friedrich demands from his viewers more than just contemplation of the scener. The landscape takes on a symbolic force, perhaps the dawn of redemption?
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A post‐biblical expression for the doctrine of Adam's transgression and mankind's consequential inheritance of a sinful nature. The story of the disobedience of Adam and Eve is depicted in the J version of the creation (Gen. 2: 4b–3: 24); human sin is rooted in the desire to be like God and to live lives wholly centred on themselves and their own desires. According to the narrative, the result of this primal sin was expulsion from the garden. God was afraid that Adam, having disobediently eaten from one tree, might be tempted to become immortal by eating next from the tree of life. So the way back to the garden was barred. Paul appears to misunderstand the story as if Adam had the gift of immortality, but lost it by eating the forbidden fruit. He refers to the story in Rom. 5: 21, taking it up from Ecclus. [= Sir.] 25: 24. The doctrine of original sin was much developed by Christian theologians, especially Augustine in the 5th cent. CE and, later, by Protestant Reformers.
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| 0.970799
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03.29.12 Study re-emphasizes that a mom-to-be's nutrition affects the future of her baby.
Eating a diverse healthy diet during pregnancy may be more important in preventing birth defects than previously imagined, according to findings from a recent study published in the journal Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine.
Adding the B vitamin folic acid to the U.S. food supply cut neural-tube defects (NTD) by 40 percent, but experts note that no single nutrient can carry the prevention load alone.
A large study of mothers who had babies with or without NTDs or other malformations found that those who reported having the best-quality prenatal diets overall were only half as likely to have a baby with a fatal brain defect than moms with low-quality diets. They were up to 20 percent less likely to give birth to a baby with spina bifida and up to 30 percent less likely to deliver one with cleft lip or palate.
A best-quality diet emphasizes fruits, vegetables and whole grains and limits saturated fats and sweets.
Let's face it: You are what you eat—and the same goes for your baby. Check out our nutrition tips that will help both of you during these nine months.
Supplements, in addition to a healthy diet, can help you get the necessary nutrients while you're expecting. Check out our How to Get the Vitamins You Need page for more articles on how to choose prenatal vitamins to get the nutrients your body may lack.
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23rd November 2012 - A campaign aimed at encouraging more people to get tested for HIV begins today.
The sexual health charity Terrence Higgins Trust says it's England's first ever National HIV Testing Week. Sexual health clinics have been invited to team up with community based HIV testing services and national and local health promotion initiatives.
A variety of testing and awareness-raising events are planned across England during the week, targeting people most at risk of HIV.
The week is being co-ordinated through HIV Prevention England (HPE), a partnership of community organisations funded by the Department of Health to carry out national HIV prevention work in England among communities at an increased risk of infection.
The aim of this week's campaign is to target two groups of people who are at particularly high risk of getting HIV. They are:
People from African communities
Men who have sex with men
HIV stands for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. It is a virus which attacks the body's immune system - the body's defence against diseases. HIV can be passed on through infected bodily fluids, most commonly via sex without a condom or by sharing infected needles, syringes or other injecting drug equipment.
There are around 90,000 people with HIV in the UK - with around a quarter of these unaware that they have the virus.
Health groups hope that by dedicating a week to raise awareness of the importance of getting tested, more people with undiagnosed HIV will be able to start treatment. The Terrence Higgins Trust says that someone who is diagnosed late, after the point at which they should have started treatment, is nine times more likely to die within a year of receiving their diagnosis than someone who tests in good time. Also, undiagnosed HIV is a key factor driving the UK’s HIV epidemic, with the majority of onward transmission coming from those who are unaware that they have the infection.
Genevieve Edwards, director of health improvement at Terrence Higgins Trust, says in a statement: "There is a growing consensus that reducing undiagnosed HIV would firmly put the brakes on the spread of infection in this country. We’ve already seen other parts of the world make progress in reducing rates of undiagnosed and late diagnosed HIV, and that’s without healthcare systems as comprehensive as our own.
"It is now fully within our grasp to halt the spread of HIV, but we need more regular testing among high-risk groups to bring down rates of undiagnosed infection. National HIV Testing Week provides a great opportunity to encourage this, and we would welcome any organisation that wants to get involved."
Saving lives, reducing infection
National HIV Testing Week is endorsed by the British HIV Association and the All-Party Parliamentary Group on HIV and Aids. Its vice-chair, Simon Kirby MP, says in a statement: "National HIV Testing Week gives us an opportunity to send out the clear message that testing is the cornerstone of the fight against HIV, and that by increasing testing amongst at risk groups we can go a long way to saving lives and reducing infection rates."
The testing week will run until Friday 30th November, a day before World Aids Day. This year the campaign will concentrate on persuading local authorities in England to make HIV prevention programmes a priority as they prepare to take on responsibility for public health in their own areas.
It will also encourage GPs and practice staff to refresh and improve their knowledge of HIV so that they are in a better position to spot symptoms and recommend testing.
To provide even greater transparency and choice, we are working on a number of other cookie-related enhancements. More information
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|August 3, 2011|
| What is the test looking for?|
The HIV test is designed to detect antibodies to HIV in your blood or saliva. Antibodies are proteins produced by your body when you have an infection and they help fight infection. If you are infected with HIV, your body makes very specific antibodies to fight the infection. The HIV antibodies are different from antibodies for the flu, hepatitis, or other infections. If you have HIV antibodies, then you have been infected with HIV. (The only exception to this applies to infants born to HIV-infected mothers; infants can receive HIV antibodies from their infected mothers that stay in their system for as long as 18 months.)
The HIV test does not indicate whether you have AIDS, how long you have been infected, or how sick you might be. It just indicates whether you are infected with the virus (see What are HIV/AIDS?).
| The window period|
The window period is the time it takes for your body to produce HIV antibodies after you have been exposed to HIV. In more than 97% of people, this period lasts between 2 and 12 weeks. In a very small number of people, the process takes up to 6 months.
The window period causes a lot of confusion. Here's an example: Let's say someone had unprotected sex on Saturday night. On Monday, he goes to get an HIV test. The test will almost certainly come back negative, even if he was infected with HIV on Saturday night, because his body has not yet had a chance to make antibodies. Even if he went for a standard antibody-based HIV test 1 or 2 months later, he might still get a negative result even if he had been infected on that Saturday night; again, the reason is because he has not yet produced antibodies, which are what the HIV test is looking for. There are HIV tests that look for the HIV virus itself rather than the antibody, and they can detect HIV infection earlier during the window period. Examples of these tests are an HIV PCR that detects the virus, and fourth-generation HIV tests that detect both HIV antibody and the p24 antigen, which is produced by the HIV virus.
If you are worried about something that happened that may have exposed you to HIV, you naturally will want to get tested as soon as possible. A good strategy would be to go back for a test 3 months after your possible exposure; the result you get after 3 months will be 99% certain. However, if you think you may have been exposed to HIV and are having symptoms of HIV infection, see a provider right away. The provider may be able to perform a one of the tests that detect the virus directly. If you think you may have been exposed to HIV recently (regardless of whether you have symptoms), talk to a counselor or health care provider about when you should be tested.
| Testing process in the United States|
The testing process could vary a lot depending on where you live and where you get tested.
| Special testing sites|
|Testing sites are either confidential or anonymous. At anonymous sites, you are given an identification number so that you do not have to provide your name. This is a good option if you are concerned about others finding out about your decision to get tested because only you can match your number with your test result. |
|Some testing sites require you to make an appointment, others offer hours when you can drop in to get tested. If it is a drop-in clinic, clients are seen in order of arrival; therefore, you may have to wait for a little while. For appointment clinics, you can call the testing site to schedule a time for counseling and testing. |
|Most sites use a client questionnaire to collect some information about you, such as your ethnicity, sexual orientation, sexual activity, and substance use, and whether you have ever had an HIV test before. |
|Before the test, you may talk with a counselor who explains the testing process, answers your questions about HIV, and addresses any other concerns you have. The counselor can also answer questions and offer advice about reducing your risk of HIV. However, counseling is not mandatory for HIV testing; whether you get counseling may depend on the site where you are tested.|
|Many testing sites use a small blood sample to test for HIV. Many other testing sites use a test called OraSure. With this test, a probe that looks like a toothbrush sits in your mouth between your cheek and gums for about 4 minutes. Results from either type of test usually take 1 to 2 weeks. There is a rapid HIV test where you can receive the results in less than 30 minutes. For the rapid test, a clinic staff member will prick your finger with a needle and take a few drops of your blood. Whether you receive counseling with the rapid test depends a lot on where the test is given. If you are offered the test in an emergency room of a hospital, for instance, the staff may not have the time or training to give you much counseling. |
|At your return appointment, you may meet with a counselor who gives you your results and answers questions. If your test results are positive, the clinic will give you referrals for physical and mental health care, housing, and other services you may need. If your results are negative, the clinic staff can discuss ways to protect yourself against HIV in the future. |
| Regular clinic or doctor's office|
If you take the test from your regular clinic or doctor's office, you may not receive the same amount of counseling as you would from a special HIV test site. However, you may be able to make an appointment at a more convenient time and not have to wait. You may want to weigh your comfort level with your doctor or regular clinic against the more specialized counseling and referrals you would receive at a special HIV test site. You may also want to consider the availability of anonymous testing at a regular clinic or doctor's office.
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This past Sunday (Oct. 2) marked the conclusion of a mission that for the first time studied, imaged and mapped the unexplored offshore Northern San Andreas Fault from just north of San Francisco to its end at the junction of three tectonic plates off Mendocino, Calif.
Scientists on the mission, funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, have been using various techniques to create the first-ever 3-D structural map that will model the undersea Northern San Andreas Fault and its structure.
By using different types of sonar, they have been able to determine both the depth of the seafloor and obtain information about what type of sediments or hard bottoms are below.
Little is known about the offshore fault due to perennial bad weather that has limited scientific investigations.
Early in the expedition, scientists collected bathymetric (deep underwater) and subsurface data to help them locate specific areas of interest for more detailed operations.
Unlike faults on land, those formed along mid-ocean ridges are very common. While land faults are easily eroded and often cut older faults in complex, hard-to-untangle ways, submarine faults break into newly formed crust without much alteration from erosion.
Scientists expect the subsea portion of the fault to include deep rifts and high walls, along with areas supporting animal life.
"By relating this 3-D model with ongoing studies of the ancient record of seismic activity in this volatile area, scientists may better understand past earthquakes — in part because fault exposure on land is poor, and the sedimentary record of the northern California offshore fault indicates a rich history of past earthquakes," said mission team member Chris Goldfinger, a marine geologist and geophysicist at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Ore.
The researchers explored the fault to determine the relationship between major earthquakes and biological diversity. Evidence shows that active fluid and gas venting along fast-moving tectonic systems, such as the San Andreas Fault, create productive, unique and unexplored ecosystems.
"This is a tectonically and chemically active area," said team member Waldo Wakefield, a research fisheries biologist at NOAA's Northwest Fisheries Science Center. "I am looking for abrupt topographic features as well as vents or seeps that support chemosynthetic life — life that extracts its energy needs from dissolved gasses in the water. I'm also looking at sonar maps of the water column and images of the seafloor for communities of life."
A variety of sensors and systems are being used to help locate marine life, including a NOAA autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) named Lucille. The AUV's high-definition cameras are obtaining multiple images to be stitched into "photo mosaics" showing detailed fault structure and animal life.
The AUV and its sensors can dive to nearly 1 mile (1,500 meters), but depths associated with this expedition ranged between approximately 230 to 1,100 feet (70 to 350 m).
Digital still cameras aboard the AUV used advanced optical cameras to image surface features of the seabed and characterize habitats with their associated life forms. Above the seafloor, a multi-frequency sonar system was used to image animals living in the water column, especially such things as fish schools.
The researchers hope that by mapping the undersea portion of the San Andreas Fault, they will be betterable to predict potential earthquakes and tsunamis because they will have a more complete picture of activity on the fault.
More information about the expedition can be found at NOAA's Ocean Explorer website.
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“Couldn’t There Have Been Exceptions to the Laws of Science?”
Some people have realized the implications of the laws of science concerning the matter of origins. Simply put, the laws of science contradict the evolutionary model (cf. Thompson, 2002; Miller, 2007). So, the question is asked by both sincere and unrelinquishing people, “Could there not have been exceptions at some time in the past to the laws of science?”
The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms defines a scientific law as, “a regularity which applies to all members of a broad class of phenomena” (2003, p. 1182, emp. added). In other words, as long as the scientist takes care to make sure that the law applies to the scenario in question, the law will always hold true. According to its definition, a scientific law has no known exceptions, or else it would not be a law in the first place. A “theory,” on the other hand, is merely an “attempt to explain” phenomena by deduction from other known principles (McGraw-Hill..., p. 2129). A theory may not be true, but a law, by definition, is always true. Since there are no known exceptions to scientific laws, would it not be unscientific for evolutionists to assert, without any scientific evidence, that there have been exceptions to the laws of science in the past?
Consider the Laws of Thermodynamics. A perpetual-motion machine is a device which attempts to violate either the First or Second Law of Thermodynamics (Cengel and Boles, 2002, p. 263). Numerous attempts have been made over the years to design such a machine—all to no avail. Such a machine would certainly be worth a large sum of money. However, a prominent Thermodynamics textbook used in mechanical engineering schools says concerning such attempts, “The proposers of perpetual-motion machines generally have innovative minds, but they usually lack formal engineering training” (Cengel and Boles, p. 265). Why would the writers make such a statement? The answer is that the Laws of Thermodynamics, which are taught in-depth in mechanical engineering curriculums, prohibit the design of such a machine. According to the textbook writers, to spend time and energy on such a pursuit categorizes the pursuer as unknowledgeable about such scientific truths. The Laws of Thermodynamics have been substantiated to the point that in 1918 the U.S. Patent Office declared that they would no longer accept patent applications for alleged perpetual-motion machines (Cengel and Boles, p. 265). Concerning patent application rejections, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office website says, “a rejection on the ground of lack of utility includes the more specific grounds of inoperativeness, involving perpetual motion” (2008, emp. added).
As far as science can tell, its laws have never been violated. They are without exception. From a scientific perspective, the evolutionary model falls short of being able to account for the origin of the Universe. Indeed, it contradicts the known laws of science that govern the Universe. The creation model, on the other hand, is in perfect harmony with the laws of science.
“706.03(a) Rejections Under 35 U.S.C. 101[R-5]-700 Examination of Applications” (2008), Manual of Patent Examining Procedure, United States Patent and Trademark Office, [On-line], URL: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/0700_706_03_a.htm.
Cengel, Yunus A. and Michael A. Boles (2002), Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (New York: McGraw-Hill), fourth edition.
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms (2003), pub. M.D. Licker (New York: McGraw-Hill), sixth edition.
Miller, Jeff (2007), “God and the Laws of Thermodynamics: A Mechanical Engineer’s Perspective,” Reason & Revelation, 27:25-31, April, http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/3293.
Thompson, Bert (2002), The Scientific Case for Creation (Montgomery, AL: Apologetics Press).
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Passports are now considered an essential part of international arrangements, functioning as travel documents, proofs of citizenship and rudimentary universal identity cards.
The idea of a document of safe passage granted by a sovereign is ancient. There are some suggestions that in ancient Egypt, citizens carried the name of the Pharaoh with them abroad, possibly as a warning to foreigners that they were members of the regional power.
There is a biblical reference to something like a passport being granted to Nehemiah by King Artaxerxes:
... I said to the king "If it pleases the king, let letters be given me to the governors beyond the river, that they may convey me over till I come into Judah... Then I came to the governors beyond the river, and gave them the king's letters.
It seems that occasional passports have always been issued on an ad hoc basis by monarchs to travelling subjects.
However these are unlike modern passports, and perhaps more like ambassadors' credentials.
In 1415, King Henry V granted Safe Conducts in an Act of Parliament to English travellers, asking for protection for bearers, and threatening anyone who messes with them. These were granted to foreigners as well as Englishmen. Similar arrangements were made by other countries of the time.
The first passports as we know them today were, unsurprisingly, French (the word passport is derived from Fr. passe port, a port pass). King Louis XIV, in has determination to be an absolute ruler, made it illegal in 1672 for people to leave or enter France without his personal agreement. Other countries in Europe reacted reciprocally, so that within a century almost every country in Europe had a passport of some kind. This grew up hand-in-hand with a system of a host country requiring visas for travellers coming in.
For a passport to be useful it had to contain some details about the bearer to prevent theft and forgery. This meant that passports were immediately able to serve other functions than simply travel. The Russian empire from 1719 used them internally for taxation and military service. They effectively became internal passports, and were sometimes needed to travel between cities.
Just as France led the trend for passports, it was also the first European country to abolish them, in 1861. They were seen as an unnecessary impediment to free travel in the more peaceful Europe of the late 19th century. Most of mainland Europe abolished passports so that by the beginning of WWI, there were few tight border controls.
With the advent of photography as a cheap way of determining identity, passports began having photographs attached to them in the early 20th century. This become more important during the First World War, when countries began reintroducing passport systems (some places, like the UK, never abolished them in the first place). By then, passports had all the essential functions that they do today; they were useful for knowing which of the refugees created by the war were genuinely citizens of the country they were trying to enter.
Most passports were printed on folded paper until 1920, when the League of Nations held an "International Conference on Passports" in 1920. They established general guidelines for standardising passports, which recommended that they be in booklet-form, with a photo and some form of security. This enabled visa stamps and other details to be put directly on the passport. The photograph and personal information (such as date of birth, nationality, place of birth, passport number.
Nowdays, every country (AFAIK) issues passports and requires them -- to some degree -- for entry. Some borders that used to require passports no longer do; you can travel throughout the Western Hemisphere (except Cuba) on a driver's licence or other less-secure identity documents, and a similar arrangement operates inside the Schengen Countries of the European Union. However, liberalising and tightening of borders seems to be a periodical thing, changing every fifty years or so. The US-Canadian border, like Europe, is a good example of this.
We are due a phase of border-tightening, and this one will be largely in response to fears about international terrorism
(for the USA) and asylum seeker
s (for Europe). There is already talk about more controls on the Western Hemisphere passport exemption.
One thing that has tightened significantly is recent years is passport security. As a holder of a passport can usually use it obtain all other forms of identification, passport theft and forgery are more serious now than in the past. To combat this, modern passports tend to have printed and laminated photos, holograms, watermarks, machine-readable data and other difficult-to-falsify features.
Obtaining a passport is also more regulated in most countries. In Europe, the USA and other 'developed' countries, passports are cross-checked against births, and applications (and photos) need either cast-iron documentation or an identifying witness. In the USA, passports must be applied for in person. Passports also expire and need renewal after a certain period of time; in the UK, this is normally 10 years. In the past, family passports were common, as was having young children named on the passport of a parent. Passport authorities are dispensing with these rules and beginning to require one passport per person, even children. This is in part to combat abduction of children by a parent during custody battles.
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Really scratchin my head with this little lot and would be extremely grateful for a hand working it all out....
An a.c voltage, V, comprises of a fundamental voltage of 100 V rms at a
frequency of 120 Hz, a 3rd harmonic which is 20% of the fundamental, a
5th harmonic which is 10% of the fundamental and at a phase angle of
1.2 radians lagging.
(i) Write down an expression for the voltage waveform.
(ii) Sketch the waveforms of the harmonic components.
(iii) Determine the voltage at 20 ms.
(iv) Given an ideal V = 100 V rms, what is the percentage error at 20 ms ?
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A research team at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln is preparing to begin the second stage of a three-year green energy pilot project that’s researching the viability of integrating wind and solar power into a municipal power grid to power traffic and street lights.
Funded by a $1 million grant from the U.S. Department of Transportation, the project is called Energy Plus Roadways. Those involved hope to develop a smart grid system for roadway infrastructure that will prove practical for widespread, large-scale use.
The end goal is negative energy consumption, said Anuj Sharma, a UNL assistant professor of civil engineering. In other words, more energy would be produced by the municipal grid than is consumed. Ideally a smart grid system would generate enough renewable energy to power all the traffic and street lights in the city and still have some left over to sell back to the power companies.
“That’s where the name Energy Plus Roadways comes from,” Sharma said.
The second phase of the project, scheduled to begin in May, involves developing the electronic control system that would allow a network of wind and solar power generators to intelligently distribute electricity where it’s needed, said Jerry Hudgins, the project’s leader and also a professor of electrical engineering at UNL. The team will run simulations to test how such a system could adapt to power grids of different sizes and layouts.
The first phase of the project, which began last summer, involved monitoring a single 30-foot Bergey XL 1.0 wind turbine connected to a traffic light at the intersection of 84th Street and Nebraska Highway 2 in Lincoln. The traffic light receives its power from a battery that’s charged by the wind turbine, but the traffic light’s power supply is still connected to the main power grid as a contingency. Any excess power generated can be sold back to the electric company for about four cents per kilowatt hour.
Hudgins predicts this type of system will become increasingly attractive as the price of energy increases and green technology improves. “Initially, it’s going to add some reliability to the system,” Hudgins said. “It’s also going to have some cost savings increase over time.”
UNL assistant professor of electrical engineering Wei Qiao will develop the control system system that will allow the grid to make decisions on power distribution and usage.
A solar panel in a shady area or a turbine that receives little wind can use the control system to borrow the power it needs from another generator in a sunny or windy area that’s experiencing an energy surplus. The system is designed to run without the help of a human operator and uses existing power lines to transmit the power from one area of the grid to another.
Each power station will be able to transition between three operating modes. In one operating mode, the power station will rely entirely on power from the main grid. This might occur when it’s cloudy or not windy for an extended period. The second operating mode will allow a station to draw power exclusively from solar and wind power on the grid. The third mode allows a working generator to isolate itself from the rest of the grid in case of a problem nearby, minimizing the scope of the problem.
In the third stage of the project, scheduled to begin in summer 2012, the team will implement a micro-grid consisting of up to eight power generators, eight traffic light poles and two intersections.
Those working on the pilot have calculated that an effective smart grid for traffic lights and other transportation infrastructure would ultimately save cities money on power costs, increase utility uptime, reduce pollution and reduce reliance on nonrenewable energy. If all 300,000 roadway intersections in the U.S. that have traffic signals were powered by renewable energy on a smart grid, nearly $50 million would be saved each year, according to University of Nebraska-Lincoln researchers.
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This news release is available in French.
Montreal, July 13, 2014 An international research project, led by the Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre (RI-MUHC) in Montreal, reports that a new oral medication is showing significant progress in restoring vision to patients with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA). Until now, this inherited retinal disease that causes visual impairment ranging from reduced vision to complete blindness, has remained untreatable. The study is published today in the scientific journal The Lancet.
"This is the first time that an oral drug has improved the visual function of blind patients with LCA," says the study's lead author, Dr. Robert Koenekoop, who is director of the McGill Ocular Genetics Laboratory at The Montreal Children's Hospital of the MUHC, and a Professor of Human Genetics, Paediatric Surgery and Ophthalmology at McGill University. "It is giving hope to many patients who suffer from this devastating retinal degeneration."
Jrgen, a 44-year-old Swede who was born with LCA, has long dreamed of a treatment for his blindness. He was enrolled in the MUHC study, along with others from North America, Europe, China and Brazil, and showed the most significant improvements of all the participants. "The drug changed my life," he says. "My visual acuity and visual field increased significantly. I can now go by myself into a shopping center or to the airport and even take the metro, which were unthinkable for me before. I hope many people can access the drug in a near future."
The study involved 14 participants from around the world with LCA ranging in age from 6 to 38 years old. Their blindness was caused by either mutations in the genes RPE65 or LRAT, leading to a serious defect in the retinoid cycle. The retinoid cycle is one of the most important cycles in the human retina because it produces a molecule called 11-cis retinal which has the special capacity to capture light and initiate vision. Patients with RPE65 or LRAT mutations cannot produce this crucial molecule thus the retinal cells cannot create vision, and slowly die.
"By giving patients with RPE65 or LRAT mutations an oral retinoid intermediate (QLT091001) most patients' vision improved rapidly. We discovered that a certain portion of the retinal cells that were not working because of the lack of 11-cis retinal could be woken up," explains Dr. Koenekoop. "Contrary to what was previously thought, children with LCA and defects in RPE65 or LRAT are not born with dead retinal cells; the cells can simply go dormant, and they can remain dormant for years before they eventually die. The oral drug we tested awakened these cells and allowed patients to see."
Ten out of the 14 patients expanded their visual fields; others improved their visual acuity. The research team performed special brain scans of the visual cortex, which showed marked improvements in brain activities in patients who also improved in field size and acuity. More research will now be conducted to learn more about the retinal function in blind people in relation to dosage and methodology.
"This revolutionary breakthrough to restore sight in children who are blind shows that investing in vision research over the long-term really can make miracles happen," said Sharon Colle, President and CEO of The Foundation Fighting Blindness, the largest charity funding sight-saving research in Canada
|Contact: Julie Robert|
McGill University Health Centre
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From Christmas to Diwali: Winter Holidays around the World
During the winter time in the United States, many department stores start decorating in typical Christmas colors of red and green with wreaths, lights and ribbons. However, there are so many more winter holidays that exist around the world- and we would like to share a few with you today!
Besides, who can say no to more reasons to celebrate?
Christmas: Celebrated all around the world, Christmas falls on December 25th each year to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ. The word “Christmas” literally means “Christ’s Mass,” and is a feast central to the Christian liturgical year. Furthermore, it is a civil holiday in many of the world’s nations and an integral part of the Christmas and holiday season. Celebratory decorations typically include “decking the halls” with holm, ivy, and other greens, and nativity scenes are popular in several countries. And of course, a Christmas tree decorated with lights and ornaments is usually a staple to the house, particularly in the United States.
Hanukkah: Chanukah, which has many different transliteration spellings (you’ve already seen two), is an eight-day Jewish holiday that celebrates the rededication of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem after the Maccabean Revolt (2nd century BCE). The holiday is observed for eight nights and days, and because it starts on the 25th day of Kislev on the Hebrew Calendar, it can fall anywhere from late November to late December on the Gregorian calendar.
Hanukkah rituals include the lighting of the Menorah, which consists of 9 candles in a holder. One candle is lit on each of the eight nights of Hanukkah, and the center candle is used for lighting the others. Other Hanukkah family customs include singing Hanukkah songs, reciting Psalms, and, especially in North America and Israel, exchanging presents.
Kwanzaa: This is a week-long holiday celebrated in communities in the United States and Canada, as well as in the Western African Diaspora to honor African heritage in African-American culture. Created by Maulana Karenga in 1966, it is observed from December 26-January 1, and ultimately ends with a feast and the exchange of gifts. There are seven core principles that are celebrated during Kwanzaa, including unity, self-determination, collective work and responsibility, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, and faith. Celebration of Kwanzaa can include colorful household decorations with art and African cloth, readings and reflection of the African Pledge, and a candle-lighting ceremony with a kinara (which holds just two less candles than the Menorah!)
Las Posadas: With its origins in Spain, Las Posadas is a nine-day celebration that is now primarily celebrated in Mexico, Guatemala, and parts of the Southwestern United States. The roots of this holiday are in Catholicism but several different branches of Christian Latinos follow the tradition. During the celebration, a procession moves from house to house with a candle inside a paper lampshade, stopping at each home to sign and pray. Eventually, the procession ends at a home or church, and the celebration continues with caroling, feasting, and pinata breaking!
Eid-al-Adha: Also referred to as the Feast of the Sacrifice, Eid-al-Adha is an important Islamic holiday celebrated worldwide to honor the willingness of the prophet Abraham to sacrifice his first-born, Ishmael, on God’s command. Last year, the holiday took place in late October, but the date greatly varies depending on the Islamic lunar calendar. To celebrate, families traditionally dress in their finest clothing to perform prayer in a large congregation or mosque and sacrifice their best halal domestic animals as a symbol of Abraham’s sacrifice. Ultimately, most of the meat is shared with friends, neighbors, and the poor, to ensure that none are without a chance to partake in the holiday feast!
Diwali: This past year, this five-day Hindu festival began on November 13th and is an official holiday in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar, among others. The festival is also referred to as the “festival of lights” and celebrates both the attainment of nirvana by Mahavira (an Indian Sage), as well as a Death Anniversary of Swami Dayanand (Hindu religious leader).
The word “Diwali” is a contraction of a word translating to “row of lamps,” as the holiday involves the lighting of small clay lamps to symbolize the victory of good over evil. Firecrackers are burst and, during the festival, all those celebrating wear new clothes and share sweets with family and friends.
There are infinitely more worldwide celebrations that you may not have ever heard of, but taking time to learn about just a few more when possible could be invaluable to gaining a better understanding of the world. Keeping that in mind, hopefully now you can extend your holiday season even longer!
Happy Holidays and a Happy New Year!
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In synthetic chemistry, making the best possible use of the needed ingredients is key to optimizing high-quality production at the lowest possible cost.
The element rhodium is a powerful catalysts—a driver of chemical reactions—but is also one of the rarest and most expensive. In addition to its common use in vehicle catalytic converters, rhodium is also used in combination with other metals to efficiently drive a wide range of useful chemical reactions.
Chemists' efforts to study the inner workings of dirhodium metal complex reactions have been hindered by their extreme efficiency and speed, reacting at about 300 times per second. Now, a team of scientists led by Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (UW-Madison) chemistry prof. John Berry reports an advance that freezes one step of the process long enough to offer researchers a glimpse into the finer mechanism.
Chemical reactions pass through a series of steps from starting material to end product, with intermediate chemical structures formed at each step. The nature of those "part-way" compounds—called intermediates—can tell chemists a great deal about the processes and their efficiency.
However, intermediates normally exist for a second or less before moving to the next step in the reaction, making them extremely difficult to study. The new paper, appearing in Science Express, describes the isolation and characterization of an intermediate that is stable for hours at 0 C.
"We've provided the first solid fundamental data on these compounds," said Berry, who led the effort to synthesize the stable version of a normally short-lived molecule. "People have thought about it for forty years, but this is the first time that we can actually see it and say this is definitely what's going on."
Berry and UW-Madison graduate student Katherine Kornecki used computational models to predict how the intermediate molecules might be trapped. From those predictions, they were able to identify a suitable dirhodium complex and starting material with the properties needed to stabilize the intermediate compound long enough to study it further.
Formation of the reactive intermediate is visible as the green starting material changes to an ocean blue color that faded over time. Ultraviolet-visible spectrometry showed the formation of a new molecule, and Berry rallied the help of collaborators to make sure they were actually capturing the desired intermediate.
Huw Davies from Emory Univ. provided a starting material that allowed characterization of the compound by vibrational spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Jochen Autschbach from the Univ. of Buffalo used density function theory to predict the NMR features of the compound, and Kyle Lancaster from Cornell Univ. elucidated the compound's structure using a series of x-ray absorption spectroscopy experiments.
In addition to providing evidence of an intermediate previously known only on paper, the finding opens new avenues for the field of catalysis. "Now that we can make the intermediate, we can further explore its reactivity. We can try reactions with substrates that nobody has ever thought of before," Berry says.
Source: Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison
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Hirakund Dam Project is one of the prominent developments in the agricultural sector of Sambalpur.
Hirakund Dam, Cattle Island, leaning temple of Lord shiva and Hatibari is considered as some of the major appeals of the district.
Sambalpur is a very important north western district of Orissa. Sambalpur district of Odisha has a geographical location of North latitude 20°40' to 22°11' and East Longitude 82°39' to 85°15'. Surrounded by the Bargarh, Jharsugdha, Deogarh, Sundergarh, Angul and Subarnapur districts, the Sambalpur area comprises of three physiographic types;
The district covers a total area of 6,702 sq. kilometers and has a population of 9,35,613. The average literacy rate of the Sambalpur district is 67.25%. About 35% of the total population consists of tribes like the Gonds, Binjhal, Khanda and Kuda.
The history of Sambalpur is enriched with the reigns of several famous dynasties like the Guptas, Sarbhapuriyas, Marathas and the Chauhans. The British occupied the region in the beginning of the 19th century. The area has witnessed many uprisings against the Europeans during the British rule.
Home to the longest dam in the World, the Sambalpur district has many exciting tourist spots like;
- Hirakud Dam - world's longest dam is situated over River Mahanadi. The Gandhi Mandir near the dam is also a lovely place to visit.
- Huma - the leaning temple of Shiva is the main attraction this scenic village.
- Cattle Island - one of the exciting tourism sites of the districts. The place is very popular with nature lovers.
- Ghanteshwari - a temple area well known for the presence thousands of hanging bells.
Last Updated on : 8 July 2013
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Dr. Mary (Clifton) Wendt,
This whole question of what kind of vitamin or mineral supplement you need is highly individualist. It can depend on your age, how far north you live, the color of your skin, how much you exercise, and the vagaries of your body.
Taking vitamins every day was always assumed to be a pretty wise thing to do. After all, it’s an easy way to ensure you were getting your vitamins, from A to Zinc, as one vitamin manufacturer likes to put it.
More than half of American adults, in fact, take a multi-vitamin or supplement, spending a whopping $20 billion a year.
But an editorial, "Enough is Enough: Stop Wasting Money on Vitamin and Mineral Supplements," published in the Annals of Internal Medicine, pretty much says it all.
We’re not getting a whole lot of health bang for our buck.
The editorial was based on three studies published in the same issue. They found that multivitamins had no benefit in helping to prevent heart attacks, cancer or improving cognitive function in men older than 65, according to the December 2013 editorial.
Conclusions from University of Minnesota researchers went even further. They followed 38,000 women in the Iowa Women's Health Study, beginning in 1986 when the women were around 62. Data on their supplement use was collected in 1986, 1997 and 2004.
The study results showed that women who regularly took supplements had a slightly increased risk of dying over the course of the 19-year study compared compared to women who took none, according to the study published in the Journal Archives of Internal Medicine (October 2011).
One possible reason: a lot of processed food is already enriched with vitamins. A multi-vitamin is probably redundant, and unable to deliver all the benefits of a whole food.
The study authors advised that individuals reconsider whether they really
need supplements. The better answer is to emphasize a healthy diet.
However, I don’t think the issue is as simple as throwing out supplements altogether.
To get your arms around this, first know there are water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamins A, D, E and K. Your body only needs miniscule amounts of fat-soluble vitamins and not every day. If you take them in excess amounts, they get stored up in your liver and fatty tissue.
Water-soluble vitamin, such as vitamin C, on the other hand, are washed out of your body—“expensive urine,” as some doctors like to say. Unlike fat-soluble vitamins, water-soluble vitamins need to be replaced every day.
Problems can develop when you take more fat-soluble vitamins than you need. Most of these supplements contain far more micro-nutrients than your body can utilize. Because your body stores them, they can potentially build up. Furthermore, we don’t know how excess fat manages fat soluble vitamins. Triathletes are 14% fat by weight. At that weight, we know that fat will store and release substances easily. As body weight and fat percentages increases, the behavior of the excess fat is less reliable in terms of vitamin storage and release. In this way, a person may have high levels of fat soluble vitamins, but still be vitamin deficient in their system.
This whole question of what kind of vitamin or mineral supplement you need is highly individualist. It can depend on your age, how far north you live, the color of your skin, how much you exercise, and the vagaries of your body. Female endurance runners, for example, tend to be on the anemic side. Blood work is the only sure way to know if you have any deficiencies and need a supplement. However, blood work for vitamin levels can be unreliable.
Do you need to take a supplement?
Only blood work can tell you the real answer, but here is my impression on some leading supplements.
Are you a female athlete? Keep a very close eye on your iron levels. Strenuous training increases the demand for iron because it triggers a higher production of red blood cells and blood vessels. The “foot strikes” of an endurance runner on hard surfaces can lead to iron loss, along with heavy sweating.
If you are anemic, you can get a ton of iron from whole plant foods,
especially whole grains. The absorption of iron from grains and beans is
regulated tightly by your body, so you will get just enough.; Heme iron
from meats bypass the regulatory systems of the small intestine, increasing
iron levels in your body whether you need it or not.
In addition, you must have Vitamin C in your system to absorb the iron. Plants are loaded with Vitamin C, while meats don’t have any. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2507689
People with higher blood iron levels are at higher risk for heart disease
and some cancers
Dr. Mary’s Advice: avoid iron supplementation. Eat more whole grains to increase your iron in the most natural and healthy way.
Everyone must absolutely take vitamin B-12.; This water-soluble vitamin isn’t made by plants, but is found in microbes in dirt and grows in the guts of animals we eat. Nobody wants to eat dirtier food, like we would if we were still hunter-gatherers. The consequences for a B-12 deficiency can be very grave and include suicidal depression, psychotic delusions or even death.
The best way to get vitamin D, technically a pre-hormone, is from sunshine—just 10 to 15 minutes a day on bare skin (no sunscreen) is all you need. Excessive sun exposure won’t cause vitamin D toxicity, but take it easy—there’s always the risk of sunburn and skin cancer.
But getting vitamin D from the sun isn’t so easy in the darker months of winter. Even when the sun is shining, it doesn’t deliver enough ultraviolet light. So I recommend to all my patients that they take a vitamin D supplement in the wintertime since it’s really hard to get enough of the vitamin from food sources—fortified milk and oily fish, like herring, salmon, sardines, along with cod liver oil.
And some need to take the supplement all year-round: those who are black, Hispanic, elderly, stay inside all the time, or never leave the house without sunscreen (breast-fed infants need it, too). However, if you are normal weight, you could increase your sun exposure in winter months and rely on your body fat to release the Vitamin D appropriately over the winter months.
Timing is important with this one. To ensure your body actually absorbs it, you have to take vitamin D with a big meal, according to a Cleveland study.
You might wonder if you can get vitamin D from sunshine streaming through a window. Negative on that one.
Vitamin D deficiency is often described as a major problem in this country. One study estimates that 42 percent of Americans are vitamin D deficient. Deficiencies were often found in folks suffering from poor health and who never drank milk.
These deficiency rates are concerning because vitamin D is key in helping your body absorb calcium to form bones. It also boosts immunity and controls cell growth. There’s growing evidence that vitamin D efficiency might even be linked to several chronic diseases, including heart disease and cancer.
When it comes to taking a vitamin D supplement, don’t overdo.; Excessive amounts of this fat-soluble vitamin can prove toxic. The Endocrine Society recommends 600 to 1,000 IU for older children and teens; 1,500 to 2,000 IU for adults.; Doctors were advised that vitamin-deficient adults might need 10,000 IUs daily for two months.
With the very low rates of regular exercise in our country, Vitamin D may simply be an expensive marker for a lack of routine outdoor activity. The best Vitamin D is the Vitamin D you make from the cholesterol in the skin when you play and work outdoors. Your brilliant body will store that Vitamin D in your healthy fat stores for future use.
I recommend taking a vitamin D/magnesium combo supplement, only if you are getting outside most days and testing reveals that you are still deficient. Most Vitamin D deficiency is simply outdoor time deficiency.
Just like vitamin D, our bodies can’t make omega-3 so be diligent seeking out food that contains omega-3, like seeds and nuts. Fish, such as salmon, anchovies and trout, are higher in healthy fats, but the people with the highest levels of omega 3 fats concentrate their diets on vegetarian sources of healthy fats, like beans, nuts and seeds - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10556987 - f Omega 3 can boost your memory and mood; enhance joint and vision health; strengthen skin, hair and nails; and reduce inflammation that may lead to all kinds of bad stuff—heart disease, high blood pressure, and fatal heart arrhythmias. Supplements are not nearly as effective as choosing a diet that is high in these omega-3 rich foods.
Pregnant women (or women trying to get pregnant) should supplement with a multi-vitamin that includes folate—an essential vitamin that prevents birth defects like spina bifida.
Boston University Medical Center. "Weekly And Biweekly Vitamin D2 Prevents Vitamin D Deficiency." ScienceDaily.Com: (October 28, 2009).
Volkov, I. Rudoy, M. Machagna, I. Glezer, U. Ganel, A. Orenshtein, & Y. Press. “Modern society and prospects of low vitamin B12 intake.” Ann Nutr Metab, 51(5):468-470, 2007.
Forrest KY, Stuhldreher WL. Prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency in US adults. Nutr Res. 2011 Jan;31(1):48-54.
Mulligan GB, Licata A. Taking vitamin D with the largest meal improves absorption and results in higher serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin.” D. J Bone Miner Research: (April 2010).;
We began this archive as a means of assisting our visitors in answering many of their health and diet questions, and in encouraging them to take a pro-active part in their own health.; We believe the articles and information contained herein are true, but are not presenting them as advice.; We, personally, have found that a whole food vegan diet has helped our own health, and simply wish to share with others the things we have found.;; Each of us must make our own decisions, for it's our own body.; If you have a health problem, see your own physician.
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Search results for "
View search results from all Wolfram sites (195158 matches)
Demonstrations 1 - 20 of 47
Volume of a Wedge in a Cylinder
Volume of a Cylindrical Hoof
Filling a Container Defined by a Curve
Approximating Volumes by Summation
Volumes of Revolution Using Cylindrical Shells
The Disk Method
Solids of Known Cross Section
Stacking Squares on a Circle
Volume under a Sphere Tangent to a Cone
Solids Whose Cross Sections Have the Same Shape
Tin Box with Maximum Volume
Double Integral for Volume
Volumes Using the Disc Method
Solids of Revolution
Solid of Revolution
Percentage Errors in Approximating the Volumes of a Wine Barrel and a Goblet
Ratio of the Surface Area of a Sphere to a Cylinder
Approximating the Volume of a Sphere Using Cylindrical Slices
Intersection of Two Cylinders
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Free radicals – if they're free why do we want to get rid of them? Free radicals are unstable, destructive molecules that can cause cellular oxidation. The body is subjected to free radicals every day through normal processes that take place within the body, as well as, exposure to pollutants. Due to their determination to disrupt cell life in your body, free radicals may weaken the immune system. Antioxidants are necessary to ward off and help inhibit oxidative stress in the body.*
Why Vitamin Code RAW Antioxidants?
Garden of Life's RAW Antioxidants is a comprehensive, whole-food, multi-nutrient formula made with RAW Food-Created Nutrients for targeted delivery of vitamin A complex, vitamin C, vitamin E complex and selenium along with a RAW antioxidant blend containing RAW glutathione and RAW Superoxide Dismutase. Individually cultivated with their unique Code Factors intact, the RAW Food-Created Nutrients in Vitamin Code formulas enable natural recognition of nutrients by your body, just as nature intended. Code Factors are the known and yet to be discovered synergistic compounds found in food and are necessary for proper nutrient delivery. Providing these Code Factors infuses the essential elements of whole-foods that the body thrives upon. Supporting heart, skin, eye, prostate and breast health, Vitamin Code RAW Antioxidants also provides memory, concentration and immune system support.*
Vitamin Code RAW Antioxidants is RAW, vegan, gluten-free, dairy-free and contains no binders or fillers. Taking this RAW antioxidant formula to the next level, Vitamin Code RAW Antioxidants also provides a RAW probiotic and enzyme blend along with a RAW organic fruit and vegetable blend for additional nutritional support.
Why These Specific Antioxidants for Vitamin Code RAW Antioxidants?
Working best when taken together, the antioxidants in Vitamin Code RAW Antioxidants were carefully selected to provide a powerful opponent to oxidative stress.*
Needed to promote eye health, Vitamin A in conjunction with vitamin E and selenium, also provides immune system support.* Integral to fighting oxidative stress, vitamin C helps build and maintain collagen which holds the body's blood vessels in place, supporting a healthy heart.* While vitamin C is well known for maintaining a healthy immune system, it is also vital for healthy eyes, skin, bones, teeth and gums, wound healing, energy production and growth.* Vitamin E acts much like a "big brother" to vitamins A and C and other important substances in the body. It supports breast and heart health and along with vitamin C, helps maintain normal blood pressure levels.* Selenium, an essential trace mineral known for its antioxidant properties, supports normal growth and development and a healthy immune system.*
Vitamin Code RAW Antioxidants Nature-Intended Benefits:
- RAW - Vegan
- Healthy Heart*
- Immune Support*
- Healthy Skin & Eyes*
- Breast & Prostate Health*
- Memory & Concentration*
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How the Heart Works
The heart is an organ, about the size of a fist. It is made of muscle and pumps blood through the body. Blood is carried through the body in blood vessels, or tubes, called arteries and veins. The process of moving blood through the body is called circulation. Together, the heart and vessels make up the cardiovascular system.
Structure of the Heart
The heart has four chambers (two atria and two ventricles). There is a wall (septum) between the two atria and another wall between the two ventricles. Arteries and veins go into and out of the heart. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood to the heart. The flow of blood through the vessels and chambers of the heart is controlled by valves.
Blood Flow Through the Heart
(Abbreviations refer to labels in the illustration)
The heart pumps blood to all parts of the body. Blood provides oxygen and nutrients to the body and removes carbon dioxide and wastes. As blood travels through the body, oxygen is used up, and the blood becomes oxygen poor.
- Oxygen-poor blood returns from the body to the heart through the superior vena cava (SVC) and inferior vena cava (IVC), the two main veins that bring blood back to the heart.
- The oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium (RA), or the right upper chamber of the heart.
- From there, the blood flows through the tricuspid valve (TV) into the right ventricle (RV), or the right lower chamber of the heart.
- The right ventricle (RV) pumps oxygen-poor blood through the pulmonary valve (PV) into the main pulmonary artery (MPA).
- From there, the blood flows through the right and left pulmonary arteries into the lungs.
- In the lungs, oxygen is put into the blood and carbon dioxide is taken out of the blood during the process of breathing. After the blood gets oxygen in the lungs, it is called oxygen-rich blood.
- Oxygen-rich blood flows from the lungs back into the left atrium (LA), or the left upper chamber of the heart, through four pulmonary veins.
- Oxygen-rich blood then flows through the mitral valve (MV) into the left ventricle (LV), or the left lower chamber.
- The left ventricle (LV) pumps the oxygen-rich blood through the aortic valve (AoV) into the aorta (Ao), the main artery that takes oxygen-rich blood out to the rest of the body.
- Page last reviewed: May 21, 2015
- Page last updated: June 25, 2014
- Content source:
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Frequently Asked Questions
24. What are clinical trials and who conducts them?
A clinical trial is a research study with people to find out if a new drug or treatment is both safe and effective. Clinical trials may be sponsored by pharmaceutical companies, federal agencies like the National Institutes of Health, foundations, individuals, or voluntary groups. Trials can take place in a variety of locations, such as hospitals, universities, doctors' offices, or community clinics.
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MIND, PSYCHE, SPIRIT
Deep Ecology & Neuroscience:
Stephan Harding & Iain McGilchrist
At Schumacher College, May 2011
Ground Zero for global warming: a massive iceberg calved from the Illulisat glacier in Greenland, amid fragments of arctic sea ice - courtesy www.extremeicesurvey.org.
Harding: It’s interesting that ecology in the West began with the holistic understanding of great naturalists like Gilbert White. He used to watch swallows and write down exactly when they would appear and disappear. He looked at plants and butterflies and wrote down the timings of things—in a real natural history manner, with a sense of love and connection. Darwin, too, was a great natural historian and quite holistic in his approach.
Then in the 1920s the study of organisms and their relationship with the environment, which had been natural history, got taken over by an economic mentality in which organisms were no longer seen as whole beings with their own stories, that is their natural histories. They were seen as trying to maximize profit in some way. Cost-benefit analysis crept into ecology. Ecological community was replaced by eco-system.
There was a big debate at the time. One viewpoint saw an element of psyche in an ecological community. The other one refuted any psychic bonds, arguing that organisms interact solely in mechanistic ways, in an eco-system that can be mechanistically described. So we ended up with that view of ecology that was more like a branch of economics—where organisms maximize their benefit-cost relationship with things. In a study of hummingbirds, we find they only defend territories when there is enough sugar in the flowers, so that the energy they expend defending their territories is less than the energy they receive from the flowers. This is ecology as a branch of economics; ecology pushed to its mechanistic extreme.
Now, as happened in physics in the last century through quantum theory and relativity, we are seeing a resurgence of the holistic view in the sciences of the macroscopic—in biology and ecology. The most important manifestation of holistic science is Gaia theory, James Lovelock’s idea that the whole Earth is a great living being.
If we are going to resolve the ecological crisis, we have to consider whether the psyche extends beyond the human, as was implied in the old natural history, first by Aristotle and then by Plato, who wrote about the Earth having a soul, an intelligence, an agency. We need to recover this ancient view—that we are enmeshed in the great psyche of the world, the anima mundi. It is a prerequisite for a new integrated view of the Earth and the cosmos.
The concept of Gaia has the potential to integrate these views of our right and left brain hemispheres, and bring them into fruitful cooperation. Thus we can rediscover the Earth and cosmos are alive. We can rediscover the psyche of the cosmos. We can rediscover ourselves as part of an intelligent, creative universe, without any loss of intellectual excellence.
We now have the science of complexity, where there is a beautiful mathematics of simple agents interacting with each other according to simple local rules, yet generating fantastic emergent structures, for which none of those agents had any blueprint. The creativity emerges from the relationships, from the interactions.
I imagine an animistic Gaian psychology— complemented by excellent geo-chemistry, physics, mathematics and biology—that allows us to understand the Earth as a living system with our thinking minds. It leads us back to the pre-Socratic scholars who said there were gods in everything. They looked at magnets, saw the attraction and said, “There are gods here!” Now we can have a very sophisticated modern understanding of what those gods might be. We no longer need to be ashamed of speaking of gods in things, or intelligence in atoms, or subjectivity in the Universe. We have reached a unique point in the development of Western consciousness where it’s respectable to speak about subjectivity in Nature in a way that encompasses intuition, sensing, feeling, as well as scientific reason. I call it holistic science.
It was Goethe who showed how we can be rigorous with our intuitive faculties. There is a process that yields insights that are verifiable between different individuals. There is objectivity involved in such intuitive insights—they are not only subjective. They are subjective, but not merely personal. You can do a consensual check with different people to validate them. The key insight that I’ve come to is that there is this agency in the world which can come into us. The world is an objective psychological reality. The romantic poets said imagination is the nature of the world. It has an objective quality that can reach and inspire us. Without that connection our life becomes meaningless.
McGilchrist: Imagination is not the same thing as fantasy. It is a creative living force.
Harding: Yes, as the romantic poets were saying, it is the psyche of the world. A creative force to which we can be receptive.
McGilchrist: It is the opposite of fantasy, which is why Wordsworth got into trouble for staring at a rock until he saw what it really was, rather than fantasizing about all sorts of exotic things that people expected from a poet. Fantasy is a flight from truth; imagination is an engagement with it.
Harding: It’s possible to see what a rock really is, and there is no end of depth to that objective reality. I think of imagination as a kind of imprinting, as if the world imagines itself into us. It’s not us imagining the world. We become more open to the world and it imprints itself on us. As you look at a plant with Goethe’s method, it “coins itself into your thinking.” The agency is the world itself. That is the critical step we have been missing in the West. We cling to the notion that it is all “dead stuff” upon which we impinge our view. Similarly, recycling material we still think of as dead stuff is not going to help us. When I was trained as a scientist we had a metaphor that was never questioned—the world was a machine. It’s only recently that we’ve realized that we have this unconscious metaphor at all. For me the most liberating thing has been to realize I’ve been in the spell of a metaphor.
Some basic neuro-anatomical relationships between the left & right cerebral hemispheres. The neurological psychology of their relationship is addressed in rich depth & detail in Iain McGilchrist's book The Master & his Emissary.
McGilchrist: The metaphors used to be organic. We used to describe any system we looked at in terms of a tree, a family, a body or a river, for example. Only recently has the machine become the primary metaphor—and that’s clear evidence of the left hemisphere’s take on things as being primary in our culture now. People are just not aware of the assumptions they make. If you make them aware that these are not rational or necessary assumptions, you free up the whole picture. There is plenty of evidence that people are not happy with the way the world is now.
Now if we ask why we end up in this fix of being dominated by the left hemisphere, there are answers at a number of levels. At the purely biological level there are some interesting indicators that the left hemisphere is more aggressive. For instance, in the corpus callosum, the left hemisphere is better able to inhibit the right hemisphere than the right is to inhibit the left. In effect, the left hemisphere appears “better” at things by inhibiting the right.
Actually, when the left hemisphere is knocked out, eg. by a stroke, the right hemisphere can accomplish almost everything the left hemisphere can, just as well. So there is an intrinsic competitive stance to the left hemisphere. The emissary (left hemisphere) can’t see the point of the master (right hemisphere). Yet the master can see the point of the emissary. The right hemisphere has an inclusive stance, the left has a competitive stance. I think that there are a number of factors that explain why a competition ends up being won by the left hemisphere. The left hemisphere makes you powerful. It is the acquisitive hemisphere, enabling you to grab more stuff and out-do the other guy. This is basically seductive and successful in reproductive terms.
Secondly, it uses a very simple model. The simpler the model the more likely it is to gain credibility. In a mass age, a simple message is very easy to convey. It cuts out all complexity and contradictions, because that’s the way it is set up to function. The left hemisphere is the Berlusconi of the brain! It controls the media. It’s the one that does the talking. It’s the one that constructs the argument. So it’s money for old rope to put its own point of view. It’s actually quite difficult for it to articulate the other point of view.
Finally, I suppose what we’ve done since the Industrial Revolution in particular—and it seems to have happened also at the end of the Roman Empire--is that we’ve constructed a world around us that actually looks like the left-hemisphere’s world. The left hemisphere does the manipulating of the world. Eventually it’s going to manipulate the world more and more into its own image. Once it has accomplished that, it is getting constant reinforcement through the dialogue between brain and environment. When brain and environment are saying the same thing, you get into a positive feedback loop. I don’t know if this has a Darwinian basis, but in the battle of ideas, and possibly in the battle of individualist genes, the left hemisphere probably wins, even though it doesn’t deserve to.
The global ecological situation is grim. Yet I would say that it is not so fruitful looking for things to do. There’s got to be a change of heart, of the way we think. Raising consciousness is the key—we cannot just tinker around the edge of this. Unless we all start living in a completely different way, it’s not going to work out. I don’t know whether we can get there in time. I do know human beings are remarkably resilient. One aspect of the current culture is that we take a low view of ourselves as destructive apes. While that’s certainly part of the picture, we are also enormously creative and capable of altruism, empathy and cooperation. The ecological crisis might precipitate a resurgence of those qualities.
Ultimately, if it doesn’t, I am immensely sad about the loss of humanity to the planet. Yet as long as Gaia continues, I’d just as soon see the world regenerated and run by hummingbirds in the future! Perhaps some other ape will come back in evolutionary time. Perhaps something better may evolve and not make the same mistake we have. We are one part of the Gaia story. We are here to enjoy the gift of life and be as responsible as we possibly can.
Our difficulty is that as soon as things are represented by the left hemisphere, they are no longer present. This is true of all religious and spiritual traditions: as soon as you think you’ve grasped the concept, you’ve lost the essence. But that’s alright because it’s part of the process of finding out more. It should keep you moving rather than keep you static. For some people, their best expression is to organize others in some way, and that is absolutely fine. I’m not in any way opposed to it. That may be the left hemisphere’s contribution, and a very valuable one. Yet it won’t work unless the right hemisphere contributes as well. Its contribution is that we change our vision.
Iain McGilchrist is a neurological psychologist interested in art, culture, philosophy & spirituality as well as mental health. His major work, The Master & His Emissary, offers a wealth of evidence that modern society is suffering the consequences of an over-dominant left brain hemisphere that has lost touch with its regulative ‘master’, the right hemisphere. Stephan Harding holds a doctorate in Ecology from Oxford University and is Head of Holistic Science at Schumacher College. He is the author of Animate Earth: Science, Intuition and Gaia.
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Skip to comments.Astronomy Picture of the Day -- NGC 2170: Still Life with Reflecting Dust
Posted on 07/07/2013 5:52:49 AM PDT by SunkenCiv
Explanation: In this beautiful celestial still life composed with a cosmic brush, dusty nebula NGC 2170 shines at the upper left. Reflecting the light of nearby hot stars, NGC 2170 is joined by other bluish reflection nebulae, a compact red emission region, and streamers of obscuring dust against a backdrop of stars. Like the common household items still life painters often choose for their subjects, the clouds of gas, dust, and hot stars pictured here are also commonly found in this setting - a massive, star-forming molecular cloud in the constellation of the Unicorn (Monoceros). The giant molecular cloud, Mon R2, is impressively close, estimated to be only 2,400 light-years or so away. At that distance, this canvas would be about 15 light-years across.
(Excerpt) Read more at 18.104.22.168 ...
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Immune cells that normally help us fight off bacterial and viral infections may play a far greater role in Alzheimer's disease than originally thought, according to University of California, Irvine neurobiologists with the Sue & Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center and the Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders.
The researchers discovered this when Alzheimer's disease mice genetically modified to lack these key immune cells in their blood developed the distinctive brain plaques associated with the neurodegenerative disorder much more quickly.
According to Mathew Blurton-Jones, assistant professor of neurobiology & behavior, and doctoral student Samuel Marsh, their findings could lead to the creation of new techniques to help identify, or perhaps even treat, individuals at risk of developing the disease.
Alzheimer's is the leading cause of age-related dementia and is thought to be driven by the accumulation of a protein called beta-amyloid that aggregates to form amyloid plaques in the brain. Microglia, immune cells that reside in the brain, attempt to clear this buildup, but in Alzheimer's, they appear to be fighting a losing battle. While many studies have explored the role of microglia in Alzheimer's, very few researchers have asked whether a different set of immune cells called T-cells and B-cells that reside outside the brain and play a large part in autoimmune diseases might also impact Alzheimer's.
To test this idea, Blurton-Jones and Marsh bred genetically modified Alzheimer's disease mice to lack three key immune cell types: T-cells, B-cells and NK-cells. Six months later, when the brains of these mice were compared to those of Alzheimer's mice with intact immune systems, the scientists found a more than twofold increase in beta-amyloid accumulation.
"We were very surprised by the magnitude of this effect," Blurton-Jones said. "We expected the influence of the deficient immune system on Alzheimer's pathology to be much more subtle."
To understand how the loss of these immune cells was increasing beta-amyloid, he and Marsh examined the interactions between these peripheral cells and microglia within the brain.
"We found that in Alzheimer's mice with intact immune systems, antibodies - which are made by B-cells - accumulated in the brain and associated with microglia. This, in turn, helped increase the clearance of beta-amyloid," Marsh said.
To further confirm the importance of this interplay between immune cells in the blood and those in the brain, the researchers transplanted healthy bone marrow stem cells into the immune-deficient Alzheimer's mice. Since T-, B- and NK-cells develop from bone marrow stem cells, this transplantation led to a reconstitution of the missing immune cells. This allowed the B-cells to produce antibodies that once again reached the brain and aided microglia in eradicating the beta-amyloid.
"We know that the immune system changes with age and becomes less capable of making T- and B-cells," Blurton-Jones said. "So whether aging of the immune system in humans might contribute to the development of Alzheimer's is the next big question we want to ask."
Explore further: Modified stem cells offer potential pathway to treat Alzheimer's disease
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1 Answer | Add Yours
One important theme in this poem is the movement of the human race away from its spiritual history and towards modern living. The author sees modern ideas as more shallow, despite their intellectual superiority; he yearns for the more exciting life of "pagans" and their richly-drawn philosophies and superstitions. In the first half, the author describes how people are no longer aware of the sheer beauty of the natural world:
The world is too much with us; late and soon,
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers:
Little we see in Nature that is ours;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon!
The Sea that bares her bosom to the moon;
The winds that will be howling at all hours,
And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers;
For this, for everything, we are out of tune;
(Wordsworth, "The World Is Too Much with Us, Late and Soon," bartleby.com)
The author notices that all of nature is now classified and placed under Science; this is not a bad thing, but it removes much of the innate joy and beauty in life and relegates it to simple physical properties. While these can be beautiful, understanding them does not share the same visceral reaction as viewing them in their raw states. For example, the "sea that lays bare its bosom to the moon" is more beautiful in its image and the feelings it evokes, rather than thinking about the speed of reflected moonlight, tidal effects, convection and wave motions, etc. In this manner, the author shows his wish that some of the simpler emotions could still exist; he calls on the old gods of legend to show how natural forces used to be attributed to spiritual means, and how much more aesthetically impressive they were during that time.
We’ve answered 327,621 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
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What goes up must come down. When applying that rule to aircraft carrying highly inflammable fuel and passengers there is an added provisio – come down safely. Jet aircraft were heavier and landed at a faster speed than the propeller-driven planes that they largely replaced. This meant that runways needed to be able to withstand far greater forces impacting on them than before. If the wheels sank into the surface the forward momentum (inertia) of the plane would most probably tear off the undercarriage, sending the rest spinning into flaming destruction.
What follows is a history of the construction of the Hatfield runway by Roger de Mercado – a man who ultimately trusted his life to it while flying in sometimes ground-breaking (fortunately, not literally) new and other proven aircraft. Edited versions of this article have been published before but it is reproduced below in full. Sadly, the runway itself has been replaced by roads and grass verges, as can be seen in the picture above.
The concrete runway at Hatfield was one of the first to be built with the aim of a long life. A very detailed Paper describing its design and construction was presented to The Institution of Civil Engineers in 1949 by the Consulting Engineer, Frederick Sidney Snow, M.I.C.E. Roger Young, of Air Traffic Control, found it in (I think) St Albans Library, round about 1980, and I have a copy of his copy. The Paper consists of about 50 A5 pages plus a number of photos and large diagrams.
In his introduction, the author noted that he had been Chief Engineer
to the contractors who built much of the original factory at Hatfield. During this time, inspired by the success of the Comet in 1934, an
attempt was made to construct a reinforced-concrete chimney in record
time. He records that a chimney 57 feet high and 5 feet in diameter was
built in 57 hours. Presumably this was the chimney; if it is still
there, one wonders whether it is, or should be, listed!
[Sadly, it hasn't survived]
Although the construction of a concrete runway had been contemplated for some time, definite proposals were not made until early in 1944. The main runway was to be generally in the direction of the prevailing wind, consistent with site conditions and availability of land. The direction chosen was 233 degrees 30 minutes. Two other runways were considered essential, one to be at 360 degrees and the other at 315 degrees. They were to be temporarily of grass. The weight of aircraft expected to use the airfield was 120,000 lb, which would be spread on two wheels (60,000 lb per wheel), with tyre pressure of 100 lb per square inch. A life of 20 years was envisaged.
With the possible exception of Heathrow, every runway so far constructed in Britain had been designed to rule-of-thumb methods. Wartime runways were not expected to last more than 2 or 3 years. The runway at Hatfield had to be designed to last at least 20 years and was to deal with the virtually unexplored future of modern civil and military aviation, and so no effort was spared in utilising all available information and the results of research work on runway design.
Roger was a DH apprentice at Hatfield between 1957-62, and worked here until moving to Woodford in 1989. As a Flight Test Engineer he secured his place in Hatfield's aviation history as a crew member on the maiden flights of the enlarged Trident 3B (11 December 1969) and the BAe146 (3 September 1981). He retains fond memories of his time here. His wife worked in the town, and his son followed in his footsteps and also studied at the Technical School at Astwick Manor. Now retired, he is the administrator of the de Havilland Aeronautical Technical School Association (DHAeTSA) website and editor of the DHAeTSA newsletter.
After review of all available information and much careful calculation, 15-foot-square panels of 10-inch thickness were proposed. This thickness reduced temperature stresses but required a means of load transfer between slabs. The alternative would have been much thicker slabs without load transfer, clearly uneconomical; slabs with a concave underside were considered to be impractical. Load transfer between slabs was by means of mild steel dowel bars, of various lengths and diameters, spaced at one foot centres. Expansion joints were provided at intervals; one end of the dowel bar was red-leaded and greased, with a metal cap allowing up to 1 ½ inches movement. The outer edges of slabs at the side of the runway were 14 inches thick.
In order to support the theoretical design, experimental slabs of 8, 10 and 12-inch thickness were laid, with load transfer dowels spaced at differing centres. They were laid on a short length of taxi track which, if the panels were satisfactory, could be incorporated into the finished contract. Load tests were made using heavy equipment loaned by the Road Research Laboratory. The load, in increments up to 30 tons, was applied by means of an hydraulic jack, via a series of steel plates, through a 3-foot diameter timber block 6 inches thick. Surface deflection was measured using acoustic strain gauges, with the assistance of our Research Department and that of the Admiralty. It was concluded that the proposed design of slab was satisfactory.
Due to various conditions then operating, such as inability to procure the requisite labour and difficulty in taking over certain parts of the site (which was then being cultivated under the direction of the Hertfordshire War Agricultural Committee), it was decided that the contract should be carried out in two parts, it being understood that the de Havilland Company would confirm continuance with the second half by the end of 1945. Throughout the contract continual liaison was maintained between the Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Supply but labour supplies on many occasions fell far short of requirements. To assist, the Company provided a camp on the site, thus enabling the import of Irish labour.
Careful profiling was needed to comply with the specified limiting gradient, bearing in mind the hump in the middle of the airfield. This resulted in a maximum cut of 9 feet and a maximum fill of 8 feet, although there was still a hump. Another requirement was that a sight line 6 feet above any point on the runway should not, when produced, create more than 4 feet of dead vision on any part of the runway. [This would have satisfied pilot vision requirements, but was not quite good enough to give complete coverage for the filming of take-offs and landings; we always had to be careful where we put the runway-side cameras if we wanted to see the lift-off or touch-down point.]
1947 aerial view of the de Havilland factory and airfield at Hatfield. The de Havilland workers' flats can be seen across the road from the factory. They were demolished during construction of the Hatfield Tunnel.
Cement was delivered to the site in bulk and was fed from elevated storage bins through weigh batchers to the mixer, and the aggregate was measured volumetrically by hopper. A central mixing plant was established, fed by a derrick crane from the stock pile. A field laboratory was set up near the plant to enable the checking of aggregate and the water/cement ratio.
Harpsfield Hall, a manor farmhouse, was one of the properties
bought by de Havillands. The farmhouse was demolished when the
airfield was made. However, it made its presence felt during the
construction of the runway:
"...when a new runway was being constructed across its site, technicians were surprised as well as mortified to find their levelling gear put out of action by the submerged threshold stone of the farmhouse."
Hatfield and its People – Part 12, page 1216-17.
Drainage of the airfield was a major consideration. The first proposal was to drain direct to the River Lea; the Paper does not specify in which direction, but presumably towards Stanborough. This was considered to be too expensive so, in turn, a deep bore-hole and a shallow well were considered, test examples of each being dug. Soak away was too slow, and in fact both were used as water supplies for the duration of the contract. Mr A S Butler was of the strong opinion that surface water drained from the airfield could be accommodated in the Ellenbrook. A survey showed that with improvements at various points the desired increase of flow, about double, could be achieved. The Ellenbrook was already in a covered culvert under the airfield but flowed under St Albans Road in an open ditch. The existing culvert was replaced by one larger and re-routed, continuing under St Albans Road and along Ellenbrook Lane. The existing open culvert on Ellenbrook Lane was retained for the Nast, which drains from the western end of the airfield.
It was a condition that the airfield be kept available for flying throughout the contract. This was difficult to organise and operate, bearing in mind the high level of activity and the fact that aircraft were operated from four different points around the site. A plan was drawn up to separate flying and construction zones as work progressed, with temporary grass strips at approximately 225 degrees and 305 degrees. The construction areas were marked with coloured flags. Only one major incident was recorded, when an aeroplane overshot the strip in use and nosed over; the contractor’s crane was soon on the spot lifting the machine and rescuing the pilot, to the approbation of de Havilland.
Captain Geoffrey de Havilland made the last flight from Stag Lane (to Hatfield) in a Hornet Moth (G-ACTA) on 28 July 1934.
On Friday, 8 April 1994, Hatfield's last day as an airfield, a DH Chipmunk – the type that had made the first landing on the new runway – was also the last plane to take off from it.
Poignantly, the last plane to take off from Hatfield (using a grass runway) was a DH.82 Tiger Moth piloted by Dick Bishop, son of R E Bishop – the man who designed the DH.106 Comet airliner. Sir Geoffrey's grand-daughter, Anne de Havilland, who had earlier lowered the company flag, was in the passenger seat.
Work commenced on 6 June 1945. The labour requirement was based on completing the work in 9 months and was estimated at 480,000 man-hours. Although the work was not in fact completed until December 1947, the actual man-hours used were 473,557¾. The total cost was £441,934 10s 10d.
As laid, the runway had no lighting. Edge lights were installed sometime in the 1960s. I can remember seeing the firemen setting out “goose-neck” paraffin flares in 1962 or later. The narrow extensions at each end were laid about 1961. Several applications of slurry seal were made over the years, to maintain the surface, but they never concealed the characteristic thumping over the joints. They did take away the useful ability to count blocks when carrying out minimum control speed tests (two blocks equalling the statutory 30-foot lateral deviation), so we ended up painting white lines at the requisite displacement from the centreline.
There is a photo of the pristine new runway in Phil Birtles’ “Hatfield Aerodrome: A History”. Martin Sharp records in his “History of de Havilland” that it was first used on 12 May 1947. It was in use for over well over twice its design life. The last movement was in 1994, unless someone knows better....
Roger de Mercado
A big thank you to Roger – for the article and photos, help with the aviation pages in general, and making Hatfield history. Thanks also to Bruce Rowe for supplying the 1947 aerial photo of Hatfield.
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Regular black, green, & orange-pekoe type tea contains fluoride "naturally," as the tea plant concentrates/pulls fluoride from the soil. Different brands & varieties may vary somewhat in fluoride concentration, depending on the native fluoride concentration in the soil where the plant is growing. There is some discussion as to whether organic teas might contain less fluoride, as they are not subject to additional (possibly) fluoride-containing pesticides/herbicides that conventional tea may be subject to. Decaf regular teas still contain fluoride. Herbal teas contain much less.
Dental products are a major source of fluoride. Not just the at-home stuff -- the professional dental office products often contain high concentrations of fluoride.
How much fluoride is in drinking water depends on the locale. A few areas have "naturally occuring fluoride" in drinking water. Many cities & counties rountinely add fluoride to drinking water -- you have to ck with them to find out 'how much.' The majority of bottled beverages in the USA -- sodas, waters, juices, etc. are made with fluoridated water.
Fluoride is not easily removed from water. Standard carbon filters like Pur & Brita remove chlorine & metals, but don't get out fluoride. For that you need a reverse osmosis filter, which is spendy.
The skin absorbs fluoride (& chlorine) during showering & bathing. Many of us are also exposed to airborne fluoride from manufacturing. Progress has been made in recent yrs. with emissions scrubbers, but there are still accidents & leaks. Aluminum & other refineries formerly released TONS of fluoride into the atmosphere annually. This of course does get into soils & water.
Food carries an increasing fluoride load, due to increasing loads in soils, as well as to increasing use of fluoro-based pesticides. The fluoro-based pesticides are especially nasty as they are persistent accumulators not easily dealt with by the body's built in toxin-removal systems. There has been increasing acceptance of the use of cheap industrial/sewage sludge as fertilizer, however sludge is typically high in fluoride, heavy metals, and other industrial waste, none of which is particularly health-promoting. Organic food grown in areas of low native-soil fluoride, will contain less fluoride than some conventionally-grown crops.
Many fresh cherries in my state are grown in orchards next door to a major (former/currently inactive) aluminum smelter. This fruit is very high in fluoride content. The region was formerly an apricot-producing capital, but the fluoride killed apricot blossoms & so those orchards were removed to make more room for cherries, which were tolerant of fluoride.
If you're interested in more specific information, there are many fluoride activist groups with details & scientific studies. These are not all Chicken Little/Fearmonger organizations. The EPA itself has a large number of scientists who are becoming increasingly vocal about the myriad of health risks we face from modern-day multiple-source exposure to fluoride, with actually very little proven dental benefit. Most testing reveals that the majority of us are ingesting/inhaling/absorbing many times the safe amout, and our children, with their smaller body masses, are quite at risk.
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Summer squash is a tender, warm-season vegetable native to North America. The various species are members of the Cucurbitaceae family, meaning they're related to cucumbers and melons. What makes summer squash different from other squash is that every part (skin, flesh and seeds) is edible. Summer squash is harvested before the rind hardens, and the somewhat fragile fruits cannot be stored for long periods of time. Popular varieties include zucchini, straightneck squash, crookneck squash and pattypan.
Blossom-end rot, also common on tomatoes, can affect summer squash. It occurs during hot weather. Curly top, caused by the curly top virus and by insects, causes the squash's leaves to curl and eventually kill the plant. To control it, destroy infected plants, water and fertilize regularly and rotate your crops. Powdery mildew is a disease that shows up as a white powder on the squash's leaves. Use a soaker hose to avoid wetting leaves and plant resistant varieties. Verticillium wilt causes squash plants to turn brown, wilt and die. Destroy plants infected with the disease and do not compost any of the diseased foliage.
The cucumber beetle has an oval, bright yellow-green body with spots. As it feeds on squash foliage and stems, it spreads the bacterial wilt organism, which will kill your plant. Control the cucumber beetle by planting resistant varieties or using a foliar insecticide. The squash bug is dark to grayish brown on top, with a tan or light gray color below. It causes brown blotches on the squash foliage or stunted growth. Pick squash bugs by hand or use an insecticidal spray. Aphids are soft, tiny green bugs that suck the fluids from squash plants. They leave a sticky honeydew behind, which attracts ants, and the leaves turn yellow. Remove them with an insecticidal soap or a strong spray of water.
Summer squash seeds do not germinate well in cold soil. Clemson Extension recommends not planting summer squash until your soil is at least 60 degrees F at a depth of 4 inches. Using black plastic mulch under your squash plants warms the soil, conserves moisture and reduces weeds. Space summer squash plants 15 inches apart in 3-foot rows. If you plant them in hills, space the rows 4 to 6 feet apart, with hills 3 to 4 feet apart. Harvest summer squash early, when the fruits are no longer than 4 to 6 inches.
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Indian 'Tiranga' or the Tricolor Flag of India is the National Flag of India. The three colors have a special symbolism along with the navy blue Dharm Chakra wheel in the centre.
National Flag of India
National Flag of India - Tiranga - The National Flag of India is known as 'Tiranga' in Hindi that can be translated as 'having three colors. This tricolor flag has a wheel of law in its centre and signifies the freedom and sovereignty of India and its people. It has horizontal stripes of equal widths of deep saffron band on the top, white band in the middle and dark band green at the bottom and the ratio of its width to its length is 2:3. The navy blow wheel situated at the centre of the white band is known as the Dharma Chakra or the 'Wheel of Law'. It has been adopted from the Ashokan Sarnath Lion Capital and has 24 equally spaced spokes to symbolize the law that reigns and keeps on run twenty-four hours of a day. The saffron color is said to be symbolic of courage, sacrifice and the spirit of renunciation; the white of purity and truth and the green is symbolic of faith and fertility.
The first Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, presented it to the Constituent Assembly of India on 22nd July, 1947. it is made up preferably of hand-woven Khadi that is symbolic of the self-depence of the Nation but is available in all types of fabrics and materials. The rules and regulations related to the use and display of this sacred flag of India are included in the Indian Flag Code, which has just recently been amended to allow all Indian citizens to hoist it throughout the year instead of only on certain specific occasions such as Republic Day and Independence Day. However, there are some restrictions to maintain the dignity to the flag such as flying a damaged or disheveled flag or putting it up with the saffron band at the bottom, draping it over the vehicles or private funerals. It is considered unlawful to wear the Tricolor flag as a costume or print it and use it as cushion, napkin or handkerchief.
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When Bobby Kennedy could not get Governor Barnett to comply with the order of the Supreme Court, President Kennedy stepped in. On September 29 and 30, 1962, JFK had a series of conversations with Governor Barnett. He hoped to manage the crisis by telephone. Their first call took place at 2 p.m. on Friday, September 29.
Governor Ross Barnett, Georgia Governor S. Ernest Vandiver and JFK at a poultry tariff meeting, June 4, 1962
Listen to excerpt
President Kennedy: This, uh, listen, I didn't, uh, put him in the university, but on the other hand, under the Constitution, I have to carry out the orders of the, carry that order out and I don't, I get, uh, I don't want to do it in any way that causes, uh, difficulty to you or to anyone else. But I've got to do it. Now, I'd like to get your help in doing that...Alright. Well, now let me, let me say this, uh--
Governor Barnett: You know what I am up against, Mr. President. I took an oath, you know, to abide by the laws of this state . . .
JFK: That's right.
RB: --and our constitution here and the Constitution of the United States. I'm, I'm on the spot here, you know.
JFK: Right. Well, of course, the problem is, Governor, that, uh, I got my responsibility, just like you have yours--
RB: Well, that's true. I--
JFK: --and my responsibility, of course, is to the ...
RB: --I realize that, and I appreciate that so much.
JFK: Well, now here's the thing, uh, Governor, I will, uh, the attorney general can talk to, uh, Mr. Watkins tomorrow. What I want, would like to do is to try to work this out in an amicable way. We don't want a lot of people down there getting hurt . . .
RB: Oh, that's right.
JFK: --and we don't want to have a -- You know it's very easy to-
RB: Mr. President, let me say this. They're calling, calling me and others from all over the state, wanting to bring a thousand, wanting to bring five hundred, and two hundred, and all such as that, you know.
JFK: I know, well the ...
RB: We don't want such as that.
JFK: I know. Well, we don't want to have a, we don't want to have a lot of people getting hurt or killed down there.
RB: Why, that's, that's correct...I appreciate your interest in our poultry program and all those things.
JFK: Well, we're--
RB: Thank you so much.
JFK: Okay, Governor. Thank you.
RB: Yes, sir. All right now.
JFK: Bye now.
Read the full transcript
President Kennedy apparently thought Barnett was a pushover. After the call, he turned to his brother and said, "You've been fighting a sofa pillow all week." But JFK was wrong. According to civil rights historian Taylor Branch, Ross Barnett had the president and attorney general wrapped around his finger.
"He's being kind of a yokel and saying 'Thanks for your help on the poultry program'," Branch says. "But Bobby Kennedy and Jack Kennedy are running Meredith up and down and trying to do whatever Barnett wants, so Barnett is not too upset...They're never sure whether he's making a fool of them or they're making a fool of him. But they know as the evenings go on, they feel less and less in control, so the suspicion starts to rise that maybe Barnett's making a fool of them."
Next: part 3
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Poet, fiction writer, and critic Alfred Corn applies his special language skills to a comparison of the two dominant versions of the English language. The United States and Britain have been described as “divided by a common language,” but this guide will help speakers from both countries make their way in the other. Pronunciation, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation are all discussed, and there is a brief presentation of British and American slang. The result is an accessible and succinct overview appropriate for tourists, for teachers of English as a foreign language, for book and magazine editors, for actors, and for courses on British and American literature.
Poem of the Week
- Poetry Fix, Episode 20: Weldon Kees
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- Poetry Fix, Episode 18: More Milosz
- Poetry Fix, Episode 17: Milosz
- Poetry Fix Episode 16: Heather McHugh
- Poetry Fix Episode 15: Transtromer
- Poetry Fix, Episodes 13 & 14: Mary Oliver and Keats
- Poetry Fix, Episode 12: Baseball Haiku
- Poetry Fix Episode 11: Terrence Hayes
- Poetry Fix Episode 10: William Matthews
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This is why I often think of silence in as colorfully characteristic terms as possible:
- the very tense, pregnant "Japanese" silence, a sumo wrestler poised for the lunge
- the brief, contemplative silence that can fall between a "question" phrase and its "answer"
- a peaceful, empty silence
- the silence that covers "hidden action", as a stream disappearing beneath the earth, only to resurface elsewhere
- the conscious, present silence, in which the music stops and one expressly becomes aware of extraneous noises
Another interesting interpretation of silence is to see it as YOUR turn now to listen to the audience. I read about this but can't remember to whom this idea should be credited!
The type of silence you create will be determined not only by how you move, or how still you are, but how you breathe during the silence. It is interesting to see how Heinz Hollinger composed silences in his solo flute piece (t)aire(e) with specific durations and written directions such as "hold breath as long as possible", "inhale slowly", and "inhale imperceptibly".
This kind of choreography plays an important role in interpretation, and not only during the silent parts! Allow me to make a negative example: Peter Lloyd likes to tell of a student of his who played the Berio Sequenza beautifully. However, the constant languid, swaying movements of the student distracted him, especially since such movements are appropriate only momentarily (if at all) in the Sequenza. This is an important lesson. While you are busy giving an audience a well thought out interpretation, make sure your body does not betray you by telling a conflicting story!
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Lee Lawrie was born in Rixdorf, Germany, in 1877, and came to America with his family at the age of four. His artistic talent revealed itself first as he sketched and drew the world around him as a young boy. At fourteen he was hired to do odd jobs in a sculptor’s studio, there he taught himself to model clay in the evenings. Within a year he had improved his skill and was allowed to translate models into full size sculpture for the Chicago Columbian Exposition of 1893. Later he worked in the studio of Beaux Arts sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens.
Lee Lawrie ( Bisonwerks )
In 1910 Lawrie earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts from Yale and taught there until 1919.
He began working with Goodhue in 1895, his specialization in architectural sculpture complemented Goodhue’s early Gothic revival designs. The reredos (carved stone altar screen) in St. Thomas Church in New York is an important example of his collaboration with Goodhue which culminated in the exterior sculpture of the Capitol in Lincoln.
Goodhue and Lawrie had a vision of the exterior sculpture for the Capitol being an integral part of the architecture. Lawrie’s figures are engaged with the building, not separate and free standing, their form coming from the stone, buttresses and pylons of the building face. All but one of Lawrie’s sculptural works on the Nebraska Capitol are in bas relief. “The Sower” a 19 foot tall bronze statue is mounted on top of the capitol and represents Nebraska’s agricultural heritage. The statue emphasizes the importance of agriculture to noble life and civilization; it also serves as a lightning rod for the capitol.
The Sower by Lee Lawrie
With his work for Nebraska, Lawrie brought architectural sculpture into the modern era. Later work on Rockefeller Center continued this modern emphasis. From 1921-1954 Lawrie received eight national architectural and sculptural awards. He died in 1963, one of America’s foremost architectural sculptors.
Are You Interested in Seeing the Building in Person?We're open 7 days a week, so plan a visit here. Then, explore some photos and perhaps read more about the Memorial Chamber.
Capitol quick facts
- Construction started in 1922, completed in 1932.
- The architect was Bertram G. Goodhue.
- There are 15 floors above ground.
- The building is 400 feet tall.
- It is the third Nebraska State Capitol.
- It cost $9.8 million in 1932 dollars.
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From 1980 till now, view CSE's progress.
The Centre was established in January in a small two-room office in South Delhi. Among the Centre's first activities was to start a news service aimed at increasing public awareness on science, technology, environment and development.
In 1985, CSE published the second citizens’ report on the State of India’s Environment, which carried the first report in the developing world on how environmental destruction affects rural women and received nationwide attention. In 1986, deeply impressed by this report, the then Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi invited CSE founder director Anil Agarwal to address the nation’s Council of Ministers and the Parliament on the importance of sustainable development for a country like India.
The Citizens' First Report on the State of India's Environment went a long way in reconciling the global debate on environment versus development. In 1972, at the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, leaders from developing countries had argued that they cannot undertake environmental conservation at the cost of economic development, and that in developing countries economic development must take priority.
This report was the first major study from the civil society of a developing country which argued that developing countries must ensure that environmental conservation must go hand in hand with economic development because any economic development which destroys the environment will create more poverty and unemployment and, thus, cannot even be called economic development. This is because the poor depend on the survival for their daily survival - for them the Gross Nature Product is far more important than the Gross National Product. Environmentally destructive economic development will impoverish the poor even further and destroy their livelihood resource base. Therefore, the environmental concern in the developing world must go "beyond pretty trees and tigers" and must link it with people's lives and protests.
CSE organised a workshop on Alternative Approaches to Urban Development in December
The Citizens' Second Reporton the State of India's Environment pointed out that when the rural environment gets destroyed it is poor women who suffer the most because of their culturally-determined role as providers of water, firewood and fodder to meet the daily survival needs of their households. It also pointed out that, for this reason, women often have a greater interest in environmental regeneration and management than men. This was the first report on the impact of environmental destruction on women published in the developing world.
Environmental conservation is a concern for politicians: Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi invited CSE's director Anil Agarwal to address the Union Council of Ministers of the importance of environmental conservation in India's development. Subsequently, the Prime Minister requested Anil Agarwal to address all the 27 parliamentary committees attached to the various ministries of the Central government so that the message could also go out to all Members of Parliament and each ministry could discuss its own role in environmental protection. These presentations were based on CSE's State of India's Environment reports.
Environmental destruction has a serious impact on floods and droughts: Between 1985 and 1987, India not only saw major droughts but also numerous flood events. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi requested CSE's director to make a presentation (later published as Wrath of Nature), to all Members of Parliament on how environmental destruction affects floods and droughts. The Prime Minister wanted to see greater use of flood and drought relief funds for environmental conservation so that future floods and droughts would be easier to meet.
CSE led a seminar-cum study tour on the Thar Desert ecosystem of Rajasthan state. Later that year, CSE organised another workshop on Himalayan Wastelands was held in four Northeast cities in India.
In an attempt to influence Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi who was attempting to amend the Constitution to promote democratic village governance, CSE produced Towards Green Villages: A Strategy for Environmentally-Sound and Participatory Rural Development. The publication tried to learn from the relationship of the poor to their environment and from pioneering community-based rural natural resource regeneration efforts in India carried out in the 1970s and 1980s and present lessons for macro-policy formulation.
Gandhi's 'Village Republics' best suited for community anagement of natural resources
The study, since translated into several languages, argues that the Gandhian concept of 'Village Republics' provides the best legal and institutional framework to create community interest in natural resource management. Later that year, CSE jointly organised the India-Pakistan Conference on Environment with IUCN-Pakistan in Lahore.
CSE organised a seminar on the 'Economics of the Sustainable Use Forest Resources' and also a seminar on the 'Traditional Water Harvesting Systems of India'.
With the world's economic development based on fossil fuels, limits are being reached because of its impact on the atmosphere. The Centre's publication Global Warming in an Unequal World pointed out that a global framework of inter-country cooperation is urgently required. Given the enormous differences between the levels of economic development and per capita greenhouse gas emissions, equity must become the key principle for managing the world's atmosphere in a sustainable manner.
That same year, CSE published Floods, Floodplains and Environmental Myths: Third Citizens' Report on the State of India's Environment that focused on the causes and effects of floods in the floodplains and river valleys of Ganga and Brahmaputra Rivers. The report, citing scientific studies and field reports, stunned environmentalists by arguing that floods in these regions, more flood-prone and which support more poor people than any other region of the world, can be controlled through better management of the rivers' floodplains themselves.
Down To Earth magazine was launched when leading publishers were closing popular science publications
CSE's biggest intervention in the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro was its proposal that the world's poor must have a 'Right to Survival', which, in operational terms would mean funds to ensure that all the world's rural poor are mobilised to regenerate their degraded village ecosystems. This programme would not only put a floor to rural poverty and stem distress migration from rural to urban areas but also make a massive investment in the rebuilding of the natural capital on which the survival of the rural poor depends.
The same year, the Society for Environmental Communications started publishing Down to Earth magazine. This influential fortnightly newsmagazine on science and environment was launched at a time when all of India's leading publishers were closing down their popular science publications. Today, Down To Earth reaches nearly 60,000 serious readers spread over most districts of India and across the world.
The same year, CSE also published Towards a Green World: Should Global Environmental Management be Built on Legal Conventions or Human Rights? CSE also published The Price of Forests,a compilation of the proceedings of a seminar on the economics of the sustainable use of forest resources held earlier in the year.
On CSE's invitation, Maldives President MA Gayoom delivered a talk on the Maldivian environment in New Delhi. CSE moves to its new home in the Tughlakabad Institutional Area. The building was designed by the renowned Ahmedabad-based architects, Radhika Doshi Katpalia and B V Doshi. The five-storied structure is spread over 1000 sq/m.
A particularly interesting feature of the building is the design which incorporates several cascading terrace gardens. The building has been designed to harvest rainwater. Rainfall flows from the top terrace down to the bottom terraces where it is finally collected in underground water storage tanks. The building's garden includes several important Indian survival trees. The building accommodates more than 110 permanent staff and 40 volunteers and contract staff.
CSE counters the move by industrialised countries to split the stand of developing countries on emissions reduction. When the small island nation states (AOSIS) asked the rich countries to reduce emissions by 20 per cent by 2005, the developed world led by Germany, countered by making the AOSIS proposal conditional to large developing countries also reducing their emissions by a similar level. CSE took strong exception to this unfair proposal by pushing more than 50 Northern NGOs to lobby against this with their government negotiators.
CSE lobbied with the Climate Action Network, made presentations and organised press conferences in Delhi, Berlin and New York City. The combined pressure of environmentalists and the media forced the German negotiators to withdraw their controversial proposal. This year also saw CSE foraying into its maiden video venture, CSE produced a series of three videos on sustainable village ecology called The Wealth of the Nation.
The same year, CSE also produced Harvest of Rain which deals with traditional water harvesting techniques. Similarly, the video The Village Republic dealt with decentralised governance as an answer to rural India's threatened ecological existence.
CSE published Slow Murder: The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution in India the first systematic study that presented a comprehensive picture of the causes of vehicular pollution in Indian cities - ranging from poor engine technology and fuel quality to traffic planning and engine maintenance. The book sparked a nationwide discussion on the growing menace of urban air pollution. Noticed by the Supreme Court, the government of Delhi had to file an action plan on how to reduce the city's air pollution.
After completing a seven-year exercise, which documented India's traditional knowledge in rainwater harvesting technology management, CSE published the seminal book, Dying Wisdom: The Rise, Fall and Potential of Traditional Water Harvesting Systemsas part of its Citizens' Fourth Report on the State of India's Environment (SOE-4). This influential book pointed out that
pre-colonial India's rural prosperity and urban development was built on a variety of rainwater harvesting techniques. Instead of depending exclusively on the state for water supply, a paradigm that is not even two hundred years old, water should once again become everybody's business. The Central Government, in addition to several Indian states including Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh have since launched major rainwater harvesting initiatives to combat drought and widespread land degradation.
CSE's publication, Homicide by Pesticides presented a study on pollution in the Yamuna river basin and showed how pesticides used on farmlands in the upper reaches of the river were seeping into the drinking water of towns and cities downstream. The same year, CSE shocked India's citizens with its data on the death count resulting from urban air pollution. In Delhi, one of the worst cities in India, one person died every hour from air pollution in 1995. Between 1991-92 and 1995, deaths doubled in the city, from 5,726 to 10,647.
CSE revealed data to show that the growth in pollution is far outstripping the growth in the economy posing serious questions about the state of the environment in the decades to come unless concerted efforts were made to control pollution. Between 1975 and 1995, India's GDP increased 2.6 times but the industrial pollution load went up 3.5 times and the vehicular pollution load went up 7.5 times.
In July, perhaps the first of its kind in the country, CSE organised a national-level conference on Health and Environment which drew more than 40 renowned health and medical experts from across the country. In October, CSE organised a National Conference of Water Harvesting in New Delhi which drew water harvesters from all across the country.
Five-Leaf Award launched. This first-ever NGO rating of industry was instituted as part of CSE's Green Rating Project. This pioneering effort seeks to bring about greater transparency in industrial performance in environmental management, by rating companies in various sectors that helps in identifying and distinguish the good ones from the environmental black sheep. The first study, which involved numerous readers of Down to Earth as voluntary inspectors across the country, examined the highly polluting pulp and paper sector. Detailed profiles of 28 Pulp and Paper Mills and a Technical Issues Report were made available for public dissemination by CSE.
The project has developed an approach that can be used by any NGO in any developing country to monitor the environmental performance of industrial firms even if its environmental governance is very poor. CSE sets up a National Water Harvesters Network to share information and resources with water harvesters across the country.
As part of this effort, CSE starts publishing the seminal Catch Water newsletter on water harvesting to support CSE's People's Water Management campaign. CSE published the first report on Global Environmental Negotiations (GEN-1) titled , Green Politics which was first released during the fifth Conference of Parties to the Climate Convention (CoP-5) held in Bonn, Germany. Special book release events were held around the world over the next year.
Cse presented the Down To EarthJoseph C John Award to the villages of Bhanota-Kolyala in Rajasthan in recognition of their outstanding efforts for regenerating the Arvari river. President of India K R Narayanan visited the villages to personally award the villagers with this prestigious award. Indian President KR Narayanan invited Anil Agarwal to address the governors of Indian states and senior Indian ministers, including Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee, on the importance of community-based water harvesting as a solution for combating drought and land degradation.
In the face of dire predictions about the impending water crisis, CSE organised a public lecture on January 6 to coincide with the release of the millennium issue of Down To Earth (Harvest of Hope) at which CSE director Anil Agarwal cited examples of outstanding community-level efforts that had brought about a dramatic change in the local ecology and economy.
That year, CSE is the only Southern NGO to participate in the second World Water Forum in The Hague where it propagated the communitising of water resources. CSE also participated in CoP-6 meeting in The Hague in November, where it published Equity Watch, an influential newsletter that analysed climate change issues from a Southern perspective.
Geen Rating Project (GRP) releases the environmental ratings of the Indian automobile sector. The findings were published in a comprehensive report, Mileage: Environmental Rating of the Indian Automobile sector. 26 of the 28 major automobile manufacturers voluntarily participated in the project. The "Life Cycle Assessment" approach that evaluated the companies' environmental management practices from the raw material stage to product disposal phase was used in rating this sector.
Making Water Everybody's Business was released in several cities in South Asia. It received wide media coverage, helped generate awareness on water harvesting
CSE published Making Water Everybody's Business, a comprehensive resource for water planners and the general public that contains information on the policies, practices, and mobilisation strategies needed to start a movement on water harvesting. That same year, CSE also published Poles Apart, the second in the series of Global Environmental Reports (GEN-II).
After several years of testing, the Anil Agarwal Air Pollution Model was launched by former Chief Justice B N Kirpal in December. The computer-based Model runs calculates all possible policy interventions, technical and administrative, to assess the possible impact on the air quality as a result of these actions. The Model takes stock of the current measures to combat vehicular pollution. The Model then charts an alternative course, showing that vehicular pollution can be purposefully tackled only if some hard decisions are taken. The same year CSE starts a new Rain Centre in Chennai.
The Rain Centre, the first of its kind in India, includes a permanent exhibit of traditional and contemporary designs in rainwater harvesting. CSE's Global Environmental Governance unit publishes several editions of Equity Watch newsletter during the CoP-8 held in New Delhi. In order to increase its reach and further disseminate environment and sustainability information, CSE launched Down To Earth Web edition in May.
In August, CSE released the study on the pesticide residues in soft drinks, which had been conducted by the Centre’s pollution monitoring laboratory. The study brought a strong response from the two companies that were manufacturing soft drinks in India namely, Coca Cola and Pepsi Cola who contested the findings and argued that the laboratory report was faulty. The study was covered very prominently by both electronic and print media.
The issue was also discussed in Lok Sabha. The members expressed serious concern over the finding of pesticide residues in soft drinks and requested the Government to come with an explanation after finding out all the facts. The minister of health and family welfare presented another report on the pesticide analysis undertaken by the government in the House and argued that the drinks were ‘safe’ because they met the existing bottled water regulations.
The minister’s statement lead to strong opposition in the Parliament and the members demanded a Joint Parliamentary Committee probe in the issue. Thus, the fourth parliamentary committee since Independence was set up. The committee was formed in early September 2003 and gave its report to the parliament in February 2004. It not only endorsed CSE’s findings on pesticide residues in soft drinks but it also endorsed the demand for a strong public health agenda for food and water.
The second rating of the pulp and paper sector was completed and Shri K R Narayanan, former President of India released the ratings in New Delhi on September 30, 2004. The Green Rating Project’s book on the pulp and paper sector, All about paper, was also released. CSE’s recommendations on CNG-related issues were accepted by the Supreme Court for implementation. The Anil Agarwal Green College (AAGC) started with short and medium-term training programmes for a variety of interest groups, ranging from students and documentation professionals to journalists, NGOs and industry professionals.
AAGC designed a multi-faceted one-month course titled, ‘The Challenge of the Balance: Learning the practice of environmental management in India for 15 students enrolled for a course in Environment and Development in Oslo University. CSE organised a workshop on pesticide contamination and food safety for south Asian journalists and journalists from India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh attended. CSE launched the Green Schools’ Programme, designed to catalyse educators, students and school managements to collectively take positive measures to improve their environmental performance.
CSE was awarded the ‘Stockholm Water Prize’ by king Carl XV1Gustaf, of Sweden in Stockholm. CSE director addressed the Members of Parliament on “Water Conservation” and talked about the problems and challenges concerning water management and water conservation and sewage system in India. CSE director was also appointed as the Chairperson of the Tiger Task Force set up by the Prime Minister to review the conservation programme for the tiger and to suggest a new paradigm to undertake this task successfully.
The Green Rating Project completed and released its rating of the cement industry in December 2005. CSE published four books during the year (i) Agenda Unlimited (ii) Concrete Facts (iii) The Leapfrog Factor and (iv) Body Burden. An international conference on health and environment was organised in New Delhi. The conference brought together leading experts, policy makers, civil society groups and industry representatives from India and abroad. The Grameen Paryavaran Film Utsav, two unique travelling film festivals in Rajasthan and Orissa was also organised in the months of November and December 2005. CSE’s film "The Rain Catchers - a practical guide to solve the water problems" was also released.
CSE published the book, The Sewage Canal, which will be the launching pad for CSE’s campaign on Right to clean rivers. Nature, one of the world's leading and influential scientific journals, published from the UK, featured CSE and Sunita Narain as a cover story. CSE director, Sunita Narain was featured by the Time Asia Magazine as one of the six Climate Crusaders of the world fighting pollution. CSE released a follow-up study on pesticides in soft drinks and found that there still were very high levels of pesticide residues in soft drinks and that manufacturers had not done anything to clean up their act.
CSE rated the schools, which were part of Green Schools Programme under the Gobar Times Green Schools Award, and found that even small or rural schools were doing an exemplary job of implementing good environmental practices.
The sixth citizens’ report on the State of the Environment (SOE-6), Rich lands, poor people -- Is Sustainable Mining Possible? was published in November 2007. The book is an attempt to find answers to how the poor, who are living on lands rich with mineral resources, can benefit from the exploitation of minerals. It was released across the country in collaboration with local groups to ensure that local communities develop an ownership over the issue.
The Right to clean air campaign was able to influence the Delhi government to take measures to curb the use of diesel. It also influenced the government to take steps to favour public transport in the form of reduced taxes for buses and the launch of the Bus Rapid Transport Corridor in Delhi. This year, CSE’s director Ms Sunita Narain was made a member of key national and international committees to plan for actions to deal with climate change.
CSE published the results of its study on the presence of transfats in major brands of edible oils in India, advocating for regulatory standards for presence of transfats in oils and fats. CSE’s study was the first of its kind in India and results showed high levels of transfats in hydrogenated oils in India. Within a month, the Oils and Fats sub-committee of the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare agreed to set standards on transfats in hydrogenated oils. To create public awareness of the impact of climate change on the people of the Sunderban delta, the film, Mean Sea Level, was launched in the Ghoramara island by Gopal Krishna Gandhi, the governor of West Bengal. The India Environment Portal, one of the largest portals running on open source content management was launched by Sri Jairam Ramesh, minister of environment and forests. Bangladesh department of environment requested CSE to design a training course on EIA for their officials and also to prepare guidelines for some of their key industrial sectors. India’s fourth Rain Centre was launched in Burdwan district of West Bengal in October, 2008. CSE received the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru Prize for popularisation of science from Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh at the Indian Science Congress held at the North Eastern Hill University, Shillong.
CSE’s advocacy on mining and environment issues - sharing of benefits with local communities and environmental safeguards are incorporated in the new mining regulation draft before Parliament. Published the book, Challenge of the new balance - the first study in India to look at options to reduce emissions, their feasibility and the costs involved, and understand the low-carbon roadmap and technology pathways for the future. Another book, Mobility crisis: Agenda for action 2010 was published that discusses in detail ways and means of dealing with pollution and congestion. CSE was invited to participate in the regional experience sharing workshops on air pollution and urban mobility held in Colombo, Agartala and Dhaka. The lab-based studies and wide coverage on the presence of lead in paints and phthalates in toys resulted in government actions for improved regulations and standard-setting process. Another study on toxic chemical residues in soil and water in Bhopal forced the government in setting up of an institutional framework for remediation measures. CSE’s consistent work with media in South Asia helped built an informed public opinion on climate change issues. CSE's advocacy for strengthening the regulatory institutions has resulted in the acceptance and recognition for strengthening capacity of SPCBs in the Ministry. The India Environment Portal ranked first and became the top-most site on Google for information on “India and environment.
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bacteria kingdom characteristics
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Question:heyy, i need help with my science packets that counts as a quiz grade!!
im really not good at science(bio).
1)or each kingdom , discribe one characteristic that all organisms must have in common:
classify each of the eight living thigs listed below into one of two groups according to an important physical characteristic.
group 1. group 2.
a) what physical characteristic did you use in your classifacation?
B) name a different physical characteristic that you could have used.
CAN YOU CORRECT MY ANSWERS ON THESE? :
3) if a new organism were discovered , which of the following would most likley be used to classify it into the appropriate kingdom?
A. the color of the organism
B. the organism's nanatiral habitat
C. the sturcture of the organisms anatomy
D. the location where the organism was found
********** i put letter D**************
4)bacteria reproduce by dividing into two. which is an accurate descirption of the two new cells tha are reproduces?
A> both cells are genetically different from the origional cell
B the new cells cannot reproduce becuase they were formed by asexual reproduction
C. the genes in the new cell are identical to the genes of the parent cell
D. each new cell has twice as many genes as the parent cell had.
**************i put letter A************
5).in the recent science fiction movie, cloning was used to creat an amry of identical soldiers. cloninf can best be desriced as...
A. a natural form of asexual reproduction
B. an artificial form of a sexualt reprofuction
C a natural form of sexual reprduction
D. an artifition form of sexual reproduction
*********u put letter C************
6)birds have light hollow bones which enable them to fly. this adaptaion is the result of...
A. the diet of worms and seeds.
B. a series of genetic mutations over a long period of time
C. a single genetic mutation that occured recently
D.a behavior learned from their parents
*************i put letter C*************
thanks soo mcuh !
10 pts. best answer !
Answers:Im not going to answer your long answer ones cause that would take too much time ( and I don't think i should be doing your homework for you... but im bored, so i will answer the mulitple choice)
Answers:Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Animalia.
Monera - prokaryotic bacteria and blue-green algae and various primitive pathogens; because of lack of consensus on how to divide the organisms into phyla informal names are used for the major divisions
Protista- eukaryotic one-celled living organisms distinct from multicellular plants and animals: protozoa, slime molds, and eukaryotic algae
fun gi or fun gus es
Any of numerous eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Fungi, which lack chlorophyll and vascular tissue and range in form from a single cell to a body mass of branched filamentous hyphae that often produce specialized fruiting bodies. The kingdom includes the yeasts, molds, smuts, and mushrooms.
Plantae - (botany) the taxonomic kingdom comprising all living or extinct plants
Animalia - taxonomic kingdom comprising all living or extinct animals
Hope that helps you out.
Question:give the different characteristics that differentiate the two kingdoms of bacteria. i will love you forever if you answer this.
Answers:This question is not completely correct (or based on older science). The kingdom Monera could be split up into 2 kingdoms, Archaea and Bacteria. Both Archaea and Bacteria are prokaryotes, very small, without a nucleus, but they show important differences in cell wall structure and biochemical pathways.
The Wikipedia entry has more background on the differences between Archaea and Bacteria:
Question:I have to do a chart about certain types of cells, and I've finished most of it. I'm still unsure about a couple things though.
1. Algae are unicellular and multicellular right? Same with protozoans? And fungus-like protists are unicellular...?
2. Do most eukaryote cells contain: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleolus, rough/smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeletons and vacuoles? Is there any group (plant, animal, and fungus-like protists, fungi, plants, and animals) that don't have at least one of those characteristics?
3. Which types of protists (animal, plant, fungi like) have centrioles? Cilia? Flagella? Plasmodesmata? Gap Junction?
4. What features do fungi have of the structures from the third question?
5. Do plant and animal cells have flagella?
Sorry if it seems like a lot. It's kinda hard to find these kinds of things on the Internet.
Answers:a month ago i wud have known all this
but it is school holidays and my brain is gone
all i can answer with confidence is the last one.
animal cells have a flagellum which is for movement.
characteristics of kingdom citizen 5 :
Bacteria Culture Characteristics.MOV :Student plated samples of several organisms commonly grown in our Microbiology lab
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Accountability is like life…an on-going process. So why do we as individuals need accountability? So that we can set goals that can be measured while having somebody else who is aware of these goals there in order to challenge us to get better going forward. Otherwise, somebody may get lazy in pursuit of their goals or have their goals overlooked by others for some reason. Without accountability, goals that individuals try to achieve may take longer because things could get missed. Accountability in the rebuilding of the U.S. economy is also an ongoing process. Why ongoing? Since the circumstances surrounding the U.S. economy change everyday…those circumstances determine responsibility and the next step to take. For example, if a drop in the unemployment rate was the goal…who is responsible for achieving that goal? What potential steps could they take to fix the problem? How long do they think it could take to fix the problem? What other factors play a part in determining that answer? If responsibility is not taken on how to go forward…how do we determine whether or not something was a proper course of action?
At this point in the rebuilding of the U.S. economy, it’s not about how this got started but where we need to go in order to turn the economy around. Who does that place the burden of accountability on going forward? The policy and decision makers who make decisions everyday that determine how the rebuilding will go along with the people of this country. Why are we as citizens accountable? Somebody has to being watching to see if the people making the decisions are making the right decisions…the decisions being made by those people will determine how long it takes to rebuild the U.S. economy. If they don’t make the right decisions it will take longer and cost more to rebuild. If the decision makers fail to take into account something…what consequences will that have going forward? In addition, we have to try to make sure that this economic state doesn’t happen again for the reasons that this one started with.
Accountability is needed everyday whether it’s by individuals or the U.S. economy. How do we get better without help? How do you get better without accountability? How do we help going forward? By being accountable to somebody else you strive to get better and holding somebody else accountable allows you challenge them going forward. For the U.S. economy, to avoid repeating past mistakes or mistakes that lead to a longer state of current economic conditions leads for it to get better and how can it do that without accountability?
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Dizziness is a feeling of lightheadedness. There are many possible causes for dizziness. For cancer patients, the cause is often nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy. Treatment of nausea and vomiting with antiemetic drugs may help relieve dizziness.
- What is dizziness?
- What causes dizziness?
- Why is dizziness important?
- How is dizziness treated?
- What else can I do?
What is dizziness?
Dizziness is a sensation often described as lightheadedness or feeling woozy. Most people notice dizziness when they change positions or move their heads. You might feel like the room is spinning around you, or that you are spinning, a sensation known as vertigo. You may also feel “faint” or dizzy when you rapidly change from lying or sitting to a standing position. Dizziness may be a fleeting sensation or the prolonged symptom of a more serious health problem.
What causes dizziness?
There are many possible causes for dizziness, some are:
- Nausea and vomiting
- Medications to control high blood pressure or heart rate
- Problems with the balance mechanism in your inner ear
- Low blood pressure when you stand up (orthostatic hypotension)
Why is dizziness important?
Dizziness may be a sign of a more serious imbalance or problem. You should contact your doctor and carefully describe your symptoms so that the cause can be identified and managed.
How is dizziness treated?
Some medications may help to decrease the feelings of unsteadiness or imbalance associated with dizziness. These medications are also known as “motion sickness” drugs. Examples include:
- Meclizine (Antivert®)
- Dimenhydrinate (Dramamine®)
- Scopolamine patch
Prevention of nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy through the use of antiemetic drugs may also decrease feelings of dizziness. Go to the Nausea and Vomiting section for more information on treating this side effect.
What else can I do?
Try these tips for managing dizziness:
- Stay hydrated by drinking plenty of fluids. Try for 2-3 liters of fluid per day in the form of fruit juices, water, non-caffeinated drinks and non-alcoholic beverages.
- Change positions slowly. Allow your body a chance to adapt to the position change. For some people, lying down until the dizzy episode passes may be the best solution.
- Avoid medications that have caused dizziness in the past.
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Mechanical designs often include specifications for surface quality such as roughness or ripple. Inspecting workpiece surfaces as they are manufactured is critical to proper quality control and to avoid premature part failure. White light interferometers can acquire surface parameters in seconds. These 3-D profiles require a much longer time if acquired using traditional tactile processes such as stylus profilometers. Furthermore, white light interferometers can quickly determine figures of merit such as percentage contact area or frequency distribution. Roughness can be optically determined, but the values can deviate from the results of tactile measurements to which the dimensions of the drawing and standards generally refer. New guidelines for calibrating white light interferometers give you the assurance that the measured values can be traced back to calibration standards. Optical measurements also make qualitative roughness parameters available that can help determine whether a surface is too rough leading to high frictional losses or too smooth leading to excessive adhesion.
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Henrietta of England (Henrietta Anne), 1644–70, duchesse d'Orléans, called Madame; sister-in-law of King Louis XIV of France. The daughter of King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria of England, she was taken (1646) to France when civil war raged in England; in 1661 she married Philippe I, duc d'Orléans, brother of Louis XIV. In Louis's behalf she negotiated the Treaty of Dover with her brother, King Charles II (1670). She died shortly after her return from England; it was rumored that she had been poisoned by her husband. Jacques Bossuet's funeral oration for Madame is one of his best-known sermons.
See her correspondence with Charles, ed. by C. Hartmann (rev. ed. 1954); Mme de La Fayette, Secret History of Henrietta Princess of England (tr. 1929).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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6 Answers | Add Yours
In Act I, scene iii, Macbeth and Banquo go to visit the witches . During this meeting, the prediction that the three witches make about Banquo is that his sons would be kings. The first witch says, "Lesser than Macbeth, and greater." (Act I, scene iii) The second says, "Not so happy, yet much happier." (Act I, scene iii). And the third witch finishes the prophecy when she states, "Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none: /So all hail, Macbeth and Banquo!" (Act I, scene iii.)
dneshan answers the main level of this question, but below the surface is the likelihood that Shakespeare's witches are far more conspiritors than they are simple fortune tellers. As the play unfolds, it is this very prediction that Banquo "shalt get Kings" that serves as the motivating drive for Macbeth's decision to murder his best friend. The theme of deception and twisted truths is at play in this seemingly simple and nearly--at the start--innocent prediction that even Banquo and Macbeth take lightly at first.
The 3 Witches recount to Macbeth three prophecies:
- Thane of Glamis(he already is)
- Thane of Cordor
- King here after
Prophecies to Banquo:
1.Macbeth is great, but you are greater
2.You will be happier than Macbeth
3.You won't be king, but your children will be.
The witches, used throughout Macbeth to foreshadow the events in the play, essentially tell Banquo that he will be less than Macbeth, but greater that he will be not as happy as Macbeth yet much happier and that he will be king even though there will be no king. These condradictory ominous statements eventually do come true in the concluding act of the novel.
As a side note, Macbeth also seeks the advice of the witches when they tell him to beware of Macduff.
what two questions does macbeth ask the witches
what three things do the witches tell macbeth
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Now the White House says that its previous 10-year deficit projection of $7.1 trillion was too low. The new projected figure is TEN trillion dollars.
Thanks to Pagetutor.com, some visualization of the holes that the administration is intentionally digging in which to bury the American economy.
First, here is $1 million, packaged in 100 packets of $100 bills, each packet having 100 of the bills. Hence, each packet is $10,000.
Next is a stack of $1 billion, which in this picture is 10 stacks of $100 million each.
Next we'll look at ONE TRILLION dollars. This is that number we've been hearing so much about. What is a trillion dollars? Well, it's a million million. It's a thousand billion. It's a one followed by 12 zeros.
You ready for this?
Note the tiny red-shirted figure at the lower left. Note also that each pallet is double stacked.
That's as far as Pagetutor went. But let's visualize the new, White House projected deficit, ten trillion dollars. You'll have to keep paging down.
Update: Harvard economics Prof. Greg Mankiw points out that the federal debt today, the product of 43 previous administrations, stands at $7.4 trillion. That is to total accumulated from George Washington's inauguration in 1789 until the last day of George W. Bush's term - 220 years. And the Obama administrations plans to more than double that amount in only 10 years.
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How Much Responsibility Does the Federal Reserve Bear for Causing World War II?
By doing the exact opposite of what it was created to do, provide liquidity to the economy during a time of crisis, the Federal Reserve caused the Great Depression to happen. As the Federal Reserve kept forcing banks to purchase government securities in the early 1930's, and making the banks pay for those securities with cash, the Federal Reserve forced the nation's money supply to decline to unprecedented levels. All of which caused money to sharply increase in value to consumers in America.
Another effect of this massive decline in dollars in circulation was to cause the dollar to gain in value vs foreign currencies. In order to combat this gain, and keep their own currencies from declining, many economies, most notably Great Britian and all her satellites, likewise caused massive declines in their own money supplies. As money gained in value in all of these countries, people around the globe became reluctant to spend their money and the result was a worldwide Depression.
At this time Germany was struggling to pay back the war debts imposed upon her at the end of World War I. As economic activity collapsed around the globe, Germany found it impossible to pay back the debts. In order to try and keep their economy afloat so that they could keep paying back the debts (one of the stipulations for failure to pay back the debts was re-occupation), the German monetary authorities started printing money like it was newsprint, and it soon became as worthless as newsprint.
As their money continued to become more and more worthless by the day, the German masses became furious. Imagine going to work one day and earning $100. And then within a week's time, it cost $100 for a cup of coffee. How would you feel? What happened to all the work that went into earning the $100? It disappeared as if it never happened. This is exactly what happened in Germany in the early 1930's.
The angry and distraught German populace did what people anywhere would do under such circumstances. They elected the most outspoken antigovernment, radical leader they could. His name was Adolph Hitler. Who, of course, went on to start World War II.
Now many of the things that happened cannot be directly blamed on the Federal Reserve. Just because the Federal Reserve made awful policy decisions and withdrew a vast amount of money from the economy when it was needed the most, did not mean that many foreign monetary authorities had to do the same. And just because those foreign monetary authorities chose to follow the Federal Reserve's awful decision, that did not mean that German monetary authorities had to hyper-inflate their money supply. And just because German monetary authorities did hyper-inflate their money supply, that did not mean that the German people had to elect Adolph Hitler.
But there is no denying what did happen. The Federal Reserve caused the Great Depression by withdrawing unprecedented levels of money from the United States economy. This caused a dollar scarcity, which forced the dollar's value to rise vs foreign currencies. In order to protect their currencies, many foreign monetary authorities also withdrew massive levels of money from their economies, causing a worldwide Depression. As a result of the worldwide Depression, the German monetary authorities hyper-inflated their money supply to try and keep their economy afloat so that they could keep paying back their war debts. As the German people's labor, as represented by the money they were being paid for their labor, was continually being rendered worthless, the German people turned to the most outspoken antigovernment leader they could find. A murdering thug who started World War II.
So how much blame does the Federal Reserve bear for causing World War II?
If the Federal Reserve had done what it was created to do in the late 1920's and early 1930's, provide liquidity to the economy during a time of crisis, money would not have risen dramatically in value and the Great Depression would never have happened. If the dollar had not gained in value vs foreign currencies, then foreign monetary authorities would not have removed massive amounts of money from their economies and the worldwide Depression would not have happened. If the worldwide Depression had not happened, Germany could have kept paying back its war debts and the German monetary authorities would not have hyper-inflated their money supply. The work of the German people would not have been destroyed, and the populace would not have elected the most radical antigovernment leader they could. Adolph Hitler would have remained a small forgotten asterik in German history and World War II would not have happened.
Lion's share is the appropriate term, I believe.
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University of Western Australia
Play Wetlands Video (1:48)
Download Transcript (185 KB, PDF)
The project looks to reduce phosphorus movement off farms into waterways. The project examines the seasonality of soil and ground water phosphorus dynamics and will determine if novel pasture plants can be used to limit this movement into waterways' soils for significantly extended time periods.
University of Adelaide
CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences
Play Biochar Video (3:19)
Download Transcript (180 KB, PDF)
Developing bioenergy markets through exploring the integration of diverse native species plantations on farms. Trees are burnt in an oxygen depleted environment using thermal bioenergy technologies to produce energy outputs such as electricity and biofuels, as well as biochar – a type of charcoal which has the capability of sequestering carbon in soils for significantly extended time periods.
Visit the Greening Australia webpage dedicated to this program
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History of CFS/ME
CFS has only recently been recognized as a distinct condition by the medical community. A recent report by the Royal College of physicians officially proclaimed it "real" in the sense that they recognize a cluster of symptoms which is distinguishable from any other disease. They stated that this symptom cluster appeared to have no one cause, with both physical and psychological problems playing a part in the condition.
CFS has officially replaced the term M.E. (Myalgic Encephalomyelitis), because there is no consistent evidence for the swelling of nervous tissue that this name implies. It has also replaced the term Post Viral Fatigue Syndrome, as the symptoms are not always associated with an initial viral infection.
This marks the most recent stage in a long debate within the medical community and society at large concerning the nature of what is now called (in Britain anyway) CFS. Neither the condition or the debate are new.
At the end of the last century, doctors were holding a similar debate over a condition called Neurasthenia. This was characterized by fatigue and muscle weakness, leaving sufferers able to do very little. There was no medical consensus around cause or cure. Some doctors advocated rest, others exercise. Some said it particularly affected successful, active businessmen, professionals, even doctors. Others said it was mainly an illness of females, and was largely "all in the mind".
Anyone familiar with the recent debate around CFS will recognize this situation. The puzzled and divided medics; the distressed sufferer being given conflicting advice; the cartoon stereotypes of an unsympathetic media.
Later into this century, the medical community coined the term "work shyness". This more obviously judgmental label was mainly stuck on the working classes. Again this class difference in diagnoses is persistent today. Community studies have shown that people with the symptoms of CFS occur equally across all classes, however those who actually get a diagnoses of ME or CFS and referral for any kind of treatment, are more likely to be middle class. Many sufferers are aware of having had to fight for their condition to be taken seriously. It would appear that the middle class are better equipped to access and articulate the information necessary for such a fight.
There appears to have been a relative period of quiet over this disorder mid century. It comes to media prominence again in the eighties, under two names - ME and Yuppie Flu. The latter was the name coined by a habitually unsympathetic media which had decided that sufferers were high flyers who could no longer keep up the fast, eighties, Thatcherite pace, who had burned out under pressure.
Again the medical community were split. There were those who believed it was a physical condition, those who believed it was psychological. This is such a traditional divide - the mind from the body - that, until recently, few have questioned it. As we shall see later, this division is not necessarily true or useful.
In the physical camp there have been a variety of theories. Some have believed it to be an immunological deficiency (in parts of America it is labelled CFIDS, Chronic Fatigue and Immune Deficiency Disorder); a muscle tissue disorder; a central and\or peripheral nervous system disorder and, most commonly, a persistent virus.
In the psychological camp the main theory was that CFS was an unacknowledged depression. This had the unfortunate affect of reinforcing that other media fiction - the "all in the mind" illness. This carries the connotation that the condition is less real or even pretended, together with the implication of the very British "pull yourself together" school of treatment.
Not surprisingly most sufferers sided themselves with the physical camp. Throughout the eighties and into the nineties the debate became more and more polarized and less useful. As no one could agree what was going on in CFS, there was no consistent approach to treatment, and an increasing sense of hopelessness around the possibility of change or cure.
However recently things have changed somewhat. The medical community has begun to see that so called physical and psychological factors cannot be readily separated in any condition - be it cancer or depression - and there has been an increased focus on the management of CFS. This has produced research showing that adopting a consistent approach to managing the condition can produce a substantial improvement in the majority of sufferers. The focus has shifted from looking for a single cause and a "magic bullet" cure, to looking at how a variety of factors can cause, maintain and change the condition. Most importantly, there is now a climate of hope around CFS, which was unthinkable just a few years ago.
Author: Vincent Deary
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The Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC), in collaboration with its partners, has developed several educational programs and materials to help Canadians increase their financial and personal money management skills and knowledge.
These materials and several other FCAC resources are available free of charge to educators and program facilitators. FCAC’s educational programs have been used across Canada in learning institutions, by community groups and within the workplace.
Try our programs
The City: A financial life skills resource
An 11-module learning program that teaches youth financial skills that they can carry with them throughout their lives.
Launch The City now!
Financial Basics: A financial literacy workshop
A financial workshop to help young adults learn about budgeting, saving, credit, investing, fraud prevention and financial planning.
View Financial Basics now!
Your Financial Toolkit: A financial education program for adults
A comprehensive 11-module learning program that provides basic information and tools to help adults manage their personal finances and gain the confidence they need to make better financial decisions.
||Adult self-learners and trainers
|May also interest:
||Employers, educators and community groups
||Self-learning, Web-based learning, training or workshops
||Financial Toolkit PDF (1 page, 186 KB)
|Rate this program:
Launch Your Financial Toolkit now!
Make it Count: A resource for youth money management
Presented by Manitoba Securities Commission
Make it Count is an interactive mentoring program which provides parents and instructors with activities and information to help them incorporate discussions about finances and money management into their daily routine; easily turning everyday situations into education.
Developed by the Manitoba Securities Commission, the program includes a parent’s guide and an instructor’s guide. The Make it Count parent’s guide centers around a series of activities and money management tips for you to share with your children. The Instructor’s guide contains discussion questions, classroom activities, black-line masters and teacher tips for ease of instruction.
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Waterbird migration is not only an incredible wildlife phenomenon but an essential ecological process vital to the long-term survival of this group of birds. Understanding this complex process is a challenging task for conservation scientists whom employ a number of techniques to track and re-sight waterbirds as they move between breeding and wintering grounds.
In Hong Kong, the Mai Po Nature Reserve is a station for locally-based researchers to conduct studies on migratory waterbirds that use the East Asian-Australasian Flyway. Collectively these studies contribute to the formulation of a flyway-wide conservation strategy.
Duck Satellite Tracking
Funded by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), the Satellite Tracking Project is a collaborative effort to study wild duck migration from Hong Kong, and gain insight into the ecology and epidemiology of avian diseases.
Freshwater ponds near the Mai Po Education Centre attract ducks by the hundreds. The fitting of some with satellite transmitters allows their journeys to be tracked over thousands of kilometres.
to read about the project
to view the current locations and migration paths of the tagged ducks. You can view the tracking by installing Google Earth
on your home computer.
WWF-Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Bird Ringing Group have collaborated for over 30 years to carry out migratory shorebird ringing at the Mai Po Nature Reserve. Most studies involve the fitting of leg-markers onto shorebirds so that their migration can be monitored upon recapture or re-sighting.
Since the adoption of combination colour leg-flags in 2001, more than 1,000 shorebirds have been marked with the Hong Kong combination colours and re-sightings of Hong Kong shorebirds are received annually from other countries.
to read more.
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What causes a rainbow?
See this page in: Dutch
The technical details of rainbow formation were first analyzed by Isaac Newton in 1665. His brilliant optics work concerning reflection and refraction certainly does not detract from the beauty and promise of the rainbow. On the contrary, Newton's scientific insights show the marvelous complexity of creation. The rainbow is a gracious pledge that God will not destroy the Earth a second time with a worldwide flood (Genesis 9:11-17):
A rainbow occurs when raindrops and sunshine cross paths. Sunlight consists of all the colors of light, which add together to make white illumination. When sunlight enters water drops, it reflects off their inside surfaces. While passing through the droplets, the light also separates into its component colors, which is similar to the effect of a glass prism. Each falling water drop actually flashes its colors to the observer for just an instant, before another drop takes its place.
A rainbow is usually seen in the opposite direction in the sky from the sun. The rainbow light is reflected to the eye at an angle of 42 degrees to the original ray of sunlight. The bow shape is actually part of a cone of light that is cut off by the horizon. If you travel toward the end of a rainbow, it will move ahead of you, maintaining its shape. Thus, there is no real end to a rainbow, and no pot of gold waiting there. Because the 42 degree angle is measured from each individual observer's eye, no two people see exactly the same rainbow. Every person is at the center of his or her own particular cone of colored light. From the high vantage point of a mountaintop or an airplane a complete circle of rainbow light sometimes can be seen.
The bright, primary rainbow has red on the outer edge and blue within. Higher in the sky there is always another, dimmer rainbow with the order of colors reversed. This secondary rainbow results from additional reflection of sunlight through the raindrops. It is most visible when there are dark clouds behind it. Look for the second bow high in the sky the next time rainbow colors appear. Some observers have even reported seeing third and fourth rainbows above the first two.
Copyright © 1997, Films for Christ, All Rights Reserved - except as noted on attached “Usage and Copyright” page that grants ChristianAnswers.Net users generous rights for putting this page to work in their homes, personal witnessing, churches and schools.
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Could dinosaur-age DNA cure GOUT? Reviving a 90 million-year-old protein could treat painful inflammation
- Researchers have resurrected a prehistoric version of the enzyme uricase
- Uricase can break down uric acid, which can cause kidney stones and gout
- It is not produced in humans because of evolutionary changes that took place in the body over 20 million years ago
Resurrecting ancient DNA that was around when dinosaurs walked the Earth could help scientists find a cure for gout.
Researchers in Atlanta believe a 90 million-year-old version of an enzyme known as uricase could better treat the disease, which causes painful, swollen joints.
Gout is caused by the build-up of a chemical in the blood called uric acid, which is harmless to the body in small quantities.
Researchers in Atlanta believe a 90 million-year-old version of an enzyme known as uricase could better treat gout, which causes painful, swollen joints
But when levels become too high, tiny grit-like crystals of uric acid form in the joints causing inflammation, swelling and pain.
The main reason humans are susceptible to gout is the evolutionary changes that took place in the body over 20 million years ago, reports Ed Yong writing in National Geographic.
Apes and their relatives lack a functional gene for uricase, which is a protein that gets rid of uric acid. The gene has undergone several mutations over the years, rendering it useless.
Gout is caused by the build-up of a chemical in the blood called uric acid, which is harmless to the body in small quantities. When levels are too high, it can lead to gout. Pictured here are uric acid crystals in urine
WHAT IS URICASE?
Urate oxidase, also known as uricase, is an enzyme which metabolises uric acid in flesh.
Uric acid is a by-product of the breakdown of purines, which are found in high concentration in products such as anchovies, liver, herring, mackerel, gravy and beer.
When eaten, these products create uric acid during digestion. Uricase is needed to metabolise that uric acid. If this doesn’t happen, urate crystals are formed.
Over time this can lead to gout, kidney stones, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. But humans don’t produce uricase.
By looking at the differences between DNA for uricase in modern mammals, scientists have been able to piece together what the uricase of their most recent common ancestor looked like.
Eric Gaucher at the Georgia Institute of Technology the resurrected the prehistoric protein by putting the DNA sequence into E. coli that translated ancient DNA into protein.
They tested how well each protein worked on removing uric acid. The most effective was one which was 90 million-years-old and existed at a time when dinosaurs still roamed the Earth.
Given the time the uricase gene started degrading, scientists believe the mutation was caused by the rise of fruit in our ancestor's diets.
Existing gout treatments uses the enzyme derived from pigs and baboons, but the ancient version seems to have worked better so far in experiments on rats.
The research team has now filed a patent on the ancient uricases. Their study is reported in the Journal PNAS.
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- freely available
Life 2013, 3(1), 260-275; doi:10.3390/life3010260
Abstract: Cell-to-cell communication, or quorum-sensing (QS), systems are employed by bacteria for promoting collective behaviour within a population. An analysis to detect QS signal molecules in 43 species of the Halomonadaceae family revealed that they produced N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), which suggests that the QS system is widespread throughout this group of bacteria. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis of crude AHL extracts, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4) as biosensor strain, resulted in different profiles, which were not related to the various habitats of the species in question. To confirm AHL production in the Halomonadaceae species, PCR and DNA sequencing approaches were used to study the distribution of the luxI-type synthase gene. Phylogenetic analysis using sequence data revealed that 29 of the species studied contained a LuxI homolog. Phylogenetic analysis showed that sequences from Halomonadaceae species grouped together and were distinct from other members of the Gammaproteobacteria and also from species belonging to the Alphaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria.
The definition of extreme environments has been the subject of considerable controversy and as yet, due to its complexity, no consensus of opinion has been reached. In 1979 Brock defined extreme environments as those habitats with low species diversity . It has been suggested, for example, that in hypersaline environments, a typical extreme habitat, environmental factors such as a high salt concentration along with low oxygen concentrations, high or low temperatures, basic pH and solar radiation may contribute to limiting their biodiversity . Nevertheless, the results of a large number of ecological studies conducted recently in extreme environments indicate that in fact they contain a fairly high diversity of species [3,4,5,6].
According to 16S rDNA gene-sequence analysis, the family Halomonadaceae , within the order Oceanospirillales, forms a separate phylogenetic lineage within the class Gammaproteobacteria. Halomonadaceae contains the largest number of halophilic species described to date , including 10 genera of halophilic and halotolerant bacteria : Aidingimonas (one species), Carnimonas (one species), Chromohalobacter (nine species), Cobetia (two species), Halomonas (80 species), Kushneria (five species), Modicisalibacter (one species) and Salinicola (three species); as well as two genera of non-halophilic bacteria: Halotalea (one species) and Zymobacter (one species). Many members of the Halomonadaceae family are moderately halophilic since they grow best in media containing from 0.5 M to 2.5 M NaCl , although some can grow over a very broad range of salt concentrations due to their ability to accumulate organic compounds to adapt themselves to changes in environmental osmolarity. Compatible solutes such as betaine can be taken up from the external medium or others, such as ectoine, synthesized by the cells themselves [8,11,12]. Halomonadaceae species have been isolated from very different habitats, including the sea, salterns, saline soils and endorheic lakes, and have also been found in some seafoods, marine invertebrates and even in a mural painting [9,13].
Extensive studies carried out over the last 30 years into this group of halophiles have led us to a better understanding of their biodiversity, phylogenetic relationships, physiological and haloadaptative mechanisms and, more recently, their biotechnological applications. Some moderate halophiles are recognised for their potential use in biotechnology because of their capacity to produce exopolysaccharides, enzymes and compatible solutes such as ectoine—used as a stabilizer for enzymes—as well as for their active role in the process of denitrification and the degradation of aromatic compounds [6,13,14].
Within the Halomonadaceae, Halomonas is one of the genera most frequently isolated from hypersaline waters and soils by conventional-culture techniques [11,15]. Molecular-ecology techniques based on 16S rDNA sequence analysis suggest that Halomonas ventosae is the predominant species in these habitats . Nevertheless, the ecological role that Halomonas species play in these habitats and their relationships with other halophilic and non-halophilic microorganisms are still unknown.
Bacteria have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to co-ordinate gene expression, such as quorum sensing (QS) [17,18,19], which involves the production of signal molecules known as autoinducers. Autoinducers include, among others, N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), produced by the Proteobacteria, oligopeptides, produced by the Firmicutes, and furanosylborate diester (AI-2), which is produced by both Proteobacteria and Firmicutes and used for interspecies communication [20,21]. The classical AHL-based systems contain a luxI homologue gene, which is responsible for the synthesis of AHLs, and a luxR homologue gene, which is an AHL-dependent transcriptional regulator. AHL-based systems involve the accumulation of AHL molecules in the extracellular medium until a critical concentration is reached, at which point the AHLs bind a transcriptional activator, which triggers the expression of target genes, including the luxI gene, leading in turn to the production of more AHLs [22,23,24] and the expression of virulence factors and exoenzymes, conjugal DNA transfer, control of plasmid-copy number, production of and susceptibility to antibiotics, biofilm formation and exopolysaccharide production [20,21].
AHL-dependent systems have been reported in many genera belonging to the phylum Proteobacteria. In addition, studies based on genome sequencing have revealed that many bacteria contain possible luxI/luxR homologues and, in some cases, multiple coexisting QS systems . Nevertheless, little is known about the QS systems in halophilic microorganisms. In our experiments we have found that four exopolysaccharide-producing species of the genus Halomonas produce AHL-autoinducer molecules . We have also described the structure of AHL molecules produced by Halomonas anticariensis (C4-HSL, C6-HSL, C8-HSL and C12-HSL) and identified and characterized the QS genes hanR/hanI involved in their production . In addition, we have proved that the QS system is regulated by a GacS/GacA two-component system, suggesting its integral involvement in the intercellular communication strategies of this bacterium .
In this present study we have detected and identified quorum-sensing systems that rely upon the production of AHLs in 43 species belonging to the Halomonadaceae family. Using PCR and DNA sequencing approaches, we have studied the distribution of the LuxI-type synthase in 29 of these species and constructed a phylogenetic tree, that was based on a partial sequence of this protein.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Detection of AHLs in the Halomonadaceae Family
We have investigated the existence of AHL-dependent QS systems in 43 species of the Halomonadaceae family. These 43 bacteria, the type strains of their respective species, were isolated from very different saline habitats, including salterns, saline soils, marshes and seawater, among others (Table 1). They include 12 species discovered by our research group during the course of ecological and taxonomic studies conducted in hypersaline environments in Spain, Chile and Morocco [29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41]. The strains used in this study include representatives of the following genera: Chromohalobacter (one species), Cobetia (one species), Halomonas (33 species), Halotalea (one species), Kushneria (three species), Modicisalibacter (one species) and Salinicola (two species). So far AHL signal molecules have only been detected in four exopolysaccharide-producing species of Halomonas described in our laboratory: H. eurihalina, H. maura, H. ventosae and H. anticariensis .
To overcome the limitation of the “cross-streak” method , in which each couple of sensor test strains must be cultured under optimum conditions without interfering with each other, we extracted AHLs from all the strains assayed and added them to agar plates upon which the biosensor strain had already been spread (see Experimental Section). Our choice of biosensor strains was ultimately based on previous experience in our laboratory . Thus we chose the Chromobacterium violaceum strain CV026, a mutant which cannot synthesize its own quorum-sensing signal molecules and responds to exogenously added short-chain AHLs (C4-C6-HSLs), producing a pigment called violacein , and also Agrobacterium tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4), a sensitive, broad-spectrum AHL-responsive reporter that is unable to produce its own AHLs and contains a lacZ fusion to the quorum-sensing regulated gene traG. This latter strain is sensitive to AHLs with medium-to-long acyl chains that, when added exogenously, activate lacZ fusion, which is detectable by the appearance of a blue stain in the presence of X-Gal . All the strains tested synthesized signal molecules to activate the biosensor A. tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4) (see Figure 1 for some examples). No signal was detected when a sample from an uninoculated cultured medium of MY 7.5% (w/v) was tested as negative control (data not shown). These results initially suggested that most strains were able to produce AHLs and therefore probably possess at least one AHL-QS system. Nevertheless, only Halomonas rifensis HK31T and H. anticariensis FP35T, used as control, produced AHLs in sufficient quantities to activate C. violaceum CV026 under our assay conditions. As is demonstrated below, these two strains produce about five times more AHL than the rest of the species tested (Figure 2). We have in fact already described how some species of Halomonas, such as H. anticariensis FP35T, synthesize much greater quantities of AHLs than others, such as H. eurihalina, H. maura and H. ventosae .
2.2. Characterization of the AHLs
The use of the indicator organisms in combination with thin-layer chromatography (TLC) provides a simple, rapid way of determining the number and nature of the AHLs produced by a particular strain . We analysed the culture extracts of the 43 Halomonadaceae strains (Table 1) using TLC in combination with the biosensor A. tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4). This analysis showed the production of different AHL profiles amongst the various genera e.g. Chromohalobacter salexigens (Figure 2, lane 2), Cobetia marina (Figure 2, lane 3), Halomonas anticariensis (Figure 2, lane 6), Halotalea alkalilenta (Figure 2, lane 37), Kushneria marisflavi (Figure 2, lane 40) and Salinicola halophilus (Figure 2, lane 42) and also among certain species such as Halomonas alimentariaYKJ-16T (Figure 2, lane 4), H. anticariensis FP35T (Figure 2, lane 6), H. desiderata FB2T (Figure 2, lane 11) and H. eurihalina F9-6T (Figure 2, lane 14). Similarly, in a previous study we found that strains belonging to the same species showed the same AHL profiles whilst different species showed different profiles. In just the same way, significant differences have been identified in the AHL profiles of the marine species Vibrio salmonicida and V. anguillarum .
The AHL patterns from Halomonadaceae species contain from one to three spots with mobilities similar to those of the C8-HSL, C6-HSL and 3-oxo-C6-HSL standards. Differences were also observed in the quantities of AHLs synthesized, Halomonas anticariensis FP35T and Halomonas rifensis HK31T synthesizing about five times more AHLs than any of the other 41 species examined (Figure 2. lanes 6 and 29). Halomonas variabilis DSM 3051T (Figure 2, lane 35) and Salinicola salarius M27T (Figure 2, lane 43) produce as low an amount of signal as that from the uninoculated cultured medium MY 7.5% (w/v) , although, their AHL-extracts did activate the A. tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4) indicator strain when the diffusion plate assay was carried out (data not shown). The most predominant AHL molecule was C6-HSL. In H. anticariensis FP35T this AHL had been previously identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GM/MS) and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI MS/MS) , suggesting that this signal molecule may well be biologically active in intercellular communication strategies within the Halomonadaceae family. The synthesis of short-chain-acyl AHLs, such as C6-HSL and C8-HSL, is also very common among the species belonging to the Vibrionaceae family, which are ubiquitous in marine environments [45,46].
2.3. Distribution of the Autoinducer Synthase Gene
The luxI autoinducer synthase gene has been reported to be responsible for AHL production [18,47]. Therefore we tested its presence in the genome of 43 Halomonadaceae species, using luxI primers to amplify by PCR a fragment (300–400 bp) which forms part of the active site of the enzyme . In this way we identified them in 29 species. On sequencing they turned out to be homologous to a luxI gene fragment. We did not, however, detect PCR fragments in the other 14 AHL-producing strains, possibly due to primer mismatching. In the cases of Chromohalobacter salexigens and Halomonas elongata, both of which do produce AHLs and the sequenced genomes of which are available, no luxI gene could be identified, due probably to their having different AHL synthases, either belonging to the LuxM protein family found in the genus Vibrio [49,50] or to the HdtS protein family identified in Pseudomonas fluorescens .
To carry out a phylogenetic analysis of the LuxI synthase in the 29 positive species of the Halomonadaceae family we conducted a multiple sequence alignment, including amino-acid sequences of LuxI synthase that had been experimentally determined in other members of the phyla Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria. The phylogenetic tree constructed according to the neighbour-joining method showed that all the amino-acid sequences from the Halomonadaceae family grouped together and were distinct from the rest of the Gammaproteobacteria analysed, and also from the species belonging to the Alphaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria (Figure 3a). The clustering of the 29 Halomonadaceae in which the luxI fragment was detected was not related to the habitat from which they were isolated (Table 1). The distribution of the Halomonadaceae family with respect to the rest of species analysed in the phylogenetic tree based on the 16S rDNA sequences (Figure 3b) was similar to that obtained from the LuxI sequence (Figure 3a). This result indicates that the LuxI amino-acid partial region used in this study is conserved among the family Halomonadaceae members.
3. Experimental Section
Bacterial strains. We used the type strains of 43 species belonging to the Halomonadaceae family (Table 1). Strains were cultured at 32 °C in MY medium (3 g malt extract, 3 g yeast extract, 10 g glucose and 5 g peptone per litre) [52,53] modified with a balanced mixture of sea salts .
|1. Carnimonas nigrificans||CTCBS1T||Cured meat, Spain|
|2. Chromohalobacter salexigens||DSM 3043T||Solar saltern, Netherlands|
|3. Cobetia marina||219T||Sea water, USA|
|4. Halomonas alimentaria||YKJ-16T||Jeotgal, a traditional Korean fermented seafood, Korea|
|5. H. almeriensis||M8T||Solar saltern, south-east Spain|
|6. H. anticariensis||FP35T||Saline wetland, southern Spain|
|7. H. aquamarina||558T||Pacific ocean|
|8. H. campaniensis||5AGT||Mineral pool, Italy|
|9. H. cerina||SP4T||Saline soil, Spain|
|10. H. denitrificans||M29T||Saline water, Korea|
|11. H. desiderata||FB2T||Municipal sewage works, Germany|
|12. H. elongata||1H9T||Solar saltern, Netherlands|
|13. H. eurihalina||F9-6T||Saline soil, Spain|
|14. H. fontilapidosi||CR-5T||Saline soil, southern Spain|
|15. H. gudaonensis||SL014B-69T||Saline soil contaminated by crude oil, China|
|16. H. halmophila||ACAM 71T||Dead Sea, Israel|
|17. H. halodenitrificans||ATCC 13511T||Meat in brine|
|18. H. halodurans||DSM 5160T||Great Bay estuary, USA|
|19. H. koreensis||SS20T||Solar saltern, Korea|
|20. H. magadiensis||21 MIT||Soda lake, East-African Rift Valley|
|21. H. maura||S-31T||Saltern, Morocco|
|22. H. meridiana||ACAM 246T||Saline lake, Antarctic|
|23. H. mongoliensis||Z-7009T||Soda lake, Mongolia|
|24. H. nitroreducens||11-ST||Solar saltern, Chile|
|25. H. organivorans||G-16.1T||Hypersaline habitats contaminated by aromatic organic compounds, southern Spain|
|26. H. pacifica||DSM 4742T||Pacific ocean|
|27. H. pantelleriensis||AAPT||Hard lake sand, Pantelleria island, Italy|
|28. H. ramblicola||RS-16T||Saline soil, south-east Spain|
|29. H. rifensis||HK-31T||Solar saltern, Morocco|
|30. H. saccharevitans||AJ275T||Salt lake and a subterranean saline well, China|
|31. H. salina||F8-11T||Saline soil, Spain|
|32. H. shengliensis||SLO14B-85T||Saline soil contaminated with crude oil, China|
|33. H. stenophila||N12T||Saline soil, Spain|
|34. H. subglaciescola||ACAM 12T||Antarctic hypersaline, meromictic lake|
|35. H. variabilis||DSM 3051T||Great Salt Lake, USA|
|36. H. ventosae||Al-12T||Saline soil, south-eastern Spain|
|37. Halotalea alkalilenta||AW-7T||Alkaline olive-mill waste (alpechin), Greece|
|38. Kushneria avicenniae||MW2aT||Salty leaves of Avicennia germnans trees growing near solar salterns, Puerto Rico|
|39. K. indalinina||CG2.1T||Solar saltern, south-east Spain|
|40. K. marisflavi||SW32T||Water from the Yellow Sea, Korea|
|41. Modicisalibacter tunisiensis||LIT2T||Oilfield-water injection sample, southern Tunisia|
|42. Salinicola halophilus||CG4.1T||Solar saltern, south-east Spain|
|43. S. salarius||M27T||Saline water, Korea|
Note: Species shaded in grey indicates that the LuxI homolog has been detected by PCR.
Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 was cultured at 30 °C in LB medium supplemented with 2.5 mM CaCl2 and 2.5 mM MgSO4 (LB/MC) and containing 50 µg kanamycin per mL . Agrobacterium tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4) was cultured at 30 °C in LB medium supplemented with 2.5 mM CaCl2 and 2.5 mM MgSO4 (LB/MC), in MGM minimal medium (11 g Na2HPO4, 3 g KH2PO4, 0.5 g NaCl, 1 g glutamate, 10 g mannitol, 1 mg biotin, 27.8 mg CaCl2 and 246 mg MgSO4 per litre) containing 50 µg gentamycin per ml, and in AB medium [44,55].
Extraction and detection of AHLs. AHL molecules were extracted following the technique described in our previous studies [56,57]. Briefly, 20 mL cultures were grown until the early stationary phase (optical density of approximately 2.8 at 600 nm) and then extracted twice with equal volumes of dichloromethane. The extracts were dried and suspended in 40 μL of 70% v/v methanol.
To detect AHLs, an overnight culture of one of the AHL indicator strains [Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 or Agrobacterium tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4)] was diluted 1:100 in 5ml of the corresponding medium and poured onto LB/MC and AB supplemented with 80 μg of 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactopyranoside (X-Gal) per ml agar plates. Once the plates were dry, paper disks 5 mm in diameter were placed onto them and the AHL samples applied. The assay plates were incubated overnight at 32 °C to allow the indicator organisms to grow and surround the paper disks with either purple or blue haloes.
Thin-layer chromatography analysis of AHLs. To characterize the AHLs, the samples were subjected to analytical and preparative thin-layer chromatography (TLC). AHL samples and standards were spotted onto a TLC plate and developed with 70% v/v methanol in water. The plate was air-dried and overlaid with top agar containing the A. tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4) indicator strain before being incubated at 32 °C. For the A. tumefaciens NTL4 (pZLR4) overlay, a 6–8 h culture in MGM medium was mixed with an equal volume of fresh medium, 1.5% w/v Bacto Agar and 80 μg of X-Gal per mL .
The standard AHLs used were: N-(β-ketocaproyl)-dl-homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C6-HSL), N-hexanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C6-HSL), N-octanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C8-HSL) and N-decanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C10-HSL) (Sigma®).
Chromosomal DNA extraction, autoinducer synthase gene amplification and sequencing. Chromosomal DNA was isolated and purified according to Marmur's protocol , modified by Martín-Platero and co-workers . The purified DNA was dissolved in 50 μL doubly distilled water and checked by agarose gel electrophoresis An internal segment of the autoinducer synthase gene was amplified from approximately 100 ng of chromosomal DNA by using the primers luxI-F: 5'-GGGAGATATATACTGTAA-3' and luxI-R: 5'-TGAGGTATTATTCTGCAA-3'. These primers were designed to target a highly conserved region of the hanI autoinducer synthase gene of Halomonas anticariensis FP35T. The hanI gene is about 645 bp and the primer pair amplified approximately 386 bp of the conserved active site of the enzyme which contains the three conserved amino acids Arg71 (R71), Glu101 (E101) and Arg104 (R104) . PCR entailed 30 cycles of 30 s at 95 °C, 30 s at 50 °C and 30 s at 72 °C. The annealing temperature was determined by PCR with a temperature gradient from 40 °C to 60 °C. All of the PCRs were run in a T100TM thermal cycler (Bio-Rad).
The PCR fragments were purified and sequenced with luxI-F or luxI-R primers using a BigDye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit in an ABI 3100 DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems). The DNA sequences thus obtained were analysed using a BLAST search of the GenBank database to align homologous regions of autoinducer synthase gene sequences from different isolates.
Phylogenetic analysis. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using version 4 of the MEGA (Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis) software after multiple alignments of the data by CLUSTALW and the alignments were checked manually. Distances and clustering were determined according to the neighbour-joining method and bootstrap values were measured on the basis of 1,000 replications.
Nucleotide sequence accession number. The autoinducer synthase DNA sequences reported here have been deposited in the GenBank database under accession numbers from KC244227 to KC244255.
Screening for AHL signal molecules in 43 species belonging to the Halomonadaceae family revealed that the AHL-QS system is widespread within this group of bacteria. We did however find diversity within the AHL-profile signalling molecules produced by the different genera, and even between the molecules produced by different species from the same genus. Such variety would seem to be consistent with the ecological, physiological, metabolic and taxonomic diversity among them. The role of QS signalling in these extremophilic microorganisms remains to be elucidated and further work needs to be done to explore this bacterial cell-cell communication process in the multispecies communities.
This research was supported by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science (CGL2008-02399/BOS; AGL2009-07656), the Andalucian Government Council for Education, Science and Business (P07-CVI-03150) and from the Andalucian Research Project. Ali Tahrioui was supported by a postgraduate grant from the Junta de Andalucía. We thank our colleague Rafael de la Haba of the University of Seville for providing some of the type strains used in this work and J. Trout for revising and editing our English text.
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© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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The Accuracy of Diagrams in Mathematics and Science Education
Kidman, Gillian C. (2003) The Accuracy of Diagrams in Mathematics and Science Education. In Dhindsa, Harkirat S., Bee, Lim S., & Achleitner, Peter (Eds.) Studies in Science, Mathematics and Technical Education. University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam, pp. 126-134.
Impact and interest:
Citation counts are sourced monthly from and citation databases.
These databases contain citations from different subsets of available publications and different time periods and thus the citation count from each is usually different. Some works are not in either database and no count is displayed. Scopus includes citations from articles published in 1996 onwards, and Web of Science® generally from 1980 onwards.
Citations counts from theindexing service can be viewed at the linked Google Scholar™ search.
|Item Type:||Book Chapter|
|Keywords:||Mathematics Curriculum Materials, Science Curriculum Materials, Mathematics Diagrams, Science Diagrams, Diagram Accuracy|
|Subjects:||Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification > EDUCATION (130000) > CURRICULUM AND PEDAGOGY (130200) > Mathematics and Numeracy Curriculum and Pedagogy (130208)
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification > EDUCATION (130000) > CURRICULUM AND PEDAGOGY (130200) > Science Technology and Engineering Curriculum and Pedagogy (130212)
|Divisions:||Current > QUT Faculties and Divisions > Faculty of Education|
|Copyright Owner:||Copyright 2003 University Brunei Darussalam|
|Deposited On:||25 Sep 2007|
|Last Modified:||29 Feb 2012 13:00|
Repository Staff Only: item control page
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Path To Competence
SI in sound reinforcement systems lends itself to scientific investigation. There is science behind the sound. I outlined the required skill set earlier in this article. How do you get there?
Fortunately you have more options that I did nearly 30 years ago. Trying to glean this stuff out of textbooks is challenging, to say the least. Synergetic Audio Concepts offers some resources to shorten the learning curve. These include:
Web-based Training Programs
Our “Sound Reinforcement for Designers” web-based training was developed with the speech intelligibility professional in mind. It covers basic room acoustics, loudspeaker directivity, and how to measure and predict SI.
It doesn’t replace product-specific training, such as for a room modeling program or measurement system. What it will do is help you use these tools more effectively. You can find a complete description at www.synaudcon.com.
SynAudCon will hold the Emergency Communication System Speech Intelligibility Workshop on January 3-5, 2013. This event brings together leaders from the various fields that comprise SI, including measurement, prediction and code compliance.
Figure 3 - Speech intelligibility can be measured with instrumentation. This app measures the Speech Transmission Index for PA Systems (STI-PA). Credit: Embedded Acoustics
(click to enlarge)
It will also include active demonstrations, panel discussions and presentation of the results of a number of SI studies of loudspeaker types, rooms and measurement systems done specifically for this workshop. It is a one-time event and space is limited.
Knowledge gained about SI will apply to every sound system that you design or modify, not just those that might be used as an emergency communication system (ECS). My approach to a sound system design is to first design for SI. This necessitates loudspeaker selection and placement that assures a dominant direct field level in the speech octave bands at all listeners. If the system will also be used for music, its bandwidth can be extended accordingly.
The natural law of the universe dictates a progression from order to disorder. You can’t unscramble eggs. Design for speech first, since speech systems have more stringent sound energy ratio requirements than music systems.
My sound system design disaster from the 1980s may have been the best thing that ever happened to my audio career. It made me aware of viewing sound system design as a science rather than as an art. This, in turn led me into the world of acoustical measurement instrumentation.
While our tools of yesteryear pale in capability when compared to those available today, the principles governing their use have not changed at all. Direct your training endeavors toward concepts that are timeless. These will be around long after today’s latest, greatest mixer finds a permanent home in a museum.
Pat & Brenda Brown lead SynAudCon, conducting audio seminars and workshops online and around the world. For more information go to www.prosoundtraining.com.
SynAudCon is now offering “Audio Applications – System Optimization & EQ” as web-based training. Click the link to see the related article.
More Church Sound articles by Pat Brown on PSW:
How To Illuminate The Audience With Beautiful, Consistent Audio Coverage
Proper Loudspeaker Placement: How To Avoid Lobes and Nulls
Ten Reasons Why Church Sound Systems Cost More
What Makes A Quality Loudspeaker?
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Many children with dyslexia aren’t diagnosed until they reach third grade and have shown ongoing difficulty with reading. But by that time, the best window for improving their reading skills through educational intervention has already closed.
“You have to fail. You have to be unable to learn to read over several years before you get a diagnosis,” said Nadine Gaab, a researcher at Boston Children’s Hospital. “That has really strong psychological implications, like low self-esteem. Kids think, ‘I’m stupid.’ ”
New research at Children’s, however, shows that kids with a strong family history of dyslexia have noticeable differences in key brain structures from the time they’re infants.
That finding, published in the journal Cerebral Cortex in December, could help change the way educators and parents treat kids with a risk of dyslexia, said Gaab, who co-led the study. “If it’s dyslexia, it’s there early. You’re born with it, and it does not get better if you wait until third grade,” she said.
The research builds off of previous studies that used MRI scans to show that kids with dyslexia risk have differences in regions of their brain at around 5 years old, before they are readers.
In the newest phase, Gaab and her colleagues went even younger, with kids 1 year and younger. They also used an MRI technique that could isolate particular structures in the brain.
In kids who had a parent or older sibling with dyslexia, which gives them a 50 percent chance of having dyslexia themselves, the researchers found noticeable differences in the fibers that connect two key language-processing centers of the brain.
Insight into brain function wasn’t the only useful lesson for the Children’s researchers. They also got really good at coaxing notoriously squirmy infants into a big, loud, intimidating MRI machine, which can only return useful images if the patient lies nearly motionless.
The key, it turns out, is naptime. Parents were told to make their way to the MRI session two hours before the baby’s best naptime, giving them enough cushion to get everything in place before the tykes started nodding off.
“The first 10 or 12 miserably failed,” Gaab said. “We were joking that we got really good at putting other people’s babies to sleep. Not so much ours.”
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April 27, 2007
This wide field image of the Horsehead region near the bright star Alnitak in the belt of Orion was taken from the New Forest Observatory, Brockenhurst, England. It was processed by Noel Carboni. The Horsehead Nebula is at center -- click on for a large view. This photo results from a continuing international internet collaboration for the creation of high resolution deep-sky images. The region of space where the Horsehead Nebula is found is quite unique in that it has all of the major types of nebulae; the blue reflection nebulae, the Horsehead Nebula itself (a dark nebula that indeed resembles a horse's head), and behind the Horsehead is the deep red emission nebula (ionised hydrogen -- emitting light at 656 nm. This is possibly the most photographed region of the Heavens - and with good reason.
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Oversee exhibits at a museum or art gallery.
1) Teacher* — More specifically, you would probably be a Paleontology Professor at the university level. Teaching is the most common job for Paleontologists, and it will allow you to share your knowledge of biology, geology, climate, and other scientific topics.
2) Research Specialist — Research is the main component of most jobs in the paleontology field. You’ll spend your day digging in the dirt and taking your finds back to the lab for analysis.
3) Museum Curator* — There are a handful of museums across the nation that have large enough exhibits to necessitate a Paleontologist on staff. This job allows you to inform audiences about the exhibits, locate and acquire new finds, and consult with people who present their own ancient discoveries.
4) Prospector* — Yep, just like the old days, you can use your skills to help oil companies find their next reservoir. Using your geological know-how and some scientific equipment, you quickly assess whether an area has loads of oil beneath the surface.
5) Specialty Environmental Monitor* — This title may not be on every job board, but it’s a rewarding position that allows you to put your paleontology degree to good use. Your responsibilities include monitoring the activities of construction crews on specific projects to make sure they adhere to environmental compliance policies.
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Somatic Space - Soft Space Concept
human skin. composed through a layering of cells identical yet varying based upon interconnectedness to larger cellular structures. human skin becomes responsive to the external envi- ronment. constant changes + variations. flexibility. acts as regu- lator of temperature, sensation, responsiveness to itself + its surroundings. somatic space. derived from a singular manufac- tured unit [cell]. somatic cells relate to the walls of the human body. interconnected within the human nervous system, regu- lates voluntary movements. created through differentiation. the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more reac- tive specialized cell structure. this singular cell allows for endless variations. regulated yet boundless by its design this single manufactured unit allows a single person to begin to shape space. a responsive space. manipulation. a malleable cell structure is created from a singular unit. the weight of the structure plays the role of defining its boundary. its layering allows for variation of space to be created. the user can create a hard enclosing boundary or a boundary less defined. can allow sight, sound and the potential for human interaction on opposing sides of the structure. a single solitary somatic cell becomes a space defining component.
Status: School Project
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Fenianism was the name given to the Irish Republican
Brotherhood (IRB). It is the English version of the Gaelic
'Na Fianna', a term which refers to the ancient protectors
of the Ard Ri (High King). The IRB was formed in 1858 in
Ireland, with a mandate to create a free and independent
Ireland. In North America the IRB was led by John O'Mahony,
a veteran of the 1848 Irish insurrection. Membership in the
USA included thousands of Irish Brigade, Union and
Confederate army veterans.
In October of 1865 at a
convention in Philadelphia, USA, John O'Mahony lost his
dictatorship over the IRB. William Randall Roberts of New
York (born in Cork) was elected Chief Executive of the
Senate. Cork born Major-General 'Fighting Tom' Sweeny of the
Mexican War and American Civil War fame was appointed
Secretary of War. Attending the convention, and claiming to
represent 125,000 British North American members, was
Michael Murphy of Toronto. The seed was planted at this
meeting to strike Great Britain's Achilles' heel. Sweeny was
charged with developing a plan to secure an independent
territory for Ireland where an ‘Irish Republic in exile’
would be established and used as a bargaining chip to free
Ireland, similar to what was done in Texas by the USA.
Sweeny devised a plan which
involved three striking forces. One was to be led by
Brigadier Charles Tevis whose 3,000 men would assemble in
Chicago and advance to Stratford (between Detroit/Windsor
and Toronto). Another 5,000 men would be led by Brigadier
William F. Lynch and would cross in two groups. One from
Cleveland to Port Stanley joining the first at London (Upper
Canada - Ontario). The other, crossing at Buffalo to secure
Hamilton. These two forces would create a threat to Toronto,
the capital of British North America, causing the
British to send all their forces to the area in defense.
Information gathered by the IRB suggested there were 8,000
regular and 20,000 militia men in Upper and Lower Canada
(Ontario and Quebec).
While this distraction was
underway the Irish and French of Montreal would destroy the
railway at St. Ann's Bridge thus eliminating the return of
troops. The real threat would be led by Brigadier Samuel P.
Spear. His 16,800 men would attack Lower Canada. Brigadier
Michael C. Murphy would lead his cavalry to take Cornwall
and Prescott then move east to threaten Montreal. The
Montreal Irish would rise to support them and French
radicals would supply fresh horses which were in shortage
since the American Civil War. They would then seize
Pointe Levis opposite Quebec City. Fenian warships would
then sail in to seal the St. Lawrence River. If Montreal and
Quebec could not be taken Spear was to secure the area
between the Richelieu and St. Francis Rivers.
Sherbrooke would be established as their capital.
While plans were in final
stages, Roberts (Chief Executive of the IRB) had a meeting
with US President Andrew Johnson. It is said that the
president agreed to "recognize the accomplished
facts". The President ordered the release of prisoner
John Mitchel, who had connections with the French Republic
government and whom the IRB could make use of to raise money
in France. Mitchel departed in November as the IRB's
Ambassador to France.
Sweeny's plans were approved by
the IRB senate on February 19th, 1866 in Pittsburgh.
Following this event, a bitter O'Mahony made and carried out
his own plan of attack in an attempt to regain his lost
control of the IRB. A force of 1,000 Fenians led by Bernard
Doran Killian entered New Brunswick from Calais and
Eastport, Maine, to seize the island of Campobello.
Informers had tipped the British off weeks before and they
were ready. The battle was short and the Fenians utterly
defeated. The British thought this was the main
"raid" that was being hinted of by others and
believed the threat was over. This was the 19th of April
The real event was scheduled
for Thursday, 31 May 1866 and new problems arose. On the
scheduled day, only 1,000 to 5,000 men could be assembled at
Buffalo. Their leader Brigadier Lynch was afflicted with a
fever and could not partake. Sweeny telegraphed an order for
Lynch's adjutant, Colonel Sherwin to go to Buffalo and take
command, but he could not arrive until late in the day of
June 1st. Sweeny then ordered Hynes to appoint the
senior officer as acting Brigadier and commence the attack.
Colonel's John Hoy of the 7th Reg't of Buffalo, Owen Starr
of the 17th Reg't of Louisville, John Grace of the 18th
Reg't of Cleveland and John O'Neill of the 13th Reg't of
Nashville were present. Co. Monaghan born John O'Neill was
the senior officer and took command.
On the 1st of June, at 3:15 in
the morning, Owen Starr (a cavalry officer) led his men
across the river and proceeded to Fort Erie to capture the
railroad depot. Their advance was detected and nine cars
were steamed away by four engines prior to their arrival.
They did take Fort Erie which was manned by only six members
of the Royal Canadian Rifles. Starr raised the tricolour,
the present day flag of the Irish Republic, at Fort Erie.
O'Neill's force was across by
dawn and busily setting up an HQ at Frenchman's Creek. He
took the day to rest his men, thus losing the element of
surprise. By 5:00 in the afternoon Hoy's men were detected
by military scouts near Chippewa.
Within a few hours the British
had 400 regular troops, 6 field guns and 1,115 militia men
dispatched. On the following day, June 2nd, they were joined
by 1,000 men from Port Colborne in Stevensville. Another 100
men from the Welland Canal Field Battery and the Dunnville
Naval Brigade took a tug around Fort Erie to cut off any
possiblility of a Fenian retreat across the Niagara River.
At 3:00 in the morning of June
3rd, O'Neill's troops were on the move towards Port Colborne.
A battle ensued a few miles north of Ridgeway. O'Neill
prepared an ambush. Starr's men were to begin the conflict
and retreat, drawing the British into the trap. The firing
began at 8:00 AM with 10 companies of the Queen's Own
Rifles. They saw the scouts, heard a bugle call and expected
cavalry, so they formed squares. O'Neill had his men fix
bayonets and screaming "Fág an Bealach!"
("Clear the way!"), they charged on foot. The
British retreated all they way to Port Colborne chased
partway by Starr.
The Battle of Ridgeway - 3rd June 1866Casualties:
16 killed, 2 dying later of wounds, 2 dead by heat stroke,
74 wounded, 6 captured from the Queens Own Rifles, Caledonia
Rifles, 13th Battalion, York Rifles and the 2nd Battalion.
IRA* - 5 killed, 2
dying later of wounds, and 17 wounded.
( * The Fenian Raiders were the
first to introduce the term Irish Republican Army or IRA
which was prominently displayed on their uniform buttons)
O'Neill once again rested while
the British forces at Stevensville rose to 101 officers and
1,841 men. At the same time Lt.Gen. U.S.Grant was in Buffalo
closing the border preventing Sherwin's 4,000 Fenian troops
from crossing and supporting O'Neill. The Welland Field
Battery and Dunnville Naval Brigade took Fort Erie back.
They were then confronted by Hoy's men, retreating to Fort
Erie and the Fort change hands once again after the IRA Lt.
Col Michael Bailey had been shot under a white flag of
truce! Lt .Col. Stoughton Dennis who was in Command of the
British forces had later faced a court martial for cowardice
and desertion but was exonerated.
By the evening of June 2nd,
O'Neill was surrounded by approximately 5,000 British
troops. This was when O'Neill discovered that he was the
only mobile force, no other Fenian forces had entered Upper
Canada! Tevis hadn't even attempted, making excuses for
delaying, until it was too late. Sherwin had been stopped by
Grant on the US side. O'Neill began his retreat by barge
across the Niagara River at 2:00 on the morning of June 3rd
1866. He was intercepted and arrested by the Captain of the
American warship USS Harrison.
Many prisoners were tried in
Toronto, 22 were sentenced to death. John O'Neill and his
officers faced charges of violations of the neutrality laws
at the Erie County Courthouse in NY. They were found guilty
and sentenced. Subsequently when the "smoke
cleared" they were released.
On the 6th of June, General
Spear took advantage of the disorder in Upper Canada and
gave the order for his men to cross into Lower Canada.
Brigadier Michael C. Murphy advanced 15 miles into Lower
Canada before being driven back. Spear led his 2,000 men
from St. Albans to Frelighsburgh, St. Armand, Slab City and
East Stanbridge. On Friday the 8th of June Col. Michael
Scalan's regiment defeated the British forces at Pigeon
The promised rising of the
Irish in Montreal did not happen due to the strength of the
regular British forces present who were joined by 10,000
militia men and 3 warships in the harbour with their guns
aimed at the Fenians. On June 9th, 1866, Spear retreated.
Lt. Col. Livingston of the US 3rd Artillery Reg't gave the
British permission to cross the border to capture the
retreating Fenians. Some were run through with swords while
he looked on. Mrs. Eccles of Vermont was accidentally shot
and killed by a British soldier while she was standing on
her doorstep. US citizens were outraged and Livingston was
subsequently reprimanded for allowing a violation of US
All battles ceased and 5,166
Fenian troops were paroled in Buffalo by the 15th of June
O'Neill, the hero of the Battle
of Ridgeway, was later elected President of the Senate of
the IRB and attempted yet another crossing at Prescott in
1870 but failed. Yet again he made an offer to Louis Riel
(fighter for the rights of the Metis in Manitoba and
descendant of an Irishman (O')Rielly) at Red River and this
failed also. O'Neill retired to a town on Elkhorn River
which was named after him: O'Neill, Nebraska.
Some little known facts:
1. Not all the men
that comprised the Fenian IRA were Irish. Records show that
they were accompanied by 500 Mohawk Indians from the
Cattaraugus Reservation in New York and one company of 100
African American veteran soldiers of the Union Army.
2. On the 6th of
June, US President Johnson made a deal with the British,
having received $15,000,000 reparation payment for losses
incurred during the American Civil War as a result of the
British partiality to the South. In return the US passed
neutrality laws and would enforce them on the Fenians. He
had successfully used the Fenians as a political bargaining
The Fenians had been used as a
pawn by the American government and had terribly
underestimated the strength of the British (Canadian)
forces. Present history refers to the attempt as
"foolish" and to their leader, O'Neill, as "a
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3/12/2006 Houston-- A new exhibit showcases evolving theories that suggest dinosaurs may still fly among us. The latest scientific findings indicate that they were more closely related to birds than to giant lizards. The new special exhibition "Dinosaurs: Ancient Fossils, New Discoveries" shatters preconceived notions of these ancient beasts. The exhibit will be on display at the Houston Museum of Natural Science from March 10 through July 30, 2006.
"This remarkable exhibition will give visitors a chance to see how new discoveries often compel us to re-evaluate what we think we know, sometimes with quite surprising results, "said Joel A. Bartsch, president of the Houston Museum of Natural Science.
The exhibit showcases the latest breakthroughs in paleontology and the cutting-edge technology scientists are using to reinterpret many of the puzzling prehistoric mysteries of these complex creatures. Through a combination of recent major fossil finds, the exhibit utilizes computer simulations and provocation life-size models. This groundbreaking special exhibition radically shifts long-held perceptions of what dinosaurs looked like, their behavior, and not when or how, but whether they became extinct at all.
The evolutionary link between birds and dinosaurs is explored through a fossil that has been called the Rosetta Stone of paleontology - a Bambiraptor feinbergi that is the best-preserved and most complete dinosaur found in North America; a cast of a newly discovered fossil that exhibits both downy fluff and primitive feathers; and numerous recently discovered fossils of prehistoric environment ever built.
New conceptions of the movement capabilities of dinosaurs are also explored through multiple computer interactives that showcase the latest technology. Dinosaur behavior is also explored through prehistoric footprints that demonstrate herding patterns. Tickets for "Dinosaurs: Ancient Fossils, New Discoveries" are $15 for adults, Seniors, Students, Kids $10. Houston Museum of Natural Science members pay $7. Call 713-639-4629 for more information.
Contributed by Dixie Frantz.
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Viewers and amateur astronomers in the northern US may be treated to a special event tonight and tomorrow night. The sun recently emitted a solar flare in the Earth's direction.
While this has been quite rare lately, this one is poised to put on quite a light show in the Earth's upper atmosphere. When the charged particles from this solar flare reach the Earth, their energy is turned into light by the Earth's upper atmosphere. We know these as the aurora borealis.
So tonight (August 3rd) and tomorrow (August 4th), look high in the sky at dusk and into the night to see a possible aurora display in your town! Current estimates are a 45% chance of activity with a 10% chance of significant geomagnetic activity. Pretty good odds considering!
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A voxel is a 3d pixel, a point in space with a color. Graphics cards do not support them but they're so simple that even with just the CPU they are drawn on screen fast enough. Voxels are like the corners between polygons, except theres no polygons between them.
I'm not here to argue the advantages of voxels over polygons as that debate has gone on for many years and polygons are usually used instead.
This is about a new kind of voxel which is less about graphics quality and more about intelligent patterns of movements of colors and shapes. Its about how colors flow between the voxels which each know a few other voxels they're near and that distance.
At any one time, there are some set of voxels on screen, each with a color, an amount of red, green, and blue, so a voxel is 6 dimensional, x y and z position and 3 for color.
Of the 3 color dimensions, or really all we need is 1 color for a proof of concept of Prediction Voxels, every voxel predicts the color of near voxels and is rewarded or punished based on the accuracy of those predictions. Waves of color will flow this way similar to brainwaves.
This space of voxels and flowing intelligent waves of color is 1 space for the whole Internet and can run on a simple peer to peer routing protocol needing no user accounts or management or maintenence of any kind.
Each pair of connected computers simply exchanges information about some set of voxels they have in common and chooses to continue that connection only if it predicts more accurately than other connections. Each computer would keep maybe the best 4 connections at any one time.
The system would be low bandwidth and efficient because positions and colors (and numbers as names of specific voxels), can all be represented as small binary numbers depending on how many digits of accuracy are needed, and because its designed from the start to be purely a prediction system at all levels (down to single voxel/variable predictions of eachother), compression happens automatically simply because evolved forms that store less data to predict the same accuracy have spent less computing resources, are rewarded/punished for that positively, and therefore the representation of whatever forms we build the voxel networks into will converge toward more efficient representations.
It sounds complex but all you really need is a simulated money system, like Ripple flows agreement of debt based on trust between each pair of friends in a social network, which can be calculated as efficiently as any other variable in realtime locally in memory of each computer and between computers. Money is a number that allows evolved forms in this system to consume cpu, memory, and other resources, to build more evolved forms with the voxels and code they contain.
Voxels must be able to contain some kind of code that runs in a sandbox. We only need the most basic abilities like list, hashtable, plus, minus, multiply, divide, pointers to other voxels, and a few standard AI algorithms like neural activation functions and bayesian networks at the same small granularity. In that way, this peer to peer network of a global Prediction Voxel space would be a cloud computing platform with Ripple-like money built in at a small enough granularity we can use it as a replacement for AI scoring systems. Bitcoin, for example, has an ability to pay the network to run arbitrary code in a simple language written into the block chain, but Bitcoin is far too complex to attract the practical use of it for cloud computing. Instead, Prediction Voxels would calculate in smaller amounts of money and without security so its efficient enough to use like any other variable. As long as the network of computers can agree approximately which groups of voxels and Internet addresses have contributed more or less to prediction accuracy, high security on those variables counting such contributions costs more than its worth. Lets do the simplest thing that will work.
It would be a massively multiplayer game. Each person sees some voxels moving on their screen and flowing colors in intelligent patterns (sometimes like brainwaves) and can interact that way or go deeper and write AI code into specific voxels to define how they interact with other voxels, and that AI code could spread depending on how much Ripple-like money those voxels earn by their accurate predictions of the colors of near voxels.
Prediction adds real value in any system, in a simulation or the real economy, and these parts of the world flow together when prediction ability of one system becomes advanced enough to compete.
People could use the Prediction Voxel system as their job, to contribute their brain power to the cloud to predict whatever patterns others put in and cause to have high payments for predictions of.
Like Bitcoin, the approximate money system would have to be backed by something thats hard to create but easy to verify. Bitcoin uses a "proof of work" which is a huge calculation any computer can do, finding a number whose secure-hash starts with a large number of zeros for example, and that is done as a competition to strengthen the security of the newest root block in the chain. Prediction Voxels don't need to complicate it that far. They only need proof that some large calculation was done on any data in the system, which most computers in the network would agree to accept as the idea "I did all this useless calculating so please take me seriously and accept this data instead of assuming I'm just another spammer trying to contact a large number of computers and spread large data at low cost to myself." A computer could, for example, only accept connections from other computers which waste 3 seconds doing such a "proof of work", which would prevent the ability for Denial Of Service attacks and change the economics of how much prediction is practical to do before choosing who to attempt connecting to next. Theres many things it could be used to throttle and fine tune the value of.
The data structures would be very simple. A voxel at any one time has a list of near voxels sorted by distance. Each voxel also has a software written in the scripting language of this cloud, which defines its behaviors in terms of these simple data structures. A voxel could be programmed to explore the network of other voxels through their lists and find groups of higher density, where more of them in the group connect to eachother, or to find certain patterns of colors or shapes in the distances between other voxels, or any arbitrary thing the Prediction Voxel economy may evolve toward paying the evolved forms to do.
At the core this global economy exists to do only 1 thing: predict the color of near voxels more accurately than other near voxels do, so the predictor wins money from them instead of losing it to them. Its a gambling system where every prediction can lose or gain you money and the smartest voxels reproduce and evolve.
My question to you all is how could such a system be designed so the economy that forms in it can practically be used to evolve the voxel shapes and flowing colors toward a kind of AI dream space where the patterns we draw with each of our mouse (and other game controllers or EEG devices for example) will navigate through the dream space of possible patterns of flowin colors and shapes? How can we build this idea of Prediction Voxels, incredibly simple at the core, into an economy that evolves into a global competition between AIs and people to predict the dream space more accurately? Unlike Wall Street, can we find a practical way for those half billion people starving to use their brains to amplify the prediction ability of the cloud and strengthen the global economy? What details of this very simple design would evolve into such a competition of who can dream the best in the shared 3d space? Wearing an Emotiv Epoc or OpenEEG game controller, can we obsolete half of all jobs and instead dream our intelligence into the Internet? Why should we need something more complex than voxels which know what other voxels they're near and predict eachother's colors as gambling? If businesses are the unit of calculation of the world as it is today, is it not a trivially easy competition to obsolete them by reducing that granularity to the voxel level, like stock market investing for every bit on the Internet would be a better way to organize the world? I think it would work, but theres so many ways to screw up by adding unnecessary complexity. Einstein said "Make things as simple as possible but not simpler." Can we build it as a cloud computing language for only Prediction Voxels and Ripple-like numbers as their money, and let the global economy build the game world on those few lines of code?
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In 1960, Pinchas Porat, an enthusiastic young volunteer on his first archeological dig, helped uncover some of the most important relics ever found from the Second Revolt of Jews against the Romans in A.D. 132. Porat, who died in 2002, later became a faculty member in biblical history and archeology at the Jerusalem Center for Biblical Studies. He also directed several excavations, including the 1994 Bethsaida dig near the Sea of Galilee, considered one of Israel's priceless sites. In this interview, conducted during NOVA's dig at the Cave of Letters some 40 years after his finds there, Porat fondly reminisces about his team's discoveries and explains the importance of the 1960 expedition to its legendary leader, Israeli archeologist Yigael Yadin, and to the people of Israel.
A reason to dig
NOVA: You weren't an archeologist at the time of the 1960 expedition. How did you become involved?
Porat: There had been a lot of talk about the expedition as well as advertisements in the newspapers and on the radio asking for volunteers to help out on an excavation in the Judean desert. A large number of people volunteered and I was among them. It was my first archeological dig, although I'd been interested in archeology since childhood.
NOVA: Why was this dig such a major event at the time?
Porat: The whole legacy of the history of Israel was at stake. Israel had been founded only 12 years earlier, in 1948, but the heritage of its people is ancient. We have very few surviving personal artifacts from Israeli antiquity, and there has always been a drive to find more. Furthermore, the majority of documents, scrolls, or books which Bedouin tribes previously excavated they immediately sold to the Jordanian government, even though it was clear that the Bedouin often conducted searches within Israel's pre-1967 borders. At the time, Jordan owned almost all the important written materials that had been discovered, and Israelis desperately wanted to learn which of these precious documents had been found inside Israel and were thus legitimately theirs.
NOVA: How would the 1960 expedition help Israel make a claim to the Bedouin finds?
Porat: What would happen during these Bedouin missions is that if they found anything with writing on it, which they knew was the most valuable kind of artifact, they would scrutinize it right there. They would handle it, crumple it, look at it upside down—they were quite coarse with it—and little pieces of these documents would break off. What the archeologists on our expedition were hoping for was to sift through the earth and find these little fragments. If they could piece them to the documents that the Bedouin sold to Jordan—even the slightest, smallest fragment—then we would know where those reunited documents came from and to whom they belonged.
NOVA: Why was the Judean desert pinpointed as the destination for the expedition?
Porat: The Israeli government had heard rumors that a group of Bedouin had discovered some scrolls on an earlier expedition to a group of caves in the Judean desert. The Bedouin had not retrieved them; they had only seen them at a distance by lamplight, tucked away in the crevices of some rocks. A Jordanian man who claimed to have witnessed this find approached the government and offered to lead an expedition of Israelis back to the cave where they would apparently be able to find these scrolls. He offered his services for the princely sum of one million dollars. Israeli officials didn't really believe him so they refused his offer, but there was some excitement generated. They decided to organize their own Israeli expedition to four different locations in the Judean desert.
NOVA: Paint a picture of the camp you were assigned to on the dig.
Porat: I was put in the northernmost camp, camp number four, which was Yigael Yadin's camp. Yadin was a trained archeologist, a military leader, a politician, though not a very successful one, and he was a great man. Every night, after everyone had cleaned himself up and eaten dinner, we were invited into Yadin's tent, where he would read to us from his books, lecture us, and teach us. It was quite an experience, especially for me as a young person.
“I figured somebody would come looking for me if I didn’t come out.”
Camp four was chosen for exploration because the areas above and opposite it had been Roman army camps. If the Romans had built siege camps there, across from and overlooking these desert caves, there must have been people—Jews—in those caves whom they were guarding. That was the logic of the dig site.
The unlikeliest places
NOVA: And what were your duties on the mission?
Porat: On the first day of excavations, I was given the task of searching for new, undiscovered caves. I worked with several soldiers from the Israeli army along the western escarpment above the Dead Sea and En-gedi. We found nothing. The second day, I was assigned to the caves. I was told to go along the sides of the caves and check for entrances to unseen chambers. When I crawled into the last room of what became known as the Cave of Letters, Room C, I was working my way slowly along its walls when I found a crack, a crevice in the rock. I decided to go in.
NOVA: This was your first day in the caves. It didn't bother you to just go right into this crevice?
Porat: I figured somebody would come looking for me if I didn't come out. It was very difficult for me to squeeze my way in because I was a little overweight; I always have been. I had to push my way in really forcefully, and I tumbled down into the opening on the other side of the crack. When I sat up and shined my lantern around, I saw baskets filled with objects that looked like round-bottomed jars. I picked one up and when I turned it over—aaaaaaaaah!—it was a skull. It was rather scary to be stuck down there alone and to stumble upon a crevice full of skulls. But I was very excited, almost hysterical. I searched around a little more and discovered fabric mats, other textiles, bones, and many skulls, some with lots of dark red hair on them. Then I crawled out and called everyone over.
NOVA: What did you think you had found?
Porat: Before I realized the objects were skulls I thought I had found a storeroom for jars. Then, of course, I realized that it was a tomb of some sort. At the time I hadn't studied very much yet and I didn't know about the Greco-Roman custom of secondary burial. If I had made the same discovery a few years later, I would have immediately recognized that these 17 people had died and been buried in the ground for a limited time. Their bodies had decomposed in the ground and then later their skeletons were carefully exhumed and their skulls were transferred to the baskets. Their bones were laid out on textile shrouds next to the baskets. Traditionally, a second burial would take place in an ossuary, a limestone burial box. But an ossuary might not have been available to the cave dwellers who lived there, hence the baskets. Or perhaps they had plans to move the remains again when they left the cave. We can't be sure.
NOVA: What was the significance of the find for you and for Yadin?
Porat: The most important aspect of this discovery, especially on the expedition's second day, was to prove that the Bedouin had not completely looted the cave and that there was still a reason to explore it. That was Yadin's goal: to prove that there were items hidden there that had remained undiscovered for almost 2,000 years. We just had to look for them. And that's what made the discovery so energizing.
“We dug and dug more and were ready to give up. Suddenly we found a piece of rope.”
The discovery of the Niche of Skulls also proved that whoever lived in those caves was probably there for a long time—long enough to wait for their dead to decompose before giving them a secondary burial. It added to the story of the people who lived in the caves. It gave us another window into how they lived and how they died there.
NOVA: The Niche of Skulls was not your only big discovery on the dig. What else did you find?
Porat: One day during the second week of excavations, the engineering corps of the army brought a metal detector into the cave. I was assigned with a lady named Ada, an acquaintance of mine, to work with a soldier who knew how to work the metal detector. We went into a huge room where we'd previously found metal coins, and we began to check with the metal detector for more. It immediately gave off a very strong signal. It was telling us that a huge amount of metal was present. We began to dig with small hand tools such as trowels and hammers. We dug and dug. We soon realized that we were digging in a toilet. You can imagine what we were finding in there.
NOVA: It was a toilet?
Porat: It was a toilet! It was an ancient toilet that was now buried beneath lots of earth and stones that were thrown over it during other excavations. What we were finding were dried up remnants of human feces. It was not very pleasant.
NOVA: Why would a metal detector be going off in a toilet?
Porat: That's just what we were wondering. We had no idea why a metal detector would be going off in a toilet, so we decided that the detector must be broken. I'd worked in the Israeli army with metal detectors, so I knew that very often in those days their vacuum tubes often broke and the device would go out of order. The soldier agreed to take the metal detector apart and examine it. He checked it out and said it was working perfectly. "There's metal down there," he said. We dug and dug more and were ready to give up. Suddenly we found a piece of rope. We followed it down and continued uncovering the area. The rope was attached to the handles of a basket. When we took it out and untied the rope we discovered the 19 bronze vessels that are on exhibition in Jerusalem today.
Windows on the past
NOVA: Could Yadin and the other experts immediately identify the bronzes?
Porat: Yadin and the other archeologists there knew immediately that all but one of the bronzes were of Italian manufacture. We could see that there was pagan symbolism engraved on them, but it had been erased. That told us that they had probably been the property of Jews. Jews would buy vessels like those with pagan details on them and then erase them, because pagan symbolism and ideology conflicted with Jewish religious beliefs.
NOVA: Why do you think the vessels were buried there and whom do you think buried them?
Porat: People hiding in the cave left these personal objects there because they probably never got out alive. They either never got the chance to escape and take their belongings with them or possibly they surrendered, were sent into slavery, or were executed and left their possessions behind for safekeeping. We don't know exactly what befell them, but we can compare the Cave of Letters to the other caves where we found no personal items whatsoever left behind, just ancient garbage. Wherever they went, they took all their personal property with them. For the inhabitants of the Cave of Letters, the story ended differently.
NOVA: What about the documents the Yadin expedition turned up in the Cave of Letters?
Porat: They were a tremendous find. The documents literally defined the expedition. They are the reason we call this cave the Cave of Letters. The largest cache was the Babatha archive, which was not a collection of religious documents but a personal archive that imparts a tremendous amount of information on the everyday life of a woman named Babatha, who lived 2,000 years ago. Included among Babatha and her husband's documents were correspondence, birth certificates, wedding contracts, adoption papers, property deeds, and bills of purchase and sale, among other things. These kinds of everyday documents are very rarely discovered. We also found, of course, letters that the Jewish rebel leader Bar-Kokhba himself wrote and signed, an astonishingly valuable cache revealing details of the Second Revolt.
NOVA: Many different excavations have taken place in the Cave of Letters. Has everything been found that there is to find there?
Porat: I doubt that very much. I think there is still something to find, and I think there will be for the ones who come after and the ones who come after that. All of them will have something to find there. These caves are immense and there are many, many passageways. Who knows how many haven't yet even been discovered? So there will always be something to find. You would just need a little bit of luck.
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Arctic Scientists Send Vital Marine Species ‘Into the Future’
Published on 21.04.2010 - Catlin Arctic Survey - 2
From the HQ of the Catlin Arctic Survey : "Research into ocean acidification sees copepods exposed to levels of atmospheric CO2 forecast for the year 2100."
Scientists working at a remote Arctic Ice Base have begun experiments to determine how microscopic crustaceans, vital to the marine food chain, may respond to increasing levels of atmospheric CO2 absorption by our oceans.
The studies are being carried out as part of the 2010 Catlin Arctic Survey, an international collaboration that aims to understand how greenhouse gases are changing the chemistry of the seawater, leading to a phenomenon known as ocean acidification.
Ice Base Scientist Dr Ceri Lewis, from the University of Exeter, explains: "Within only a few decades, an increase in ocean acidity may cause seawater to become corrosive to the carbonate shells of the smaller marine creatures that are so abundant in our marine ecosystems, with potentially serious consequences for both them and the larger marine fish and mammals that rely on them for food."
"Here at the Ice Base we're running a series of experiments with copepods collected during special plankton trawls of the Arctic Ocean. We're seeing how they'll respond to pH levels expected in 100 and 300 years, according to predictions provided by the IPCCÂ (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). You might say we're sending them into the future!"
Copepods are of great ecological importance. They are one of the most numerous multi-cellular organisms in the water column, believed to contribute the biggest source of protein in our oceans and serving either directly, or indirectly, as food for most commercially important fish species. They also play a vital role in carbon transfer from surface waters down to the deeper waters of our oceans.
Since CO2 is more easily absorbed in cold water, the Arctic Ocean is likely to feel the effects of rising greenhouse gases sooner. As Dr Helen Findlay from Plymouth Marine Laboratory, who's working alongside Dr Lewis at the Ice Base, says, "It's early days for research into acidification in this part of the world, but our findings could act as an early warning system for changes across the globe."
The scientists have created small experimental aquaria in which the collected copepods have been placed and then maintained in a hole in the ice to keep them at seawater temperature. The acidity of the seawater has then been increased to the predicted levels using hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate, a method approved by EPOCA, a leading scientific consortium investigating ocean acidification. The effects of this change in acidity on the health of the copepods will then be measured both out at the ice base and then back in the laboratories in Exeter.
Survey Director, Pen Hadow, concludes: "The consensus amongst scientists is that the oceans are acidifying at an unprecedented rate. Investigating how these tiny organisms may respond in the coming years is vital to our understanding of how wider marine communities may be affected. It's just one strand of a survey that sees explorers and scientists working together to further understand a changing Arctic environment."
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http://www.explorapoles.org/news/detail/arctic_scientists_send_vital_marine_species_into_the_future
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Saturday 7th September, 2013
11:45am to 12:05pm
For the purpose of data quality evaluation OSM is almost always compared with reference datasets. However, these datasets are not always accessible due to the lack of availability, contradictory licensing restrictions or high procurement costs. An OSM-Full- History Dump can serve as an alternative source for quality evaluations. Using so-called intrinsic indicators the quality of OSM datasets can be assessed with the help of the data's history. We will present why and how the history of OSM objects matter and which tools were used. For this purpose, examples for selected cities around the world are analysed and compared with each other to reveal differences in terms of OSM data quality based on the history of the dataset's objects.
Sign in to add slides, notes or videos to this session
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http://lanyrd.com/2013/sotm/scphkr/
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Depending on your state's educational calendar, the annual dreaded mandatory testing has begun. For my 4th grade daughter, next week starts testing for us. She will take tests in writing, reading and math this year and is expected to score high enough to pass into 5th grade. Needless to say she is stressed and anxious.
As parents we know what the pressures of testing can do to a person. I recall feeling anxious, overwhelmed, nervous, I couldn't eat the day of the test, and this was all in college; never-mind the 4th grade. So anything I can do to help Olivia do her best on test day, I'm willing to do.
These are a few tips I've tried and they've helped greatly for Olivia. I encourage you to learn your child and come up with fun and relaxing activities to help you both be stress free on test day.
1. Cooking with REAL food
Yes, I know this may sound silly, but taking time to cook a real meal can help to relieve stress. On the week before the test, we plan for her to cook her favorite meal. We write down a list, plan our ingredients, read the directions and out comes a great (hopefully edible) meal. Without her knowing, we've practiced the skills she will need during test week; reading, writing and math through measuring. Allowing her to take the lead cooking also relieves some of the anxiety and reassures her that she can do anything! She will have the confidence to excel on the test.
2. Wear your success socks
With all the pressures of testing, the last thing that should be a worry is what to wear. The whole week of testing, my daughter wears whatever socks she feels. Matching, different colors, all the way to her knees, this week anything goes. Whenever Olivia starts to feel anxious during the test, she looks down at her crazy socks and they give her a smile. Believe it or not, this simple little act of expression, can help to calm nerves on test day.
3. Hold the covers
We all know that sleep is vital component to being prepared for any day of the week; but after your child's teacher and tutor have drilled all week, your child may need a little more than just 8 hours the night before a test. So for Olivia and I, we spend the weekend in sleep-over mode. Friday night we'll order a pizza, rent a movie and have a girls night. We'll sleep until our eyes opened on Saturday, then we'll make breakfast, run some errands, stop by the park, then go home and spend the rest of our weekend in our pajama's. - I allowed her time to decompress, watch whatever she wanted on TV (with me of course) and just totally relax her brain. On test day she had enough sleep to keep her mind awake and do her very best.
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<urn:uuid:1d606f5c-50a6-4750-848e-137fc313b421>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.examiner.com/list/3-ways-to-help-your-child-become-stress-free-on-test-day?cid=rss
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en
| 0.972407
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| 2.5625
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The German Army on the Somme 1914-1916
by Jack Sheldon
By drawing on a very large number of German sources, many of them previously unpublished, Jack Sheldon throws new light on a familiar story.
In an account filled with graphic descriptions of life and death in the trenches, the author demonstrates that the dreadful losses of 1st
July were a direct consequence of meticulous German planning and preparation.
Although the Battle of the Somme was frequently a close-run affair, poor Allied co-ordination and persistence in attacking weakly on
narrow fronts played into the hands of the German commanders, who were able to rush forward reserves, maintain the overall integrity of
their defences and so continue a successful delaying battle until the onset of winter ultimately neutralised the considerable Allied
superiority in men and materiel.
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en
| 0.961491
| 168
| 3.09375
| 3
|
Dinesh D'Souza, debate at Tufts University (2007). Used by permission.
Your coffee left on a counter will always become cool. Gravity remains steady, never random. The speed of light remains constant. The earth rotates in 24 hours. (This is so precise, we know the year we need to add a leap-second to our world clock, to keep it current.)
Doesn't it seem strange that our universe is so orderly? Why is that?
Cosmologist Sean Carroll comments, "A law of physics is a pattern that nature obeys without exception."1
Scientists today take for granted the idea that the universe operates according to laws. All of science is based on what author James Trefil calls the principle of universality: "It says that the laws of nature we discover here and now in our laboratories are true everywhere in the universe and have been in force for all time."2
There's more. As scientists record what they observe, most often they are not just using words and paragraphs. The laws of nature can be documented with numbers. They can be measured and computed in the language of mathematics.
The greatest scientists have been struck by how strange this is. There is no logical necessity for a universe that obeys rules, let alone one that abides by the rules of mathematics. The speed of light measures the same 186,000 miles per second, no matter if the light comes from a child's flashlight or a star that's galaxies away. Mathematically, there is an exact speed of light that doesn't change.
Physicist Eugene Wigner confesses that the mathematical underpinning of nature "is something bordering on the mysterious and there is no rational explanation for it."3 Richard Feynman, a Nobel Prize winner for quantum electrodynamics, said, "Why nature is mathematical is a mystery...The fact that there are rules at all is a kind of miracle."4
This astonishment springs from the recognition that the universe doesn't have to behave this way. It is easy to imagine a universe in which conditions change unpredictably from instant to instant, or even a universe in which things pop in and out of existence. Instead, scientists cling to their long-held faith in the fundamental rationality of the cosmos.
Physicist Paul C. Davies comments, "...to be a scientist, you had to have faith that the universe is governed by dependable, immutable, absolute, universal, mathematical laws of an unspecified origin. You've got to believe that these laws won't fail, that we won't wake up tomorrow to find heat flowing from cold to hot, or the speed of light changing by the hour. Over the years I have often asked my physicist colleagues why the laws of physics are what they are? ...The favorite reply is, 'There is no reason they are what they are--they just are.'"5
Even over time, these laws remain consistent. The same laws of nature we find on earth also govern a star billions of light years away. A recent study confirmed, "One of the most important numbers in physics, the proton-electron mass ratio, is the same in a galaxy six billion light years away as it is here on Earth, according to new research, laying to rest debate about whether the laws of nature vary in different places in the Universe."6
All of modern science rests in the belief that rational laws, exist in the universe. The main category of modern scientists who propelled exploration and discovery of these laws were men and women who believed in the existence of an all-powerful God. Why? They envisioned the universe to follow laws in keeping with the rationality and majesty of God the creator. Just as God is consistent, unchanging, there is a constant nature of science. They believed that God made the universe to operate lawfully, according to divine reason and with glorious beauty.
This is quite different from people who believed in multiple gods, each affecting the universe by their own whim or temperament. In polytheistic societies, the gods were inconsistent and unsearchable and nature was governed by gods who could not be known. The universe behaved, so they thought, in as much of a mystery as their gods, with little thought that it could be otherwise. The concept of a discoverable, intelligent, orderly universe that was rational and predictable simply was not in their worldview.
Followers of Christ, on the other hand, believed God to be rational, wise and willing to be known, having seen him to be self-disclosing in Jesus Christ. Throughout the Bible are statements such as:
"For what can be known about God is plain to them [people], because God has shown it to them. For his invisible attributes, namely, his eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly perceived, ever since the creation of the world, in the things that have been made."7
Modern science's greatest advancements came from people who believed what the Scriptures said about the Lord, that...
"All things were created through Him and for Him. And He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together."8
They believed that God created everything and ordered it in a rational way, for humankind's discovery and benefit, and for God's glory that we might recognize his power and majesty as we observed his mighty deeds of creation. "Newton and his contemporaries believed that in doing science they were uncovering the divine plan for the universe in the form of its underlying mathematical order."9
Some of leading scientists whose work was motivated by their faith were: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Brahe, Descartes, Boyle, Newton, Leibniz, Gassendi, Pascal, Mersenne, Cuvier, Harvey, Dalton, Faraday, Herschel, Joule, Lyell, Lavoisier, Priestley, Kelvin, Ohm, Ampere, Steno, Pasteur, Maxwell, Planck, Mendel.
These scientists were convinced that God created a magnificent universe that could be mathematically measured, leading to precise and valuable discoveries. This led to such discoveries as Kepler's third law stating that the square of the time of a planet's revolution is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun. How could anyone have figured that out? Kepler did, in large part because he was convinced that there had to be a beautiful mathematical relationship that was hidden and waiting to be discovered--put in place by an orderly God whose intellect is far beyond ours.
Today, even the most secular of scientists presumes that nature embodies not only order but simplicity and beauty.
The question behind scientific pursuits is legitimate...why is the universe orderly? For many of the physicists, cosmologists and biologists, who laid the foundation of modern science, there was a clear answer: there exists a Creator of all things who is the rational, loving God, who constantly reveals himself to humankind, and upholds the universe by his own power.10
For other evidences for God's existence, please see "Is There a God?"
Portions of this article on the constant nature of science are adapted from Dinesh D'Souza, What's So Great about Christianity, Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2007, Chapter 11.
|►||I have a question or comment...|
|►||How to know God...|
(1) Sean Carroll, a cosmologist at the California Institute of Technology, quoted by the New York Times, nytimes.com; 2007. (2) James Trefil, Reading the Mind of God (New York: Anchor Books, 1989), 1. (3) Eugene Wigner, "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences," in Douglas Campbell and John Higgins, eds., Mathematics (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1984), Vol. 3, 117. (4) Richard Feynman, The Meaning of It All: Thoughts of a Citizen-Scientist (New York: BasicBooks, 1998), 43. (5) Paul C. Davies, physicist, cosmologist, astrobiologist, at Arizona State University; quoted in edge.org/3rd_culture/davies07/davies07_index.html (6) Dr. Emily Baldwin; "Earth's Laws Still Apply in Distant Universe"; AstronomyNow.com; June, 2008. (7) Romans 1:19,20 (8) Colossians 1:16,17 (9) Paul C. Davies, quoted in edge.org/discourse/science_faith.html (10) Hebrews 1:1-3; Colossians 1:16-19; John 1:1-5; Isaiah 40-66
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<urn:uuid:460fa309-9f2e-4672-9b2b-57f8f52bef89>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.everystudent.com/wires/organized.html
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en
| 0.953602
| 1,792
| 3.4375
| 3
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Junia Tertia (73 BCE-22 CE), known affectionately to intimates as Tertula, was born into a prominent political family that was closely allied to Cato the Elder (see family tree) and had ties to other leading conservative families. Her mother was Servilia Caepionis (c.104-after 42 BCE), daughter of Quintus Servilius Caepio and Livia Drusa. Livia Drusa's second husband was Marcus Porcius Cato with whom she had a son, Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (95-46 BCE), Junia Tertia's maternal uncle. Servilia herself first married Marcus Junius Brutus, by whom she had a son, Marcus Junius Brutus (June 85–23 October 42 BCE), the tyrannicide. Junia Tertia’s father, Servilia’s second husband, was Decimus Junius Silanus (consul 62 BCE), to whom Servilia bore three daughters, half-sisters of Brutus, all named Junia. By birth, marriage, and character she was deeply involved with the Republican faction in the civic unrest leading up to and following the death of Julius Caesar (100-15 March 44 BCE), her mother’s long-time lover. She was married to Gaius Cassius Longinus, to whom she, approximately 13, bore a son in c. 60 BCE. She was present at the political meeting at Antium in June 44 BCE, just prior to which she had a miscarriage (Cicero, Ad Atticum 14.20.2); called after Caesar’s death, it was attended by Tertula, her mother Servilia, and Brutus' wife Porcia, together with anti-Caesarian supporters including Cicero (106-43 BCE; see ad Atticum 15.11.1). In 42 BCE she became a widow when her husband committed suicide after the defeat of the Republican forces at Philippi. Having never remarried, she died 64 years after Cassius, at the age of 95, during the reign of Tiberius (14-37 CE). Given Junia Tertia's wealth, social status and Republican connections, and his own lukewarm popular support, Tiberius was wise not to contest her will and to permit her public funeral in the Forum. Tacitus refers to the many death masks of political leaders from aristocratic Roman households that were carried in her funeral procession, though he names only two, probably the most venerable, the Manlii and Quinctii. For further information on Roman death masks see Public Display: imagines and modern wax recreations; for Polybius' explanation of the rituals of elite Roman funerals, click here.
Click on the underlined words for translation aids and commentary, which will appear in a small window. Click on the icon linkto the right of the line for related images and information.
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<urn:uuid:5a2f82eb-3ee3-47a8-a98a-f82d4d0a1466>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www2.cnr.edu/home/sas/araia/Tacitus_Junia.html
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| 0.971543
| 602
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Authors: Ashwini Kumar Lal
The evolution of life has been a big enigma despite rapid advancements in the fields of biochemistry, astrobiology, and astrophysics in recent years. The answer to this puzzle has been as mind-boggling as the riddle relating to evolution of Universe itself. Despite the fact that panspermia has gained considerable support as a viable explanation for origin of life on the Earth and elsewhere in the Universe, the issue remains far from a tangible solution. This paper examines the various prevailing hypotheses regarding origin of life like abiogenesis, RNA world,iron-sulphur world, and panspermia; and concludes that delivery of life-bearing organic molecules by the comets in the early epoch of the Earth alone possibly was not responsible for kick-starting the process of evolution of life on our planet.
Comments: 32 pages, 8 figures, invited review article (published in Astrophysics & Space Science, 2008, volume 317, issue 3-4, pp.267-278), minor addition
Unique-IP document downloads: 973 times
Add your own feedback and questions here:
You are equally welcome to be positive or negative about any paper but please be polite. If you are being critical you must mention at least one specific error, otherwise your comment will be deleted as unhelpful.
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<urn:uuid:80065c50-e512-4519-9ccc-c8b16e6e6069>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://vixra.org/abs/1006.0050
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.917582
| 275
| 3.21875
| 3
|
Q: Several weeks ago you wrote about the half-life of insecticides after application. I assume that the same breakdown occurs in herbicides. Does the degeneration occur after mixing, or only after application? I have been mixing Roundup(tm) in five gallon containers and using it a gallon or so at the time. I noticed that the last application did not seem very effective.
A: Your intuition is correct – there IS a consequence to storing the diluted glyphosate (Roundup, etc.) and using it as you need it.
One of the reasons glyphosate has such a good safety record is that the molecule is “polar”. Like a bar magnet, one end is negatively charged and the other end is positively charged. Since soil particles are also charged, the chemical, once applied, sticks to them. Bacteria and fungi are then able to make a meal of the chemical and break it down further.
Tap water, though, has a high pH: usually 8.0 to 10.0. Its alkalinity causes the glyphosate molecules to break apart within a few days. Conversely, in acid water, glyphosate is much more stable. Other pesticide molecules may act similarly.
The upshot? Mix just as much pesticide as you need immediately; don’t store it for future use.
The information above was taken from this note from a researcher, who translated it from the very technical note below that.
When you add Roundup to water, it will form a solution around pH 4.5. Roundup performance is better in slightly acid spray solutions.
There is no buffering agent added to Roundup. The glyphosate formulation itself is slightly acid so when mixed with water it will form a solution between pH 4.0 to 5.0, depending on the pH of the water.
Over time, the glyphosate can be tied up by cations in the water or it can be biodegraded by bacteria. This will vary with the quality of the water and the amount of Roundup in the solution. A large field sized sprayer with a low rate of Roundup shouldn’t set for more that a couple days before using. A small backpack sprayer with a 2% or greater solution of Roundup mixed with clean tap water could probably set for an extended period and still be used. However, it is always best to mix a fresh solution and use it immediately.
Glyphosate (acid) is soluble in water at 25
Tags For This Article: Roundup
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.walterreeves.com/gardening-q-and-a/roundup-breakdown-in-tap-water/
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en
| 0.952596
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| 2.65625
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Oliver Shorey (b. 1804) composed this handwritten almanac for the years 1820 through 1822. He laid out the pages in his almanac just as in published almanacs, including charts with tides and moons, weather predictions, and eclipses. He added illustrations, such as charts and diagrams, as well as purely decorative drawings of birds, suns, and even a view of a street. He used versus as filler at the top and bottom of some pages, just as published almanacs did, as well as a verse at the start of every month. In February of 1820 he wrote “high runs the ocean and the waves / as one year begins you know another ends / and as the day ends the night begins / and as he sun rises the morning comes eve.” Included are entries for three months of 1820, four months of 1821, and a title page for 1822, suggesting that the sixteen year old Storey was creating these almanacs as an exercise. In later life Shorey was a farmer in Elliot, Maine.
Adopted by R. A. Graham Company
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http://www.americanantiquarian.org/adoptabook/m28.htm?qt-search_tabs=0
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| 0.985749
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| 2.875
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