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What’s All This Talk about Copper?
April 18, 2012
Three metals stand out above the rest in terms of their usefulness: copper, iron and aluminum. But what`s with all this talk about copper lately? What makes copper and copper-based products so valuable to us, and why do societies depend on them? Copper is everywhere - take a minute and look around you, it’s in what you see and often in what you don’t see. It is behind the walls of your home, in electrical and telephone wiring, computers, refrigerators, microwaves and automobiles.
Copper has had one of the most profound effects on the development of civilization. From the dawn of civilization until today, copper has made, and continues to make, a vital contribution to sustaining and improving society. The first metal man used was probably copper. Archeological evidence shows it has been in use for at least 10,000 years.
Copper’s chemical, physical and aesthetic properties make it a material of choice in a wide range of domestic, industrial and high technology applications. Copper is ductile, corrosion resistant, malleable and an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. Alloyed with other metals, such as zinc (to form brass), aluminum or tin (to form bronzes), or nickel, for example, it can acquire new characteristics for use in highly specialized applications.
The average home today contains about 400 pounds of copper for electrical wiring, water pipes and appliances, while the automobile you drive contains about 50 pounds. Each child born today in America will need 1,500 pounds of copper in the course of his or her lifetime to enjoy our current standard of living.
Copper is essential to plant, animal and human health. Certain enzymes that are critical to the function of our body depend on copper.
Its most impressive attribute may be that copper is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality and approximately 80% of the copper ever mined over the last 10,000 years is still in use today.
Contact Us for the most competitive copper prices. Be kind to the environment and recycle your metals!
Interesting Copper Facts
- In 2011 a rare one-cent copper coin from the earliest days of the U.S. Mint in 1793 sold for a record $1.38 million at a Florida auction.
- Archaeologists have recovered a portion of a water plumbing system from the Pyramid of Cheops in Egypt. The copper piping was found to be in serviceable condition after more than five thousand years.
- New York's Statue of Liberty is sheathed in more than 80 tonnes of copper mined in Norway and fabricated by French craftsmen.
- Copper is a natural antibacterial, and so inhibits the spread of bacteria in water and air distribution systems made from it. In the same way, brass doorknobs, handrails and fingerplates in public buildings can help to minimise risk of bacterial transfer.
- One of the famous Dead Sea Scrolls found in Israel is made of copper instead of more fragile animal skins. The scroll contains no religious writings but only clues to still undiscovered treasures.
- Copper cookware is the most highly-regarded by the world's chefs. It has the best heat transfer of any material used in cooking, and as heating is uniform there are no hot spots.
- Copper has been used for as long as we can remember. The Egyptians had the ankh symbol to represent copper, and pyramids in Egypt used copper for water plumbing.
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Although Stieb is a decidedly German name, and that they spoke German, had German customs, and lived with other Germans, they lived on the Lower Volga River in Russia. They came as a result of Czarina Catherine the Great's Second Manifesto in 1767. For more about the Manifesto and the Germans that took up the offer, the best site I have found so far is called German Villiages in the Volga Valley of Russia. Since this site is so new, I feel it is beyond my ability right now to dig very deep into the history of this ethnicity, but I will share what I know about the Stiebs. It is limited, but since the Iron Curtain fell almost 15 years ago, it has become easier to obtain information on Russian ancestors.
The earliest Stieb so far is Phillip, b. about 1835 in Russia, probably Goebel, or Göbel. His wife was unknown, but they had 7 sons: Phillip, b. abt. 1853; David, b. abt. 1855; Gottlieb, b. abt. 1858; Peter, b. abt. 1860; Andrew, b. abt. 1863, and 2 unknown sons who wew born after 1865 and died before 1880. I believe Phillip, Gottlieb, and Peter immigrated to the U.S. David and his wife died before 1885, leaving at least 1 son; Peter. He was raised by his uncle Phillip, and after he became of age, sold his share of land given him by his uncle, and in 1895 married Elizabeth Goette. In 1897 the couple sailed for South America, settling in Argentina.
Peter Stieb was born June 15, 1878 in Goebel, and married Eilzabeth on February 10, 1895. Elizabeth was born September 21, 1878 in Semjonkwa, one of only 2 daughters of Joseph and Anna (Gray) Goette. Like Peter, Elizabeth was also an orphan, but unlike her husband, she was forced to become a slave of sorts, doing housework for little more than a sleeping mat on the kitchen floor. After arriving in Argentina, they settled with other Germans in Buenos Aires. There they had 4 children:
In 1910, Peter and friend John Lange went ahead of the family to Topeka, Kansas. In May of 1911, the wives and families of Peter and John arrived in Kansas. They spent one year there, then moved south to Hereford, Texas, and worked in the beet fields for another year. There child #5, Anna Stieb, was born December 12, 1912. In 1913 the Stiebs moved to Sterling, Colorado, where they knew of a large German/Russian population.
In Sterling the family found a home for 16 years. They farmed, mostly sugar beets, and made a comfortable living. In 1929 when the stock market crashed, they lost nearly all of their money. It was here in Colorado that their last 5 children were born:
In 1930, Peter, Elizabeth, and all 10 children came to Lexington, Nebraska. Peter started working right away for a farmer north of Lexington. In the fall, they rented a farm one mile north and a half a mile west of town. In February 1931, Peter and son John went to an auction at a nearby farm, but came home empty handed. On returning home, Peter set down in his rocking chair and died of a heart attack while rolling a cigarette. Elizabeth struggled to keep the family together, moving frequently from farm to farm. She managed to raise the rest of the children, and keep a roof over their heads, until her death in Lexington on December 19, 1954.
More detailed information, including spouses of the 10 children, and their children, visit Troy's family tree using the link below.
Census Records | Vital Records | Family Trees & Communities | Immigration Records | Military Records Directories & Member Lists | Family & Local Histories | Newspapers & Periodicals | Court, Land & Probate | Finding Aids
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- The Standards of Learning and Curriculum Framework comprise the English and language arts content that teachers in Virginia are expected to teach and students are expected to learn.
- The Enhanced Scope and Sequence Guide is used by teachers to align instruction with the standards and cover the essential understandings, knowledge and skills found in the curriculum framework.
- Test blueprints provide information on how SOL assessments are constructed.
- Released tests are SOL assessments recently administered in the commonwealth’s public schools.
Standards of Learning
Scope & Sequence
|Latest Released Tests
(Also see Released Tests for all available tests)
|All English||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||NA||NA||NA|
|Kindergarten||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||NA|
|Grade 1||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||
|Grade 2||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||
|Grade 3||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading||Reading|
|Grade 4||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading||Reading|
|Grade 5||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||Reading|
|Grade 6||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||Reading|
|Grade 7||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||Reading|
|Grade 8||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||Reading|
|Grade 9||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||Reading|
|Grade 10||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||Reading|
|Grade 11||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||Reading|
|Grade 12||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Word / PDF||Reading / Writing||NA|
|End of Course: Reading||NA||NA||NA||Reading||Reading|
|End of Course:
|NA||NA||NA||Writing||Writing and Prompt|
Additional 2002 Resources
- K-3 Reading Achievement Record Samples (Revised 2003):
- Elementary Reading Comprehension & Vocabulary Strategies Videos – demonstrations by Virginia teachers of vocabulary and comprehension strategies
- Elementary Reading Program Planning and Implementation Tool (PDF) – provides guidance in developing, implementing, sustaining and refining a comprehensive and effective schoolwide reading program and serves as a self-assessment tool to evaluate the overall reading program
- Assessment Instrument for Planning Effective Professional Development in Reading (PDF) – overview of components of reading instruction supported by scientific research and a guide to content that should be emphasized in a professional development program
- K-3 English Achievement Record Sample – Schools maintain a record of achievement in English for each K-3 student to monitor progress and to promote achievement on third-grade SOL tests. This record accompanies a student who transfers to a new school.
- Middle School Reading Modules in Support of Project Graduation (PDF) – more than 70 one-hour lesson plans to enhance the teaching of reading aligned to the 2002 English SOL and supporting the teaching of fiction, nonfiction and poetry
- Middle School Writing Modules in Support of Project Graduation (PDF) – more than 70 one-hour lesson plans that focus on using the three-domain rubric, setting up and using writing portfolios, and revising and editing lessons to encourage the development of a strong essay
- Creating Active Readers (presented in partnership with WHRO) – video series allows middle school English teachers to observe and apply reading comprehension instruction into English classes
- Technology Sparks, Ideas for Teachers: Integrating Technology with the Virginia Standards of Learning (PDF) – resources and suggestions for incorporating technology into core curricular subjects
- Project Graduation English: Reading Skills (PDF) – reading modules on comprehension strategies using both nonfiction and informational texts from Web-based resources.
- Project Graduation English: Writing Skills (PDF) – writing modules with strategies for developing strong essays that include examples of activities using Virginias three-domain rubric: composing; written expression; usage and mechanics.
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There's an interesting effect we can sometimes see regarding the moon. It happens when only a tiny sliver is visible shining on one side.
Why is the earth round? Why isn't it a cube or a pyramid?
Scientists armed with diamond anvils are pushing their investigations deeper and deeper into the center of Earth without actually having to go there.
Here's an odd thing about weightlessness: if it were possible to live in the center of the earth we would be weightless there, too!
An asteroid will whiz by Earth at 29,000 miles per hour. That could cause a big impact, but do we really have anything to worry about?
Learn about gravity, stars, and really big lumps on this Moment of Science.
Mysteries, facts, and the age of the diamond you've been eying...
Kepler’s Telescope has detected over 1200 possible planets. But this discovery is unique. Scientists found two planets in the same orbit in a system!
The Earth is made up of plenty of elements but Chromium is uncommon. This has scientists puzzled.
Why are the planets where they are instead of somewhere else?
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- Viral and bacterial infections can develop in anyone, but certain infections are more likely to occur in pregnant women. Pregnancy can also make infections more severe.
- Most babies aren’t harmed when the mother acquires an infection. However, some infections can be transmitted to babies through the placenta or during birth. This can lead to complications in the baby.
- The type and severity of the infection determine the best course of treatment. In some cases, treatment may not be needed. To help prevent infections in pregnancy, wash your hands regularly, be aware of food-borne illnesses, and practice safe sex.
Pregnancy is a normal and healthy state that many women aspire to at some point in their lives. However, pregnancy can make women more susceptible to certain infections. Pregnancy may also make these infections more severe. Even mild infections can lead to serious illness in pregnant women.
Some infections that occur during pregnancy primarily pose a risk to the mother. Other infections can be transmitted to the baby through the placenta or during birth. When this occurs, the baby is at risk for health complications as well.
Some infections that develop during pregnancy can lead to miscarriage, preterm labor, or birth defects. They may even be life-threatening for the mother. To complicate matters, the medications used to treat infections can cause serious side effects, especially for the baby. It’s important to try to prevent infections in pregnancy to minimize risks to both mother and baby.
Pregnancy affects every system in your body. Changes in hormone levels and immune system function can make you more vulnerable to infections and serious complications. Labor and delivery are especially susceptible times for both you and your baby.
Changes in immunity
The immune system defends the body against harmful invaders. It fights against everything from bacteria to cancer cells to transplanted organs. A complex collection of players works together to identify and eliminate foreign intruders.
During pregnancy, your immune system changes so that it can protect both you and your baby from disease. Different parts of your immune system are enhanced while others are suppressed. This creates a balance that can prevent infection in the baby without compromising the health of the mother.
These changes also help protect your baby from your body's defenses. In theory, your body should reject the baby as “foreign,” but it doesn’t. Similar to an organ transplant, your body sees your baby as part "self" and part "foreign." This keeps your immune system from attacking the baby.
Despite these protective mechanisms, you’re more prone to infections that don’t normally cause illness. During pregnancy, your immune system has to work harder since it’s supporting two. This makes you susceptible to certain infections.
Changes in body systems
Aside from changes in immune function, hormonal changes can also increase your risk for infection. These fluctuations in hormone levels often affect the urinary tract, which is made up of:
- the kidneys, which are organs that produce urine
- ureters, which are tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder
- bladder, which is where urine is stored
- urethra, which is a tube that transports urine out of the body
As the uterus expands during pregnancy, it puts more pressure on the ureters. Meanwhile, the body increases the production of a hormone called progesterone, which relaxes the ureter and bladder muscles. As a result, urine may stay in the bladder too long. This increases your risk of developing a urinary tract infection. Hormonal changes also make you more susceptible to a type of yeast infection known as candidiasis. Higher levels of estrogen in the reproductive tract predispose you to yeast infections.
Additionally, changes in the amount of fluid in the lungs can raise your risk for lung infections, such as pneumonia. Your lungs contain more fluid during pregnancy, and the increased amount of fluid puts more pressure on the lungs and abdomen. This makes it harder for your body to clear this fluid, causing the fluid to build up in the lungs. The extra fluid stimulates bacterial growth and hinders your body's ability to resist infection.
Risks for mother
Some infections that occur during pregnancy pose problems primarily for the mother. These include urinary tract infections, vaginitis, and postpartum infection.
Risks for baby
Other infections are particularly troublesome for the baby. For example, cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, and parvovirus can all be transmitted from mother to baby. If this happens, it may have serious consequences.
No effective treatment yet exists for a cytomegalovirus infection that’s present at birth. Antibiotics are available that may be able to treat toxoplasmosis successfully. Although there are no antibiotics for parvovirus, the infection can be treated with intrauterine blood transfusions.
Risks for both mother and baby
Some infections are particularly harmful to both mother and baby. These include:
Antibiotics are effective against syphilis and listeria in the mother and baby, if the infection is diagnosed promptly. Though there are no antibiotics for viral hepatitis, vaccines are now available to help prevent hepatitis A and B infections.
An HIV infection during pregnancy is a serious and potentially life-threatening problem. However, new multidrug combinations now significantly prolong life span and improve the quality of life for people with HIV. Along with cesarean delivery before the onset of labor, these drug therapies have been remarkably effective in reducing the rate of transmission of HIV infection from pregnant women to their babies.
Group B streptococcus
Doctors test every woman at the end of pregnancy for GBS. This infection is caused by a common bacterium known as group B streptococcus. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 1 in 4 women carry a GBS infection. This infection is most often transmitted during vaginal deliveries, as the bacterium may be present in the mother’s vagina or rectum. In pregnant women, the infection can cause internal inflammation and also stillbirth. Newborns infected with GBS can develop serious and potentially life-threatening infections. These include sepsis, pneumonia, and meningitis. When left untreated, such infections can cause birth defects in the baby, including hearing or vision loss, learning disabilities, and chronic mental impairments.
The relationship between you and your doctor is vital during your pregnancy. Knowing about the increased risk of infection during pregnancy and the potential harm to you and your baby can help you prevent transmission. Being aware of the different types of infection that could arise also allows you to recognize the symptoms. If you become ill, receiving a prompt diagnosis and effective treatment can often prevent complications. Make sure to talk to your doctor about any concerns or questions you have during pregnancy.
Infections in pregnancy are preventable. Taking small, everyday precautions can go a long way in reducing possible harm to you and your baby. To help prevent infections during your pregnancy, you should:
- Regularly wash your hands with soap and water. This is especially important after using the bathroom, preparing raw meat and vegetables, and playing with children.
- Cook meats until they are well-done. Never eat undercooked meats, such as hot dogs and deli meats, unless they are re-cooked until hot.
- Don’t consume unpasteurized, or raw, dairy products.
- Don’t share eating utensils, cups, and food with other people.
- Avoid changing cat litter and stay away from wild or pet rodents.
- Practice safe sex and get tested for sexually transmitted infections.
- Make sure your vaccinations are up-to-date.
Schedule an appointment with your doctor right away if you’re sick or believe you’ve been exposed to a contagious disease. The sooner an infection is diagnosed and treated, the better the outcome for you and your baby.
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Wilderness: Burns (cont.)
When to Seek Medical Care for Burns
- Serious burns and burns to the hands, face, feet, or genitals; those that circumscribe (go completely around) an extremity (arm or leg); or those that involve more than 10% of the body require immediate emergency medical attention. The burn percentage in adults: rule of nines helps determine the percent of the body affected. The surface of one's palm is about 1% body surface area. The patient with limb or life-threatening burns should be transported by ambulance to the nearest Trauma center hospital by ambulance, or if available, a trauma/burn center.
- Consult a doctor for treatment with available medications and advanced treatment facilities; usually this is a doctor trained in the care of burns who is located in a regional burn center hospital. Many times, severely burned patients after they are stabilized, are transferred to such burn centers.
Adult body surface-area burn estimate diagram. Click to view larger image.
A child's body surface-area burn estimate diagram. Click to view larger image.
Medically reviewed by John A. Daller, MD; American Board of Surgery with subspecialty certification in surgical critical care
MedscapeReference.com. Emergent Management of Thermal Burns.
MedscapeReference.com. Chemical Burns in Emergency Medicine.
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 5/26/2016
Scott H Plantz, MD, FAAEM
Must Read Articles Related to Wilderness: Burns
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Patient Comments & Reviews
The eMedicineHealth doctors ask about Burns:
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"NIH expects to admit a patient who has been exposed to the Ebola virus to its Clinical Center in the coming days. The patient is an American physician who was volunteering services in an Ebola treatment unit in Sierra Leone.
FORTAZ is indicated for the treatment of patients with infections caused by susceptible strains of the designated organisms in the following diseases:
- Lower Respiratory Tract Infections, including pneumonia, caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Pseudomonas spp.; Haemophilus influenzae, including ampicillin-resistant strains; Klebsiella spp.; Enterobacter spp.; Proteus mirabilis; Escherichia coli; Serratia spp.; Citrobacter spp.; Streptococcus pneumoniae; and Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible strains).
- Skin and Skin-Structure Infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Klebsiella spp.; Escherichia coli; Proteus spp., including Proteus mirabilis and indole-positive Proteus; Enterobacter spp.; Serratia spp.; Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible strains); and Streptococcus pyogenes (group A beta-hemolytic streptococci).
- Urinary Tract Infections, both complicated and uncomplicated, caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Enterobacter spp.; Proteus spp., including Proteus mirabilis and indole-positive Proteus; Klebsiella spp.; and Escherichia coli.
- Bacterial Septicemia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella spp., Haemophilus influenzae, Escherichia coli, Serratia spp., Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible strains).
- Bone and Joint Infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., and Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible strains).
- Gynecologic Infections, including endometritis, pelvic cellulitis, and other infections of the female genital tract caused by Escherichia coli.
- Intra-abdominal Infections, including peritonitis caused by Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible strains) and polymicrobial infections caused by aerobic and anaerobic organisms and Bacteroides spp. (many strains of Bacteroides fragilis are resistant).
- Central Nervous System Infections, including meningitis, caused by Haemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis. Ceftazidime has also been used successfully in a limited number of cases of meningitis due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
FORTAZ may be used alone in cases of confirmed or suspected sepsis. Ceftazidime has been used successfully in clinical trials as empiric therapy in cases where various concomitant therapies with other antibiotics have been used.
FORTAZ may also be used concomitantly with other antibiotics, such as aminoglycosides, vancomycin, and clindamycin; in severe and life-threatening infections; and in the immunocompromised patient. When such concomitant treatment is appropriate, prescribing information in the labeling for the other antibiotics should be followed. The dose depends on the severity of the infection and the patient's condition.
To reduce the development of drug-resistant bacteria and maintain the effectiveness of FORTAZ and other antibacterial drugs, FORTAZ should be used only to treat or prevent infections that are proven or strongly suspected to be caused by susceptible bacteria. When culture and susceptibility information are available, they should be considered in selecting or modifying antibacterial therapy. In the absence of such data, local epidemiology and susceptibility patterns may contribute to the empiric selection of therapy.
DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION
The usual adult dosage is 1 gram administered intravenously or intramuscularly every 8 to 12 hours. The dosage and route should be determined by the susceptibility of the causative organisms, the severity of infection, and the condition and renal function of the patient.
The guidelines for dosage of FORTAZ are listed in Table 5. The following dosage schedule is recommended.
Table 5: Recommended Dosage Schedule
|Usual recommended dosage||1 gram IV or IM||q8-12hr|
|Uncomplicated urinary tract infections||250 mg IV or IM||q12hr|
|Bone and joint infections||2 grams IV||q12hr|
|Complicated urinary tract infections||500 mg IV or IM||q8-12hr|
|Uncomplicated pneumonia; mild skin and skin-structure infections||500 mg-1 gram IV or IM||q8hr|
|Serious gynecologic and intra-abdominal infections||2 grams IV||q8hr|
|Meningitis||2 grams IV||q8hr|
|Very severe life-threatening infections, especially in immunocompromised patients||2 grams IV||q8hr|
|Lung infections caused by Pseudomonas spp. in patients with cystic fibrosis with normal renal function||30-50 mg/kg IV to a maximum of 6 grams per day||q8hr|
|Neonates (0-4 weeks)||30 mg/kg IV||q12hr|
|Infants and children (1 month-12 years)||30-50 mg/kg IV to a maximum of 6 grams per day†||q8hr|
|* Although clinical improvement has been shown,
bacteriologic cures cannot be expected in patients with chronic respiratory
disease and cystic fibrosis.
† The higher dose should be reserved for immunocompromised pediatric patients or pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis or meningitis.
Impaired Hepatic Function
No adjustment in dosage is required for patients with hepatic dysfunction.
Impaired Renal Function
Ceftazidime is excreted by the kidneys, almost exclusively by glomerular filtration. Therefore, in patients with impaired renal function (glomerular filtration rate [GFR] < 50 mL/min), it is recommended that the dosage of ceftazidime be reduced to compensate for its slower excretion. In patients with suspected renal insufficiency, an initial loading dose of 1 gram of FORTAZ may be given. An estimate of GFR should be made to determine the appropriate maintenance dosage. The recommended dosage is presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Recommended Maintenance Dosages of FORTAZ in
|NOTE: IF THE DOSE RECOMMENDED IN TABLE 5 ABOVE IS LOWER THAN THAT RECOMMENDED FOR PATIENTS WITH RENAL INSUFFICIENCY AS OUTLINED IN TABLE 6, THE LOWER DOSE SHOULD BE USED.|
|Creatinine Clearance (mL/min)||Recommended Unit Dose of FORTAZ||Frequency of Dosing|
|< 5||500 mg||q48hr|
When only serum creatinine is available, the following formula (Cockcroft's equation)5 may be used to estimate creatinine clearance. The serum creatinine should represent a steady state of renal function:
|Males:||(weight in kg) x (140 – age)|
|(72) x serum creatinine (mg/100 mL)|
|Females||(0.85) x (above value)|
In patients with severe infections who would normally receive 6 grams of FORTAZ daily were it not for renal insufficiency, the unit dose given in the table above may be increased by 50% or the dosing frequency may be increased appropriately. Further dosing should be determined by therapeutic monitoring, severity of the infection, and susceptibility of the causative organism.
In patients undergoing hemodialysis, a loading dose of 1 gram is recommended, followed by 1 gram after each hemodialysis period.
FORTAZ can also be used in patients undergoing intraperitoneal dialysis and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. In such patients, a loading dose of 1 gram of FORTAZ may be given, followed by 500 mg every 24 hours. In addition to IV use, FORTAZ can be incorporated in the dialysis fluid at a concentration of 250 mg for 2 L of dialysis fluid.
Note: Generally FORTAZ should be continued for 2 days after the signs and symptoms of infection have disappeared, but in complicated infections longer therapy may be required.
FORTAZ may be given intravenously or by deep IM injection into a large muscle mass such as the upper outer quadrant of the gluteus maximus or lateral part of the thigh. Intra-arterial administration should be avoided (see PRECAUTIONS).
For IM administration, FORTAZ should be constituted with one of the following diluents: Sterile Water for Injection, Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, or 0.5% or 1% Lidocaine Hydrochloride Injection. Refer to Table 7.
The IV route is preferable for patients with bacterial septicemia, bacterial meningitis, peritonitis, or other severe or life-threatening infections, or for patients who may be poor risks because of lowered resistance resulting from such debilitating conditions as malnutrition, trauma, surgery, diabetes, heart failure, or malignancy, particularly if shock is present or pending.
For direct intermittent IV administration, constitute FORTAZ as directed in Table 7 with Sterile Water for Injection. Slowly inject directly into the vein over a period of 3 to 5 minutes or give through the tubing of an administration set while the patient is also receiving one of the compatible IV fluids (see Compatibility And Stability).
For IV infusion, constitute the 500-mg, 1-gram, or 2-gram vial and add an appropriate quantity of the resulting solution to an IV container with one of the compatible IV fluids listed under the COMPATIBILITY AND STABILITY section.
Intermittent IV infusion with a Y-type administration set can be accomplished with compatible solutions. However, during infusion of a solution containing ceftazidime, it is desirable to discontinue the other solution.
TwistVial™ vials are to be constituted only with 50 or 100 mL of 5% Dextrose Injection, 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection, or 0.45% Sodium Chloride Injection in compatible flexible diluent containers (see Instructions for Constitution). TwistVial™ vials that have been joined to compatible diluent containers and activated to dissolve the drug are stable for 12 hours at room temperature or for 3 days under refrigeration. Joined vials that have not been activated may be used within a 14-day period; this period corresponds to that for use of compatible diluent containers following removal of the outer packaging (overwrap).
Freezing solutions of FORTAZ is not recommended.
Table 7: Preparation of Solutions of FORTAZ
|Size||Amount of Diluent to be Added (mL)||Approximate Available Volume (mL)||Approximate Ceftazidime Concentration (mg/mL)|
|Pharmacy bulk package|
|* To obtain a dose of 500 mg, withdraw 5.0 mL from the
vial following reconstitution.
† To obtain a dose of 1 g, withdraw 10.0 mL from the vial following reconstitution.
‡ To obtain a dose of 2 g, withdraw 11.5 mL from the vial following reconstitution.
All vials of FORTAZ as supplied are under reduced pressure. When FORTAZ is dissolved, carbon dioxide is released and a positive pressure develops. For ease of use please follow the recommended techniques of constitution described on the detachable Instructions for Constitution section of this insert.
Solutions of FORTAZ, like those of most beta-lactam antibiotics, should not be added to solutions of aminoglycoside antibiotics because of potential interaction.
However, if concurrent therapy with FORTAZ and an aminoglycoside is indicated, each of these antibiotics can be administered separately to the same patient.
Directions for Use of FORTAZ Frozen in Galaxy® Plastic Containers
FORTAZ supplied as a frozen, sterile, iso-osmotic, nonpyrogenic solution in plastic containers is to be administered after thawing either as a continuous or intermittent IV infusion. The thawed solution is stable for 8 hours at room temperature or for 3 days if stored under refrigeration.
Do not refreeze.
Thaw container at room temperature (25°C) or under refrigeration (5°C). Do not force thaw by immersion in water baths or by microwave irradiation. Components of the solution may precipitate in the frozen state and will dissolve upon reaching room temperature with little or no agitation. Potency is not affected. Mix after solution has reached room temperature. Check for minute leaks by squeezing bag firmly. Discard bag if leaks are found as sterility may be impaired. Do not add supplementary medication. Do not use unless solution is clear and seal is intact.
Use sterile equipment.
Do not use plastic containers in series connections. Such use could result in air embolism due to residual air being drawn from the primary container before administration of the fluid from the secondary container is complete.
Preparation for Administration
- Suspend container from eyelet support.
- Remove protector from outlet port at bottom of container.
- Attach administration set. Refer to complete directions accompanying set.
Compatibility And Stability
FORTAZ, when constituted as directed with Sterile Water for Injection, Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, or 0.5% or 1% Lidocaine Hydrochloride Injection, maintains satisfactory potency for 12 hours at room temperature or for 3 days under refrigeration. Solutions in Sterile Water for Injection that are frozen immediately after constitution in the original container are stable for 3 months when stored at -20°C. Once thawed, solutions should not be refrozen. Thawed solutions may be stored for up to 3 hours at room temperature or for 3 days in a refrigerator.
FORTAZ, when constituted as directed with Sterile Water for Injection, maintains satisfactory potency for 12 hours at room temperature or for 3 days under refrigeration. Solutions in 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection in VIAFLEX® small-volume containers that are frozen immediately after constitution are stable for 3 months when stored at -20°C. Do not force thaw by immersion in water baths or by microwave irradiation. Once thawed, solutions should not be refrozen. Thawed solutions may be stored for up to 12 hours at room temperature or for 3 days in a refrigerator. More concentrated solutions in Sterile Water for Injection in the original container that are frozen immediately after constitution are stable for 3 months when stored at -20°C. Once thawed, solutions should not be refrozen. Thawed solutions may be stored for up to 8 hours at room temperature or for 3 days in a refrigerator.
FORTAZ is compatible with the more commonly used IV infusion fluids. Solutions at concentrations between 1 and 40 mg/mL in 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection; 1/6 M Sodium Lactate Injection; 5% Dextrose Injection; 5% Dextrose and 0.225% Sodium Chloride Injection; 5% Dextrose and 0.45% Sodium Chloride Injection; 5% Dextrose and 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection; 10% Dextrose Injection; Ringer's Injection, USP; Lactated Ringer's Injection, USP; 10% Invert Sugar in Water for Injection; and NORMOSOL®-M in 5% Dextrose Injection may be stored for up to 12 hours at room temperature or for 3 days if refrigerated.
The 1- and 2-g FORTAZ TwistVial™ vials, when diluted in 50 or 100 mL of 5% Dextrose Injection, 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection, or 0.45% Sodium Chloride Injection, may be stored for up to 12 hours at room temperature or for 3 days under refrigeration.
FORTAZ is less stable in Sodium Bicarbonate Injection than in other IV fluids. It is not recommended as a diluent. Solutions of FORTAZ in 5% Dextrose Injection and 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection are stable for at least 6 hours at room temperature in plastic tubing, drip chambers, and volume control devices of common IV infusion sets.
Ceftazidime at a concentration of 4 mg/mL has been found compatible for 12 hours at room temperature or for 3 days under refrigeration in 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection or 5% Dextrose Injection when admixed with: cefuroxime sodium (ZINACEF®) 3 mg/mL, heparin 10 or 50 U/mL, or potassium chloride 10 or 40 mEq/L.
Vancomycin solution exhibits a physical incompatibility when mixed with a number of drugs, including ceftazidime. The likelihood of precipitation with ceftazidime is dependent on the concentrations of vancomycin and ceftazidime present. It is therefore recommended, when both drugs are to be administered by intermittent IV infusion, that they be given separately, flushing the IV lines (with 1 of the compatible IV fluids) between the administration of these 2 agents.
Note: Parenteral drug products should be inspected visually for particulate matter before administration whenever solution and container permit.
As with other cephalosporins, FORTAZ powder, as well as solutions, tend to darken depending on storage conditions; within the stated recommendati
5. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron. 1976;16:31-41.
FORTAZ in the dry state should be stored between 15° and 30°C (59° and 86°F) and protected from light. FORTAZ is a dry, white to off-white powder supplied in vials as follows:
NDC 24987-377-10 500-mg* Vial (Tray of 10)
NDC 24987-378-10 1-g* Vial (Tray of 10)
NDC 24987-379-34 2-g* Vial (Tray of 10)
NDC 24987-382-37 6-g* Pharmacy Bulk Package (Tray of 6)
NDC 24987-434-00 1-g TwistVial™ Vial (Tray of 25)
NDC 24987-435-00 2-g TwistVial™ Vial (Tray of 10)
(The above TwistVial™ vials are to be used only with compatible diluent containers.)
FORTAZ frozen as a premixed solution of ceftazidime sodium should not be stored above -20°C. FORTAZ is supplied frozen in 50-mL, single-dose, plastic containers as follows:
NDC 24987-412-00 1-g* Plastic Container (Carton of 24)
NDC 24987-413-00 2-g* Plastic Container (Carton of 24)
*Equivalent to anhydrous ceftazidime.
Instructions for Constitution
Vials: 500 mg IM/IV, 1 g IM/IV, 2 g IV
- Insert the syringe needle through the vial closure and inject the recommended volume of diluent. The vacuum may assist entry of the diluent. Remove the syringe needle.
- Shake to dissolve; a clear solution will be obtained in 1 to 2 minutes.
- Invert the vial. Ensuring that the syringe plunger is fully depressed, insert the needle through the vial closure and withdraw the total volume of solution into the syringe (the pressure in the vial may aid withdrawal). Ensure that the needle remains within the solution and does not enter the headspace. The withdrawn solution may contain some bubbles of carbon dioxide.
Note: As with the administration of all parenteral products, accumulated gases should be expressed from the syringe immediately before injection of FORTAZ.
TwistVial™ Vials: 1 g, 2 g
To Open Diluent Container:
Peel the corner of the diluent overwrap and remove flexible diluent container. Some opacity of the plastic flexible container due to moisture absorption during the sterilization process may be observed. This is normal and does not affect the solution quality or safety. The opacity will diminish gradually.
To Assemble Vial and Flexible Diluent Container (Use Aseptic Technique):
1. Remove the protective covers from the top of the vial and the vial port on the diluent container as follows:
a. To remove the breakaway vial cap, swing the pull ring over the top of the vial and pull down far enough to start the opening (see Figure 1), then pull straight up to remove the cap (see Figure 2).
Note: Once the breakaway cap has been removed, do not access vial with syringe.
b. To remove the vial port cover, grasp the tab on the pull ring, pull up to break the three tie strings, then pull back to remove the cover (see Figure 3).
2. Screw the vial into the vial port until it will go no further. THE VIAL MUST BE SCREWED IN TIGHTLY TO ASSURE A SEAL. This occurs approximately one-half turn (180°) after the first audible click (see Figure 4). The clicking sound does not assure a seal; the vial must be turned as far as it will go.
Note: Once vial is seated, do not attempt to remove (see Figure 4).
3. Recheck the vial to assure that it is tight by trying to turn it further in the direction of assembly.
4. Label appropriately.
To Prepare Admixture:
- Squeeze the bottom of the diluent container gently to inflate the portion of the container surrounding the end of the drug vial.
- With the other hand, push the drug vial down into the container, telescoping the walls of the container. Grasp the inner cap of the vial through the walls of the container (see Figure 5).
- Pull the inner cap from the drug vial (see Figure 6). Verify that the rubber stopper has been pulled out, allowing the drug and diluent to mix.
4. Mix container contents thoroughly and use within the specified time.
Preparation for Administration (Use Aseptic Technique):
- Confirm the activation and admixture of vial contents.
- Check for leaks by squeezing container firmly. If leaks are found, discard unit as sterility may be impaired.
- Close flow control clamp of administration set.
- Remove cover from outlet port at bottom of container.
- Insert piercing pin of administration set into port with a twisting motion until the pin is firmly seated. Note: See full directions on administration set carton.
- Lift the free end of the hanger loop on the bottom of the vial, breaking the two tie strings. Bend the loop outward to lock it in the upright position, then suspend container from hanger.
- Squeeze and release drip chamber to establish proper fluid level in chamber.
- Open flow control clamp and clear air from set. Close clamp.
- Attach set to venipuncture device. If device is not indwelling, prime and make venipuncture.
- Regulate rate of administration with flow control clamp.
WARNING: Do not use flexible container in series connections.
Pharmacy Bulk Package: 6 g
- Insert the syringe needle through the vial closure and inject 26 mL of diluent. The vacuum may assist entry of the diluent. Remove the syringe needle.
- Shake to dissolve; a clear solution containing approximately 1 g of ceftazidime activity per 5 mL will be obtained in 1 to 2 minutes.
- Insert a gas-relief needle through the vial closure to relieve the internal pressure. Remove the gas-relief needle before extracting any solution.
Note: To preserve product sterility, it is important that a gas-relief needle is not inserted through the vial closure before the product has dissolved.
Distributed by Covis Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Cary, NC 27511. Manufactured by Baxter Healthcare Corporation Deerfield, IL 60015. Revised: August 2014This monograph has been modified to include the generic and brand name in many instances.
Last reviewed on RxList: 11/7/2014
Additional Fortaz Information
Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration
You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit the FDA MedWatch website or call 1-800-FDA-1088.
Find out what women really need.
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In the early 1990s, nostalgic users wrote software emulators to relive the “vintage” experience of their old Commodore 64 or Apple II. Others preferred the actual hardware and began collecting classic computers. As their old machines occasionally broke down, people began cultivating the art of computer diagnosis and repair into a new form of retrocomputing.
Next to software emulation and hardware maintenance, a third strain of retrocomputing has emerged: designing and building your own system from a “bag of chips” and a circuit board. It is easy to create a functional computer on a little circuit board—considering all the information now available on the Internet. These retro machines may not have much practical use, but the learning experience can be tremendously valuable (see Photo 1).
Hobbyists with no background in electronics somehow pick up the required skills, and they often share their homebrewing experiences online. Although some of their creations are stunningly exotic, most people build simple machines. They use a CPU and add RAM, ROM, a serial port, and maybe an IDE interface for mass storage. And most hobbyists run either BASIC (e.g., the 1980s home computers) or use a “vintage” OS such as CP/M.
Running CP/M, in fact, is a nice target to work toward. A lot of good software ensures your homebrew computer can do something interesting once it is built. As the predecessor of MS-DOS, CP/M also provides a familiar command-line interface. And it is simple. A few days of study are enough to port it to your circuit board.
Still, one challenge remains: If you want homebrewing to be an enduring hobby instead of a one-off project, you should have some perspective beyond putting together a minimal computer and switching it on. Working on your own, it can become progressively more difficult to take the next steps (i.e., building graphics subsystems or using exotic processors) or to add state-of-the-art microcontrollers to create “Frankenstein” systems (i.e., blends of old and new technology that can do something useful, such as automate your home).
This is where the N8VEM Google group comes in. In 2006, Andrew Lynch published his own single-board CP/M design to engage and involve others. He intended the N8VEM (named after his ham radio license) to be expandable with add-on cards. Soon after, an informal collaborative effort emerged around a Google mail group. A website was set up to share the hardware and software produced.
Builders with a range of skills became involved, from well-known systems builders to beginners. They bought Lynch’s $20 circuit board and ordered the required electronic components and a soldering iron from an online electronics distributor. After two days of wielding the soldering iron, they could create a CP/M computer that uses ROM and RAM disks for storage and has plenty of built-in vintage software.
The design can be expanded into a “powerful” (we use the term lightly here) multiprocessor system with “blinkenlights,” hard disks, graphics subsystems, and various OSes. People also started to build miniaturized variants, PC/XT clones, and 32-bit machines.
However, N8VEM is not about soldering kits. It is about joining in, trying new things, and picking up skills along the way. These skills range from reading schematics to debugging a computer card that does not operate as intended. The learning curve may be steep at times, but, because the N8VEM mail group is very active, expert help is available if or when you get stuck.
There is nothing preventing you from plugging in your own CPU board design. But if you do, you’re not forced to develop all the other expansion boards on your own.
As the novelty of designing a simple single-board computer (SBC) wears off, you may prefer to focus your energy on exploring graphics systems or ways to hook up 8-bit machines on the Internet. Or, you may want to jump into systems software development and share your experiences with a few hundred others. Retrocomputing is not always backward-facing. Making “Frankenstein” systems by adding modern Parallax Propeller chips or FPGAs to old hardware is a nice way to gain experience in modern digital electronics, too.
THE N8VEM SBC
At 10-cm × 16-cm (roughly 4” × 6”), the N8VEM computer does not look particularly impressive (see Photo 2). However, it provides all the capabilities of an early 1980s commercial microcomputer. In fact, thanks to CP/M, it is software-compatible with those microcomputers, offering a range of good programming languages (e.g., BASIC, C, Pascal, and Assembler). Excellent editors (e.g., ZDE) and word processors (e.g., WordStar) are also available. You could also run simple spreadsheets, databases and interactive games (e.g., Zork).
The small-sized N8VEM makes one concession to modern-day electronics: It uses a single, high-capacity RAM chip. All the other electronics are components that would have been used “back in the day” (e.g., simple 74LS logic chips, a Z80 microprocessor, and classic interface chips). A battery backs up the N8VEM’s memory; therefore, the RAM disk is a practical storage mechanism, especially because a ROM disk comes with most essential software installed. Use the N8VEM with a serial terminal, or (more likely) with a PC terminal program. The XMODEM protocol enables files to be transferred to and from the N8VEM.
GETTING STARTED: BOOKS AND TOOLS
Homebrewing is straightforward once you figure out how to do things. That is why homebrewing as a group is so practical. Still, two pieces of background information will prove indispensable for any builder: an understanding of basic computer hardware and Assembly language. Reading up on these topics will not only make things easier, but will also help you understand what you are putting together. (See the Resources section at the end of this article for helpful information.)
Only a few tools are necessary. Although, for many, building an electronics lab is part of the fun. A good soldering iron, an inexpensive “solder sucker” to correct mistakes, and a multi-meter are absolute requirements. A secondhand oscilloscope is a useful additional tool. A logic analyzer can also be a big help by enabling you to simultaneously inspect multiple signals and determine what is wrong. Old logic probes are expensive and cumbersome. New designs (e.g., Saleae’s Logic 8-channel USB logic analyzer) are inexpensive and better.
At some point you will need an EPROM programmer, unless you want to depend on others to burn EPROMs for you. Ensure you have a programmer that can deal with a range of (E)EPROMs, as N8VEM boards use many types. Finally, a laboratory power supply is a wise investment, mostly because it has a current limiter that cuts power when a short circuit could otherwise blow up your board.
Editor’s Note: This is an excerpt from an article written by Oscar Vermeulen and Andrew Lynch, “DIY Single-Board Computers (Part 1): Design and Expansion Options,” Circuit Cellar 276, 2013.
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Mindfulness is a stress management technique that involves focusing your attention on what you are experiencing moment to moment. You do not allow your mind to become fragmented with thoughts of the past and worries about the future; instead you remain fully alert in the experiences of the present moment.
Mindfulness meditation or practice can help you:
- elicit the relaxation response
- focus your concentration for thinking and doing tasks effectively
- help you gain a deeper appreciation of your life experiences
You can use mindfulness techniques when sitting quietly or when engaged in activities.
Following your breath is the primary technique of mindfulness. Gently coming back to your breath--wherever you feel your breath--helps anchor you in the present moment. (You may feel your breath as the air passes into and out of your nostrils, or in your chest, or in the in-and-out movement of your belly, or perhaps you feel the entire passage of air throughout the cycle of the inhalation and exhalation of breath.)
When rooted in the present moment with the help of attending to your breath, you can also be aware of the sensations in your body, your emotions, your thoughts, and your actions. Using mindfulness practice, you slow down in a sense and give full attention without judgment to the emotions, thoughts, actions and/or body sensations you are experiencing in the present moment. You do one activity at a time and give full awareness to your present moment experience.
Some mindfulness strategies:
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This morning's Washington Post fronts news that a fourth-grade Virginia textbook outrageously claims that "Thousands of Southern blacks fought in the Confederate ranks, including two black battalions under the command of Stonewall Jackson." It is the myth that will not die, presented as fact to children too young to question.
The textbook's author, Joy Masoff, performed her research online, relying on websites written by or drawing upon the work of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. It's worth noting that Masoff has built something of a career for herself by collecting thinly-sourced, counterintuitive factoids, and packaging them into such weighty tomes as Oh, Yikes! History's Grossest, Wackiest Moments. It's tough to understand, really, how that sort of tabloid sensibility could possibly have proven problematic when applied to textbooks.
And Masoff, tellingly, couldn't even manage to crib quack revisionism from the Web without garbling it. The sources she cites in her defense claim that there were two companies of colored soldiers in the Jackson Battalion, raised almost two years after Jackson's death from the workers and convalescents at a Richmond Hospital bearing his name. Those companies morph, mysteriously, into "two black battalions under the command of Stonewall Jackson."
But the problems go beyond "just one sentence," as Masoff put it. The offending section begins by explaining that "The war between the states was a war between peoples of all colors, on both sides of the fight. White men, and enslaved and free African Americans all those sides [sic]. Most American Indians did not take sides during the Civil War."
At the simplest level, this is the sort of mindless pablum so often produced to satisfy poorly-conceived curricular standards, which take a check-list approach to evaluation. Virginia mandates that textbooks describe "the roles played by whites, enslaved African Americans, free African Americans,
and American Indians" in the Civil War. The passage seems carefully-tailored to allow the review committee to check that box
off its list. (Meanwhile, a far superior history textbook with a more sophisticated account of the war was challenged
for its failure to mention the Canadian shield
But then, there's the substance. It offers a false and pernicious equivalency, as if race were no more than incidental to the struggle. If the occasional slave was brought to the front by his master as a man-servant, or if slaves were used as laborers, or if in the waning days of the war, a handful of blacks were grudgingly allowed into uniform, it does not alter the core meaning of the struggle. These are fascinating exceptions, presented as if they were the rule, and without any sense of the tensions and contradictions they embody. To present the Civil War as a fight "between peoples of all colors, on both sides" is to utterly misrepresent the causes and meanings of the bloodiest struggle in our history.
The worst sins here, though, are those of omission. Where is the capsule biography of George Henry Thomas, the Old Dominion's noblest son? Where is the account of the thousands of Virginians who emancipated themselves, fled through the lines to freedom, and demanded the right to don the Union blue and free those still enslaved? Is Virginia not equally proud of their courage and sacrifice, given to a cause that was moral and just?
If there is a silver lining here, it is that we are having this discussion at all. Not long ago, this sort of prevarication would hardly have raised an eyebrow in the Commonwealth. That today, it is front-page news and roundly condemned is a sign of significant progress. We are, I suspect, hearing more about the Lost Cause of late because its remaining adherents are now an embattled and fading minority, and the once sympathetic mainstream now finds their antics deeply embarrassing. And nowhere is that truer than in Virginia, as the Capitol of the Confederacy continues to urbanize, diversify, and develop. That, at least, is encouraging.
The full text, after the jump:
Black and White, Blue and Gray
between the states was a war between peoples of all colors, on both
sides of the fight. White men, and enslaved and free African Americans
all those sides [sic]. Most American Indians did not take sides during
the Civil War.
The Virginia Confederates
E. Lee, most white Virginians supported the Confederate cause, and most
Virginia men became confederate soldiers. But not all Virginian soldiers
were white, and there were other ways to support the South without
firing a gun.
Both free and enslaved African-Americans worked for
the Petersburg railroads to keep the trains running during the War. The
Confederacy relied on slave labor to raise crops for food for the army,
as well as cooking, driving gun carts, building roads, and digging
trenches. Thousands of Southern blacks fought in the Confederate ranks,
including two black battalions under the command of Stonewall Jackson.
[The text is supplemented by a photograph of Richard Poplar, and a quote from Charles Tinsely, neither given appropriate context.]
This post first appeared here under the name Cynic.
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Start with the first set of parentheses on top:
So we're dividing fractions - we're dividing by .
Remember that when we divide by a fraction, the way to do it is to actually multiply by the reciprocal, so that first set of parentheses turns into:
Similarly, the second set of parentheses in the numerator, changing division to multiplication again, turns into:
Now, our numerator is .
Our problem now looks like:
Again, we're dividing by a fraction, so let's multiply by the reciprocal:
And that's it. With complicated problems like these, just deal with one thing at a time - simplify inside each set of parentheses first. Then, treat the numerator as if it is its own set of parentheses, so simplify that. Lastly, deal with combining the numerator and denominator appropriately.
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Architecture and identity : the perception and reflection of identity through architectural expression : a case study of Wentworth.
MetadataShow full item record
South Africa like many countries in the non-Western world has a long history of conflict stemming back to the spread of Colonialism. Various events through the years have contributed to the solidification of European and Western dominance over all that is "African". However the move to the new South Africa has facilitated renewed interaction and understanding through the celebration of peoples' differences. Differences which although unique have also contributed to the confused state of identity that exists. Current debate in South Africa centers greatly on the issue of "South African Identity", its existence, how it is created, and what constitutes it. South Africa's transition to the new democratic order has brought with it major shifts in the order and nature of peoples' identities as well as a "new" language that represents the collective identity of the society. This study focuses on the role of identity in architecture and examines the transformation and development of South African architectural expression and reflection as seen through the window of identity. r The study seeks to question how the built environment can begin to resp---o--nd to and reflect the concerns and aspirations of its inhabitants and also highlights the existence of the mutually constitutive link between identity, space and the built form. Key principles are set out in the study and are further examined through the critical analysis of both local and international precedents that serve to highlight the expressive nature of architecture, as well as the reflection of the multitude of influences on built form. The aim of the study is to identity existing perceptions within the built environment and in so doing begin to r analyse how these become manifest in the built form. he case study looks in particular at the area of Wentworth, situated south of Durban, and how architecture can be used to create public space which contributes to the formation of a collective and heterogeneous community identity. An identity which celebrates the diversity of its inhabitants while giving dignity and a sense of place to the environment.
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Technical know-how in the indigenous knowledge system underlying Batammariba traditional architecture in Togo and Benin. Yavo, Philippe. (2013)The desire to revitalise indigenous architecture and the built environment through socio-cultural, political and bio-physical relevance has created a strong need for the understanding of cultures and traditional built ...
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This article examines the position of groups under the African Charter of Human and Peoples Rights. The Charter does not contain a "minorities article" similar to that of Article 27, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It does, though, contain a substantive section on "peoples rights." The work examines the way in which the African Commission has interpreted human rights to non-discrimination, to take part in the cultural life of the community, freedom of religion and freedom of expression to ensure, to a limited extent, a right of cultural security for minority groups. Further, the section relating to peoples rights has been used by the African Commission to consider such issues as economic exploitation, environmental concerns, the exclusion and domination of one ethno-cultural group by another and claims for autonomy and secession.
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http://www.research.lancs.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/groups-and-the-african-charter-on-human-and-peoples-rights(beb48a17-311d-44a5-b9c2-9f02425cec01).html
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After all the stir caused by Wolframs rule 110, here's another puzzle about our universe whose understanding might help us get things a little clearer: Riemann's Zeta function.
The Riemann hypothesis, first tossed off by Bernhard Riemann in 1859 in a paper about the distribution of prime numbers, is still widely considered to be one of the greatest unsolved problems in mathematics, sure to wreath its conqueror with glory — and, incidentally, lots of cash. Two years ago, to celebrate the millennium, the Clay Mathematics Institute announced an award of a million dollars for a proof (or refutation) of the hypothesis.
Whether in pursuit of glory, cash ("prizes attract cranks," one mathematician sniffed) or pure mental satisfaction, more than a hundred of the world's leading mathematicians came to New York City recently to attend an unusual conference at New York University's Courant Institute. While most math conferences are devoted to presenting completed work, this one was held for mathematicians to swap hunches, warn of dead ends and get new ideas that could ultimately lead to a solution......
As in all sports, it helps to know the rules of the game. Riemann made his hypothesis in the course of a 10-page paper he wrote on the distribution of prime numbers that is considered to be one of the most important papers in the history of number theory, a history that stretches back more than 2,500 years..............Despite the random occurrence of individual primes, the primes themselves were found to follow a remarkably simple distribution. In 1792, when he was 15, Karl Friedrich Gauss decided to examine the number of primes less than a given number. He discovered that the primes became, on average, sparser the further out he looked and that this dwindling obeyed a simple, logarithmic law. He had no idea why this was so, but it was intriguing.
In 1859, Riemann, who had been a student of Gauss, took up the question of the distribution of primes in his only paper on number theory. With that paper he revolutionized the field, as he had the fields of geometry (his math became the basis for Einstein's theory of gravitation) and several other branches of mathematics. What Riemann discovered was a way of using the properties of a relatively simple function to count the primes.
While the real numbers can be thought of as points on an infinite line, the complex numbers are points on a plane. One axis of this complex plane corresponds to the real numbers, and the other corresponds to the "imaginary" numbers — which were introduced so that negative numbers could have square roots, and are no more imaginary than real numbers. A function like Riemann's zeta function is simply a rule that takes a point on this plane and sends it to some other point.
Riemann showed that if he knew where the value of his zeta function went to zero he would be able to predict the distribution of the primes. He was able to prove that aside from some "trivial" zeros — located at -2, -4, -6, and so on and thus easily included in his equations — the zeros of the zeta function all lay within a strip one unit wide running along the imaginary axis.
Somehow the distribution of these zeros mirrored or encoded the distribution of the prime numbers. Riemann guessed that all of the zeros ran along the middle of the critical strip like the dotted line on a highway. Nobody is sure why he made this guess, but it has proven to be inspired. Over the past few decades billions of zeros of the zeta function have been calculated by computer, and every one of them obeys Riemann's hypothesis.
Source: New York Times
The problem is to know whether this zeta function for primes has any significance, and if so, what is it?
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Monday evening was the beginning of the Jewish holiday known as Passover. The holiday commemorates the story told in Exodus in the Bible, when the Israelites left Egypt and slavery behind.
A Passover seder meal begins the holiday which lasts for eight days (or seven days in Israel). Some people observe a second seder meal the next evening.
Pictured above is how a seder meal might be presented. The items on a seder plate have symbolic meaning and are used during the 15 parts, or steps, of the meal.
OBSERVER Photo by Diane R. Chodan
Arrangement courtesy of Linda Dunn
Pictured is an example of a Seder meal that begins Passover, commemorating the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. The plate with the small bowls is called a seder plate containing from bottom left clockwise: green vegetables (karpas), horseradish (bitter herbs), a roasted egg, a shank bone, parsley, and haroset. On the plate to the right is matzah, the unleavened bread. On the left is a book known as the Haggadah which gives information about the rituals involved with the meal, blessings, and the telling of the story of Exodus. “Kosher for Passover” wine plays an important part in the meal. The cup to the right is called Elijah’s cup.
Green vegetables are said to represent hope and redemption. Typically, they are served with a bowl of salted water to remind the participants of the tears the Israelites shed in captivity. Maror is bitter herbs, often represented by horseradish and is a symbol of the bitterness of slavery. The roasted egg is the symbol of life and its continuation. The shank bone represents the sacrificial offering. Haroset (also found as Charoset or Charoses) is a paste of fruit - often apple - and nuts mixed with wine and cinnamon. This is said to represent the mortar used by the Jewish people in the construction of buildings as slaves in Egypt.
Three matzot (plural of matzah) are placed on a cloth to remind the participants of the haste of the departure from Egypt. Because of the haste, the bread did not have time to rise before baking.
In many Jewish households, the house must be rid of leavened bread (and other leavened items) before the celebration of Passover.
During the meal, the middle matzah is broken into two pieces, and the larger piece hidden. The piece is called afikomen (or aftkomen) and can be translated as dessert. However, it is meant in the sense that it is the last thing eaten at the meal rather than a typical sweet dessert. Other desserts can be served first, but the afikomen is the last item eaten before the meal ends.
In some versions of the custom, the children steal and hide the afikomen. They receive a small gift or treat for bringing it back. In other versions, the seder leader hides it, the children look for it and are rewarded for finding it. In any case, it is a way to keep the children involved in the meal.
During the meal, "Kosher for Passover" wine is generally served. Kosher food is created under the supervision of a rabbi. Kosher for Passover wine must be made without a fermentation aid (yeast or mold) that has been grown on bread. It also must exclude some common preservatives. Some people use grape juice instead.
Elijah's cup is filled with wine and the door is opened, inviting the prophet to come into the house.
An important part of the meal is the retelling of the exodus story. The youngest person (usually a child) at the table asks questions about Passover, about why this day is different from others. Those answering the questions often use the Haggadah, a book that gives information and prayers for Passover
Four types of children are described: the wise child, the wicked child, the simple child and the child who doesn't know how to ask a question.
Linda Dunn, who gave an overview of the holiday and offered resources for understanding the traditions, said that this is a part of the ceremony that is very meaningful for her. "It's important for us to realize that our heritage shapes who we become."
Comments on this article may be directed to firstname.lastname@example.org
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News Release - Wednesday 23rd November 2005: Updated Tuesday 29th November 2005
Factsheet on the Parliamentary elections in Ethiopia
Facts about the Recent Ethiopian Parliamentary Elections
Ethiopia adopted its first democratic constitution in 1995. The constitution established a bi-cameral parliament: the House of Peoples’ Representatives and the House of Federation.
Members of the House of Peoples’ Representatives are elected by the people for a term of five years by direct, free and fair elections held by secret ballot. The House has 547 seats. The House of Federation is composed of representatives of nationalities (i.e. ethnic groups) and each of them are represented by at least one member who is elected by State Council. Each nationality is also represented by one additional member for each one million of its population.
The first democratic election took place in 1995 and the second in 2000. The third and the most competitive multi-party election took place on 15th May 2005, both for the Federal Parliament as well as for the nine state councils.
The National Election Board of Ethiopia (NEBE) established by the Parliament, is entrusted to conduct elections throughout the country.
The Government and the ruling party had created a conducive atmosphere for all political parties to participate. Election laws were revised and a code of conduct for ruling party members issued. International and local election observers were invited. Opposition parties were able to campaign freely throughout the country. The public media was made available and the opposition were allotted 56% of the air-time allocated for campaigning.
More than thirty political parties participated. The major ones are the following:
The Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) is composed of four parties,
The Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD) is composed of four parties,
The United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (UEDF) is composed of more than seventeen parties.
There were 32,000 polling stations throughout the country. Over 26 million people registered to vote. The turn-out on election day was 90%.
Election campaigns were conducted for more than six months throughout the country. Hotly contested debates between the opposition and ruling party candidates were conducted. Town hall meetings and huge rallies were organized.
On Sunday 15th May 2005 voting took place throughout the country, with the exception of the Somali region where elections took place on 15th August. Both elections took place peacefully and the Ethiopian people exercised their right to elect representatives of their choice in this historic election in their country.
The opposition parties made complaints throughout the election process. After and during the polling process they complained that there was major fraud. They alleged that fraud and irregularities had happened in 299 constituencies and they made it clear that they would not accept the result.
NEBE, in cooperation with the election monitors, conducted extensive investigations into the complaints made by the opposition. As a result of this investigation, the NEBE conducted election re-runs in thirty-one constituencies where major problems had been found.
After thorough investigation was completed, NEBE announced the results of the election as follows:
EPRDF 327 seats
CUD 109 seats
UEDF 52 seats
Other parties 46 seats
Independent 1 seat
According to this result, the ruling party, the EPRDF, retained a majority of seats with 327, while the opposition block (i.e. the CUD, UEDF, OFDM) gained more than 170 seats. In the outgoing parliament the opposition had had only 12 seats, so in the May elections they gained impressive results.
Ethiopia has nine federal states with nine state councils. In the nine state councils, EPRDF and its allies won overall, but the opposition parties also made considerable progress. For example, in the Amhara State Council, out of 294 seats, CUD won 107 and out of 537 seats in the Oromia State Council the opposition won 148 seats (i.e. UEDF – 105, CUD - 33 and OFDM - 10). In a clean sweep, the CUD won all the seats in Addis Ababa, both for the Parliament as well and for the city council and expected to form its Government in the capital city.
Opposition parties continued to charge the ruling party with fraud and irregularities. They called upon their supporters to go onto the streets to change the result. In a violent protest that was staged in Addis Ababa by the opposition parties on 8th June 2005, twenty-six people lost their lives. The loss of lives is unfortunate and regrettable.
After this unfortunate incident, under pressure from the public and the international community, all parties met for discussions held under the auspices of the NEBE. Finally, an agreement was signed by representatives from the EPRDF, the CUD and the UEDF on 10th June. Despite some initial set-backs caused by pre-conditions set by the CUD, which were then retracted, agreement was reached, with all parties re-affirming their commitment to the successful conclusion of the electoral process and accepting the legal authority of the NEBE. In signing the agreement, all parties also re-asserted their condemnation of all acts of violence or incitement to violence and affirmed their resolution to resolve all issues through legal and peaceful means only.
The 10th June agreement has been constantly violated by the opposition who continue to incite violence to change the result of the election. They called a general strike and a nationwide demonstration, starting on 2nd October. Tension was mounting in the country and the Government warned the opposition parties that illegal and violent demonstrations cannot be tolerated.
Foreign diplomats in Ethiopia offered mediation to bring the two parties together to resolve their disagreement peacefully and legally if necessary. Both parties agreed upon 8 points for dialogue and the Opposition called off the strike. Suddenly however, the opposition parties walked out before real dialogue had begun on these 8 points, without satisfactory explanation.
The Ethiopian Parliament opened on 10th October 2005 and all the parties except the CUD took up their seats. Disagreeing with their party’s intention to boycott the parliament, 38 CUD members out of 109 took up their seats in parliament. Therefore, out of 547 sets, 475 members of parliament (86.8%) have now taken their seats, representing their constituencies. More CUD members are expected to follow suit soon. By 29th November 2005, 49 CUD members had taken up their seats in Parliament.
The leaders of the CUD, on the other hand again called a national strike and instigated violent demonstrations, to force the ruling party and the duly elected Government to heed their demands.
In a series of violent demonstrations, and street disturbances organized by the CUD on 1st and 2nd November, especially in Addis Ababa, regrettably 42 citizens lost their lives. Out of these, seven were policemen who were killed by rioters with hand-grenades, machetes, knives and other deadly weapons. Thirty-five were civilians. 338 law enforcement agents were also injured, some very seriously. The damage to public and private property was immense.
Twenty-four members of the leadership of the CUD have been arrested in relation to these serious illegal acts and will be charged by the courts. However, the Government has not banned the CUD and the rest of its leadership and members are free citizens. The Government has shown a keen interest to enter into dialogue with them if they renounce the inciting of violence.
The Ethiopian Parliament, on 14th November 2005 made a decision to set up a neutral commission that will investigate the incidents that occurred on 8th June as well as 1st and 2nd November 2005 in Addis Ababa that have accounted for the loss of our citizens’ lives. It is entrusted to investigate whether there was the use of excessive force by the security forces to contain both riots.
All friends of Ethiopia expressed their concern and offered their support. The US Government issued a statement condemning “the cynical, deliberate attempts to stoke violence in the Ethiopian capital” and “deplored the use of violence, and deliberate attempts to provoke violence, in a misguided attempt to resolve political differences.” Resident diplomats of donor countries in Ethiopia also appealed for calm and restraint.
The irresponsible acts by the leaders of the CUD surely undermined Ethiopia’s efforts at democratization and its aspiration to continue its economic development. However, the Government renewed its commitment to continue the ongoing democratic and economic programme. Citizens’ human and political rights will continue to be protected.
In conclusion, Ethiopia conducted the most free and fair elections in its entire history on 15th May 2005. This election was monitored by international and local election monitors. Accordingly, the following were among them:
The African Union
The Carter Centre
The European Union
The US Department of State
About 150,000 local election monitors, mainly from Ethiopian religious institutions and civic society observed the election process throughout the country as well.
All election observers, except the EU monitors, have submitted their final reports. The EU monitors issued a confusing “preliminary report” on the re-run election process which was critical of some elements of the process. They said the election “did not live up to international standards.” They also said “.. the polling processes were generally positive. The overall assessment of the process has been rated as good in 64% of the cases and very good in 24%.”
All election observers, except the EU monitors, have reached the conclusion that the ruling party, the EPRDF, won the election with a clear majority in the Parliament.
Foreign leaders and heads of the international organizations sent messages to Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, congratulating him on his re-election, and to his party for winning the election. They include the UN Secretary General, Kofi Anna, the current AU Chairman, President Olusegun Obasanjo, the European Commission President, Jose Manuel Barroso, the UK Prime Minister, Tony Blair and many more.
In their final reports, the international observers to the election of 15th May 2005 said the following:
31.1 The African Union:
Members of the AU Observer Team participated fully in the observation activities and submitted a comprehensive report to the AU Chairperson. In the report, issued on 14th September, they concluded that:
“the election of 2005 and subsequent investigation processes were conducted and organized in accordance with the country’s electoral laws.. The AU wishes to commend the Ethiopian people’s display of genuine commitment to democratic ideals and urges them to accept the outcome of the results in order to build on the gains that have been recorded.”
31.2 The Carter Center:
The Carter Center expressed its pleasure at being invited to observe the elections. In a 15th September statement it said:
“The elections process demonstrated significant advances in Ethiopia's democratization process, including most importantly the introduction of a more competitive electoral process, which could potentially result in a pluralistic, multi-party political system. Ethiopians saw and understood that public policy appropriately receives debate, that public media cover multiple points of view, that voters' choices can result in the election of opposition members of parliament, and that local administration may be in the hands of a party other than the ruling party. Depending on developments in the coming months and years, the 2005 elections could potentially represent a historic sea change in attitudes toward political power and competition in Ethiopia…The Carter Center's assessment of the elections suggests that the majority of the constituency results based on the May 15 polling and tabulation are credible and reflect competitive conditions.”
31.3 The Donors’ Representatives in Ethiopia:
A press statement dated 13thSeptember endorsed by twenty-four representatives of the donor countries residing in Ethiopia stated:
“The final results of Ethiopia’s historic 2005 elections issued by the NEBE.. confirm the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front’s majority in Parliament. We welcome the efforts of all parties to bring a new era of multi-party politics to Ethiopia, and look forward to a dynamic Parliament in which the opposition has a strong voice and there is a spirit of inclusiveness and cooperation. Most of all, we congratulate the Ethiopian people for their demonstrated commitment to democracy. We urge all parties to take their seats in the National Assembly with good will and mutual respect, to express the interests and views of all Ethiopians in a vibrant multi-party Parliament. As Ethiopia's partners, we stand ready to support the development of Ethiopian democracy.”
31.4 The US Department of State:
The US State Department issued a press release on 16th September stating:
“These elections stand out as a milestone in creating a new, more competitive multi-party political system in one of Africa’s largest and most important countries. Because reported election irregularities raised concerns about transparency, we will work with the international community and the Ethiopian government and parties to strengthen the electoral process. We strongly urge all the political parties to participate in the political process and to play responsible roles as the elected representatives of the Ethiopian people.. We call on all newly elected members of parliament to take their seats, and to serve under Ethiopia’s constitution.”
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with sectors and districts
General Berlin Map, 1961
City Map East Berlin, 1984
World War II the city of Berlin was divided in four
sectors. The American,
British and French sector were part of the western system while the Soviet
sector was part of the communist system in the East.
Until the erection of the Berlin Wall on August 13, 1961 Berlin citizen were
allowed to cross the border sectors from West to East or East to West Berlin.
West and East city map publishers showed both parts of the city on their maps
The after 1976 white painted Wall became also reality on city maps
in East Berlin: West Berlin was a white area on city maps published in the East.
East Berliners should not get to know too much information about the other
part of their city.
After the fall of the Wall the border between East and West Berlin also
disappeared from the city maps.
However the way of the Berlin Wall is still visible indirectly on Berlin city maps.
You only have to know that the former border was between the districts of East
and West Berlin.
Marzahn (founded 1979)
Hellersdorf (founded 1986)
Hohenschönhausen (founded 1985)
European History - Historical Map of Europe 1945-90
Maps of Europe - The Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection
OpenStreetMap - OpenStreetMap Project
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Track topics on Twitter Track topics that are important to you
It is well established that physical exercise can exert neuroprotection both in clinical settings and animal experiments. A series of studies have demonstrated that physical exercise may be a promising preconditioning method to induce brain ischemic tolerance through the promotion of angiogenesis, mediation of the inflammatory response, inhibition of glutamate over-activation, protection of the blood brain barrier (BBB) and inhibition of apoptosis. Through these mechanisms, exercise preconditioning may reduce the neural deficits associated with ischemia and the development of brain infarction and thus provide brain ischemic tolerance. An awareness of the benefits of exercise preconditioning may lead more patients to accept exercise therapy in cases of ischemic stroke.
Department of Rehabilitation, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, People's Republic of China; Department of Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China.
This article was published in the following journal.
Stroke is a leading cause of disability with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Of all strokes, 87% are ischemic. The only approved treatments for acute ischemic stroke are intravenous thrombolys...
Neurodegeneration is the progressive loss of central neurons which may instigate many disabling psychological and neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease, Schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, p...
Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) enhances whole-body exercise endurance. However, it is poorly understood whether the beneficial effects originate from systemic (e. g., cardiovascular system) or perip...
Preconditioning exercise can exert neuroprotective effects after stroke. However, the mechanism underlying these neuroprotective effects by preconditioning exercise remains unclear. We investigated th...
Exercise may be one of the most effective and sound therapies for stroke; however, the mechanisms underlying the curative effects remain unclear. In this study, the effects of forced treadmill exercis...
The purpose of this study is to assess the effects of repeated RIPC and exercise, on exercise performance, skeletal muscle responses and circulating cellular and humoral biology in humans
In this proof-of-concept study, forearm vulnerability to ischemic exercise is studied in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus with and without prior ischemic preconditioning (short perio...
The most powerful protective mechanism against ischemia-reperfusion injury other than rapid reperfusion is ischemic preconditioning. Ischemic preconditioning is defined as the development ...
Rupture of brain aneurysms is a common cause of death and disability, accounting for as many as 10% of stroke cases in the United States. While much of the resulting injury to the nervous ...
Numerous studies Have shown that limb ischemic preconditioning can protect vital organs (including the heart) from ischemia-reperfusion injury,which has a broad application prospect.But it...
The application of repeated, brief periods of vascular occlusion at the onset of REPERFUSION to reduce REPERFUSION INJURY that follows a prolonged ischemic event. The techniques are similar to ISCHEMIC PRECONDITIONING but the time of application is after the ischemic event instead of before.
The exercise capacity of an individual as measured by endurance (maximal exercise duration and/or maximal attained work load) during an EXERCISE TEST.
A technique in which tissue is rendered resistant to the deleterious effects of prolonged ischemia and reperfusion by prior exposure to brief, repeated periods of vascular occlusion. (Am J Physiol 1995 May;268(5 Pt 2):H2063-7, Abstract)
A disorder characterized by a reduction of oxygen in the blood combined with reduced blood flow (ISCHEMIA) to the brain from a localized obstruction of a cerebral artery or from systemic hypoperfusion. Prolonged hypoxia-ischemia is associated with ISCHEMIC ATTACK, TRANSIENT; BRAIN INFARCTION; BRAIN EDEMA; COMA; and other conditions.
Exposure of myocardial tissue to brief, repeated periods of vascular occlusion in order to render the myocardium resistant to the deleterious effects of ISCHEMIA or REPERFUSION. The period of pre-exposure and the number of times the tissue is exposed to ischemia and reperfusion vary, the average being 3 to 5 minutes.
Of all the types of Dementia, Alzheimer's disease is the most common, affecting around 465,000 people in the UK. Neurons in the brain die, becuase 'plaques' and 'tangles' (mis-folded proteins) form in the brain. People with Al...
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Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning
There are many hazards in our home that we often overlook, carbon monoxide poisoning is one of these. There is a simple solution to protect you and your family from becoming victims of this poison -- a Carbon Monoxide (CO) Alarm. In addition to installing this very simple device (it is very similar to a smoke detector), the CPSC recommends "consumers to have a professional inspection of all fuel- burning appliances -- including furnaces, stoves, fireplaces, clothes dryers, water heaters, and space heaters -- to detect deadly carbon monoxide leaks."
-- Medical Editor, MedicineNet.com
Household Hazard - Carbon Monoxide "CO" Poisoning Warning
After a recent rash of carbon monoxide poisonings - including incidents in Maryland, Pennsylvania and New Jersey -- the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) is repeating its recommendation that every home should have a carbon monoxide (CO) alarm. CPSC also urges consumers to have a professional inspection of all fuel- burning appliances -- including furnaces, stoves, fireplaces, clothes dryers, water heaters, and space heaters -- to detect deadly carbon monoxide leaks.
These appliances burn fuels, such as gas, both natural and liquefied petroleum; kerosene; oil; coal; or wood. Under certain conditions, fuel-burning appliances can produce deadly CO. However, with proper installation and maintenance, they are safe to use.
CO is a colorless, odorless gas produced by burning any fuel. The initial symptoms of CO poisoning are similar to the flu, and include headache, fatigue, shortness of breath, nausea and dizziness. Exposure to high levels of CO can cause death.
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|By Mauro Carniel||
|October 15, 2008 08:45 AM EDT||
Before describing solutions available for rich client application development, it would be a good idea to explain what exactly a rich client application is and which rich client topologies can feasibly be built using the Java platform.
In the main, a rich client is a part of a software system that contains a user interface (UI) and whose front end is "rich," i.e., the user interface has rich graphical content and is highly interactive; a rich client application is also called a desktop application, since it provides content and functionalities that are usually provided by applications on the desktop of your own PC (access to local resources, complex user interface, the capability to connect to remote services, etc.).
Enterprise applications are an example of applications that require a "rich" front end, that is, applications employed in enterprises to manage some business process and data, such as CRM and SCM; in that context, having a "rich" front end becomes a determining and critical factor to ensure business productivity.
The term "client" indicates the existence of another layer in the software system, the "server" that usually provides services to the client side. The two layers used together compose a client/server application. A client/server application can usually combine two or three layers, so it is possible to distinguish several rich-client topologies:
• Two-layered client/server applications, where the client side includes both the presentation (user interface) and the business logic (that is, the part of the application that contains data access and manipulation logic); the server side is usually made up of an information system layer, such as a database.
This kind of client is also called a fat client or thick client, because the client could operate independently from other systems, in some cases without depending on a server-side component.
Applications developed using Visual Basic or Delphi are examples of two-layered rich clients. Using the Java platform, it is possible to realize these kinds of applications using, for instance, the Swing toolkit for the user interface and some other technology for database access and manipulation; the latter can be developed using different solutions:
- Using the JDBC directly to access the database
- Using an ORM tool (Object-to-Relational Mapping) or a more simple data mapper tool whose purpose is to abstract the entity-relational model of the database by mapping it to objects and relations between objects
- Using an entity persistence layer, based on JPA, a recent technology based on J2SE 1.5/1.6 having features similar to the ones supplied by an ORM tool
• Three-layered client/server applications, where the client side includes only the presentation (user interface), the server side is focused on the business logic, and the third layer is related to the information system tier, i.e., the database; the server side has the task of providing services to the client side, so it must be accessible from the client side using some kind of communications protocol.
|pettevi 10/30/08 08:31:25 AM EDT|
Thanks Mauro, don't forget Flamingo Swing component suite (https://flamingo.dev.java.net) or SwingX (https://swingx.dev.java.net) either. Or the other dozen toolkits out there that don't really raise to the same quality level.
[session] Extending Intelligence to IoT By @BsquareCorp | @ThingsExpo #IoT #M2M #API #DigitalTransformation
Ask someone to architect an Internet of Things (IoT) solution and you are guaranteed to see a reference to the cloud. This would lead you to believe that IoT requires the cloud to exist. However, there are many IoT use cases where the cloud is not feasible or desirable. In his session at @ThingsExpo, Dave McCarthy, Director of Products at Bsquare Corporation, will discuss the strategies that exist to extend intelligence directly to IoT devices and sensors, freeing them from the constraints of ...
Jul. 1, 2016 09:12 AM EDT
The IoT is changing the way enterprises conduct business. In his session at @ThingsExpo, Eric Hoffman, Vice President at EastBanc Technologies, discussed how businesses can gain an edge over competitors by empowering consumers to take control through IoT. He cited examples such as a Washington, D.C.-based sports club that leveraged IoT and the cloud to develop a comprehensive booking system. He also highlighted how IoT can revitalize and restore outdated business models, making them profitable ...
Jul. 1, 2016 09:00 AM EDT Reads: 610
[session] The Factory of the Future, Today By @Cisco | @ThingsExpo #IoT #BigData #DigitalTransformation
IoT offers a value of almost $4 trillion to the manufacturing industry through platforms that can improve margins, optimize operations & drive high performance work teams. By using IoT technologies as a foundation, manufacturing customers are integrating worker safety with manufacturing systems, driving deep collaboration and utilizing analytics to exponentially increased per-unit margins. However, as Benoit Lheureux, the VP for Research at Gartner points out, “IoT project implementers often ...
Jul. 1, 2016 08:45 AM EDT Reads: 758
Edge Hosting has announced a partnership with and the availability of CloudFlare, a web application firewall, CDN and DDoS mitigation service. “This partnership enhances Edge Hosting’s world class, perimeter layer, application (layer 7) defensive mechanism,” said Mark Houpt, Edge Hosting CISO. “The goal was to enable a new layer of customer controlled defense and compliance through the application of DDoS filters and mitigations, the web application firewall (WAF) feature and the added benefit ...
Jul. 1, 2016 08:15 AM EDT Reads: 759
As organizations shift towards IT-as-a-service models, the need for managing and protecting data residing across physical, virtual, and now cloud environments grows with it. Commvault can ensure protection, access and E-Discovery of your data – whether in a private cloud, a Service Provider delivered public cloud, or a hybrid cloud environment – across the heterogeneous enterprise. In his general session at 18th Cloud Expo, Randy De Meno, Chief Technologist - Windows Products and Microsoft Part...
Jul. 1, 2016 08:00 AM EDT Reads: 766
Dialogic has announced that ZVRS chose Dialogic® PowerMedia™ XMS software media server as part of its latest video relay and translation service offering. ZVRS uses Dialogic’s PowerMedia XMS technology to provide a robust solution that supports a broad range of legacy devices and any-to-any video capabilities with its flagship Z70 videophone. ZVRS selected Dialogic’s solution to facilitate a release of Z70 that met its stringent requirements for legacy device support (H.263 and H.264) with high...
Jul. 1, 2016 08:00 AM EDT Reads: 609
"Tintri was started in 2008 with the express purpose of building a storage appliance that is ideal for virtualized environments. We support a lot of different hypervisor platforms from VMware to OpenStack to Hyper-V," explained Dan Florea, Director of Product Management at Tintri, in this SYS-CON.tv interview at 18th Cloud Expo, held June 7-9, 2016, at the Javits Center in New York City, NY.
Jul. 1, 2016 08:00 AM EDT Reads: 467
The idea of comparing data in motion (at the sensor level) to data at rest (in a Big Data server warehouse) with predictive analytics in the cloud is very appealing to the industrial IoT sector. The problem Big Data vendors have, however, is access to that data in motion at the sensor location. In his session at @ThingsExpo, Scott Allen, CMO of FreeWave, discussed how as IoT is increasingly adopted by industrial markets, there is going to be an increased demand for sensor data from the outermos...
Jul. 1, 2016 08:00 AM EDT Reads: 522
CenturyLink has announced that application server solutions from GENBAND are now available as part of CenturyLink’s Networx contracts. The General Services Administration (GSA)’s Networx program includes the largest telecommunications contract vehicles ever awarded by the federal government. CenturyLink recently secured an extension through spring 2020 of its offerings available to federal government agencies via GSA’s Networx Universal and Enterprise contracts. GENBAND’s EXPERiUS™ Application...
Jul. 1, 2016 08:00 AM EDT Reads: 542
A strange thing is happening along the way to the Internet of Things, namely far too many devices to work with and manage. It has become clear that we'll need much higher efficiency user experiences that can allow us to more easily and scalably work with the thousands of devices that will soon be in each of our lives. Enter the conversational interface revolution, combining bots we can literally talk with, gesture to, and even direct with our thoughts, with embedded artificial intelligence, wh...
Jul. 1, 2016 07:15 AM EDT Reads: 1,298
"delaPlex is a software development company. We do team-based outsourcing development," explained Mark Rivers, COO and Co-founder of delaPlex Software, in this SYS-CON.tv interview at 18th Cloud Expo, held June 7-9, 2016, at the Javits Center in New York City, NY.
Jul. 1, 2016 07:15 AM EDT Reads: 681
SaaS companies can greatly expand revenue potential by pushing beyond their own borders. The challenge is how to do this without degrading service quality. In his session at 18th Cloud Expo, Adam Rogers, Managing Director at Anexia, discussed how IaaS providers with a global presence and both virtual and dedicated infrastructure can help companies expand their service footprint with low “go-to-market” costs.
Jul. 1, 2016 06:00 AM EDT Reads: 1,205
"We work in the area of Big Data analytics and Big Data analytics is a very crowded space - you have Hadoop, ETL, warehousing, visualization and there's a lot of effort trying to get these tools to talk to each other," explained Mukund Deshpande, head of the Analytics practice at Accelerite, in this SYS-CON.tv interview at 18th Cloud Expo, held June 7-9, 2016, at the Javits Center in New York City, NY.
Jul. 1, 2016 12:30 AM EDT Reads: 734
Cloud Expo, Inc. has announced today that Andi Mann returns to 'DevOps at Cloud Expo 2016' as Conference Chair The @DevOpsSummit at Cloud Expo will take place on November 1-3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. "DevOps is set to be one of the most profound disruptions to hit IT in decades," said Andi Mann. "It is a natural extension of cloud computing, and I have seen both firsthand and in independent research the fantastic results DevOps delivers. So I am excited t...
Jul. 1, 2016 12:00 AM EDT Reads: 611
Unless your company can spend a lot of money on new technology, re-engineering your environment and hiring a comprehensive cybersecurity team, you will most likely move to the cloud or seek external service partnerships. In his session at 18th Cloud Expo, Darren Guccione, CEO of Keeper Security, revealed what you need to know when it comes to encryption in the cloud.
Jun. 30, 2016 07:15 PM EDT Reads: 591
[session] Redis Functions and Data Structures By @DaveNielsen | @CloudExpo #Cloud #Redis #Containers
Redis is not only the fastest database, but it is the most popular among the new wave of databases running in containers. Redis speeds up just about every data interaction between your users or operational systems. In his session at 19th Cloud Expo, Dave Nielsen, Developer Advocate, Redis Labs, will share the functions and data structures used to solve everyday use cases that are driving Redis' popularity.
Jun. 30, 2016 06:15 PM EDT Reads: 473
"SpeedyCloud's specialty lies in providing cloud services - we provide IaaS for Internet and enterprises companies," explained Hao Yu, CEO and co-founder of SpeedyCloud, in this SYS-CON.tv interview at 18th Cloud Expo, held June 7-9, 2016, at the Javits Center in New York City, NY.
Jun. 30, 2016 06:15 PM EDT Reads: 1,057
Your business relies on your applications and your employees to stay in business. Whether you develop apps or manage business critical apps that help fuel your business, what happens when users experience sluggish performance? You and all technical teams across the organization – application, network, operations, among others, as well as, those outside the organization, like ISPs and third-party providers – are called in to solve the problem.
Jun. 30, 2016 05:15 PM EDT Reads: 1,035
Creating replica copies to tolerate a certain number of failures is easy, but very expensive at cloud-scale. Conventional RAID has lower overhead, but it is limited in the number of failures it can tolerate. And the management is like herding cats (overseeing capacity, rebuilds, migrations, and degraded performance). Download Slide Deck: ▸ Here In his general session at 18th Cloud Expo, Scott Cleland, Senior Director of Product Marketing for the HGST Cloud Infrastructure Business Unit, discusse...
Jun. 30, 2016 05:00 PM EDT Reads: 1,189
It's easy to assume that your app will run on a fast and reliable network. The reality for your app's users, though, is often a slow, unreliable network with spotty coverage. What happens when the network doesn't work, or when the device is in airplane mode? You get unhappy, frustrated users. An offline-first app is an app that works, without error, when there is no network connection. In his session at 18th Cloud Expo, Bradley Holt, a Developer Advocate with IBM Cloud Data Services, discussed...
Jun. 30, 2016 04:00 PM EDT Reads: 1,075
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Maintaining contact with the water is central to the water lily beetle’s ability to travel from lily pad to lily pad. Now a new study shows how the unique strategy the beetle uses allows it to essentially fly in two dimensions.
When Manu Prakash was a graduate student, he would often hike through the woods in western Massachusetts. On one of these excursions, he stopped by a pond to watch water lilies blossom, and noticed a series of small ripples flash across the water.
It was a perfectly still day; no wind, no rain. A few minutes of investigation revealed the culprit: a tiny insect, called the water lily beetle, which flits from lily pad to lily pad. Prakash scooped up a few of the beetles and took them home, and began studying them as they skittered across water-filled plates on his kitchen table.
Years later, Prakash’s curiosity paid off when he and his students discovered the remarkable physics of the beetle’s flight.
“The surface tension forces are so large compared to this little thing, but it has the capacity to fly at half a meter per second on the surface of water without ever detaching from the water’s surface,” says Prakash, now an assistant professor of bioengineering at Stanford University. “It’s one of the fastest-known locomotion strategies on the surface of water.”
Prakash, along with a couple of summer interns, Thibaut Bardon and Dong Hyun Kim, painstakingly videoed the beetles as they darted here and there in small aquariums. The video clips caught the eye of Haripriya Mukundarajan, a mechanical engineering graduate student in Prakash’s lab.
“Every time they presented their work, I just thought it was the coolest project in existence,” she says. “The beetles look so beautiful on film, and this project is so rich with opportunity to do really fascinating research in so many fields, including fluid mechanics, biomechanics, and non-linear dynamics, and synthesize them into an explanation of this biological phenomenon.”
A bumpy ride
The videos revealed the beetle’s unique technique: Once it settles on the water, it lifts each leg, one at a time, and carefully places them back so that only the tip comes into contact with the water’s surface.
Next, it raises its two middle legs high above its body, unfurls its wings, and flaps in a figure-eight motion. As the wing-beat action settles into a stable frequency—115 cycles per second—the insect rocks slightly, picks up steam, and shoots across the water without ever losing contact with the surface.
“It makes for a fairly bumpy ride from the insect’s perspective.”
But it required careful analysis of the video and the creation of mathematical models that incorporate all aspects of the insect’s flight to unravel the complicated physics that make this possible.
The researchers discovered that the preflight leg routine was crucial for minimizing friction with the water and for establishing stability. Calculations also explained the invisible source of the ripples that first caught Prakash’s interest.
The claws on the beetle’s feet grip the water just enough so that when it beats its wings downward, the beetle actually pulls the surface of the water upward. Conversely, on the upstroke, the water pulls the beetle back down. Amazingly, the beetle is able to beat its wings at a consistent frequency even through all this jostling, and the repetitive up-and-down action is maintained as the beetle travels, creating an unexpected effect.
“This makes the insect feel as though it is on a pogo stick on the water. It makes for a fairly bumpy ride from the insect’s perspective, but without this it will either fly off or sink,” Mukundarajan says. “You don’t usually associate bumpiness with water, but at that scale surface tension is so dominant in the system that it completely turns human intuition on its head. This has provided some fascinating insights into fluid mechanics.”
The findings, published in the Journal of Experimental Biology, serve as a reminder that simply altering one’s frame of mind can lead to startling findings, Prakash says. For instance, imagine shrinking yourself down to the millimeter scale. You haven’t just shrunk down, the entire world around you is suddenly changed, and forces that you never think about all of the sudden matter, often in ways you wouldn’t expect. A drop of water to a human is nothing, but the surface forces of that same drop could feel like superglue to a small creature.
“When you put yourself in the framework of animals that live in this planet, you suddenly realize the way they solve problems is fundamentally different from the way you and I would think about solving an engineering problem,” he says. “That’s just fascinating, because you suddenly stumble upon completely new and creative solutions.”
The research as funded in part by a Howard Hughes Medical Institute International Student Research Fellowship, an NSF Career Award and a Pew Foundation Fellowship.
Source: Stanford University
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One decade later, Relating Events in Narrative, Volume 2: Typological and Contextual Perspectives is the follow up to the 1994 publication, Relating Events in Narrative: A Crosslinguistics Developmental Study (by Ruth Berman and Dan Slobin). Because both books explore a range of topics using Mercer Mayer’s picture book, Frog: where are you? as the research vehicle, the Relating Events volumes have become known to our publishing team as the Frog Story books.
The new volume brings together international scholars who have all used Frog: where are you? for their crosslinguistic research. The book is divided into two parts: Part 1 of this book focuses on factors of linguistic typology in frog story research, while Part 2 presents different perspectives on the genre of frog story narrative. These perspectives include theory of mind, bilingualism, and second language acquisition.
The present volume deals with American Sign Language, Arrernte, Basque, English, Hebrew, Icelandic, Japanese, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Turkish, Tzeltal, Warlpiri and West Greenlandic. That makes fourteen languages and six phyla, compared to five languages and three phyla in Volume I. The theme that runs throughout the chapters is that crosslinguistic variation is as different in content and cognitive aspects as it is in language form.
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This information is for reference purposes only. It was current when produced and may now be outdated. Archive material is no longer maintained, and some links may not work. Persons with disabilities having difficulty accessing this information should contact us at: https://info.ahrq.gov. Let us know the nature of the problem, the Web address of what you want, and your contact information.
Please go to www.ahrq.gov for current information.
An Institute of Medicine (IOM) report called the health care safety net in the United States "intact but endangered" in 2000. In response to IOM recommendations to monitor the safety net, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Health Resources and Services Administration, and Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services began a joint safety net monitoring initiative in an expert meeting on November 9, 2000.
The hospital emergency department (ED) will be one key source of data for this monitoring, as EDs provide a considerable proportion of the country's safety net services. Although the role of the ED as a safety net for uninsured patients has been well documented, it is not clear how the ED functions to provide ongoing, regular care for low-income populations. Several questions remain unanswered. For example, why and how do safety net patients rely on the ED to provide preventive care, urgent acute care, and nonurgent acute care, and to what extent do EDs have the resources to provide for this care without constraining their ability to provide emergency care to other patients?
Among the many other questions that need to be answered are how the ED fits into other systems of care; whether ED data can be monitored on an ongoing basis to understand trends and provide early warning of impending health care crises, particularly those that may affect safety net populations; and whether EDs can help monitor system failures within the safety net. The development and integration of data systems that include relevant clinical information from ED encounters will be crucial to creating a dynamic, policy-relevant monitoring system for the safety net. Also, collaboration between the health services research and emergency medicine communities will be critical to accomplishing this goal, conclude Robin M. Weinick, Ph.D., and Helen Burstin, M.D., M.P.H., of AHRQ's Center for Primary Care Research. They suggest ways for meeting these challenges in a recent article.
See "Monitoring the safety net: Data challenges for emergency departments," by Drs. Weinick and Burstin, in the November 2001 Academic Emergency Medicine 8(11), pp. 1019-1021.
Reprints (AHRQ Publication No. 02-R017) are available from the AHRQ the AHRQ Publications Clearinghouse.
Return to Contents
Proceed to Next Article
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The darker the color, the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival. The outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season. More on reading these maps.
By 2080, this hummingbird is expected to lose 90 percent of its current breeding range, according to Audubon’s climate models. In order to adapt, this colorful species may have to transition from coastal areas to more inland ones as its climate space shifts—and find the nectar it needs there.
Close relative of the Rufous Hummingbird, and almost identical to it in some plumages, Allen’s Hummingbird has a much more restricted summer range. While the Rufous nests from Wyoming to southern Alaska, Allen’s nests only in coastal regions of California and southwestern Oregon. During migration seasons, however, they overlap extensively, both traveling to southern Mexico for the winter. Within its summer range, Allen’s Hummingbird is commonly seen in back yards and city parks, where males will perform their spectacular display dives to warn rival males away and attract the attention of females.
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The California Condor Recovery Program has defied the odds to rescue from oblivion the last of the prehistorics and icon of Native Californian cosmology. Threats such as lead ammunition, micro-trash, and sprawling land development threaten these impressive gains of an endangered species. The film “The Condor’s Shadow” documents this struggle.
An Endangered Species Success Story: Flying Free Again, From Baja to Big Sur
The name Chinigchinich, whose habitation is above, means “All-powerful” or “Almighty.” When dancing enrobed in a dress composed of feathers, a crown of the same upon his head, his face painted black and red, he is also known as Tobet. They say that once, while dancing in this costume, he was taken up into heaven, where are located the stars. — Father Friar Gerónimo Boscana, 1846, on the customs of the Acjachemen People of Alta California
During the Pleistocene Era, California condors ranged from what is now British Columbia, down to Baja California Sur, and through much of North America. By 1940, the condor’s range was reduced to a horseshoe-shaped mountain range in southern California.
The almost-10-foot wing-span vulture, the last of the prehistorics, known to soar on thermals up to 140 miles per day scavenging carcasses, had lost its way. Development of railroads and roads, and their attendant Euro-centric population explosion, brought about extinction of roving herds where the deer and the antelope once played. Lead bullets, powerlines, poisoned varmints, microtrash, and target-hungry hunters contributed to the death spiral. With the open range fenced and bulldozed into housing subdivisions, most considered the condor on his last wing.
On April 19, 1987, the final free-flying California condor was captured from the wild and placed in captivity. At that time, only 27 condors remained near-extinction, all in zoos. In the last thirty years, the multi-entity captive breeding and reintroduction effort of the US Fish and Wildlife Condor Recovery Program has brought the Gymnogyps californianus back from the abyss. Even though the population has rebounded to more than 360 birds, flying high in California, Arizona and Baja California, condors still face tremendous challenges. Many wonder whether this endangered species triumph is worth more than $5 million in annual costs, or roughly $13,000 per bird.
Ultimately, experts seek to attain three distinct populations — one wild in California, another wild in Arizona, with a third raised in captivity. Each would have 150 birds and at least 15 breeding pairs. Meanwhile, lead poisoning from hunter’s ammunition persists, wildfires consume habitat, micro-trash ingestion can prove fatal, West Nile Virus threatens fledglings, and it is unknown whether the remaining wildlands can produce sufficient carrion. Furthermore, large-scale land development such as Tejon Ranch and Newhall Ranch threaten to consume habitat, and hunters resist further long-term legislation banning lead ammo. Yet for the first time in decades, the recovery program managers as well as the community at large are optimistic for success.
Following the Southern California recovery team into wild condor nests, The Condor’s Shadow, the documentary by Jeff McLoughlin, reveals the inherent beauty of these huge birds soaring over the rugged refuges they call home. The film profiles the ongoing challenge of bringing the iconic California condor back from the brink of extinction.
The most celebrated of all their feasts, and which was observed yearly, was the one they called the “Panes,” signifying a bird feast. Particular adoration was observed by them, for a bird resembling much in appearance the common buzzard, or vulture, but of larger dimensions. — Father Friar Gerónimo Boscana
Hol-hol, the Condor-Impersonator, Holds Up the Sky
The condor played a prominent role in the cosmological beliefs and practices of the native people of the Californias. Hence, the bird’s resurgence at the hand of humans can be interpreted as a symbol of hope for renewal of an earth battered by overpopulation, contamination and misuse.
John W. Foster, the Senior State Archaeologist for California, wrote that ritual use of condors has been evidenced through much of historical native California, including widespread sacrifice. In general, this served to transfer the power of the bird sacrificed to those engaged in its ritual killing. Possibly the condor’s association with the dead (being a carrion eater), led to its incorporation into mourning activities and renewal ceremonies.
Not practiced since the time of the missions, first recorded verbal accounts of California condor ceremonies comes from October 8, 1769 when Fr. Juan Crespi observed a large stuffed condor in an Ohlone village near the present day Watsonville.
Many ceremonies throughout California involved dancers dressed in capes of condor skins or condor feather bands. The oldest extant example was collected by the Russian Illya Voznesenski in central California. It is preserved in the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in St. Petersburg. The condor ceremony took many forms. Central Miwok shamen acquired powers from condors that allowed them to suck supernatural poisons from their patients. Among the Maidu, condor capes were used by Moki or Kuksuyu dancers. These capes were sometimes combined with Golden Eagle feathers to exaggerate the wearer’s height.
The Indians state that said “Panes” was once a female, who ran off and retired to the mountains, when accidentally meeting with “Chinigchinich,” he changed her into a bird, and their belief is, that notwithstanding they sacrificed it every year, she became again animated, and returned to her home among the mountains. — Father Friar Gerónimo Boscana
Perhaps the most detailed description of condor ceremony in southern California comes from the Panes (or bird) festival of the Juaneño (Acjachemen) and Luiseño. It was described by Friar Boscana of Mission San Juan Capistrano and by Friar Peyri of Mission San Luis Rey in the early 19th century. Similar ceremonies were held by the Gabrieleño, Cahuilla, Kumeyaay and Cupeño (Kroeber 1907; 2002).
The Panes (clearly a California condor from its description) is brought to the festival and placed upon an altar constructed for the purpose. The bird had been captured as a nestling, with condor nest sites being owned by the village. It was raised with great care until fully grown and selected for the sacrifice. Slowly, along with much crying and grimaces, the captive birds are killed by strangulation or pressing the heart. The bird’s skin was removed in one piece and the flesh thrown on a fire. Skins and feathers were used to decorate venerated objects for the annual mourning ceremony. California condor skins were also used to make skirts that were retained as important ritual objects by their native owners (Bates et.al. 1993:41; Bates 1982).
California condors could infuse humans with special powers. Vultures and condors, with their keen eyesight, were considered expert at finding lost objects. Among the Western Mono and Yokuts tribes, “money finders” wore full-length cloaks of condor feathers that reputedly enabled them to find lost valuables (Snyder and Snyder 2000:38). This power was extended to finding missing persons among condor shaman of the Chumash.
California condors also played a part in cosmic events. Among the Chumash, condors or eagles were sacrificed based on which celestial body was prominently visible at the time of the ceremony. Eagles were selected for rituals concerned with the Evening Star (Venus), while condors were chosen for rituals associated with the planet Mars (Hudson and Underhay 1978:88; Simons 1983).
Bates, Craig T. 1982 “A Historical View of Southern Sierra Miwok Dance and Ceremony.” Ms. on file at California State Department of Parks and Recreation, Sacramento.
Bates, Craig T., Janet M. Hamber and Martha J. Lee 1993 “The California Condor and the California Indians.” American Indian Art 19 (1): 40-48.
1846 Chinigchinich: A Historical Account of the Origin, Customs, and Traditions of the Indians at the Mission San Juan Capistrano, Alta California. Translated by Alfred Robinson. New York: Wiley and Putnam.
John W. Foster
Senior State Archaeologist, “Wings of the Spirit: The Place of the California Condor Among Native Peoples of the Californias.” California State Parks.
Hudson, Travis and Ernest Underhay
1978 Crystals in the Sky: An Intellectual Odyssey Involving Chumash Astronomy, Cosmology and Rock Art.
Ballena Press and the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Cooperative Publication. Santa Barbara, California.
Kroeber, Alfred L.
1907 Indian Myths of South Central California. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 4 (4). p. 220.
Snyder, Noel and Helen Snyder
2000 The California Condor: A Saga of Natural History and Conservation. San Francisco: Academic Press.
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Rich visual imagery has existed in the Arnhem Land region for tens of thousands of years. Most prominent are the paintings on the rock surfaces in the magnificent escarpment country in western Arnhem Land. Other forms include body painting for ceremonies with intricate and significant clan designs associated with the Dreaming, stories of the Ancestors painted on bark, and ritual objects elaborately decorated with coloured ochres, fibre, hair string and feathers.
The sculptured carvings from this region are often depictions of the Ancestors in either human or animal form. The bark painting tradition features both figurative and abstract imagery, including X-ray designs and rarrk or crosshatching.
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As used in Chapters 901:10-1 to 901:10-6 of the Administrative Code, the definitions contained in Chapter 903. of the Revised Code and the following definitions are applicable:
(A) Act means the Federal Water Pollution Control Act set forth at 33 USC sections 1251 to 1387.
(B) Administrator means the administrator of the United States environmental protection agency.
(C) Agricultural drainage well means a class five underground injection control well that receives or has the potential to receive drainage from irrigation tail-waters, animal yards, feedlots or dairy runoff and any related agricultural field runoff. An injection well is any bored, drilled, or driven shaft or dug hole whose depth is greater than the largest surface dimension.
(D) Agricultural stormwater discharge means runoff generated by precipitation that drains over terrain used for agriculture as defined in section 1.61 of the Revised Code that conveys manure to waters of the state, provided that the manure has been applied in accordance with site specific nutrient management practices that ensure appropriate agricultural utilization of nutrients in manure in compliance with the best management practices set forth in Chapter 901:10-2 of the Administrative Code.
(E) Agronomic rate means a rate of application of nutrients from any source to the land or an amount of nutrients removed by crop based on:
(1) Nutrient content of the manure to be applied;
(2) Nutrient needs of the current or planned crops; and
(3) Nutrient holding capacity of the soil.
(F) Ammonia (as N) means ammonia reported as nitrogen and is listed with approved methods of analysis in table 1B at 40 CFR 136.
(G) Applicant means a person applying for a permit, certificate, or submitting a claim of trade secrecy to the director.
(H) Appropriate design plan means a construction plan for a manure storage or treatment facility that has been accepted by the department as meeting best management practices and recognized industry standards for construction. This includes pre-engineered design plans for the design and construction of manure storage or treatment facilities that have been shown by the engineer, manufacturer, or distributor to conform to the requirements of Chapter 903. of the Revised Code.
(I) Appropriate examination means an examination that has been approved by the department.
(J) Appropriate training program means a training program that has been approved by the department.
(K) Aquifer means an underground consolidated or unconsolidated geologic formation or series of formations that are hydraulically connected and that have the capability to receive, store, and yield usable quantities of water to wells. Aquifer does not include perched groundwater.
(L) Application means the form and supporting documents used by an applicant to apply for an Ohio permit under this chapter.
(M) Average precipitation means the precipitation over the length of a storage period.
(N) Beneficial organisms mean predators, parasites, or pathogens that, during their life cycle, are used to suppress pest organisms or are otherwise beneficial.
(O) Best management practice (BMP) means a practice or combination of practices that is determined to be the most effective and practicable including technological, economic, and institutional controls as a means of complying with the applicable standards of Chapter 903. of the Revised Code. BMPs may include structural and nonstructural practices, conservation practices, prohibition of practices, schedules of activities, operation and maintenance procedures, and other management practices to prevent or reduce the pollution of waters of the state. BMPs also include treatment requirements, operating procedures, and practices to control facility site runoff, spillage, or leaks, sludge or waste disposal or drainage from raw material storage.
(P) Biosecurity refers to the policies and measures taken for protecting food supply and agricultural resources from contamination. Biosecurity also refers to those measures taken to keep disease agents out of populations, herds or groups of animals where they do not already exist. Significant areas on a facility in biosecurity are sanitation, isolation of incoming or returning animals, cleaning and disinfection and traffic control to limit disease spread between all facilities in the production unit.
(Q) BOD5 means five-day biochemical oxygen demand and is listed with approved methods of analysis in table 1B at 40 CFR 136.
(R) Buffer strip means setback of an area of permanent dense vegetation, often planted along the edge or the contour of a land application site or a slope of the field usually for management practices, including practices to slow the flow of water runoff or enhance water filtration, and minimize the risk of any potential nutrients or pollutants from leaving the field and reaching surface waters. Types of buffers include filter strips, field borders, contour grass strips, vegetated cover and riparian buffers. Types of buffers include those described in "Ohio Natural Resource Conservation Service, Conservation Practice Standards Section IV, Field Office Technical Guide" which includes the following which are available for review at the Ohio department of agriculture website http://agri.ohio.gov/:
(1) "Filter Strips/Areas, No. 393," June 2002;
(2) "Riparian Forest Buffer, No. 391," March 1997;
(3) "Field Border, No. 386," June 2002; and
(4) "Contour Buffer Strips, No. 332," June 2002.
(S) Certificate of coverage (COC) means a certificate issued by the director based on receipt of a notice of intent to be covered by rule 901:10-4-03 of the Administrative Code. The certificate of coverage is to be kept in the site office.
(T) Certified livestock manager means a person that has been duly certified by the department and currently holds a valid livestock manager certification.
(U) Cold water habitat means waters designated as coldwater aquatic life habitat by the Ohio environmental protection agency as set forth in Chapter 3745-1 of the Administrative Code.
(V) Construction, for the purposes of stormwater construction permits, means the initial disturbance of soils associated with clearing, grading or excavating activities.
(W) Department means the Ohio department of agriculture, the director, or the director's authorized representative.
(X) Design capacity means the ability to house or maintain the total number of animals confined or to be confined in open lots, housed lots, feedlots, confinement houses, stall barns, free stall barns, milkrooms, milking centers, cowyards, medication pens, animal walkways, and stables.
(Y) Dikes mean both dikes and embankments.
(Z) Director means the director of the Ohio department of agriculture or the director's duly authorized representative.
(AA) Discharge means to add any pollutant or combination of pollutants from a point source to waters of the state.
(BB) Distribution and utilization methods means any method of manure management not under the control of the facility and may include, but not be limited to, land application, composting, vermiculture, and alternative fuel source uses.
(CC) Ditch means an excavation, either dug or natural, for the purpose of drainage or irrigation.
(DD) Diversion means a channel constructed across the slope for the purpose of intercepting surface runoff.
(EE) Draft action means a written statement that gives the director's intention with respect to the issuance of any permit, including a NPDES permit or a general permit, concerning which persons authorized by regulation or by section 903.09 of the Revised Code may file comments or request a public meeting, but which will not be the subject of an adjudication hearing before the director.
(FF) Drinking water source protection area for a public water system means:
(1) For a public water system using groundwater, the surface and subsurface area surrounding the well(s) of the public water system that will provide water from an aquifer to the well(s) and that is delineated or endorsed by the Ohio environmental protection agency under Ohio's wellhead protection and source water assessment and protection programs; or
(2) For a public water system using surface water, the drainage area contributing surface water runoff to the water intakes of the public water system that is delineated or endorsed by the Ohio environmental protection agency under Ohio's source water assessment and protection program.
(GG) Effluent limitation means any restriction imposed by the director on quantities, discharge rates, and concentrations of pollutants which are discharged from point sources into waters of the state.
(HH) Fabricated structure means a type of manure storage or treatment facility constructed of engineered, man-made materials such as cast-in-place reinforced concrete, pre-cast concrete, masonry, timber, steel, fiberglass or plastic but does not mean a manure storage pond, a manure treatment lagoon or any of the components of either a manure storage pond or manure treatment lagoon such as described in paragraph (A)(9)(c)(ii) of rule 901:10-2-06 of the Administrative Code. A fabricated structure may contain either solid or liquid manure.
(JJ) Field surface furrow means an area of short-term low-gradient non-erosive concentrated surface water runoff which occurs during or shortly after precipitation events and is not a river, stream, ditch or grassed waterway. Field surface furrows are areas that are normally planted with crops each year.
(KK) Fecal coliform means fecal coliform bacteria and is listed with approved methods of analysis in table 1A at 40 CFR 136.3.
(LL) Floodplain means the area designated by the federal emergency management agency adjoining any river, stream, watercourse or lake that has been or may be covered by floodwater.
(MM) Floodway means the channel of a river or watercourse and the adjacent land areas that must be reserved in order to discharge the base flood without cumulatively increasing the water surface elevation more than the allowable rise as designated by the federal emergency management agency, not exceeding one foot.
(NN) Grassed waterway means a natural or constructed channel that is shaped or graded to required dimensions and established with suitable vegetation to filter and convey runoff from fields, terraces, diversions or other concentrated water runoff without causing erosion or flooding.
(OO) Ground water means any water below the surface of the earth in a zone of saturation, but does not include perched water.
(PP) Injection means the placement of manure beneath the surface of the soil in the crop root zone but not extending beyond the boundary of a land application site and using equipment specifically designed for this purpose.
(QQ) Installation means the permanent fabrication, erection or installation of a manure storage or treatment facility or manure control equipment at the location where the manure storage or treatment facility or manure control equipment is intended to be used. The term does not include the following:
(1) The dismantling of existing equipment and control devices;
(2) The ordering of equipment and control devices;
(3) Off-site fabrication; and
(4) Site preparation.
(RR) Integrated pest management means a sustainable approach to pest management that combines the use of prevention, avoidance, monitoring and suppression strategies that minimizes and reduces the activity and presence of insects and rodents and keeps such activity and presence below economically damaging levels, minimizing chemical use to reduce pest resistance and the harmful effects of pest control on human health and environmental resources. Integrated pest management includes management, biological controls and the judicious use of chemical controls.
(SS) Karst terrain means an area where karst topography, including the characteristic surface and subterranean features, has developed as the result of dissolution of limestone, dolomite or other soluble rock. Characteristic physiographic features present in karst terrains may include the following:
(2) Sinking streams;
(TT) Land application areas means land under the control of a concentrated animal feeding operation, whether it is owned, rented, leased or otherwise under the control of the owner or operator, to which manure, or process wastewater from the production area is or may be applied.
(UU) Liquid manure means manure containing more than or equal to eighty percent liquid.
(VV) Livestock manure broker means a person who is in the business of buying, selling, or land applying manure.
(WW) Livestock manure applicator means a person who is in the business of transporting and land applying manure.
(XX) Manure application means the placement of manure within the boundaries of a land application site by:
(1) Spraying or spreading onto the land surface;
(2) Injection below the land surface in the crop root zone using equipment specifically designed for this purpose; or
(3) Incorporation into the soil by means of the mixing of manure with the surface soil using standard agricultural practices, such as tillage.
(ZZ) Manure residuals means settled manure solids combined with varying amounts of water and dissolved materials that remain after some form of treatment.
(AAA) Manure spill means any unexpected, unintended, abnormal or unapproved dumping, leakage, drainage, seepage, discharge, release or other loss of manure. The term does not include releases to impermeable surfaces when the substance does not migrate off the surface or penetrate the surface and enter the soil.
(BBB) Manure storage area means area of an animal feeding facility used by the owner or operator for the storage of manure produced by the facility. Manure storage areas include, but are not limited to, manure storage or treatment facilities, lagoons, runoff ponds, storage sheds, stockpiles, stacking areas, under house or pit storages, liquid impoundments, and composting piles.
(CCC) Manure storage or treatment facility means any excavated, diked or walled structure or combination of structures designed for the biological stabilization, holding or storage of manure. These facilities include manure storage ponds, manure treatment lagoons, fabricated structures, lagoons, manure storage sheds, under house or pit storages, and composting areas.
(DDD) Manure storage pond means a type of manure storage or treatment facility consisting of an earthen impoundment made by constructing an embankment and/or excavating a pit, the purpose of which is to store or settle manure. A manure storage pond contains liquid manure.
(EEE) Manure treatment lagoon means a type of manure storage or treatment facility consisting of an earthen impoundment made by constructing an embankment and/or excavating a pit, the purpose of which is to biologically treat manure. A manure treatment lagoon contains liquid manure.
(FFF) Modification means one or more of the following:
(1) For NPDES permits, permits to install, and permits to operate: A material and substantial alteration of the facility including an increase of the number of animals that exceed the design capacity of an existing facility by ten per cent or more in excess of the design capacity set forth in the current permit, provided that in no case during a five year period shall the facility's or facility's capacity be modified to increase by more than ten per cent in the aggregate.
(5) For NPDES permits, permits to install, and permits to operate: Changes to the manure storage or treatment facility that result from an expansion of the existing facility by ten per cent or more in excess of treatment or storage capacity.
(HHH) Neighboring residence means any occupied permanent dwelling acquired by its current owner prior to the application for a permit to install a new animal feeding operation or prior to the initial construction of an animal feeding operation for which an application for a permit to install expansion or modification has been submitted. A neighboring residence does not include any dwelling owned by the owner or operator of the production area of the facility at the time the permit to install application is submitted.
(III) New discharger means any building, structure, facility, or installation:
(1) From which there is or may be a discharge of pollutants;
(2) That did not commence the discharge of pollutants at a particular site prior to August 13, 1979;
(3) Which is not a new source; and
(4) Which has never received a final effective NPDES permit for discharges at that site.
(JJJ) New source is defined at 40 CFR 122.2 and new source criteria are as defined at 40 CFR 122.29(b).
(KKK) Nitrate (as N) means nitrate reported as nitrogen and is listed with approved methods of analysis in table 1B at 40 CFR 136.
(LLL) Nutrient means, for purposes of Chapter 903. of the Revised Code, nitrogen or phosphorus.
(MMM) Operating record means the written record of a facility and other activities conducted under a permit to operate maintained by the owner or operator as found in rule 901:10-2-16 of the Administrative Code.
(NNN) Owner or operator, for the purposes of sections 903.02, 903.03, 903.04 and 903.05 of the Revised Code, means the person that owns or operates the manure storage or treatment facility or the concentrated animal feeding facility or concentrated animal feeding operation or major concentrated animal feeding facility as found in divisions (M), (N), (O), and (EE) of section 903.01 of the Revised Code.
(1) Owner means the person who has the right to control or in fact controls management of the facility or the selection of officers, directors, or managers of the facility or holds or is able to control, either directly or through a holding company or subsidiary, by means of any of the following:
(a) The person holds at least twenty-five per cent of the equity of the facility which is a business concern that is a publicly traded corporation; or
(b) The person is any other business concern not covered in paragraph (NNN)(1)(a) of this rule and holds at least fifty per cent of the equity of the facility; or
(c) The person has provided a loan to the facility with provisions for the right to control management of the facility or actual control of the facility or the selection of officers, directors, or managers of the facility.
(2) Types of ownership may include the any of the following:
(a) "Business concern" means any corporation, association, firm, partnership, trust, or other form of commercial organization.
(i) "Sole proprietorship" means a form of business concern, other than a partnership or corporation, in which one person owns all the assets and is solely liable for all the debts of the business. Sole proprietor includes any individual or entity in which an individual is an applicant or permittee or prospective owner.
(ii) "Partner" means a business concern where any person holding a position as, or similar to, a general partner, as defined in division (E) of section 1782.01 of the Revised Code, or a limited partner, as defined in division (F) of section 1782.01 of the Revised Code, or persons who share profits and liability and have management powers of a partnership, as partnership is defined in section 1775.05 of the Revised Code.
(iii) "Publicly traded corporation" means a business concern that is a corporation:
(a) Whose shares are listed on a national securities exchange; or
(b) Whose shares are regularly quoted in an over-the-counter market by one or more members of a national or affiliated securities association; or
(c) With fifty or more shareholders.
(b) "Equity" means any ownership interest in a business concern, including sole proprietorship, the shares of a partner, and stock in a corporation.
(c) "Loans" means notes, mortgages, or financial loans of any kind, secured or unsecured, unless held by a chartered lending institution.
(3) "Operator" means the person responsible for the direct control or overall operations of a facility, and whose duties or responsibilities involve, in whole or part, the management of the facility and the exercise of independent or discretionary judgment. An operator may include the person who has the right to control or in fact controls management of the facility or the selection of officers, directors, or managers of the facility.
(OOO) Overflow means the discharge of manure resulting from the filling of manure storage or treatment facilities beyond the point at which no more manure or stormwater can be contained by the facilities.
(PPP) Past violations for purposes of rule 901:10-5-04 of the Administrative Code means violations of Chapter 903. of the Revised Code and rules promulgated thereunder that have occurred on more than one occasion in the past five years.
(QQQ) Pests means detrimental insects and rodents.
(RRR) Phosphorus (as P) means the same as phosphate in this chapter.
(SSS) Point source means any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to, any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, large concentrated animal feeding operation, medium concentrated animal feeding operation, small concentrated animal feeding operation, landfill leachate collection system, vessel or other flooding craft from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This term does not include return flows from irrigated agriculture or agricultural stormwater runoff.
(TTT) Pollutant means dredged spoil, solid waste, incinerator residue, filter backwash, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials (except those regulated under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended ( 42 U.S.C. 2011 et. seq.), heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water. It does not mean:
(1) Sewage from vessels; or
(2) Water, gas, or other material which is injected into a well to facilitate production of oil or gas, or water derived in association with oil and gas production and disposed of in a well, if the well used either to facilitate production or for disposal purposes is approved by authority of the state in which the well is located, and if the state determines that the injection or disposal will not result in the degradation of ground or surface water resources.
(UUU) Professional engineer means a person qualified to practice engineering according to the provisions of Chapter 4733. of the Revised Code and is presently registered by Ohio's board of registration for professional engineers and land surveyors.
(VVV) Precipitation event means:
(1) A ten year, twenty-four hour rainfall event with a probable recurrence interval of once in ten years, or
(2) A twenty-five year, twenty-four hour rainfall event with a probable recurrence interval of once in twenty-five years; or
(3) A one-hundred year, twenty-four hour rainfall event.
(4) The terms ten year, twenty-four hour precipitation event, twenty-five year, twenty-four hour precipitation event, and one-hundred year, twenty-four hour precipitation event shall mean a precipitation event with a probable recurrence interval of once in ten years or twenty-five years or one hundred years, respectively, as defined by the national weather service in technical paper number forty, rainfall frequency atlas of the United States, May 1961, and subsequent amendments or equivalent regional or state precipitation probability information.
(WWW) Public water system, or PWS, means a system which provides water for human consumption through pipes or other constructed conveyances for the provision to the public of piped water for human consumption, if such system has at least fifteen service connections or regularly serves an average of at least twenty-five individuals daily at least sixty days out of the year. Such term includes any collection, treatment, storage and distribution facilities under the control of the operator of such system and used primarily in connection with such system, any collection or pretreatment storage facilities not under such control which are used primarily in connection with such system and any water supply system serving an agriculture labor camp, as defined in section 3733.41 of the Revised Code. A public water system is either a "community water system" or a "non-community water system".
(1) Community water system or CWS means a public water system which serves at least fifteen service connections used by year-round residents or regularly serves at least twenty-five year-round residents.
(2) Non-community water system or NCWS means a public water system that is not a community water system.
(a) Non-transient non-community water system or NTNCWS means a public water system that is not a community water system and that regularly serves at least twenty-five of the same persons over six months per year.
(b) Transient non-community water system or TNCWS means a non-community public water system that does not regularly serve at least twenty-five of the same persons over six months of the year.
(XXX) Reasonably available means a person that is within a two hour drive of the facility and is available by telephone or by electronic communication.
(YYY) Seasonal salmonid habitat means rivers, streams and embayments designated a seasonal salmonid aquatic life habitat by the Ohio environmental protection agency as set forth in Chapter 3745-1 of the Administrative Code.
(ZZZ) Setback means a specified distance from surface waters, wells, neighboring residences, or potential conduits to surface waters where manure, and process wastewater may not be land applied. Examples of conduits to surface waters include but are not limited to: Open tile line intake structures, sinkholes, and agricultural well heads.
(AAAA) Solid manure means manure containing greater than twenty per cent total solids.
(BBBB) Sole source aquifer means an aquifer designated by the United States environmental protection agency as the sole or principal source of drinking water for a given aquifer service area.
(CCCC) Soil means unconsolidated, erodible earth material consisting of minerals or organics.
(DDDD) Soil horizon means a layer of soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, with characteristics produced by soil-forming processes.
(EEEE) Staging or staging area means the land application area used for placement of manure at the time of delivery in such a manner as to facilitate land application within fifteen days at that site. Staging includes the transfer of liquid manure from transport vehicles to land application equipment.
(FFFF) Stockpile or stockpile area means field placement of the amount of manure to be used at a land application area.
(GGGG) Storage or storage period means the length of time anticipated between manure clean-out events provided that manure storage does not mean any form of manure containment for a period of fourteen days or less.
(HHHH) Substantial compliance when referring to compliance with the provisions of a permit, means following the effluent limitations and best management practices set forth in the permit.
(IIII) Surface waters of the state means all streams, lakes, ponds, marshes, watercourses, wetlands, springs, drainage systems, and other bodies or accumulations of surface water, natural or artificial, that are situated wholly or partly within, or border upon, this state, or are within its jurisdiction, except those private waters that do not combine or effect a junction with natural surface or underground waters.
(JJJJ) Total coliform means all coliform bacteria and is listed with approved methods of analysis in table 1A at 40 CFR 136.3.
(KKKK) Total dissolved solids means nonfilterable residue and is listed with approved methods of analysis in table 1B at 40 CFR 136.
(LLLL) Trade secrets means information, including the whole or any portion or phase of any scientific or technical information, design, process, procedure, formula, pattern, compilation, program, device, method, technique, improvement, business information or plans, financial information, listing of names, addresses, or telephone numbers that satisfies both of the following:
(1) It derives independent economic value, actual or potential, from not being generally known to and not being readily ascertainable through proper means by other persons who can obtain economic value from its disclosure or use.
(2) The person claiming the secrets has taken reasonable efforts under the circumstances to maintain secrecy.
(MMMM) Uncovered means any manure storage or treatment facility that allows exposure of manure to precipitation events or to the run-on or run-off from precipitation events.
(NNNN) Variance means a type of permit modification that applies to NPDES permits.
(OOOO) Zoonotic diseases means illnesses that can be transmitted between humans and animals.
(PPPP) "40 C.F.R." means Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations effective July 1, 2010.
R.C. 119.032 review dates: 03/21/2014 and 06/08/2019
Promulgated Under: 119.03
Statutory Authority: 903.08, 903.10
Rule Amplifies: 903.01 , 903.02 , 903.03 , 903.04 , 903.05 , 903.07 , 903.08 , 903.081 , 903.082 , 903.09 , 903.10
Prior Effective Dates: 9/15/2005, 1/29/2007, 1/23/2009, 9/1/2011
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The NCCAH is making significant strides in support of a renewed public health system that is inclusive and respectful of diverse First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Our collaborations in knowledge sharing extend beyond traditional boundaries – institutional, jurisdictional, geographical and professional – to address the multi-faceted and structural issues underpinning Aboriginal health. We continue to strengthen the links between evidence, knowledge, practice and policy in support of the public health goals of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples.
Established in 2005 by the Government of Canada, and funded through the Public Health Agency of Canada, the NCCAH is one of six centres in the National Collaborating Centres for Public Health program, each focusing on a different aspect of public health. Together, the centres help improve response to chronic disease and injury, infectious diseases, environmental health and health disparities.
Our Host: University of Northern British Columbia
When the National Collaborating Centre program was first initiated in 2005, the University of Northern B.C.
in Prince George, British Columbia, offered to host the Centre as part
of its dedication to First Nations and Aboriginal programming. The
university serves a region rich in cultural diversity, including 17
First Nations groups with more than 27 distinct languages and dialects.
Looking to the Future
UNBC brings a strong focus to research relevant to people living in
rural and northern communities, to Aboriginal peoples, and to the
determinants of health. For its part, the NCCAH has drawn funding to the
university from multiple sources to support a variety of Aboriginal
health initiatives. These include the province-wide, multi-year health
promotion strategy, Aboriginal ActNow B.C., and the national First Nations Environmental Health Innovation Network (FNEHIN), linking First
Nations communities and researchers.
The NCCAH is building upon a strong foundation in its key program areas of the social determinants of Aboriginal health, and child and youth health. Our innovative partnerships have helped garner national and international public attention for Aboriginal child health issues, facilitated Indigenous voice in global initiatives on a social determinants approach to health, and ensured broad reach among medical professionals, educators, communities and a wide variety of organizations. As we look ahead, we are responding to new and emerging priorities, with a growing emphasis on Aboriginal environmental health issues of significant concern to communities.
Our community-centered, holistic and strength-based approaches to health are critical to upholding the credibility the Centre has established with First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities, with the public health system, among educational institutions, with government stakeholders and more. The NCCAH is committed to moving the agenda forward in support of the health and well-being of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples in Canada.
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Definition of Costal cartilage
1. Noun. The cartilages that connect the sternum and the ends of the ribs; its elasticity allows the chest to move in respiration.
Medical Definition of Costal cartilage
1. The cartilage forming the anterior continuation of a rib, providing the means by which it reaches and articulates with the sternum. Synonym: cartilago costalis, costicartilage. (05 Mar 2000)
Costal Cartilage Pictures
Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Costal Cartilage Images
Lexicographical Neighbors of Costal Cartilage
Literary usage of Costal cartilage
Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature:
1. Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical by Henry Gray (1901)
"Each costal cartilage presents two surfaces, two borders, and two extremities. The anterior ¡surface is convex, and looks forward and upward : that of the ..."
2. Anatomy: Descriptive and Surgical by Henry Gray (1897)
"Each costal cartilage presents two surfaces, two borders, and two extremities. The anterior surface is convex, and looks forward and upward : that of the ..."
3. The Essentials of Histology: Descriptive and Practical : for the Use of Students by Edward Albert Sharpey-Schäfer (1885)
"THE CONNECTIVE TISSUES (continued). costal cartilage. ... costal cartilage.—In the costal cartilages the matrix is not always so clear as in the matrix of ..."
4. The Anatomy of the human skeleton by Henry Morris, John Ernest Frazer (1914)
"The junction of the xiphoid with the sternum is on a level somewhat posterior to the junction of the seventh costal cartilage with the sternum. ..."
5. The Cat: An Introduction to the Study of Backboned Animals, Especially Mammals by St. George Jackson Mivart (1900)
"That of the tenth rib joins the costal cartilage of the ninth rib, and similarly the eleventh and twelfth costal cartilages unite distally with the lower ..."
6. Anatomy, Descriptive and Applied by Henry Gray (1913)
"for the first costal cartilage and the demi-facet for the second is a narrow, curved edge, which slopes from above downward and medialward. ..."
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Researchers have discovered a new species of bacteria that causes Lyme disease -- the second species known to transmit the potentially debilitating illness in North America.
The newly identified bacteria is called "Borrelia mayonii," in honor of the Mayo Clinic researchers who assisted with the discovery, along local health departments and scientists at the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention.
The bacteria species was discovered after six people with suspected Lyme disease ended up with unusual results and researchers did extensive genetic testing to determine that the patients were infected with a newly discovered bacteria. Previously only "Borrelia burgdorferi" was known to cause Lyme disease in North America, according to the study published Monday in the medical journal The Lancet.
Dr. William Schaffner, an infectious disease expert at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, said the findings show how new technology has helped advance our understanding of emerging infectious diseases.
"This was likely a bacteria that was there all the time but because our scientific tests couldn't identify it," Schaffner said. "It was an unknown infection."
The findings may help many others if they have suffered from a mysterious illness that turns out to be this new species of bacteria, Schaffner said.
"The information will go out to doctors in the communities. They will start to ask for testing for this bug in a wider variety of cases," he said. "The clinical picture will mature as it goes on."
The new bacteria causes slightly different symptoms during the infection, including acute symptoms of nausea, vomiting and diffuse rashes instead of the "bulls-eye" rash associated with Borrelia burgdorferi-caused Lyme disease.
“This discovery adds another important piece of information to the complex picture of tick-borne diseases in the United States,” Dr. Jeannine Petersen, a microbiologist at the CDC said in a statement Monday.
The new bacteria is also spread by the black-legged tick or "deer tick," according to researchers. However, after extensive testing, researchers believe the bacteria is confined to the upper Midwest of the United States, with just six cases found out of 9,000 samples drawn in the Midwest of infected patients. They found infected ticks in two counties in Wisconsin, but believe there are infected ticks throughout Wisconsin and Minnesota.
Researchers also saw no sign of the new bacteria after examining at least 25,000 blood samples from people with suspected tick-borne illnesses in 23 states other than Wisconsin.
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By Darryl Gove-Oracle on Oct 30, 2007
Just after 8pm we had a magnitude 5.6 quake near Alum Rock, about 10 miles east of here. Most of the quakes I've previously felt here have been more like the base of the building being hit with a large metal hammer; this one was much different. There's an earthquake simulator at The Tech where you stand on a small square platform which randomly judders from side to side. This quake was much more like that.
The USGS provides a couple of online resources for earthquake information. A map showing the location of recent earthquakes. A shake map, which shows how the amount of shaking detected around the epicentre. A shake map which is reported by people. There's also raw seismograph data; the link is for Stanford telescope data, other stations can be selected.
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New data from Europe's Large Hadron Collider may signal the end of one of the most popular theories in physics, superstring theory. If the conclusions are true, scientists would need a new leading candidate for the "theory of everything."
The LHC actually hasn't debunked superstring theory directly. The theory maintains that everything in the universe is actually made up of extremely small vibrating strings. The strings, if they exist, would need to be much smaller than even the smallest particles that are known, and it's impossible for current science to probe such tiny scales.
However, the theory requires some effects on a scale that can be measured, one of those effects being "supersymmetry," which predicts that all normal particles actually have supersymmetric cousins, called sparticles, that are slightly different; the supersymmetric analog of the electron, for example, would be a selectron. Many scientists have supported supersymmetry because, in addition to being an essential element of superstring theory (it's the "super" part), it neatly explains how electromagnetism and nuclear forces are united, and it provides an answer to dark matter. But now evidence suggests it just might be fiction.
The LHC was studying the decay of "strange beauty" particles, called B-mesons, looking for evidence of supersymmetric particles. Last year, experiments at the Tevatron at Chicago's Fermilab saw that the decay of certain mesons was different from their antimatter versions, which scientists suspected may have been due to supersymmetry. The LHC was able to examine the process in more detail, however, and found no evidence of any sparticles whatsoever.
That result could mean a couple of things. It could mean that the simplest version of supersymmetry is wrong. There are more complicated versions of the theory that still allow for the existence of sparticles, but don't necessarily require the B-mesons' decay to show the influence of them.
It could also, of course, mean that supersymmetry is bunk. To date, no experiment has shown evidence that sparticles exist. That could be because they simply don't, and they're just wishful thinking on the part of theoretical physicists. That, in turn, would throw a wrench into the works of superstring theory (and its larger cousin, M-theory), a popular "theory of everything" that unites quantum physics with Einstein's theory of relativity, a task that has so far eluded experimental physics.
Experiments will continue, of course, but this could be the beginning of the end for superstring theory. There's no shortage of alternative grand theories for mixing quantum mechanics and relativity, however, and superstring theory's downfall could lead to many new theories being proposed. The next few years could be an exciting time to be a theoretical physicist.
For more from Peter, follow him on Twitter @petepachal.
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Senecio ampullaceus Hook.
Texas Ragwort, Texas Groundsel, Texas Butterweed
Asteraceae (Aster Family)
USDA Symbol: seam2
This plant grows 1–2 feet tall. Leaves clasp the stem and are 1–3 inches long, with 1 main vein down the center. The yellow flower heads are on stems growing out of the leaf axils near the top of the plant, with 2–4 blossoms on each stem, 1–1 1/4 inches across. There are 7–9 ray flowers per flower head (248).
From the Image Gallery
Bloom InformationBloom Color: Yellow
Bloom Time: Mar , Apr
BenefitWarning: Considered toxic to livestock.
Deer Resistant: Moderate
From the National Organizations DirectoryAccording to the species list provided by Affiliate Organizations, this plant is on display at the following locations:
Stengl Biological Research Station - Smithville, TX
Herbarium Specimen(s)NPSOT 1125 Collected Mar 9, 1995 in Bexar County by Harry Cliffe
BibliographyBibref 248 - Texas Wildflowers: A Field Guide (1984) Loughmiller, C. & L. Loughmiller
Bibref 328 - Wildflowers of Texas (2003) Ajilvsgi, Geyata.
Bibref 286 - Wildflowers of the Texas Hill Country (1989) Enquist, M.
Search More Titles in Bibliography
Additional resourcesUSDA: Find Senecio ampullaceus in USDA Plants
FNA: Find Senecio ampullaceus in the Flora of North America (if available)
Google: Search Google for Senecio ampullaceus
MetadataRecord Modified: 2016-01-19
Research By: TWC Staff
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Suggested Stars for Visual Observers
One of the ongoing questions for visual observers has been, “What can I observe that is still scientifically useful?” The answers to this have changed over the last decade, and will continue to evolve as conditions change.
You can observe whatever you want, of course. For many of us, observing variable stars is fun and addictive, and we’d continue to observe some of our favorite stars forever even if there were little chance of our observations being ‘scientifically useful’.
Although technological advances, and all sky surveys have intruded into what used to be the heart of the realm of visual observers, there is still a lot of room for visual observers to cover stars and events that are not being adequately monitored by automated telescopes and computers. The following is a list of suggestions based on the current state of affairs in variable star astronomy.
The Bright Realm
Very few of the all sky surveys monitor stars brighter than 8th magnitude. Most of the surveys that will come online in the near future will survey the sky fainter than 16th magnitude, so this fruitful area of visual monitoring will last for a long time into the future. There are literally hundreds of Miras, semi-regulars, Cepheids and eclipsing binaries you can observe and record data for with a pair of binoculars or the unaided eye. If the star has an amplitude of at least 0.5 magnitudes in V and it’s average brightness is 8th magnitude or brighter, chances are only you and a handful of others are observing it.
There are some stars that have been observed for a hundred years or more, and hundreds that have been regularly observed (almost exclusively by visual observers) for many decades. It is this long-term coverage that is of particular value and interest to researchers.
Matthew Templeton explains, "As an example, for any variable with a long-term well observed light curve the scientific values of visual observing come from (a) the long time span, (b) the statistical similarity of errors from visual observers, and (c) the bandpass similarity of human vision across a wide population of observers.
For point (a), long time spans can do at least three valuable things: build up signal-to-noise in the signal domain where there are weak signals less than 0.5 magnitudes; increase frequency precision where periods are stable over the long-term; and uncover long-term changes in behavior.
For point (b), signal processing in the presence of noise is something researchers deal with all the time, so the fact that binned visual observations may have an rms scatter of 0.1-0.3 is not a big deal.
What is much more important is that for a large population of observers, the errors are normally distributed. So when we have a light curve with dozens or hundreds of observers, that's actually a plus, because it makes it more likely that analysis techniques designed for data with normally distributed errors are going to be appropriate.
For point (c), this is really important, because with visual observers, the bandpass under observation may be somewhat fuzzy, but at least it's nearly *the same bandpass* across a sizable population of observers."
In order to continue this long timeline of visual observations into the indefinite future, the AAVSO encourages you observe these Legacy Stars as part of your visual observing program.
The Faint Realm
For the time being, there is also a gap in coverage of stars fainter than magnitude 13. The survey most cited as competing with visual variable star observers, ASAS, covers stars from 8th magnitude to approximately 13th magnitude. Observations of Mira variables with minima fainter than 13th magnitude and monitoring cataclysmic variables whose outburst maxima is fainter than 13th magnitude have the potential to be scientifically valuable by filling a gap in the current all sky survey coverage.
There are some variables known to undergo unpredictable, dramatic changes that should be monitored for activity every night. Among these are the R CrB type stars and Recurrent Novae. There are only a couple dozen of these stars in the sky, so they are rare stars that have rare fading episodes or outbursts. More often than not, diligent amateur observers are the first to detect these events.
New objects appear to come and go, and following these transient events is usually very exciting and interesting. Galactic novae are the obvious targets. Many of these rise to brighter then 8th magnitude at maximum so they are too bright for surveys, ground based telescopes, space telescopes, even your typical CCD observer to observe. Occasionally, one will reach naked eye visibility. These important novae observations at maximum light are nearly always visual data.
Professional astronomers regularly ask AAVSO observers to observe particular ‘campaign stars’ to correlate data to be taken with space based instruments or large ground based telescopes. Sometimes all that is needed are a few reliable visual observations to verify that a CV is in quiescence and pointing a multi-million dollar space telescope at it won’t destroy the detector. See the AAVSO Observing Campaign page for a current list.
Away From the Stare of Surveys
The simplest way to supply data that the surveys can’t is to look where they are not looking.
Low on the Horizon
Survey telescopes tend to avoid the regions of the sky that are setting in the west as the Sun goes down, and they avoid the areas just emerging from conjunction with the Sun in the eastern morning sky. These observations are also important because they help to fill in the seasonal gaps in data for these objects.
Survey telescopes tend to avoid the circumpolar regions also, due to the inconvenience and challenges of pointing toward the celestial poles. Additionally, only half of all ground based surveys at any given time can observe either polar region. Telescopes in the southern hemisphere will never observe the north celestial region and surveys in the north cannot observe the south celestial pole.
Many survey telescopes completely avoid crowded Milky Way regions preferring to stare out to the vast emptiness of space between galaxies. Others have difficulty obtaining quality photometric results in crowded fields due to pixel scale, so even if they are looking the data aren’t necessarily science quality. Your favorite variables in the heart of the Milky Way will remain viable objects for visual observers for a long time to come.
As you can see, there are still thousands of stars visual observers can observe and still contribute to science. So get out there and observe some variable stars!
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Lilongwe, Charles Mkula – In the midst of stalled territorial dispute negotiations over ownership of part of the north eastern part of Lake Malawi between Malawi and its neighbour Tanzania, German Ambassador to Malawi Dr. Peter Woeste has named a newly constructed youth centre in the Malawian northern mountainous district of Rumphi bordering Lake Malawi after the first German explorer to discover Lake Malawi, Albrecht Roscher.
The 23 year old German scientist came to Malawi two months after British explorer and missionary David Livingstone in 1859.
Woeste said Roscher came to Nyasaland under the Hamburg Trade Company and became the first German to discover Lake Malawi on his mission to establish trade links with Africa before he was murdered in Tanzania.
“Roscher travelled from Mombasa into Malawi, then Nyasaland through the north and went as far as Nkhota kota before returning to Tanganyika (Tanzania) where he was murdered,” Said Woeste pointing out the discovery of the lake was made before the Heligoland Treaty was signed by British and German colonial powers who occupied the Malawi and Tanzania respectively.
The German top diplomat said he named the centre as an honour to the fallen youthful explorer as well as to instil a sense of self confidence and responsibility to Malawian youth in their pursuit for national development.
The Roscher Youth Development Centre comprising of office and conference rooms has been handed to the Rumphi Young Politicians Union who have been receiving financial support from the German Government since 2008.
German is one of Malawi’s traditional donor partners and has provided 900 million EUR in bilateral aid to Malawi. In the period 2011 / 2012 it spent EUR 61.2 million.
The European country’s’ budget support to Malawi is EUR 20 million, out of which EUR 15 million have not yet been released.
Malawi and Tanzania are in a protracted border dispute talks following Tanzania’s claim to half of the portion on the lake when Malawi position is that the whole lake is its own.
Tanzania argues that the Anglo-German Treaty (Heligoland Treaty) of 1890 that gave Malawi sole ownership of the lake was flawed.
Tanzanian President Jikaya Kikwete was quoted in a state of the nation address in Tanzania in August as saying his country wanted the anomaly to be corrected. He said the treaty denied Tanzanians living on the shores of Lake Malawi “their given right to utilize proximate water and marine resources.
Lake Malawi, also known as Lake Nyasa in Tanzania and Niassa in Mozambique, is an African Great Lake in the East African Rift Valley system. It is Africa’s third largest lake and the world’s eighth largest located between Malawi (formerly Nyasaland), Mozambique and Tanzania. It is the second deepest lake in Africa and reportedly the habitat of more species of fish than those of any other body of freshwater on earth, including more than 1000 fish species.
Tanzania claims that the international border runs through the middle of the lake. On the other hand, Malawi claims the whole of the surface of this lake that is not in Mozambique, including the waters that are next to the shoreline of Tanzania.
Both sides cite the Heligoland Treaty between Great Britain and Germany who colonized Malawi and Tanzania respectively.
However during discussions held in August in Malawi, the Tanzanian delegation based their argument on Section 6 of the Anglo-Germany Treaty which gives room for corrections and countries to renegotiate their territorial borderies.
In 1954 another agreement was signed between the British and the Portuguese making the middle of the lake their boundary with the exception of the only two inhabited islets, Chizumulu Island and Likoma Island, which were kept by the British and are now part of Malawi.
Immediately after Malawi and Tanzania became independent the dispute resurfaced but was quailed after Malawi President late Dr. Hasting Kamuzu Banda threatened to declare war on Tanzania.
However, the issue has re-appeared after Malawi granted an oil exploration license to British firm Surestream to explore oil and natural gases. Tanzania has demanded that exploration be halted until the dispute was settled.
Malawi President Joyce Banda held talks over the issue on the sidelines of a Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) summit in Maputo, Mozambique, where the latter assured her the issue would be resolved amicably.
Unfortunately the negotiations hit a snag leading Malawi President Joyce Banda to order her negotiating team to withdraw from the talks on her return from the United Nations (UN) General Assembly, where she also briefed UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon on the stand-off.
Banda said following the drawing of a map giving part of the lake to Tanzania by the northern neighbor, alleged harassment of Malawian fishermen by Tanzanian authorities including patrolling of the disputed area, Malawi had decided look for other options of resolving the dispute which included taking the matter to the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
Malawi minister of forien affairs and international cooperation Empraim Mganda Chiume earlier defended the need to approach ICJ saying the matter was a complex legal issue.
Meanwhile, Tanzania has preferred taking the issue to the Southern African Development Community (SADC) or the African Union for mediation.
However Chiume is on record as saying that instead of wasting time with mediation it was better to approach the ICJ saying as “Malawi was prepared to respect any determination by the court”.
He intimated situations were where Botswana and Namibia tried to use a mediator over a border dispute until the matter went to the international court “President Banda would like this issue to be resolved peacefully and diplomatically,” said Chiume.
© 2012, Charles Mkula. All rights reserved. – The views expressed here are purely those of the author and not necessarily those of the publishers. – Newstime Africa content cannot be reproduced in any form – electronic or print – without prior consent of the Publishers. Copyright infringement will be pursued and perpetrators prosecuted.
7,485 total views, 3 views today
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occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Type of Residency: Year-round
Global Range: RESIDENT: central Sonora, southern Chihuahua, Durango, San Luis Potosi, Nuevo Leon, and southern Texas south mostly in lowlands to central Costa Rica. Northernmost populations migratory (AOU 1998). Breeds in the lower and middle Rio Grande Valley in southern Texas and adjacent Tamaulipas, Mexico, then from Mexico's Rio Corona south into Central America (Brush 1998, DeGraaf et al. 1991). Breeding populations extend to both east and west coasts of Mexico (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
Length: 37 cm
Weight: 324 grams
Habitat and Ecology
Comments: In northern part of range inhabits semi-arid woodlands below 1100 meters, usually near water. In Mexico and Central America principally in lowlands, inhabiting forest patches. In more humid regions forages in open pastureland and areas with scattered trees, tall brush, bamboo, and in agricultural fields (AOU 1983, Brush 1998, DeGraaf et al. 1991, Terres 1980, Peterson and Chalif 1973, Sutton and Pettingill 1942). Frequents mature riparian woodland of Mexican ash (FRAXINUS BERLANDIERIANA), cedar elm (ULMUS CRASSIFOLIA), sugar hackberry (CELTIS LAEVIGATA), black willow (SALIX NIGRA), retama (PARKINSONIA ACULEATA), and adjacent subtropical evergreen forest dominated by Texas ebony (PITHECELLOBIUM EBANO). Also thornscrub habitat of huisache (ACACIA SMALLII), mesquite (PROSOPIS GLANDULOSA), and possum grape (CISSUS INCISA).
In Belize, utilizes both the northern semideciduous moist forests, and in southern moist-wet evergreen broadleaf forests; it is uncommon however in the coastal savannas and marshes (Wood et al. 1986, Garcia et al. 1994). In Costa Rica prefers open country with scattered trees; may range up to 2140 meters in semi-arid plateaus or up to 1070 meters in less arid areas; especially numerous in clearings at mid-elevations (del Hoyo et al. 1997, Stiles and Skutch 1989). Fond of water, visits water holes and sandbars in streams to drink and bathe (Bent 1932, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Terres 1980).
Nests in large tree or small sapling; on horizontal branch, in clump of small branches, or in tree concealed by tangle of vines or brush. Also nesting sometimes in a dead tree, often in a small copse, plantation, or large tree in open rather than inside dense woodland (Harrison 1978, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Sutton and Pettingill 1942). Most successful nesting in lower Rio Grande Valley occurs on riparian islands (Brush 1998).
Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
Considered a short distance migrant (Wood et al. 1986). Flocks of 15-20 individuals arrive in Texas in February (del Hoyo et al. 1997). Mostly absent from Texas in winter (DeGraaf et al. 1991). In southern portion of range is resident year-round (Miller and Miller 1997).
Comments: Eats berries, acorns (QUERCUS spp.), fruits such as guava (PSIDIUM spp.), figs (FICUS spp.), sugar hackberries, possum grape (CISSUS INCISA) and buds plucked from trees or shrubs (Bent 1932, Brush 1998, Collins 1960, Oberholser 1974, Terres 1980, DeGraaf et al. 1991). Usually forages high in crowns of trees but sometimes on ground. Mistletoe berries evidently a favorite food when available (Goodwin 1983). In Mexico may follow mast crops (Bent 1932). Is known to use grain stubble, corn, and sorghum fields for foraging. May aggregate around salt sources (Dickey and Van Rossem 1938).
Number of Occurrences
Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.
Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300
Comments: Appears to presently occur within entire historic range from south Texas to Central America, though presently less abundant in Texas than historically noted. Some occurrences in Texas have been extirpated, the remaining occurrences there are fair to poor, and may not be viable in restricted and degraded habitat. It is estimated that the majority of occurrences in central and southern portions of range are good to excellent.
10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals
Comments: Hunted in Mexico and some 1000-3000 birds are declared annually by hunters crossing the border back into the U.S. (del Hoyo et al. 1997). In the lower Rio Grande region the taxon is believed to have declined dramatically this century, is currently considered local and uncommon, and in danger of extirpation as a breeding population with only 30 birds documented (Brush 1998, DeGraaf et al. 1991, Taylor 1944). Local extirpations have occurred (Brush and Cantu 1998).
Usually singly or in breeding pairs, occasionally larger groups (Stiles and Skutch 1989). Regular flocks of ten to fifty birds have been reported outside the breeding season (Sutton and Pettingill 1942, Terres 1980).
Life History and Behavior
In Mexico nest building has been noted in mid-March (Sutton and Pettingill 1942). Nest is constructed 1.5-25 meters above ground; a solitary frail structure of small twigs sometimes lined with fine stems and grasses, about 20 centimeters across and 5 centimeters deep (Harrison 1978). In U.S. eggs are laid mostly in April-June, and nests remain active into late August. Clutch size usually is one; eggs are pure white, slightly glossy. Breeding season may be prolonged with several broods per year (Bent 1932). Both sexes incubate eggs and tend young (Brush 1998, del Hoyo et al. 1997, Harrison 1978, Terres 1980).
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Barcode data: Patagioenas flavirostris
Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.
See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Patagioenas flavirostris
Public Records: 2
Specimens with Barcodes: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
National NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded National Status Rank: N3 - Vulnerable
NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
Comments: HABITAT LOSS: Deforestation and damage to riparian communities by flood control and agricultural irrigation projects have precipitated a decline of this species in south Texas and adjoining Mexico (Brush, pers. comm.; del Hoyo et al. 1997). A combination of habitat loss and habitat deterioration including negative impacts of recent recurring droughts and freezes on large forest trees is probably responsible for the decline. Dewatering and the resulting succession of riparian woodland and subtropical evergreen forest to thorn-scrub communities comprised of smaller trees and shrubs may deteriorate habitat quality (Brush and Cantu 1998). PREDATION: High nest predation rates, as inferred from improved breeding success on islands, may also play a role in some local population declines (Brush 1998).
Restoration Potential: Will likely respond positively to restoration of mature riparian woodland and subtropical evergreen forest habitats in arid portions of its range. Water management, in which water is pumped into floodplain forests, has shown promising early effects on germination of tree seedlings, and may be needed to restore suitable riparian habitat (Brush 1998, Castillo 1997).
Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Appears to tolerate moderate fragmentation of habitat. Preserve selection and design may be compatible with land-use practices that include forest disturbances, though the magnitude and frequency of disturbance has not been quantified and may be geographically variable. Special habitat requirements include tall dense brush with small patches of tall trees (DeGraaf et al. 1991), and in arid environments, mature woodlands with proximity to water (Terres 1980). In the north, wooded islands are favored nesting sites (Brush 1998).
Management Requirements: Have substantially different habitat management requirements throughout range. Found in arid areas in the north to subtropical areas in the south. In Texas the loss and deterioration of evergreen and riparian woodland habitats are credited with causing a precipitous decline of the species (Brush 1998, Brush and Cantu 1998, del Hoyo et al. 1997). In Costa Rica, however, has a tendency to utilize large clearings and pastures in forested areas (Stiles and Skutch 1989). Because of geographic variation in habitats, moderate forest disturbance may be prescribed for southern portions of the range, but avoided in arid regions where woodland habitats are less available.
Management Research Needs: More fieldwork is needed to determine nesting success, population trends, and relationships between populations in Texas, Mexico, and elsewhere (Brush 1998). Information on site fidelity, home range, and reliance on agricultural grains would be useful to management. The widely differing effects of forest disturbance requires further research. The foraging ecology in northern riparian forests where generally little fruit is available needs further understanding (Dickey and Van Rossem 1938).
Biological Research Needs: The taxonomic relationships between the northern and southern populations, and the populations distributed to the west and east coasts of middle America need investigation.
Global Protection: Few to several (1-12) occurrences appropriately protected and managed
Comments: It is estimated that there are several occurrences adequately protected in forest reserves and national parks in Costa Rica and Belize. No occurrences are known to be protected in Mexico.
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Stewardship Overview: Remnant populations in the lower Rio Grande Valley are vulnerable to extirpation from widespread degradation of riparian woodlands and subtropical evergreen forests, while some southern populations appear secure. Restoration of native habitats for the northern population will be most promising where water and land management can restore mature riparian forests. Close monitoring of the population is warranted throughout most of its range.
Species Impact: In Costa Rica locally a pest, eating sprouting seeds of corn or sorghum (Stiles and Skutch 1989).
The red-billed pigeon (Patagioenas flavirostris) is a relatively large pigeon which breeds from southern Texas, United States, and northwestern Mexico south to Costa Rica. It belongs to a clade of Patagioenas which generally lack iridescent display plumage, except some vestiges in the pale-vented pigeon.
It is found in open country with some trees, large clearings and cultivation in lowlands and middle altitudes to 2,100 m (6,900 ft). It builds a rudimentary platform nest out of twigs in a tree about 4–25 m (13–82 ft) above the ground, usually on a horizontal branch or on a palm crown, and lays one white egg.
The red-billed pigeon is mid or large-sized pigeon, at 30–37 cm (12–15 in) in length and a weight of 230–425 g (8.1–15.0 oz). It is mainly wine-purple, becoming browner on the back, and with a grey tail, lower belly and flight feathers. The bill is white with a red base, and the legs and eyes are red. Juvenile birds are duller than adults and the plumage is brown-tinged.
It is normally seen alone or in pairs and rarely forms flocks. It feeds on the ground, seeking acorns, berries and buds.
The red-billed pigeon has a loud kuk c'c'coooo call that is given in rows; the initial short kuk is characteristic for this group of Patagioenas.
- BirdLife International (2012). "Patagioenas flavirostris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
- Johnson, Kevin P.; de Kort, Selvino; Dinwoodey, Karen; Mateman, A.C.; ten Cate, Carel; Lessells, C.M.; Clayton, Dale H. (2001). "A molecular phylogeny of the dove genera Streptopelia and Columba". Auk 118 (4): 874–887. doi:10.2307/4089839.
- Dunning Jr., John B., ed. (1992). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5.
- Mahler, Bettina; Tubaro, Pablo L. (2001). "Relationship between song characters and morphology in New World pigeons". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 74 (4): 533–539. doi:10.1006/bijl.2001.0596.
Names and Taxonomy
Comments: On the basis of studies by Johnson and Clayton (2000) and Johnson et al. (2001) of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, and a review of morphological (Ridgway 1916), serological (Cumley and Irwin 1944), and behavioral (Johnston 1962) characters, we place New World pigeons formerly included in Columba in a separate genus, Patagioenas Reichenback, 1853 (AOU 2003).
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Money can't buy happiness, but we live in a world where it's exchanged for goods and services. Until that economic model changes, higher paying jobs allow us to buy more of the things our families may want or need.
In this article, we're going to provide several lists of the highest paying jobs in America, as determined by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. We're also going to slice and dice that data several different ways, revealing some interesting trends in the information. We'll also help answer questions such as:
The information in the following lists is based on data gathered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics here in the United States. The most current data was gathered through a survey conducted in 2015; and the results of that survey were published in May 2016. This year's information should be available around May of 2017, at which point we will update this article. This is a pattern we've followed for the last seven years.
The salary information is based on what are called Standard Occupational Classification codes. These codes give those conducting the salary survey a consistent way to describe certain careers, or professions, as well as a way to group similar jobs into larger categories. In many of the tables below, we'll not only provide the average salary for each job type, but also the percentage change in salary from the prior year's survey.
To demonstrate how this works, this first list will contain what we're calling the highest paying careers in America. This particular list ranks all occupational categories, which are groups of similar jobs. The list below is ordered from the highest to lowest paying, on a National basis:
|Career / Occupations||Average Salary|
|Computer and Mathematical Occupations||$86,170|
|Architecture and Engineering Occupations||$82,980|
|Healthcare Practitioners and Technical Occupations||$77,800|
|Business and Financial Operations Occupations||$73,800|
|Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations||$71,220|
|Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations||$56,980|
|Education, Training, and Library Occupations||$53,000|
|Construction and Extraction Occupations||$47,580|
|Community and Social Service Occupations||$46,160|
|Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations||$45,990|
|Protective Service Occupations||$44,610|
|Sales and Related Occupations||$39,320|
|Office and Administrative Support Occupations||$36,330|
|Transportation and Material Moving Occupations||$35,160|
|Healthcare Support Occupations||$29,520|
|Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations||$27,080|
|Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations||$26,360|
|Personal Care and Service Occupations||$25,650|
|Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations||$22,850|
This is a good place to start, because it provides the range of salaries across all occupation types. The information also provides an understanding of the types of jobs that require a college degree; as well as how much money each career type pays.
One item we found interesting in the above table was that medical careers, as described by "Healthcare Practitioners and Technical Occupations," only ranked fifth on this list. But as we'll soon see, that ranking can be deceiving.
Next up is the list that many will agree is the single most interesting statistic published on wages and salaries: The highest paying jobs in the United States:
|Profession||Average Salary||% Change|
|Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons||$233,900||6.5%|
|Obstetricians and Gynecologists||$222,400||3.6%|
|Physicians and Surgeons, All Other||$197,700||4.2%|
|Family and General Practitioners||$192,120||3.1%|
Healthcare professionals dominate the rankings, and take nine of the top ten spots. What conclusions can we draw from this kind of information?
But what about individuals that don't have a medical degree: What can they hope to earn?
To answer that question, we've provided a second list. This time we've removed all of the medical professions to see what opportunities exist if you're not up for the challenge of being a doctor:
|Profession||Average Salary||% Change|
|Architectural and Engineering Managers||$141,650||2.1%|
|Computer and Information Systems Managers||$141,000||3.5%|
|Natural Sciences Managers||$136,570||0.1%|
|Airline Pilots, Copilots, and Flight Engineers||$136,400||3.5%|
It's no surprise that chief executive officers made this list. But what we found interesting is that airline pilots also placed in one of the top 10 spots. A trend we see in this ranking is professions with the term "manager" in the title. If you want to be paid a lot of money, it's important to have the skills it takes to be a manager or a leader.
Since we're publishing this information on the World Wide Web, we're adding something extra for IT and computer professionals. To help individuals aspiring to be in the technology profession, we put together a list that outlines the higher paying computer / IT careers:
|IT Jobs / Professions||Average Salary||% Change|
|Computer and Information Research Scientists||$115,580||2.1%|
|Software Developers, Systems Software||$108,760||2.6%|
|Computer Network Architects||$103,100||2.4%|
|Software Developers, Applications||$102,160||2.6%|
|Information Security Analysts||$93,250||1.8%|
|Computer Systems Analysts||$90,180||3.3%|
|Network and Computer Systems Administrators||$82,200||3.0%|
|Computer Network Support Specialists||$67,260||1.7%|
|Computer User Support Specialists||$52,430||1.8%|
From the above list, we see that computer scientists and software developers are the top paying professions in the IT world. It's no surprise individuals that are learning the trade, such as computer support specialists, earns the least.
When evaluating these labor statistics, we came across one other bit of information we thought would be interesting: How much someone is paid versus their investment in an education.
We were able to download data available from the Bureau of Labor Statistics; the information is for 2015. The data is for persons engaged in full-time employment, both salaried and hourly workers. The information is for workers that are 25 years of age and over.
This first table is the median annual salary for workers separated by the level of education attained. Remember, the median is the midpoint of the salary range, roughly half of the individuals in the group earn more than the median, and half earn less. Many statisticians prefer to state this type of information using median instead of using the mean, or average.
|High School Diploma||$35,540|
|Doctoral or Professional Degree||$98,940|
The above table is read like this: Individuals without a high school diploma earned around $21,000 per year, while individuals with a college diploma earned around $50,000. This means a college graduate has over twice the earning potential of a high school dropout.
We thought that last statistic was so interesting that we took the information one step further. We wanted to see how much each progressive level of education was worth. So we put the following table together:
|High School Diploma||$14,810||$0||($13,930)||($29,790)||($33,720)||($63,400)|
The above table is interpreted in this manner: An individual with a high school diploma can expect to earn $13,930 less than someone that has an associate's degree. A person with a college diploma, a bachelor's degree, can expect to make around $33,720 more money than someone with a high school diploma each year. Clearly, there is a great deal of value to be derived from getting a college diploma.
We've taken the information published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics over the last seven years, and compiled a list of the average salaries for all professions covered. This is not a list of the top 20, 50, or 100 professions. This list covers over 800 different jobs.
The list of average annual salaries is sorted in descending order, meaning the highest paying jobs are ranked at the top of the list. The spreadsheet also contains eleven worksheets. The first represents the most current information published today. The next nine worksheets contain information for prior years. Finally, the last sheet compares each year, and calculates the annual increase in average salary for each career type. As is the case with all of the information we publish, it's yours to download for free.
About the Author - High Paying Careers (Last Reviewed on April 21,2016)
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The fairness committee, which has existed since the school first opened in 1993 (as a mini-school), is a nontraditional model of school discipline that seeks to create, through dialogue and by consensus, appropriate responses for community norm violations, rather than simply mete out prescribed punishments.
The cofounders of the school, Perry Weiner and Christina Kemp, were interested in ways to strengthen the new school community and define a solid school culture built upon democratic ideals. The design of the original school included structures like town meeting, advisory, and thematic heterogeneous-aged classes, so that student voice was at the center of all school activity. Inspired by a visit to Scarsdale Alternative School in upstate New York, which had its own fairness committee, Perry, Christina, and a few students also realized that "discipline" could be done differently and inclusively. They decided to modify Scarsdale's version to fit the mission and needs of Humanities Prep.
As it currently stands, the fairness committee is a micro-form of "restorative justice" that is intentional and purposeful; it is a school structure that allows students, teachers, and any other member of our community to grapple with the broader ideals that define our school culture — and the ones that we hope shape all of our interactions beyond school. We hope the fairness committee can inspire empathetic and critical self-reflection and help us determine how best to restore and mend the community in the wake of actions inconsistent with its values.
When a fairness committee session is called to order, it is because one member of the community believes that another has violated one of the school core values (respect for humanity, the intellect, truth, and diversity, or a commitment to peace, justice, and democracy). Anyone can be taken to fairness: A student can take another student, a teacher can take a student, and a student can even take a teacher. In Luther's case, he actually took himself.
Present at the committee meeting are the person who called the committee to order (that person may have been directly violated or simply witnessed the violation), the person who is being taken to fairness, one facilitator teacher, and a talking committee of one teacher and two other students who are unfamiliar with the situation at hand. The committee is convened ad hoc, though the facilitators reach out to new and veteran students and staff for inclusion on the committee. In this way, the entire school is involved in the process of creating, through dialogue and by consensus, consequences for the violation of school community norms.
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A design style may be described in terms of the common components of a design and how they are arranged in combination. A design style can be studied in the form of computer algorithms that manipulate the design components. Thus, a computational design tool can be developed to enable the designer to systematically develop a new design style or modify an existing style. This paper concerns the computer generation of various spatial layouts using a set of rules that define a certain design style. It discusses how generative CAD software can be developed that embodies a style and how this software can serve in the architectural design process as a computational design tool. We created a prototype software application, ArchiDNA, to demonstrate the use of rules to specify a design style. ArchiDNA employs a set of rules to follow Peter Eisenman's style in Biocentrum building plan in Frankfurt, Germany. Analyzing Eisenman's 2D and 3D drawings, we implemented a shape generative process in which one shape remains fixed while a second shape is attached to its edges. We call the fixed shape the base-shape and the second (attached) shape the applier-shape. Designers can use any shape as applier-shape by simply selecting it and then applying to the base-shape. The computer duplicates the applier-shape, transforms it, and attaches each duplicates to an edge of the base-shape. ArchiDNA generates 2D and 3D drawings similar to Eisenman's plans for the Biocentrum building. ArchiDNA supports designers in defining rules and generating configurations. Designers can enter and edit their own shapes for applier-shapes and base-shapes and also change the combination of primitive shape operations (translation, rotation, scale, and repetition) that make up the process of applying one shape to another. Thus, designers can define rules and explore their consequences, using ArchiDNA to generate shape configurations that are consistent with a given set of rules of style.
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On this day the explorers passed along this stretch of the Missouri River and camped a few miles north of here on the Nebraska side. The tranquil weather recorded by Clark in his journal for July 13 was in sharp contrast with violent storms the night before.
Two notable incidents occurred on July 12. Private Alexander Willard was court-martialed for falling asleep on guard duty and sentenced to receive "one hundred lashes on his bear back, at four different times in equal propation."
Captain Clark went a short distance up the Nemaha River, where he "observed artifical mounds (or as I may more Justly term Graves) which to me is a Strong indication of this Country being once Thickly Settled." This site is a prehistoric Oto village and cemetery.
Near the mouth of the Nemaha River, Clark "observed Some Indian marks, went to the rock which jutted over the water and marked my name & the day of the month and year." No evidence of his inscription can be found today.
Nebraska State Historical Society
National Park Service
Along US 159 in Rulo
West of the Missouri River bridge
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The Creation Myth of Xi Jinping
At Foreign Policy, John Garnaut digs into the often vague history of China’s likely next president, Xi Jinping.
If every modern president needs a creation myth, then Xi Jinping’s begins on the dusty loess plateau of northwest China. It was here that Xi spent seven formative years, working among the peasants and living in a lice-infested cave dug into the silty clay that extends around the Yellow River. Gradually, the selfless peasants and the unforgiving “Yellow Earth” — a term for China’s land that symbolizes relentless toil and noble sacrifice — transformed this pale, skinny, and nervous-looking teenager into the man who in November will take control of the world’s second-most powerful country.
“When I arrived at the Yellow Earth, at 15, I was anxious and confused,” wrote Xi in 1998, by which time he was working his way to the top of the Communist Party hierarchy in the prosperous coastal province of Fujian. “When I left the Yellow Earth, at 22, my life goals were firm and I was filled with confidence.”
[…] The Yellow Earth story matters, says Geremie Barme, director of the Australian National University’s Centre on China in the World. “It is … the log cabin of American politics, and Xi Jinping can claim it.” It’s a narrative that affirms that he “suffered hardship” and “knows what it’s like at China’s grassroots,” says Zhang Musheng, an intellectual whose father was a high official, explaining why Xi and others of his leadership cohort are more qualified than their predecessors to represent the Chinese people.
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Jane Addams' Hull-House Museum
Hull House was opened by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in 1889 to offer art and literary education to the residents of what was then a poor immigrant neighborhood in the West Loop. By 1911 the facility had grown into a 13-building settlement house and was the first of numerous such facilities throughout the country. The organization was relocated in 1963 when the neighborhood was demolished for the University of Illinois Chicago campus.
The Hull House Museum building was originally an Italianate mansion built by developer Charles Hull in 1856. It and the 1905 dining hall were spared in the University development and a 1967 renovation of the mansion for museum purposes restored it to its 1856 appearance. However, the removal of Addams' third floor addition and replacement of the exterior brick made it an architectural anachronism that bore little resemblence to the facility as it appeared during days as the settlement house headquarters.
Separately from the museum (which is run by the university), the Hull House Association continued in operation as a service organization until 27 January 2012.
Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishible from magic. (Arthur C. Clarke)
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Milk. Some people love it, some hate it, and some simply have trouble digesting it. Today, we’ll explore why some people are lactose intolerant and some aren’t.
Why Are Some People Lactose Intolerant?
When we were younger, milk was a big staple in most of our lives. What would our breakfast cereal be without it? Letting your Cocoa Pebbles soak and turn your milk brown, then drinking the resulting ‘chocolate milk’ was (and for some still is) a morning delight. At some point, usually in the mid-teens to early 20s, a percentage of the population started to feel increasing discomfort or bloated after consuming a few glasses of milk. They became lactose intolerant.
The Missing Lactase
The reason for this is a lack of the enzyme ‘lactase’ which is responsible for breaking down the lactose (a sugar in milk) in your digestive track. Scientists have discovered that most people develop at least some degree of intolerance as they age.
Why we lose this ability still remains a bit of a mystery. Most scientists believe that we all originally lost the ability to digest lactose as we got older, and thanks to a fairly recent genetic mutation, the lactase producing gene was left “switched on” throughout adulthood.
Those with the intolerance will still continue to produce some lactase, but at a substantially lower rate. The decreased production will then reach a critical point where your digestive tract can no longer break down lactose and it will pass undigested through your intestine until it reaches the colon. Once there, the lactose undergoes a kind of fermentation by the bacteria that hang out there. As the bacterium interacts with the lactase, gas is produced. This gas is what causes the discomfort, pain as well as cramping and diarrhea.
Should We Cut Out All Dairy?
For all but the most severe cases, being lactose intolerant doesn’t mean you should permanently cut out all dairy. Several studies have shown that those who are intolerant can drink one to two glasses of milk a day without a problem. According to the studies, the negative symptoms can actually improve when milk is consumed regularly, but in lower levels. Researchers have speculated this is because the bacteria in the colon build up over time, which causes a stronger reaction than if the bacteria had been continually exposed to lactose — and the bacteria also becomes more efficient.
Just don’t forget the most important reason to drink milk: calcium. If children don’t get the amount of calcium they need, their growth and skeletal health will be put at risk. A New Zealand study showed that kids who cut dairy completely out of their diet only get one-third of their needed daily calcium which was directly responsible for a substantially higher bone fracture rate than children who consumed dairy products. Milk does in fact, do a body good.
While it’s certainly possible to get calcium from other food sources, you would have to consume unreasonable amounts of it to equal the same amount found in many common dairy products. If you miss the days when you could enjoy dairy products without a care or worry, consider giving lactose digestive-aids a try. Many with light to mild symptoms have reported great results and a sizable portion can now consume dairy products again without ill effects.
Bonus Science Fact: Milk is white because of the casein protein. Thanks to its spherical shape and being suspended uniformly throughout the liquid, the light is deflected throughout most of the visual spectrum. This causes milk to be fairly opaque and appears white to our eyes.
Itan Y, Jones BL, Ingram CJ (2010). “A worldwide correlation of lactase persistence phenotype and genotypes”. Evolutionary Biology 10:36.
Nature Genetics “Identification of a variant associated with adult-type hypolactasia”. Nat. Genet. 30: 233–7. doi:10.1038/ng826. PMID 11788828.
Flatz G, Rotthauwe HW (1971). “Evidence against nutritional adaption of tolerance to lactose”. Humangenetik 13 (2): 118–25.
Coles Harriet (2007-01-20). “The lactase gene in Africa: Do you take milk?“. The Human Genome, Wellcome Trust.
Ingram CJ, Itan Y, Mulcare CA (January 2009). “Lactose digestion and the evolutionary genetics of lactase persistence”. Hum Genet 124 (6): 579–91.
Swallow DM (2003). “Genetics of lactase persistence and lactose intolerance“. Annual Review of Genetics 37: 197–219.
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Buy Il Fruit Trees, Shade Trees, Bamboo Plants, Fig Tree, Berry Plants, Nut Tree, Grape Vines, and Flowering Tree
USDA , zones 4, 5, and 6, in the State of Illinois are fertile growing areas in a great gardening State. It is important to know which USDA zone that your city is located in, but it is also important to know what your best soil profile to grow trees in. is There are two main soil types that make up about 3 million acres of the Illinois State. The first soil type that is a poorly draining prairie soil known as Drummer. The State of Illinois occupies about 1.6 million acres. The second soil type is a moderately well drained soil named as Tama, and this soil makes up 1.4 million acres. Your local extension agent will be happy to help you to determine which type of soil that you have. Once you have this information, you can begin choosing which kind of fruit tree, nut trees and shade tree is best for you in IL. Illinois gardeners need to know that the plants or trees that they buy to grow will live during the serious winter cold that comes some years. Selecting the proper tree that will survive cold temperatures is important, because if the tree is not cold hardy it will be damaged or killed by the frigid ice and snow. Most gardeners want to produce a crop of fruit or berries or to provide shade from a tree as fast as possible, so that he may choose to plant a large tree or to plant a fast growing tree, and that sounds reasonable. There is a problem with planting a fast growing tree, and that means that if the plant cellular growth is really very fast growing, the tree cells will not generate large enough quantities of lignin or cellulose that is deposited in the cell wall, and that the tree will be damaged or killed by the lack of insulation from the tree cell walls. It is often better to plant a slow growing tree that will be more likely to survive a sudden temperature drop. For the cold zone 4 area of IL, The Red Maple tree, the Weeping Willow tree and the Oak tree would all be excellent choices to grow. For zone 5 and 6 in the USDA map for Illinois, The Ginkgo tree, the Bald Cypress tree and the Sycamore trees will all produce good shade and fall color. Tulip Poplar trees, Catalpa trees and the Loblolly Pine tree (zone 6) are fast growing shade trees, and the Loblolly Pine trees are often planted in rows as a fast growing privacy fence. Illinois shade trees should be planted on the Eastern or Western side of a building for maximum shade that will reduce your electric bill. Shade trees will also reduce erosion and increase the value of your property.
Illinois's State tree is the Quercus alba , commonly called the White Oak, and the White Oak tree produces bushels of wildlife animal acorn food in the fall. The Sawtooth oak tree is a fast growing tree that can produce acorns in as little as 5 years, and the gobbler oak tree produces the perfect size acorn that is small enough for turkey to eat. The State flower is the Illinois native violet, and the State grass is the Big Blue stem. The White Oak tree is a very large Oak in Springfield, IL., and the tree that is vigorous in the IL climate. .The White Oak can grow upwards of 60 feet tall, which will provide excellent shade for your new home or landscape garden and reduce your air-conditioning bill dramatically..
Purchase Fruit Trees
Illinois is a great location for fruit tree orchards or for plant enthusiasts to who cultivate fruit trees in Illinois. Most fruit trees not only have strict pollination requirements, but they also must have a certain number of chill hours (hours below 40 o F), but in Illinois, your fruit trees need not suffer from the lack of knowledge. It does not matter, if you live in Chicago, Springfield, or Peoria IL, you can still grow fruit trees with ease and save your family money on fresh fruits, if you call Ty Ty Nursery when you get ready to order, or if you want to get pollination requirements or planting instructions.
Illinois Apple trees are a great choice to grow. The most popular apple tree cultivars for Illinois that Ty Ty Nursery carries are Jonathon, Golden Delicious, and Red Delicious Apple trees. Remember you need to plant two separate trees for proper cross pollination, and our friendly professionals are waiting to answer your questions. Please refer to our Apple Tree section for more information, pictures and videos, for planning your Illinois apple tree home orchard.No matter where you live, everyone wants to grow a cherry tree, and IL is no different. Cherry trees not only have delicious fruit, but the trees also have gorgeous spring flowers. Get the best bang for you buck by planting sweet or sour cherry trees. Not only is the cherry tree a fast growing fruit tree, but the cherry tree is also a beautiful flowering tree as well. When freshly picked, Bing cherries are great for in season eating, baking pies, or serving on top of ice cream as a dessert.
The peach tree, Pear trees, and Plums trees, and the Illinois native Paw Paw trees are reliable fruit producing trees, that are also disease and pest resistant. For great tasting ripe peaches plant a semi-dwarf Reliance peach in you backyard and get fruit the first year, when you decide to buy a bearing size, peach trees from Ty Ty Nursery. Call toll free 1-888-758-2252 to order your cold hardy Apricot tree and Nectarine tree today, or you can order conveniently on our secure shopping cart online.
The internet celebrated plant, the "Chicago Hardy Fig Tree" under the proper mulching has survived many winters in snow and ice storms, even the terrible frigid winter of 2014.
For wildlife animals, fruit trees are important in feeding that trophy deer and game birds. Wildlife pear trees and native American persimmon trees produce aromatic fruit that attracts deer and birds in the fall when the persimmons and pears ripen. Chickasaw plum trees, red mulberry trees and the wild seedling crabapple trees produce ripe fruit during the summer. Elderberry plants and the strawberry bushes are excellent wildlife berry attractants for deer and all kinds of game birds. The seedling hardy pecan trees, hickory nut trees and American chestnut trees all produce nuts in the fall that attract birds and deer. The autumn olive tree and blackberry (dewberry) plants are thorny and the thorns protect the game birds from predators, while the birds eat the berries.
Everyone loves a great tasting Georgia Pecan kernels, and now with the introduction of the Northern James Pecan, Illinois's Gardeners can love these same pecan treats that you can grow in your own pecan tree orchard. Normally, nut trees such as a pecan tree must mature to 8 years old to produce nuts, but Ty Ty Nursery has offered Illinois Pecan trees that can produce the first year in IL, if you buy a large enough bearing size nut tree. The American black walnut tree and the American filbert tree are very good nut producers in the fall, and the Chinese chestnut tree is cold hardy in all usda zones in IL.
Find Fruit, berry and nut tree tips that are not the only fruit producing plants to choose from, but you can get the best high quality information and high quality reviews on how to purchase plants on the Ty Ty Nursery website. Cold tolerant raspberry and blackberry bushes can be easily grown and maintained for fresh berry production for years to come. Planting grape vines in IL is also a wonderful idea because of the adaptability of grapevines to cool climates. No matter, if you own a vineyard, or if you are simply looking to experiment and produce you own backyard wine, you can buy your own producing Illinois grape vines from the Ty Ty Nursery professional staff.
Get Illinois Cold Hardy Palm Tree-Order IL Northern Plants
Every Illinois pool or patio landscape needs that tropical look that can only be achieved in Florida, right? Wrong, Ty Ty Nursery offers Northern, cold hardy palm trees that have survived temperatures well below zero. The Windmill Palm Tree and the Needle Palm Trees are the two most cold hardy palm trees, and both will survive the cold and harsh Illinois winters with no problem of 20 degrees F below zero. . It is simple, just order your cold hardy windmill palm trees today and Ty Ty Nursery ships tomorrow.
Ty Ty Nursery offers one of the largest selections online of Oak trees, Maple tree, and Pine tree that will help shade and cool your house during those warm summer months that are best growing in the shade. Some other excellent, native Illinois trees would be Sweet Gum, Sassafras and Corkscrew Willow Trees. The Lombardy poplar tree is a very fast growing shade tree and can reach over 8 feet of new growth the first year of transplanting. The Sour Wood tree produces a panorama of colors in the fall; and the Ginkgo tree matures into a brilliant yellow leaf color. The Green Ash tree is one of the fastest growing trees and will grow well in all areas and soil profiles in Illinois.
If you are tired of not having the most colorful yard on the block, then brighten your IL landscape with the fastest growing Flowering trees from Ty Ty Nursery. You can make your yard the envy of the neighborhood by planting the best Japanese flowering cherry trees like the pink Japanese Kwanzan and white Yoshino flowering cherry tree. white, red and pink dogwood trees, and native Redbud trees herald in the spring and the white Aristocrat pear tree is loaded down with a canopy of fluffy flowers in the spring, or if you like red or pink flowering trees plant the red leaf Thundercloud plum tree for a summer show of red. Crape myrtle plants are long blooming shrubs and blooms that flower for several months in succession. The Japanese saucer pink Magnolia trees produce giant head size fragrant flowers in the early spring, that follow up with bright leaf color in the fall.
Illinois bamboo plants are cold hardy and can survive temperatures from Springfield to Chicago of minus -20 degrees F. Clumping bamboo is one of the fastest growing plants in the world, and Illinois homes can enjoy the privacy screen of bamboo plants growing rapidly into a noise barrier that blocks not only intruders but covers the ground to stop soil erosion. The bamboo stalks or poles can be blue, yellow or black in color, and the dense woody culms (stems) form beautiful background specimens in the landscape. Call Ty Ty Bamboo Nursery (
tytyga.com) to order your bamboo plants that can be rapidly shipped to you all during the year.
Good news for gardeners and plant lovers in Illinois: Yucca trees can survive winter cold temperatures in all landscapes except in zone 4. The evergreen Joshua Tree, Yucca brevifolia is a unique drought resistant ornamental plant that is armed with thin linear leaves with sharp points. The Spanish Bayonet, Yucca gloriosa can grow to 16 feet tall like the Yucca rostrata and the Red Yucca that has a red leaf color change in the cold winter temperatures. The Yucca filamentosa 'Color Guard' is variegated with leaves that are bisected with brilliant creamy stripes. Yucca trees are very cold hardy and require no care or attention. Fertilization is unnecessary and the thick fleshy leaves are water storehouses. The native American plant called the 'Century Plant', Agave americana and the variegated striped form called, Agave americana 'Marginata' should be grown as containerized dish garden plants. The Agave tequilana plant grows thick leaves that are filled with a very sweet juice that is fermented into an alcoholic beverage, 'tequila' Another agave that can be containerized is the spineless Agave attenuata. The first aid plant, Aloe vera is excellent to use as a healing leaf juice to cure fire ant bites, insect stings and skin wounds or flesh burns.
Ty Ty Nursery's Trees and Plants
For your easy browsing convenience, please check out our plant and fruit trees videos. If you have any unanswered questions, simply pick up the phone at call 1-888-759-2252. There are two simple ways to order from Ty Ty Nursery; the first over the phone with one of Ty Ty's knowledgeable staff members, and the second way is online on our secure shopping cart. Ty Ty Nursery does extend a full 1 year guarantee on all plants that are offered. All deciduous trees that are shipped to Illinois must be dormant, except for evergreen trees such as: palm trees, pine trees, and olive trees that are shipped by Ty Ty Nursery year round. Plants and Trees make the perfect gift for any occasion, because they tend to bear fruit for many years to come. Show your family and friends how much you really care and send them an Illinois plant gift certificate from Ty Ty Nursery. If you buy today we will promptly mail your gift certificate tomorrow.
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Osteoporosis causes bones to lose mass and density. As the bones become porous and brittle, the chance of fracture is greatly increased. To lessen the risk of osteoporosis, try to get at least 1,000 mg (adults ages 19-50) to 1,200 mg (adults over 51) of calcium each day. Use the SparkPeople nutrition tracker to analyze your average intake.
If you're not meeting your needs, include additional milk and dairy products such as milk, cheese, yogurt, or pudding. Don’t forget foods made with milk such as cheese pizza, lasagna, and yogurt shakes. Other foods that are good sources of calcium include calcium-set tofu, canned salmon and sardines with the bones, calcium fortified juice, and broccoli. Continued ›
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Help support New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more all for only $19.99...
Also known as FRANCISCUS À SANCTA CLARA and sometimes by the alias of FRANCIS HUNT and FRANCIS COVENTRY.
Theologian, b. 1598, at Coventry, England, d. 31 May, 1680. He was the son of Alderman John Davenport and Elizabeth Wolley, and from the grammar school at Coventry went to Dublin where he spent fifteen months, leaving it 22 Nov., 1611. In 1613 he and his brother John proceeded to Merton College, Oxford, entering as "battelers" and taking Cook's commons; but the warden required them to enter as commoners or to leave the college; whereon in 1614 they migrated to Magdalen Hall. Here Christopher became B. A. on 28 May, his Dublin residence being allowed to count. (Oxford University Register.) John subsequently became a noted Puritan divine and emigrated to New England, where with a band of colonists he founded the city of New Haven, Connecticut (1638). Christopher was converted to Catholicism by a priest living near Oxford and in 1615 went to Douay. Attracted by the efforts restore the English Franciscan Province, he joined the Flemish Franciscans at Ypres, 7 Oct., 1617. When he was professed (under the name of Franciscan à Sancta Clara) he joined the English Recollects at the newly-established convent of St. Bonaventure at Douay (18 Oct., 1618). He was sent to the University of Salamanca in Spain, where he took is degree in divinity and won reputation theologian. Returning to Douay, he became first professor of theology at St. Bonaventure's and filled the office of guardian. At length he was sent to England and was appointed chaplain to Queen Henrietta Maria, in which capacity he attended the Court and became acquainted with King Charles I, Archbishop Laud, Montague, Bishop of Norwich, and Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester. Inspired with the idea of converting England by means of corporate reunion, he wrote a treatise to show that the Thirty-nine Articles were susceptible of an interpretation more in accordance with Catholic teaching than was usually supposed. This was the "Paraphrastica Expositio Articulorum Confessionis Anglicanae", published as an appendix to his book, "Deus, Nature, Gratia", in 1634. It offended many Catholics and was put on the Index in Spain, though a condemnation at Rome was averted by Panzani, the pope's nuncio in London.
On 19, June, 1637, Davenport was elected provincial of the order, an office to which he was subsequently re-elected, 10 July 1650, and 4 June, 1665. After the Restoration he was appointed chaplain to Queen Catharine of Braganza, and returned to London, where he spent most of his remaining years with occasional visits to Flanders. His intellectual ability and attractive manner won him the friendship of many, and aided in reconciling numerous converts, among whom was Anne, Duchess of York. He lived to celebrate three jubilees of religious profession, of the priesthood, and of the mission.
His works are:
ANTHONY A WOOD Athence Oxonienese, ed. BLISS (London, 1817), III, 1221; Gillow. Bibl. Dict. Cath., s.v.; Oxford Historical Society, Oxford University Register (Ocford, 1887), X. 374; PERRY in Dict. Nat. Biog. (London, 1888), XIV; Foster, Alumni Oxonienses (Oxford, 1891), I. 376; Shahan, Christopher Daveenport in U. S. Cath. Hist. Magazine (Philadelphia, April, 1888), II, 153.
APA citation. (1908). Christopher Davenport. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04639c.htm
MLA citation. "Christopher Davenport." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04639c.htm>.
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Isabel T. Montoya.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. Remy Lafort, Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York.
Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster at newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.
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PORTLAND, Ore. — A team of researchers at Brown University has concluded that graphene -- the darling material of semiconductor futurists -- disrupts functions of living cells. If the results of the Brown toxicity study are confirmed by others, graphene could end up in the same hazardous-material category as its cylindrical relatives, carbon nanotubes.
"Graphene is easier to produce than carbon nanotubes and can replace them in many applications," Agnes Kane, a professor at Brown, told me:
Graphene has many unique features, but most important is that it is often manufactured from graphite -- a naturally occurring mineral -- by chemical or mechanical exfoliation, which separates the carbon layers, resulting in dry powders with the potential for inhalation exposure. As a pathologist, we have studied nanotubes and other related carbon materials, but this is the first two-dimensional nanomaterial we've tested for toxicity.
The Brown research team led by Kane, chair of the school's Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, began with toxicity studies of graphene, which showed that indeed it did disrupt cell functions as nanotubes do. To discover why, Kane recruited a colleague in engineering for her team, professor Huajian Gao, who created atomically detailed computer simulations of the graphene material interacting with a living cell.
The mechanism discovered by the team was unexpected, since initial simulations of graphene interacting with living cells indicated it was benign. However, Kane's biology group knew from toxicity experiments that graphene fragments did, in fact, interfere with normal functions in living cells. It turned out that first-generation simulations were too simple, modeling graphene fragments as squares, whereas real-world graphene fragments have sharp, pointy edges that can penetrate cell walls drawing the rest of the fragment inside after it. Gao's revised simulations successfully modeled Kane's toxicity experiments.
The sharp bottom corner of a piece of graphene (G) penetrating a cell membrane due to its nanoscale rough edges and sharp corners (scale bar is two microns).
(Source: Kane Lab / Brown University)
After the simulations revealed the mechanism by which graphene was interfering with normal cell function, Annette von dem Bussche, a professor of pathology and laboratory medicine, was able to repeat the toxicity experiments with detailed images that showed how the cells were being disrupted (see photo). The follow-up studies were performed on human lung, skin, and immune cells in Petri dishes, and confirmed that graphene sheets as large as 10 microns can pierce and be swallowed up by living cells.
All interesting nanomaterials have peculiar properties, and being declared hazardous does not doom a material, since many hazardous materials are already successfully used in semiconductor manufacturing, including lead, mercury, and cadmium. In fact, the Brown researchers are investigating a variety of nanomaterials for toxicity, as a prelude to developing safer methods of manufacturing, handling, and utilizing them throughout their lifecycles.
"The great thing about nanomaterials is that you can engineer them to have specific desirable properties," said Kane. "Using computational modeling, we hope to modify these materials to make them less toxic."
Graphene is considered a promising candidate to replace silicon in future semiconductors.
Funding for the Brown research was provided by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Robert Hurt, a professor of engineering, and doctoral candidates Yinfeng Li (now a professor at Shanghai Jiao Tong University), Hongyan Yuan, and Megan Creighton also contributed to the work.
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by Staff Writers
San Diego CA (SPX) Apr 02, 2012
Scientists have described a new and more efficient version of an innovative device the size of a home washing machine that uses bacteria growing in municipal sewage to make electricity and clean up the sewage at the same time. Their report here at the 243rd National Meeting and Exposition of the American Chemical Society (ACS), the world's largest scientific society, suggested that commercial versions of the two-in-one device could be a boon for the developing world and water-short parts of the U.S.
"Our prototype incorporates innovations so that it can process five times more sewage six times more efficiently at half the cost of its predecessors," said Orianna Bretschger, Ph.D., who presented a report on the improved technology at the ACS meeting.
"We've improved its energy recovery capacity from about 2 percent to as much as 13 percent, which is a great step in the right direction. That actually puts us in a realm where we could produce a meaningful amount of electricity if this technology is implemented commercially.
"Eventually, we could have wastewater treatment for free. That could mean availability for cleaner water in the developing world, or in southern California and other water-short areas of the United States through the use of more wastewater recycling technologies," she said.
Current wastewater treatment technology involves a number of steps designed to separate the solid and liquid components of sewage and clean the wastewater before it is released into a waterway. This often involves settling tanks, macerators that break down larger objects, membranes to filter particles, biological digestion steps and chemicals that kill harmful microbes. One estimate puts their energy use at 2 percent of overall consumption in the U.S.
Bretschger's team at the J. Craig Venter Institute is developing one version of a so-called microbial fuel cell (MFC). Traditional fuel cells, like those used on the Space Shuttles and envisioned for cars in the future "hydrogen economy," convert fuel directly into electricity without igniting the fuel. They react or combine hydrogen and oxygen, for instance, and produce electricity and drinkable water.
MFCs are biological fuel cells. They use organic matter, such as the material in sewage, as fuel, and microbes break down the organic matter. In the process of doing so, the bacteria produce electrons, which have a negative charge and are the basic units of electricity. Electricity consists of a flow of electrons or other charges through a circuit.
The new MFC uses ordinary sewage obtained from a conventional sewage treatment plant. Microbes that exist naturally in the sewage produce electrons as they metabolize, or digest, organic material in the sludge. Bretschger found that microbes exist in the MFC community that might even break down potentially harmful pollutants like benzene and toluene that may be in the sludge.
An MFC consists of a sealed chamber in which the microbes grow in a film on an electrode, which receives their electrons. Meanwhile, positively-charged units termed protons pass through a membrane to a second, unsealed container. In that container, microbes growing on another electrode combine oxygen with those protons and the electrons flowing as electricity from the electrode in the sealed chamber, producing water or other products like hydrogen peroxide.
Bretschger said the MFC also is quite effective in treating sewage to remove organic material, and data suggest a decrease in disease-causing microbes.
"We remove about 97 percent of the organic matter," she said. "That sounds clean, but it is not quite clean enough to drink. In order to get to potable, you need 99.99 percent removal and more complete disinfection of the water." Still, she suggested their MFC might one day replace some of the existing steps in municipal wastewater treatment.
The group presented their first MFC last year. Since then, they increased the amount of waste their device could handle each week from 20 gallons to 100 gallons, trucked in from a local treatment plant near San Diego.
They also replaced the titanium components with a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) frame and graphite electrodes. Because of that, the new fuel cell costs about $150 per gallon, half as expensive as their previous prototype. The group hopes eventually to bring the cost under $20 per gallon or less to be cost competitive with existing water treatment technologies.
Bretschger reported that the new device is also more than six times as efficient as its predecessor, turning 13 percent of the usable energy in the sludge into electricity. While this only generates a small current, Bretschger explained that a large device running at 20-25 percent efficiency could produce enough power to operate a conventional wastewater treatment plant. A typical sewage treatment plant may consume enough electricity to power 10,000 or more homes, according to some estimates.
American Chemical Society
Bio Fuel Technology and Application News
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Biofuel cell generates electricity when implanted in False Death's Head Cockroach
Washington DC (SPX) Mar 29, 2012
The latest episode in the American Chemical Society's (ACS) award-winning "Global Challenges/Chemistry Solutions" podcast series describes an advance in biofuel technology using a living cockroach. Scientists have developed and implanted into a living insect - the False Death's Head Cockroach - a miniature fuel cell that converts naturally occurring sugar in the insect and oxygen from the ... read more
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Dallas County Schools
429 Lauderdale St.
Selma, AL 36701
Arts in Education: Alabama Black Belt Arts in Education Initiative
"Art is literacy of the heart"
-- Elliot Eisner
The Arts are an essential part of public education. From dance and music to theatre and visual arts, the arts give children a unique means of expression, capturing their passions and emotions, and allowing them to explore new ideas, subject matter, and cultures. They bring us joy in every aspect of our lives.
Arts education not only enhances students' understanding of the world around them, but it also broadens their perspective on traditional academics. The arts give us the creativity to express ourselves, while challenging our intellect. The arts integrate life and learning for all students and are integral in the development of the whole person.
The Arts communicate and speak to us in ways that teach literacy and enhance our lives. We must continue to find a place for arts programs and partnerships not only for what it teaches students about art, but for what it teaches us all about the world we live in.
--Dr. Terry Bergeson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Washington State, November 2001
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Several years ago, Larry Burns, then vice-president of research for General Motors, told me it will be possible to totally prevent cars from colliding with each other by 2020.
At the time, the idea seemed like a pipe-dream. But now, not so much.
The realization of that dream took a big step forward a couple weeks ago, with the launch of a year-long “smart-car” test program involving nearly 3,000 vehicles, co-ordinated by the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI).
With the ungainly title of Safety Pilot Model Deployment, the test program is part of a $22-million (U.S.) partnership between the institute and the U.S. Department of Transportation, supported by several auto-industry players.
Eight automakers — Ford, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, Mercedes-Benz, Nissan, Toyota and Volkswagen — have all contributed vehicles to the program.
Billed as “the largest connected-vehicle, street-level pilot project ever conducted,” its purpose is simple: to see how well automatic wireless communication among vehicles works in the real world.
Ann Arbor residents will drive these vehicles for a year, while researchers collect and analyze data to assess the systems’ effectiveness.
The vehicles, which include passenger cars, commercial trucks and transit buses, are fitted with wireless devices that enable both V2V (Vehicle-to-Vehicle) and V2I (Vehicle-to-Infrastructure) communication.
Stated simply, the vehicles can talk to each other, as well as to traffic lights and other road signals at intersections, curves and highway sites throughout a defined test area in Ann Arbor, Mich., where UMTRI is located.
Data will include such things as vehicle position, speed and direction. The V2I shares information about traffic signals, road attributes and surface conditions from 29 roadside transponders installed along about 120 km of Ann Arbor roadways.
Most of that communication will be invisible to the drivers.
But in the event of a potential crash — a vehicle unexpectedly braking, a sudden lane change or merging traffic, for example — some drivers will be given a visual or audible warning. (Although all vehicles can talk to each other, only some are equipped with warning systems).
Given that several modern cars include technologies such as active cruise control and emergency stopping, it’s technically possible to have at least some of them take over partial control in the event of an emergency.
But this trial doesn’t go that far. It focuses on being able to identify potential problems and warn the drivers accordingly. That’s a big first step.
Beyond safety implications, V2V and V2I also have the potential to improve traffic flow, by identifying traffic congestion and offering alternative routes.
“This is a game-changer for transportation,” says program manager Jim Sayer, an associate research scientist at the institute.
Connected vehicle technology has the ability to prevent as much as 80 per cent of all crashes involving unimpaired drivers, and to greatly reduce carbon emissions, according to UMTRI director, Peter Sweatman.
U.S. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood is equally enthusiastic. “This is a big moment for automotive safety,” he says. “This cutting-edge technology offers real promise for improving both the safety and efficiency of our roads.”
Although the Michigan test is the largest of its type, it’s not the only one. A 120-vehicle fleet is being used to test 20 experimental driver assistance technologies in Germany, as part of a four-year research project called Safe Intelligent Mobility.
At the conclusion of the Michigan test, the U.S. Department of Transportation will consider rulemaking related to these technologies.
It is important to establish global standards and security frameworks, so all vehicles from all makers will be able to communicate with each other.
It will be at least six to eight years before the systems could be implemented, according to Mike Shulman, technical leader of Ford’s research and advanced engineering.
But it will take another five years on the market for drivers to truly benefit from the technology, says Hariharan Krishnan, a GM researcher.
Larry Burns’ prediction may not be that far off after all.
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Compiled and edited by Charles J. Kappler. Washington : Government Printing Office, 1929.
A treaty of peace and friendship made and concluded near Bidwell's Ranch, on Chico creek, between the United States Indian agent, O. M. Wozencraft, of the one part, and the chiefs, captains, and head men of the following tribes, viz : Mi-chop-da, Es-kuin, Ho-lo-lu-pi, To-to, Su-nus, Che-no, Batsi, Yut-duc, Sim-sa-wa, tribes, of the other part.
The several tribes or bands above mentioned, do acknowledge the United States to be the sole and absolute sovereign of all the soil and territory ceded to them by a treaty of peace made between them and the republic of Mexico.
The said tribes or bands acknowledged themselves, jointly and severally, under the exclusive jurisdiction, authority, and protection of the United States, and hereby bind themselves hereafter to refrain from the commission of all acts of hostility and aggression towards the government or citizens thereof, and to live on terms of peace and friendship among themselves and with all other Indian tribes which are now or may come under the protection of the United States. And furthermore bind themselves to conform to and be governed by the laws and regulations of the Indian bureau, made and provided therefor by the Congress of the United States.
To promote the settlement and improvement of said tribes or bands it is hereby stipulated and agreed that the following district of country, in the State of California, shall be and is hereby set apart for the sole use and occupancy of the aforesaid tribes of Indians, to wit: commencing at a point on Feather river, two miles above the town of Hamilton, and extending thence northwesterly to the northeast corner of Neal's grant, thence northwesterly along the boundaries of Neal's, Hensley's and Bidwell's grant to the northeast corner of the last named grant, thence northeasterly six miles, thence southeasterly parallel with the line extending from the beginning point to the northeast corner of Bidwell's grant to Feather river, and thence down said river to the place of beginning. Provided, That there is reserved to the Government of the United States the right of way over any portion of said territory, and the right to establish and maintain any military post or posts, public building, school houses, houses for agents, teachers, and such others as they may deem necessary for their use or the protection of the Indians. The said tribes or bands, and each of them, hereby engage that they will never claim any other lands within the boundaries of the United States, nor ever disturb the people of the United States in the free use and enjoyment thereof.
To aid the said tribes or bands in their subsistence while removing to and making their settlement upon the said reservation, the United States, in addition to the few presents made them at this council, will furnish them, free of charge, with two hundred (200) head of beef-cattle, to average in weight five hundred (500) pounds each, seventy-five sacks of flour one hundred (100) pounds each, within the term of two years from the date of this treaty.
As early as convenient after the ratification of this treaty by the President and Senate, in consideration of the premises, and with a sincere desire to encourage said tribes in acquiring the arts and habits of civilized life, the United States will also furnish them with the following articles, to be divided among them by the agent according to their respective numbers and wants, during each of the two years succeeding the said ratification, viz: one pair strong pantaloons and one red flannel shirt for each man and boy, one linsey gown for each woman and girl, two, thousand
yards calico and five hundred yards brown sheeting, twenty pounds Scotch thread and one thousand needles, six dozen thimbles and two dozen pairs scissors, one two and a half point Mackinaw blanket for each man and woman over fifteen (15) years of age, one thousand pounds of iron, one hundred pounds of steel; and in like manner in the first year for the permanent use of the said tribes, and as their joint property, viz : twenty-five brood mares and one stallion, one hundred milch cows and six bulls, four yoke work-cattle with yokes and chains, six work-mules or horses, twelve ploughs assorted sizes, seventy-five garden or corn hoes, twenty-five spades, four grindstones. The stock enumerated above and the product thereof; and no part or portion thereof shall be killed, exchanged, sold or otherwise parted with without the consent and direction of the agent.
The United States will also employ and settle among said tribes, at or near their towns or settlements, one practical farmer, who shall superintend all agricultural operations, with two assistants, men of practical knowledge and industrious habits; one carpenter, one wheelwright, one blacksmith, one principal school-teacher, and as many assistant teachers as the President may deem proper to instruct said tribes in reading, writing, &c., and in the domestic arts upon the manual labor system; all the above-named workmen and teachers to be maintained and paid by the United States for the period of five years, and as long thereafter as the President shall deem advisable. The United States will also erect suitable school-houses, shops and dwelling for the accommodation of the school-teachers and mechanics above specified, and for the protection of the public property.
In testimony whereof, the parties have hereunto signed their names and affixed their seals this first day of August, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and fifty-one.
O. M. WOZENCRAFT,
United States Indian Agent.
For and in behalf of the Mi-chop-da:
LUCK-Y-AN, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of the Es-kuin
MO-LA-YO, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of Ho-lo-lu-pi:
WIS-MUCK, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of the To-to:
WE-NO-KE, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of the Su-nus:
WA-TEL-LI, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of the Che-no:
YO-LO-SA, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of the Bat-si:
YON-NI-CHI-NO, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of the Yut-duc:
SO-MIE-LA, his x mark. [SEAL.]
For and in behalf of the Simsa-wa:
PO-MA-KO, his x mark. [SEAL.]
Signed, sealed, and delivered, after being fully explained, in presence of—
EDW. H. FITZGERALD, Brevet major first dragoons.
GEORGE STONEMAN, Lieutenant first dragoons.
THOMAS WRIGHT, second lieutenant second infantry.
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This large, impressive insect can often be found crawling around shorelines of streams and rivers, especially in rocky areas. Occasionally individuals will fly some distance from the water and turn up in people's yards, being attracted to lights at night. They are an important part of stream and river fauna, providing food for fish and birds. Their absence is often a good indicator that a stream is being polluted. These insects are so important that conservation agencies and game fishermen keep charts of when they hatch. Check out these websites for examples of Stone Fly growth charts:
Stoneflies are adapted to well oxygenated streams and rivers. Stonefly nymphs have fixed gills that can only extract oxygen in moving water. If trapped in still water they die quickly. In turbulent, rocky streams, such as the Madison and the Big Hole in Montana, they provide the largest flies and the most spectacular fishing of the season. In certain Oregon streams they are the second most important fish food.
Identification: Giant stoneflies can be up to 40 mm
(1-1/2 inches) long, including the wings. Some small species of stoneflies are only about 10 mm long. The long lacy wings that overlap one another make this a rather distinctive-looking insect.
There are over 200 species of stoneflies
that range in size from about 10 mm to 40 mm (about 1/3 inch
to 1-1/2 inches). Most are grey and black, some having orange areas between the thoracic plates. Some of the smaller species are greenish.
They feed on plants, decaying leaves and detritus. They are also a favorite food for trout, as most fishermen will know. Adult giant stoneflies do not feed and thus usually live only for a week. Other species may live for more than a month as adults. Males of many species attract a mate by drumming their abdomens on the substrate, the females feeling the vibrations rather than hearing the sound.
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Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to conserve and protect our oceans and fresh water supply.
Central Idea: Our water is a treasured resource that should be protected for our future generations
I. About 70% of the earths surface is covered with water. (show globe)
A. Of all this water, only .3% is usable by humans, the remaining 99.7% is either unusable salt water or unavailable fresh water. (show graph #1)
B. Much of the useable .3% is out of reach and locked up in icecaps and glaciers.
II. We all know that water is important.
A. Plants and animals need clean water to survive.
B. People cannot survive more than a few days without water.
C. Almost everything we do uses water: drinking, bathing, growing food and gardens, even making the toys and tools we use today.
III. Although water covers most of the earth, all of us share less that 1% of all the water on earth.
A. The water we have now is all we will ever have. We can not produce anymore.
B. Water is a commodity that is essential to all life on this planet, and it needs our help. It is our responsibility to not only conserve our water supply, but to clean it up as well.
I. Most people do not know this, but our fresh water supply has never been abundant.
A. Statistics indicate that the world will be severely challenged to conserve what little there will be in the next century.
B. In 1998, 30 nations possessed less than the minimum supply of water required by a human to meet the basic needs of the nations population.
C. For Florida, management of our water resource is critical as population demands increase, especially in the coastal counties.
II. We not only have to consider conserving our water supply, but cleaning it up as well.
A. As we enter a new millennium, it is appropriate to keep in mind how much we’ve already done to clean up our polluted waterways, how much further we still hav...
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I added the 2011 census results (from source ), and a population history. I extended the change history back to 1700 by combining narratives from various online sources, some of which disagreed with each other.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Jamaica was a British colony. Administratively subordinate to it were several dependencies: Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, Morant Cays, and Pedro Cays. The Cayman Islands separated from Jamaica on 1959-07-04. Jamaica became an independent country, and Turks and Caicos Islands separated from it, on 1962-08-06. The tiny and uninhabited Morant and Pedro Cays are still part of Jamaica.
(Speculative) From Arawak xamac: hammock, or xaymaca: rich in springs, or land of springs
Jamaica is divided into fourteen parishes.
|Saint Andrew||573,369||431||166||S||Half Way Tree|
|Saint Ann||172,362||1,213||468||M||Saint Anns Bay|
|Saint Catherine||516,218||1,192||460||M||Spanish Town|
|Saint Elizabeth||150,205||1,212||468||C||Black River|
|Saint James||183,811||595||230||C||Montego Bay|
|Saint Mary||113,615||611||236||M||Port Maria|
|Saint Thomas||93,902||743||287||S||Morant Bay|
According to source , the structure of Jamaica's postal codes is five letters followed by two digits. The first two letters are always "JM"; the third is a letter from A to D, representing a zone of the country; the fourth and fifth letters are a mnemonic for the parish name, using its first and last letters, excluding the word "Saint"; and the final two digits represent a delivery area. For example, JMAAW03 is a postal code for Constant Spring in Saint Andrew parish. The table above shows the third through fifth characters for each parish.
Jamaica is also divided into three traditional counties, which have no administrative function.
The UN LOCODE page for Jamaica lists locations in the country, some of them with their latitudes and longitudes, some with their ISO 3166-2 codes for their subdivisions. This information can be put together to approximate the territorial extent of subdivisions.
Kingston: Kingston and Port Royal (obsolete)
Sources: 1943 - ; 1960, 1970 - ; 1982 - ; 2001 - ; 2011 - . Source gives figures rounded to the nearest thousand. Source lists only a combined population for Kingston and Saint Andrew.
|Back to main statoids page||Last updated: 2015-06-30|
|Copyright © 2004-2006, 2011, 2012, 2015 by Gwillim Law.|
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If you came to this page directly and do not see a navigation frame on top, please go to the home page.
|UNITED STATES OF AMERICA|
Boston is situated at the estuary of the Charles River into Boston Harbor, off Boston Bay. Boston is the county seat of Suffolk County. With a population of about 589,000 (2000) it is the largest city of Massachusetts. The Boston Metrolpolitan Area has a population of about 5.8 million.
Boston was founded on September 17, 1630, on a narrow peninsula called Shawmut by Native Americans who lived there. Boston is named after Boston, England, a town in Lincolnshire from which several prominent colonists originated.
Boston was birthplace of the American Revolution. The Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, and several early battles of the Revolution, (such as the Battle of Lexington and Concord, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston) occurred in or near the city. During this period, Paul Revere made his celebrated midnight ride from Charleston, MA, to Lexington and Concord (see Revere Beach).
Following the Revolution, Boston became one of the world's wealthiest international trading ports. It was chartered as a city in 1822, and by the mid-1800s it was one of the largest manufacturing centers in the nation.
Much of the Back Bay, and South End are built on reclaimed landtwo and a half of Boston's three original hills were used as a source of material for the landfill. Only Beacon Hill, the smallest of the three original hills, remains partially intact.
The Boston Public Library [left, no.B16] was founded in 1848 as America's first major free municipal library.
The library building in Copley Square was built in 18871895 by Charles Follen McKim, William Rutherford Mead and Stanford White in a Renaissance Revival style. The building counts as a centerpiece of the collaborative work of the three architects and is currently used to store the library's research materials.
A modern addition, which holds the circulating collection and branch headquarters, was built by Philip Johnson in 1971.
Faneuil Hall [left, no. 1414: top picture; and right, no.B16] was built in 1742 by the French Huguenot merchant Peter Faneuil, who donated the building to the town.
A fire in 1761 destroyed the original Faneuil Hall, but the building was reconstructed in time to host Samuel Adams and his compatriots as they planned Boston's revolutionary activity; the political maneuverings here earned Faneuil Hall its long-standing nickname, "Cradle of Liberty." For over 250 years the first floor has served as a marketplace and the second floor as an open forum meeting hall.
By 1805, the Hall had become too small to serve the needs of the city, and Charles Bulfinch, one of America's foremost architects, was commissioned to design the expanded structure that remains virtually unaltered. Although an 1822 city charter ended government by town meeting, Faneuil Hall remained the center of Boston political debate until well into the 1900s. During the 1970s, the building underwent a major internal renovation.
The Massachusetts State House [left, no.B17; and above left, no. 1414: bottom picture] as built between 1795 and 1797 on Beacon Hill and overlooks the Boston Common. The site, a pasture owned by John Hancock was lowered 50 ft (15 m) for the construction of the State House.
The building was designed by self-taught architect Charles Bulfinch, who based his design on Somerset House in London. The building's front features an elevated portico with a series of Corinthian columns. The red brick facade was painted white in 1825 and remained painted until 1928 when the bricks were exposed again. The large gilded dome is topped with a lantern and pinecone, symbol of the forests of Massachusetts. The dome was originally made of wood shingles. These were replaced in 1802 with copper. In 1861, the dome was gilded and this remained so ever since, except during the second World War, when it was painted black. In 1895 the state house was expanded with a large, yellow-colored annex, and in 1917 marble wings were added. [Glass no. 1414, above left, shows the appearance of the State House of prior to 1895.]
[Other Capitol buildings depicted on items of this collection are the United States Capitol in Washington, DC, the Colorado State Capitol Denver, CO, the Indiana Staehouse in Indianapolis, IN, and the New York State Capitol in Albany, NY.]
Bunker Hill Monument [right, no.B16] commemmorates the battle of June 17, 1775, which took place on this site. It was the first major battle of the American Revolution.
The Bunker Hill Monument Association was incorporated in 1823 for the purpose of purchasing the battlegrounds and constructing on the site a suitable memorial. The Association appointed a Board of Artists to recommend a form for the monument. Construction, under the direction of architect Solomon Willard, began in 1827, but work was frequently halted as available funds were depleted. To bring the project to completion the Association in 1838 began to sell off the ten acres of the battlefield as house lots, eventually preserving only the summit of Breed's Hill as the monument grounds. On June 17, 1843, the completed 221-foot (67 m) granite obelisk was dedicated. Two hundred ninety-four steps lead up to the top of the monument, which offers a spectacular view of Boston.
The Bunker Hill Monument Association maintained the monument and grounds until 1919 when it was turned over to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. In 1976 the monument was transferred to the National Park Service and became a unit of Boston National Historical Park.
Old South Meeting House (Old South Church) [left, no.B17] is located at Washington and Arch Streets.
The church, with its 183 ft (56 m) steeple, was completed in 1729. gained fame as the organizing point for the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773. Five thousand colonists gathered at the Meeting House, the largest building in Boston at the time.
The church was the meeting house of the United Church of Christ (Congregational), organized by dissenters from Boston's First Church in 1669, and from that time known as the Third Church in Boston. Members of the congregation have included Samuel Adams, William Dawes, Benjamin Franklin, and Phillis Wheatley, the first prominent African American author.
The Old South Meeting House was almost destroyed in the Great Fire of Boston in 1872. The congregation then built a new church, the "New" Old South Church, at Copley Square (see below). Restored after the Revolution, Old South Meeting House remained an active church until 1872. Threatened with demolition, a determined group of local activists saved the building from the wrecker's ball and established a museum in 1877.
The Old State House [right, no.B16] the oldest surviving public building in Boston. It was built in 1713 to house the government offices of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. It stands on the site of Boston's first Town House of 1657/58, which burned in 1711.
The Council Chamber of the Royal Governor was located upstairs at the east end of the building, looking toward Long Wharf and the harbor. This room was the setting for many stirring speeches and debates by dedicated patriots against the British crown. The central area of the second floor was the meeting place of the Massachusetts Assembly, one of the most independent of the colonial legislatures. This Assembly was the first legislative body in the colonies to call for sectional unity, and the formation of a Stamp Act Congress. The building's west end was home to the Courts of Suffolk County and the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court for many years. The Supreme Judicial Court is the longest seated court in the nation (over 300 years old) was also involved in the drafting of the Massachusetts Constitution, upon which the United States Constitution is based. The area beneath the balcony was the site of the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770, when a handful of British soldiers fired into a taunting crowd, killing five men. Today a circle of paving stones marks the spot of the Massacre. On July 18, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was first proclaimed from here, to the jubilant citizens of Boston.
The Old State House continued as the seat of Massachusetts government until the new State House (see above) was built on Beacon Hill. On January 11, 1798, all government functions left the building. From 1830 to 1841, the building was used as Boston's City Hall. In 1841, the building returned to commercial use. During the mid-nineteenth century, the building entered a period of decline.
In 1879, a group of determined citizens formed the Boston Antiquarian Club to save the building from being moved to Chicago for the World's Fair. Two years later, the group reorganized themselves as The Bostonian Society, and began to operate a museum of Boston history in the Old State House.
The Equestrian Statue of George Washington [left, no. 963] is located in Boston Public Garden.
Created in 1869 by Thomas Ball, it was the first statue of Washington astride a horse. Ball, then an unknown artist from Charlestown, MA, had worked alone on the plaster cast for four years. Ballís inspiration for the horse is said to have been an equestrian statue in Venice, Italy.
The First Church of Christ, Scientist [left, no.B051] is the legal title of The Mother Church and administrative headquarters of the Christian Science Church. The complex is located in a 14-acre plaza alongside Huntington Avenue. The church itself was built in 1894, and an annex larger in footprint than the original structure was added in 1906. It boasts one of the world's largest pipe organs, built by the Aeolian-Skinner Company of Boston.
The Church of Christ, Scientist, often known as the Christian Science church, is a Christian denomination that arose in New England in the late nineteenth century. It has about 2,000 branches (local churches) in over 70 countries, with The First Church of Christ, Scientist in Boston, MA, being the denomination's headquarters. The church was founded by the American, Mary Baker Eddy, in 1879 following a personal healing in 1866, which she claimed resulted from reading the Bible.
The First Church of Christ, Scientist, is widely known for its publications, especially the Christian Science Monitor, a daily newspaper published internationally in print and on the Internet. Some consider the Church to be controversial due to its emphasis on healing through prayer when others might choose modern medicine. There have also been periodic tensions with other Christian denominations who reject the idea that Christian Science is a Christian denomination because of what some consider to be unorthodox tenets.
The New Old South Church [left, no.B051] was built in 18721875 in Venetian Gothic style at 645 Boylston Street on Copley Square. Construction of the New Old South Church began in 1872 under Boston architect Charles Amos Cummings.
Exterior ornament is executed in Roxbury puddingstone, with striped arches, tracery, and ironwork. The interior is of plaster with Italian cherry woodwork. The screen of wooden arches behind the choir was adapted from the Doge's Palace in Venice. The stained glass windows were made in 15th century English style. The church's organ was built in 1921 for the St. Paul, Minnesota Municipal Auditorium, and brought to the church in 1982 when that building was demolished; it has 183 ranks and 8,672 pipes. The church's interior was originally stencilled in 1875. In 1905, the congregation commissioned Louis Comfort Tiffany to renovate the interior, and he covered the stained glass windows with deep purple Tiffany glass and redecorated the walls in a gold and purple pattern. The walls were in turn painted a pale gray in the 1950s. An extensive renovation was performed in 1984 to restore the interior to something like its original decor.
Kings Chapel [left, no.B051] was organized as an Anglican congregation at a meeting in Boston's Town House, the city hall of the day, in 1686. Its first house of worship was a small wooden meeting house at the corner of Tremont and School Streets, where the church stands today, that was dedicated in 1689. The congregation grew and its building was in a bad state of repair as the middle of the 18th century approached. Peter Harrison of Newport designed the new, larger building and construction began in 1749. The stone building, made of Quincy granite, was opened in 1754. A bell that was made in England was hung in 1772. It cracked in 1814 and was recast by Paul Revere and rehung in 1816. It is still rung before every service.
Tumbler no.B009 [below] shows the same views as tumbler no.B016 [above right], in different colors.
[Texts adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts, http://www.theinsider.com/Boston/attractions/2bostonlibrary.htm, http://nanosft.com/freedom/faneuil/index.shtml, http://www.theinsider.com/Boston/attractions/2faneuil.htm, http://www.aviewoncities.com/boston/statehouse.htm, http://www.charlestownonline.net/bunkerhillmonument.htm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House, http://www.oldsouthmeetinghouse.org/history/, http://www.bostonhistory.org/old_state_hs_hist.php, http://massbaytrading.com/Merchant2/merchant.mvc?Screen=PROD&Product_Code=FAT1006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Christ,_Scientist, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_South_Church,_Boston,_Massachusetts, http://www.kings-chapel.org/history.html]
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Karen Winzoski, Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Science at the National University of Singapore, has published a study which reveals what really happened to the USA's own chemical weapons.
Her analysis - 'Opting out of the Iron Triangle, The US Chemical Industry and US Chemical Weapons Policy' - draws on data from specialist scientific and industrial publications, such as 'Chemical & Engineering News', 'Chemical Week', 'Chemistry', and 'Chemtech', from 1959 to 2005.
Recently published in 'The Nonproliferation Review', the study reports that the US Army Chemical Corps and the Armed Forces Chemical Association (a group of military officers and industry executives funded by chemical companies) lobbied so successfully that between 1959 and 1964, the Pentagon's spend on Chemical and Biological Warfare research increased from $35 million to $158 million per year, reaching almost 3 percent of the Pentagon's budget.
In 1962, Dr Winzoski found that the Pentagon signed contracts with ten chemical manufacturers for research and development of chemical defoliants, such as Agent Orange, for use in the Vietnam War.
But when in 1970, widespread environmental damage was revealed, the Pentagon stopped purchasing herbicides from private firms. The manufacturing process used to make one of the Agent Orange components, also produced a toxic dioxin as a by product. Dioxins appeared to be some of the deadliest chemicals known. Exposure was linked to soft tissue cancers and birth defects in animals.
Studies commissioned by the Pentagon were unable to conclusively determine that returning veterans' health problems, or birth defects in their children, were caused by dioxin. Nevertheless in 1984 seven chemical firms accepted liability after being sued, and agreed to pay $180 million to soldiers who had experienced Agent Orange exposure in Vietnam, as well as to their survivors.
These chemical companies then sued the federal government to force them into sharing costs of the settlement, but they were not successful. This experience left such a bitter taste, Winzoski argues, the business still swallows hard whenever the Government approaches them again for help with similar agents.
Between the 1950s and 1980s, the Pentagon repeatedly sought congressional and presidential support to upgrade its CW stockpile, concerned that the corrosive and deadly chemicals could seep from storage containers. The proposal was replacing old stockpiles with ''binary'' weapons.
These consist of two chambers filled with two less-deadly precursor chemicals, separated by a glass divide. When a binary missile is fired, the glass fractures, the precursors combine during flight. On impact the shell releases a deadly mixed chemical weapon.
In the 1980s, the Reagan administration supported the Pentagon's binary modernization plan, despite criticism this provoked chemical proliferation. Vice President George H.W. Bush consistently cast crucial tie-breaking Senate votes in favour of binary modernization. In bilateral negotiations with the Soviets in 1989, he maintained that the United States should have the right to modernize its chemical stockpile.
In the fall of 1989, Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze asked the United States to unite with the Soviet Union in ceasing production of all chemical weapons immediately. President George H.W. Bush refused; at the time the US stockpile was 30,000 tons of chemical agents, the Soviet Union's was 50,000 tons.
But back in December 1981, the US Army asked manufacturers to bid for production of chemicals necessary for the nerve agent sarin. The Pentagon also surveyed the willingness of large chemical firms to produce a component of the nerve gas VX.
All of the large chemical companies contacted, refused.
Undeterred, in August 1983, the Pentagon received from the Senate $35 million for the construction of a facility in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, where it could produce the necessary chemical precursors itself.
Though it acceded to the Pentagon's funding request, Congress stipulated that to receive further production funds, the Pentagon would have to meet certain deadlines for the production of chemical weapons.
In a last ditch effort to meet the congressional deadline, the Army extracted precursor chemicals from its 1950s-era chemical stockpile. But in January 1990, stocks of thionyl chloride, a precursor of sarin, ran out, and the Army approached two American chemical manufacturers including, a subsidiary of a West German firm, to produce 160,000 pounds of the chemical.
It is incongruous that a firm whose parent company was based in West Germany, was approached by the US Army, because between 1987 and 1989, the United States criticized the West German chemical industry for assisting in the establishment of a CW plant at Rabta, Libya.
Both companies refused the contract.
Left without the supply of thionyl chloride necessary to meet the production deadline, five weeks later the Bush administration 'offered' to halt binary production during chemical disarmament negotiations with the Soviet Union.
The Soviets were won over by Bush's apparent 'compromise'; nevertheless, Bush's concession was in fact a necessity. The Army was forced to stop production of chemical weapons, rather than wanted to.
On June 3, 1990, less than three weeks after the US 'offer' to halt production, George Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev completed negotiating the bilateral chemical disarmament treaty.
Dr Karen Winzoski's conclusion is that the US chemical industry's refusal to produce necessary precursor chemicals, left the Bush administration with no other option than to fully commit to chemical disarmament.
Dr Winzoski argues there was the tarnished public image and legally costly involvement in the Vietnam war, which the business was still recovering from. Also the chemical industry had grown exponentially, going from a $27.7 billion trade in 1960 to a $295 billion industry in 1989. The most recent offer from the Government ($124.5 million) for the binary modernization project, given much would have been allocated to state operated facilities, maybe was just not lucrative enough to sugar the pill.
The business was also influenced by public opposition, as Karen Winzoski illustrates with an example; the editor of 'Chemtech' journal recounted incidents occurring in the late 1960s which really impacted - students on one campus had made the Dow recruiter feel most unwelcome, because the company was making napalm.
Dr Karen Winzoski's analysis reveals the truth behind US posturing on chemical weapons. They appear to be taking the moral high ground. Yet the US Army which had been pushing for chemical weapons all along, had really been left high and dry, deserted by their own chemical industry.
The US public's negative attitude to such weapons now made the chemical industry so nervous, they turned away from lucrative contracts. But the US Army continued pursuing stockpiles.
Dr Winzoski maintains that the Pentagon did not invoke the Defence Production Act to force the chemical industry into making chemical weapon precursors, because it realized that the chemical industry would use such a legal battle to make sure that Americans realized that it was the Army, not the chemical industry, that was responsible for chemical weapon production.
Ironically, it's the US chemical industry, and its fear of public reaction, which has proved the bulwark against the US Army's desire to develop and stockpile this arsenal.
We need to clear the smoke screen which surrounds chemical weapons, wherever they are.
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|By Kathy McKimmie
Women have gussied up with earrings for thousands of years. Some men have gotten into the act, too – King Tut had pierced earlobes. The earliest earrings were a pierced hoop, and the style is popular today. Large pendants for pierced ears also were present early and have been popular throughout the ages.
In their book, Earrings from Antiquity to the Present, Thames & Hudson, 1990, Daniela Mascetti and Amanda Triossi move quickly from antiquity to the 18th century. There wasn’t much to report for hundreds of years, they write, because while other forms of jewelry thrived in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance “earrings virtually disappeared between the 11th and 16th centuries” due to hair and dress styles. A headdress may have covered the hair and ears, or the hair itself, sometimes in a braid, wrapped at the ear.
In the 1500s, plain gold earrings with pearl drops appeared, and the pearls got larger through the next century. The girandole style with three drops (the middle typically larger) hanging from a central decorative piece at the earlobe, was the rage in the 1600s and 1700s, and got larger and more elaborate.
To alleviate the weight problem, Mascetti and Triossi wrote that methods were devised, including a ribbon in the hair attached to the earring, to hold some of the load. The mid-1700s brought a new etiquette – earrings with diamonds were for evening, those with garnets and other semi-precious stones or pastes were for daytime.
By the mid-1800s, thin sheets of gold were used in designs, allowing earrings to be large and long and yet lightweight and those unadorned with important gems were affordable. The late 1800s saw revivals of classical styles and whimsical and nature-inspired designs. By 1900 earrings had turned simpler again. If diamonds were used they were now set in platinum to show them off, rather than silver.
20th century styles
Earring styles whipsawed throughout the 20th century, and fashions overlap decades and vary widely with the age, taste and economic status of the wearer. By the end of the century, an “anything goes” culture from vintage (or repro vintage) to fine to following the current fashion trend was well in place.
The biggest change in the 20th century was the move away from pierced ears. Screw-on earrings were gaining popularity before World War I, and clip-ons gained a foothold in the 1930s.
By the 1940s, nearly all new earrings were either clip or screw. Pierced ears were not only unfashionable, they were considered by some to be a barbaric mutilation of the body, and worse, to show a lack of moral character in the wearer.
Pierced earrings made a comeback in America in the 1960s and 1970s – when long, dangly, “hippie” style earrings became fashionable. Although some sought the help of a doctor or nurse to make the hole in the lobe, many young people turned to their friends to apply ice to deaden the pain before inserting a needle and thread, the thread left in. Others prolonged their pain by using “sleepers,” a small ring with tension and a sharp point on one end that slowly worked its way through the ear. That method didn’t last long, as stores offered to pierce ears with a “gun” inserting a starter stud. At least it was fast.
Not everyone switched to pierced earrings, of course. Many of the big, plastic Pop earrings of the 1960s were clips (and clips were getting more comfortable), as were many of the long swinging earrings of the 1970s and the glamorous pieces from the 1980s.
But the trend toward piercing continued; and when women who had been holding out couldn’t find what they wanted in clips, they bit the bullet and were glad they did. Fashion earrings were easily accessible and cheap, but gold earrings began to flourish for the masses in the 1970s and diamond studs landed on Christmas lists.
Daughters urged their mothers to pierce, and they were glad they did, too. They wanted to be trendy, and it was safer to buy expensive earrings without fear of losing one.
But let’s back up to those screw-on and early clip days. The Depression dispensed with showy jewelry, but Hollywood glam of the 1930s brought it right back. Austerity returned during World War II, but the later 1940s brought rhinestones galore and that sparkly trend intensified in the 1950s.
Laura Shearer, who with her husband, Ernie, owns Antiques on the Corner in Indianapolis, had some 20-something buyers last year looking for colorful vintage rhinestone earrings at good price points.
“They put them in their bridal bouquet,” she said. Not the one she throws; the one she keeps. “New rhinestones don’t have the sparkle,” she added. “They don’t look the same.”
The polar opposite of the rhinestone craze, but happening simultaneously, was the advent of the modern jewelry designer using silver and copper, with shops springing up in New York and California. An expert on the era, Marbeth Schon, Natchez, Miss., provides a wealth of information on her website, mschon.com, and in her Modern Silver magazine at modernsilver.com.
Particularly interesting is her article titled The Wearable Art Movement, Part I, in which she discusses the exhibition Modern Jewelry Under Fifty Dollars at the trend-setting Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, that showcased the work of 32 established and emerging artists in 1948, including Alexander Calder, Jacques Lipchitz, Margaret De Patta, Sam Kramer, Art Smith and Harry Bertoia.
There are many good jewelry texts, but two for both inspiration and information are: 20th Century Jewelry, The Complete Sourcebook, by John Peacock, Thames & Hudson, 2002, and Christie’s Twentieth-Century Jewelry, by Sally Everitt and David Lancaster, Watson-Guptill, 2002.
The first has numerous images by decade and type (pins, necklaces, earrings); the latter, while not offering as much detail on earrings, offers clues on how top designers have changed the tastes of the masses.
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Resources for Supporting the Military Child
The following list provides a sample – by no means a comprehensive list – of resources for supporting the military child.
10 Things Military Teens Want You to Know (PDF)
The National Military Family Association created this toolkit to give the people in military teens’ lives a way to help them manage the best and hardest parts of military life.
Best Practices: Building Blocks for Enhancing School Environment
This monograph from the Military Child Initiative identifies four important components to creating a positive, supportive school environment.
Building Resilient Kids
This online course from the Military Child Initiative is for school administrators, support staff and teachers to help all students meet life’s challenges with resilience, focusing primarily on students from military families.
Education Resource Center
This page on the Military Child Education Coalition website provides information about state school requirements and resources for 50 states, DoDEA and Washington, D.C. Topics include assessment, curriculum and state standards, graduation/promotion requirements, planning for college, and special education.
Educators Guide to the Military During Deployment (PDF)
This booklet, sponsored by the Educational Opportunities Directorate of the Department of Defense, is intended to help educators build coping skills in students during and after a military deployment.
For Love Of Liberty: The Story of America's Black Patriots
A 4-hour, 2-part documentary that provides audiences with an understanding of the role African Americans played in the history of the United States.
How To Prepare Our Children and Stay Involved in Their Education During Deployment (PDF)
Tips for parents and educators from the Military Child Education Coalition.
Military Students on the Move: A Toolkit for School Leaders (PDF)
The School Leader’s Toolkit is prepared by the Department of Defense to assist installation commanders, educators, and families involved in large-scale military relocations.
Military Student Passport
Designed to help students capture critical information before each move and be aware of the cycles of emotions that can accompany each change. To order, contact Kathleen O'Beirne at firstname.lastname@example.org. The passports cost $4.95 + $1 postage.
Military Youth on the Move
This website for kids covers topics for military youth, like dealing with deployment and moving to a new location, and everyday youth topics, like dealing with divorce.
SOAR (Student Online Achievement Resources)
A program for military families and the school districts that serve them. It aims to address the unique challenges facing military children in our nation’s public schools, while benefiting the overall student population.
Students at the Center
An educational resource for military families, military leaders and school leaders from the The Department of Defense Education Activity’s Educational Partnership. Provides information on important policies, procedures, and best practices that are critical to supporting the needs of military families’ education.
Tackling Tough Topics: An Educator's Guide to Working with Military Kids
A publication designed to help educators better understand and respond to the unique issues facing military kids whose parents or loved ones have been or are currently deployed, from the Washington State Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction.
Talk, Listen, Connect: Deployments, Homecomings, Changes (Sesame Workshop)
A bilingual (English and Spanish) multimedia outreach program designed to support military families with children between the ages of two and five who are experiencing deployment, multiple deployments, or a parent's return home changed due to a combat-related injury.
Tips for Helping Students Recovering From Traumatic Events (PDF)
A U.S. Department of Education guide for parents and students who are coping with the aftermath of a natural disaster, as well as teachers, coaches, school administrators and others who are helping those affected. Although the focus is on natural disasters, these tips may apply to other traumas students may experience.
Working with Military Children: A Primer for School Personnel (PDF)
The primer from the Virginia Military Family Services Board looks at the four major aspects of military lifestyle: separations or deployments, homecomings, relocation, and crises. It includes an activities section designed to help children cope with the adjustments that a military lifestyle can demand.
Return to the AASA Toolkit: Supporting the Military Child.
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HOME · HISTORY · AROUND TOWN
FUN STUFF · NEW
SAINT JOHN FIRST
- Canada's oldest incorporated city,
founded by the United Empire Loyalist, 1783.
- Home of Moosehead Breweries.
- Home of the late industrialist
K.C.Irving, self made billionaire and one of the riches men in the world.
- Location of the 1985 movie, Children of
a Lesser God.
- The birthplace of Walter Pidgeon and
Donald Sutherland and childhood home of Louis Mayer.
- Home of the Canadian Hockey Association's
Atlantic Centre of Excellence.
- Home of Canada's largest oil refinery.
- Home of the second largest bilingual
workforce in New Brunswick.
- Ranked as Canada's Premier City for
Business by the Globe and Mail's Report on Business Magazine and The Best
Business City in Atlantic Canada by the Canadian Federation of Independent
Business for its pro-business attitude.
DUMP BOX FOR TRUCK
INVENTOR: Robert T. Mawhinney
(Patent No. CA 203,004, August 17, 1920)
This invention was
instrumental in the development of our present trucking industry. To create
this first dump truck, a mast was mounted between the cab of the vehicle and
the dump box. A cable was threaded over a sheave at the top of the mast and was
connected to a winch at the base of the mast and to the lower front end of the
dump box. The dump box was pivoted at the rear end of the truck frame. A simple
crank handle was used to operate the winch, which raised the front end of the
dump box, dumped the load, then lowered the box. A hydraulic system has since
replaced the crank handle, but the basic, concept has remained unchanged.
- Canada's first incorporated city, created
by Royal Charter - 1785.
- First Common-Law market in Canada,
created by Royal Charter - 1785.
- First biscuit factory, established in
- Canada's first fire insurance company -
Munso Jarvis, established 1801
- Canada's first Chartered bank - 1830
(Bank of New Brunswick).
- First penny newspaper in the
Empire,"Saint John News", established in 1838 (tri-weekly) by George E
- First compound marine engine developed by
Benjamin Tibbets - 1842. The "Reindeer" was the first vessel to be propelled by
a compound steam engine, i.e., one in which high and low pressure steam were
combined. Tibbets was granted $100 for his work by the Legislature of the
Province of New Brunswick.
- Canada's first Y.M.C.A. established in
1870 by Mrs. Agnes A. Blizzard, in a house on Germain Street.
- The "Long reacher" skate invented by
James Welply advanced the 19th century speed skating tradition - mid 1850's.
- Canada's first industrial exhibition -
1851. (This is the same year as the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in
London, organized by Prince Albert).
- First public museum in Canada opened in
1842. Known today as the New Brunswick Museum, it was originally called the
Gesner Museum, after its founder Abraham Gesner, a Nova Scotia-born doctor
credited with the invention of kerosene.
- First police union in the world was
formed in Saint John in 1919.
- 1927, Wallace Turnbull invented the first
variable-pitch aeroplane propeller and went on to pioneer developments in
aeronautics at his home in nearby Rothesay. The Saint John Airport is named in
his honour. He also designed boats and invented the first wind
- First female Canadian Golf Champion, Miss
Mabel Thompson - 1902.
- First female commercial air pilot in
Canada - Mrs. Tony Shelfoon (nee Daphne Peterson).
- First Miss Canada Mrs. Harold Drummie
(nee Winnie Blair) - 1923.
- First postage stamp album in the world
invented by Robert Reid - 1853. The original is now at the Collector's Club in
New York City.
- First public playground in Canada which
was started by Miss Mabel Peters. This playground is known as the Allison
Ground Playground in Rockwood Court.
- First Minister of Health of the British
Empire, Hon. W.F.Roberts, M.D.
- First monitor top railroad cars in the
world invented by James Ferguson. The original model is in the New Brunswick
Museum in Saint John.
- First Knights of Pythias in British
- Miss Katie Broad, first lady to get a
diploma in agriculture - 1915.
- First Board of Fire Insurance
Underwriters in Canada 1865.
- First overshoes in Canada brought to the
country by Francis and Vaughn.
- First orchestra to accompany a silent
moving picture on the North American continent was by Walter Golding in the old
nickel theater, May 1907.
- First wire nails in Canada were
manufactured by Penders Ltd. 1891.
- First soda crackers in Canada by T.
Rankine amp; Sons, Church Street 1823.
- First Boy Scout Apple Day in the world
organized by Eli Boyaner on January 30, 1931.
- Mrs. R. J. Hooper was the first woman to
sit as a member on the Board of Health in the British Empire.
- First automobile fire harness invented by
- Saint John Mallard House - first
Legislature of the Province convened on January 3, 1786. In the largest room of
the Mallard House the first dramatic performance in New Brunswick was held on
March 28, 1789. The plays were "The Busy Body" and "Who's The Dupe?"
- First steamboat in the province built at
Portland Point and launched in May 1816, was named General Smyth.
- First name for the city was Carleton
(which is now termed West Saint John).
VORTEX-FLUSHING TOILET BOWL
INVENTOR: Thomas McAvity
Saint John, New Brunswick
(Patent No. CA 108,017, October 15,
The patent for this invention describes a
series of oblique openings in the rim of a toilet bowl to form a vortex during
flushing, thus providing a selfcleansing effect. Today, most makes of toilet
bowls have this feature or otherwise generate this same vortex
- Canada's first vocational school was
erected on Douglas Avenue.
- Saint John's first social club was on the
corner of King Street and Market Square and known as the "Exchange Coffee
House" It was owned by William George Cody.
- The Admiral Beatty was Saint John's first
large and modern hotel.
- The first common clerk in Saint John was
Bartholomew Crandall (1785-1790).
- The first recorder appointed in Saint
John was Ward Chipman (1785-1800).
- The first Chamberlain in Saint John was
George Leonard (1785-1787).
- The first issue of Saint John's "The New
Brunswick Magazine" July 1898.
- Saint John's first large and modern post
office was completed 1915.
- First burial grounds. Graves were marked
with wooden head boards near King's Square 1785.
- Oldest head stone in Saint John - Conrad
T. Hendricks - 1784.
- First grave digger was Edward Burr.
- Saint John's first fort built by a white
man was Fort LaTour (Fort Sainte Marie).
- First church built by Presbyterians - on
a grant of land on the north side of Queen Street (numbers 1-10 of today) from
the government of Nova Scotia June 29, 1784.
- First Mayor of Saint John was the Hon. G.
Ludlow, appointed April 4, 1784.
- First episcopal church, old Trinity,
began in 1788 - corner stone was laid by Rev. Dr. Inglis, first Anglican Bishop
in North America. The church was opened for use on Christmas Day 1791.
- First Roman Catholic services in the
city were held in City Hall, Market Square in 1813. St. Malachi's chapel opened
- First member of the Royal Family to visit
Saint John was the Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria - June 16,1794.
- First grist mill in Saint John built soon
after the Loyalists arrived in 1784.
- First Grammar School in Saint John -
1805. This Grammar School was later called Saint John High School.
- First National School in Saint John -
- First Girls School in Saint John - 1819.
- First businesswoman in Saint John was Ann
Mott. She printed the Gazette and New Brunswick Advertiser, January 11, 1815.
- Portland Point was the first French
settlement in New Brunswick.
- First pre-Loyalist English-speaking
people settled in Saint John in 1762 with Simonds, Hazen & White (fur
- Saint John's first major railway was the
European and North American Railway. Construction began in 1853 and was
completed in 1860. The railway ran from Saint John to Shediac, New
- First sod broken of the European and
North American Railway March 17, 1857.
- First train ran north on the railroad
for three and one half miles, the length already constructed in
- Saint John's first water supply came from
Lily Lake in1838 after many previous unsuccessful attempts, carried by a flume
of wood to a pumping station at the foot of Brussel Street.
- First gas works commenced in
- Streets first lighted in 1845
- First lumberman in Saint John was John
Glasier, son of Benjamin Glasier - 1799.
- First steam fog whistle in the world was
invented by Scotsman, Robert Foulis in 1854. It was erected on Partridge Island
in 1859 to aid approaching mariners in determining their direction.
- First suspension bridge in Saint John
completed in 1853 spanned Reversing Falls.
- First rector in Saint John from Royal
Gazette, August 1 1786, Rev. George Bisset
- The first clock to be placed in the Tower
of Trinity Church was in 1812.
- First Ball held at McPherson's Coffee
House on King Street, 1784.
- Saint John had first cut-rate grocery and
first resident dentist in the Province of New Brunswick.
- First ship built in Saint John was the
"Alfred" Frigate built in 1785 and registered in London, August 28,
- First attempt at shipbuilding was by John
Simonds in 1775.
- John Lawton was the first Loyalist to
engage in shipbuilding.
- First importation of pig iron into Saint
John by Hams and Alla. From it was cast the first Franklyn Stoves in New
- First tanner in Saint John was William
Melick - 1790.
- First hydrographic survey of the Saint
John Harbour in 1761.
- First manufacture of soap and candles in
1785 by Asa Blakslee.
- June 1817 - corner stone of the first
brick building (Disbrow building) was laid.
- First case of cholera reported in June
- April 1784, first recorded marriage in
- February 1785, first execution in Saint
- First telephone in Saint John was
installed December 1879 by Western Union Telegraph Company, on the corner of
King Street and Chipman Hill.
- G.A. Maguire was granted patent for a
"toothpaste holder" in 1937.
- First dyke at Marsh Bridge
- In 1840 Prof. L.A. Laurcat started the
first balloon ascension in Canada from Barrack Square. Tickets for select seats
were four shillings.
- First building erected as a theater in
Saint John opened January 15, 1856.
- First home for the aged was W.O. Smith
House on Germain Street, 1871.
- First Loyalist child born in Parr Town
was Benjamin Stanton. He was born on King Street in a tent where the horse
fountain now stands.
- June Clark was the first woman in Canada
to run for United Church ministry 1945.
- First Dry Dock customer was the Norwegian
Steamer MH Kongsheven under Captain John Palander.
- First quarantine station in Canada
- First waterfront union in Canada
- First National Historic Streetscape in
Canada, Prince William Street - designated in 1981.
- First Boys and Girls Club of Canada was
founded in Saint John circa 1902. Second club in Canada was formed in
HOME · HISTORY · AROUND TOWN
FUN STUFF · NEW
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Cholera – United Republic of Tanzania
The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MOHSW) of Tanzania has notified WHO of foci of cholera outbreaks in the country. Rorya district in the Mara region of Tanzania was the first area to report a cholera outbreak. By late July 2015, the Kigoma region also became affected – although no new case has been recorded in this area in more than three weeks. On 25 August, new foci of cholera were identified in Dar es Salaam, Pwani (Coast), Iringa and Morogoro. The cholera outbreak in the Dar es Salaam region began on 15 August, whilst the outbreak in the Morogoro region started on 18 August. As of 6 September, the cumulative number of cholera cases (both suspected and confirmed) is 971 cases, including 13 deaths. Laboratory tests confirmed the presence of Vibrio cholerae O1 Ogawa in the affected areas.
Public health response
Rapid assessment has been conducted to identify gaps and urgent needs. Regional authorities, the MOHSW, WHO and partners are holding bi-weekly meetings to coordinate the response efforts. A national task force has been activated to control the outbreak. With support from WHO and partners, five treatment centres have been established in Dar es Salaam and Morogoro to manage cases. The MOHSW has deployed technical experts to provide assistance with surveillance activities including case finding, water supply and sanitation monitoring, laboratory management and social mobilization interventions.
WHO risk assessment
WHO does not recommend any travel or trade restriction to Tanzania based on the current information available.
Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by Vibrio cholerae. Cholera outbreaks are recurrent in many African countries and are linked to poor hygiene and sanitation as well as insufficient preparedness and capacities. Tanzania has experienced cholera outbreaks in the past, with the Kigoma region being the most affected. This year, the country developed a long-term plan for cholera prevention and control.
Cholera is predictable and preventable, and can ultimately be eliminated where access to clean water and sanitation facilities, and satisfactory hygienic conditions are ensured and sustained for the whole population. Effective cholera prevention and control interventions rely primarily on the implementation of integrated multidisciplinary and comprehensive approaches that involve activities outside the health sector and that address several elements, including environmental living conditions, access to treatment and clinical management of cases, vaccination with Oral Cholera Vaccines, social mobilization of communities and epidemiological surveillance.
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In Fall 2005 two planets -- Venus and Mars -- will outshine all others in the night sky. We will observe these planets and form a detailed picture of their -- and our -- orbital motion about the Sun.
Venus and Mars are the two planets nearest to the Earth this semester. As all three planets orbit the Sun, the view of our neighbors will constantly change in various ways. By watching the apparent motion, change in distance, and change in phase of these two planets, we can see that many different effects are explained by the one basic idea that all planets orbit the Sun.
Fig. 1 shows the orbits of Venus, Earth, and Mars and their positions in Fall 2005. From this diagram we can predict several interesting observational results.
Fig. 1. Orbits of Venus, Earth, and Mars. This view looks `down' on the plane of Earth's orbit from the North, so all planets orbit counter-clockwise. Small filled circles show positions on 9/28; small open circles show positions 4 weeks earlier (8/31), 4 weeks later (10/26), and 4 weeks later (11/23).
Venus is catching up with Earth, but will not pass us before the end of the semester (see Fig. 2). For most of the semester, Venus is heading more or less toward us. As a result, it will appear in the roughly same position with respect to the Sun -- prominent in the West at sunset -- for several months. Venus appears to be moving along the ecliptic in the same direction as the Sun (West to East); this is called direct motion.
Fig. 2. Triangles connecting Earth, Venus, and Sun on the dates indicated in Fall 2005. The line from Earth to Venus turns in the same direction (counter-clockwise) as the line from Earth to Sun, so Venus's motion is direct; also, the angle between Venus and the Sun as seen from Earth is roughly constant, so Venus will appear about the same distance above the horizon each night. The distance between Venus to the Earth steadily decreases, so Venus will appear larger and larger. At the same time, the angle of sunlight falling on Venus changes; by the end of the semester Venus will appear as a crescent.
Earth is overtaking Mars on the inside, passing between Mars and the Sun in early November (see Fig. 3). When we overtake an outer planet like Mars, that planet appears to move in a backwards or retrograde direction with respect to the stars -- East to West instead of West to East. This year, Mars begins retrograde motion on 10/01 and resumes normal motion on 12/11.
Fig. 3. Triangles connecting Earth, Mars, and Sun on the dates indicated in Fall 2005. The line of sight from Earth to Mars turns in a clockwise direction, so Mars's motion is retrograde. The distance between Mars to Earth first decreases and then increases again, but the variation is not that large. The side of Mars we see will be almost completely illuminated by sunlight, so Mars will always appear nearly full.
The distance between the Earth and Venus will steadily decrease throughout the semester. Closer objects look bigger; consequently, Venus will appear to grow steadily, more than doubling in apparent size by the end of the semester.
The distance between Earth and Mars will gradually decrease from now until late October, with closest approach occurring on 10/30; after that, the distance will gradually increase again. As a result, Mars will appear largest in late October, but its apparent size won't change very much.
Venus will be passing between the Earth and the Sun, and as it does so the side we can see will be less and less illuminated by the Sun. At the start of the semester, Venus appears gibbous, or just slightly less than full, but by the end of the semester Venus will appear as a crescent lit from behind.
Since we are observing Mars near opposition, when Mars and the Sun are on opposite sides of the Earth, the face of Mars turned toward us will be almost completely illuminated by the Sun, and Mars will appear nearly full the entire time we can observe it.
We will follow the motions of Venus and Mars along the ecliptic by plotting their positions on star charts. While Venus appears in about the same place in the sky each evening, its motion with respect to the distant stars is quite rapid; we will use a circular all-sky chart. The main problem will be seeing the stars behind Venus; luckily, Venus will pass by some rather bright stars, so it should be possible to chart its motion fairly well.
Mars will cover a much smaller distance across the sky, so a rectangular star chart will be adequate to plot its motion. Binoculars will be needed to plot its position since many of the stars we will use as `landmarks' are rather faint. Depending on when we first sight Mars, we may or may not be able to observe it turn around and begin retrograde motion.
The variation in distance for both planets will be studied in the same way we study the variation in the Moon's distance: by measuring the apparent size of the planet using an eyepiece with a built-in scale. Since the sizes change gradually, we don't need to make a measurement every night; a few observations over the rest of the semester will suffice.
The phases of Venus and Mars can be seen directly when these planets are viewed through a telescope. Mars will appear nearly full at all times, but the phase of Venus will change dramatically. We will sketch both planets at various times through the semester.
These pages give detailed information on the appearance of Venus and Mars this semester.
Animations showing how the appearance of Venus and Mars will change over the course of the semester.
Star charts used to plot the apparent motions of Venus and Mars.
Once your observations of Venus and Mars are complete, please write a lab report on this project. Your report should contain an introduction to the problem of planetary motion, a brief section on equipment used, a description of your observations collecting all relevant measurements and plots, and a section describing your conclusions. In this last section, you should compare the predicted behavior of Venus and Mars with your actual observations; do they agree?
Joshua E. Barnes
Last modified: September 27, 2005
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The University of Haifa, Israel, has dedicated Israel's first research center for Green Roofs Ecology, which will focus on research and development of non-irrigated green roofs; improving biological diversity with green roofs; and developing ecological and evolutionary theories.
The center has been established thanks to a generous gift from a British expert in the field, and was facilitated by VP for External Relations and Resource Development Amos Gaver.
Over recent years, awareness of the "green roofs" gardening method atop building roofs has increased. It is intended to enhance a building's energy efficiency while minimizing environmental damage. The rooftop vegetation creates better insulation for the building, which lowers air conditioning and/or heating consumption; improves photosynthesis in the city; and of course serves as an urban living space for various animals.
Until now, Israel has not had a research center for green roofs and research from other countries has not necessarily been applicable for the unique climate and flora of the Middle East. The new center, headed by Prof. Leon Blaustein of the University's Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, will be examining the field in the Israeli context: Will it be possible to assemble green roofs in the Israeli climate without artificial irrigation? Will Israeli flora be reliable to serve for green roofs; And do green roofs increase the biological diversity of insets and plants? Research at the center will also examine the utilization of greywater irrigation for the roofs; whether a building's height affects insect attraction to a green roof; whether drainage from green roofs might cause more environmental damage than good; and more.
One of the University of Haifa's roofs has already been transformed into a green research laboratory with 48 different plant beds. Its first research project is focusing on the preferred types of plants and how the different plants attract insects and birds. The center's team has already begun seeking out additional roofs around the campus that would be suitable for use as green roofs, and along with maintenance staff promises to turn the campus into a much greener place.
The center's festive dedication ceremony was attended by the benefactors and University President Amos Shapira.
For more details contact Rachel Feldman
Communications and Media
University of Haifa
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December 10 is Human Rights Day.
“Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.”
~ Article 25, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Who are we, America? I mean, really. Who are we and what do we value?
Talk is cheap. We say ours is such a wonderful, exceptional and caring country, but our actions speak louder than words.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was one of those who worked tirelessly to get it passed. She regarded the work as her greatest achievement and indeed it was.
The Declaration was a bold statement and it marked a monumental turning point in how governments and peoples were supposed to relate to one another.
Article 1 trumpeted the great fundamental truth that the entire world is called upon to recognize and uphold:
“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.”
Sounds reminiscent of our own Declaration of Independence, doesn’t it?
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
That was back in 1776. Our Founding Fathers got it. They understood the truth, even if at the time many of the freedoms they espoused were reserved for landowning males. Still, they gave us, the succeeding generations, the opportunity to create a healthy nation that was responsive to its people.
In many ways we have succeeded, after long and difficult struggles, in extending the promises of freedom and opportunity by recognizing that women and people of color have the right to vote, by eliminating Jim Crow laws, by asserting the right of workers to organize, etc.
Ironically, all of these rights have been under renewed assault in recent years.
The question for us today is, where are we now? Are we regressing or progressing? Why do we still treat one another so disrespectfully? Why are so many still denied the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness?
Who am I talking about? Just about everyone it seems. Have you been paying attention to all the groups whose rights, abilities and opportunities to prosper are under political attack? Gays and lesbians, people of color, women, workers from every sector, veterans, the disabled, seniors, immigrants, the middle class and the poor, religious believers, atheists and on and on and on.
Why have we as a society become so blatantly mean-spirited and cruel?
I’m going to suggest that there is a fundamental flaw in our value system that is causing many of our problems. It is not the only reason, of course, but it is a significant one. And we need to be honest about this.
Over time we Americans have come to place more and more value on making money and getting rich than we have on appreciating and taking care of one another. As a result, we have become so divided that we have lost sight of the fact that we need each other in order to thrive.
I’ve been on the planet more than 50 years now and, believe me, I’ve seen a major change in this regard. My parents’ generation, the World War II generation, often now called The Greatest Generation, rose to confront the most serious challenge of their day—the ascent of Nazi Germany and the Axis powers.
It took a long, hard and bloody war, but they defeated fascism and the barbaric cruelty that it unleashed upon the world. And they did it by coming together. Everyone contributed. It was an all out effort.
Yet today, when confronted by even greater challenges to the entire planet and the future of human civilization itself—economically, politically, spiritually and environmentally—we see no such unified response by the American people.
Instead, we find our fellow Americans lulled into complacency by mainstream media, which is more interested in making money than informing the public of difficult truths, and labeling one another as something “other.” Something not even human. Something not to be trusted, but feared.
Selfishness and greed, once considered vices of the human spirit have become acceptable and even fashionable in today’s America.
It’s not surprising really. Commercial messages are drummed into our heads and our children’s heads daily by the incessant propaganda machine we affectionately call TV.
In fact, everywhere we go today, including online, we are bombarded with commercial messages. Buy this. Buy that. You need this “such and so” to be cool, to be sexy, to be fulfilled. And if you don’t have all the latest nifty stuff, guess what? You’re a loser!
That’s what all our gorgeous, happy, smiling friends in the ads tell us every single day.
But all that “stuff” takes money. Lots of it. And if you can’t afford it, well, you’re just un-American, aren’t you? A lazy, no-good moocher, or even worse. You get what you deserve! Nothing.
Sometimes I don’t even recognize this country as being America. It’s not the country I grew up in. How low will we go before we come to our senses?
Moreover, our institutions, which are reflections of ourselves, have become equally selfish and greedy, obsessed with their Bottom Lines. They make their decisions primarily based on money, not on the needs of the people they are supposed to be serving.
Take health care, for example. Health care is a basic human right. If you aren’t in good health, your life, liberty and happiness are all in serious jeopardy.
Every human being has the right to adequate, affordable and compassionate care. Nearly every industrialized country in the world, except the U.S., recognizes this moral imperative and provides a system of universal health care for its citizens.
Yet, in America we have a system that puts profits over people. Its primary function is to make money, not to heal the sick. In fact, the health insurance industry has a financial incentive to deny care. The more care they deny, the more money they make.
As such, our American health care system is spiritually and morally bankrupt and is causing the unnecessary suffering and deaths of untold millions.
Think about it. How many millions of Americans don’t seek care because they can’t afford it? How many millions of Americans are uninsured? How many millions have inadequate insurance that won’t cover their medical needs when they desperately need it?
Who is profiting from this system, anyway? The insurance companies, the health care providers, Big Business, Big Pharma, Wall Street, etc.
And who is paying for it? You and me!
Health care costs are a huge drain on the economy. Far too many Americans are going bankrupt due to medical expenses. Just think of all the mental and physical agony millions and millions of patients have had to endure thanks to the unethical, profit-mad practices of the health care industry.
If you’ve ever had serious health issues or know someone who has, you know what I’m talking about.
Instead of making people well, in many ways our system is making them sicker.
Why is this acceptable, America?
And don’t tell me it’s impossible to fix. We have some of the most brilliant minds in the world at our disposal, including many dedicated doctors and nurses who can provide the leadership and the guidance to show us the way to a system that is both humane and economically feasible.
If we want to truly become an exceptional nation, we need to do something about the human rights abuses in this country. The health care system is just one example. There are many, many areas that call for our attention—the rights of women, children, minorities, workers, gays and lesbians, etc.
The unconscionable forces that oppose basic human decency, often driven by selfishness and greed, are wealthy, powerful and entrenched. They have been calling the shots for an awfully long time. We the People need to fight back. All of us need to get involved. Not only for our own sakes, but for the sakes of our children and the generations to follow.
The question is not what can we do, but what will we do. Do we have the will to do what is necessary to turn this around on all fronts so that the rights of human beings everywhere are respected?
It all starts by changing the way we think. We as a society must value one another (and the planet itself) over the accumulation of money, material goods and power. We must make decisions based on the wisdom of long-term considerations for the greater good, rather than short-term financial gain for the few.
This will require a fundamental shift in our consciousness. We must recognize that we are all interconnected and dependent on one another for our well-being. We are all one family. What is good for my neighbor is good for me as well.
Once we have taken this simple truth to heart, we must live it. We must take action. We must demand change. We must speak out, join and support organizations that are working to make a difference, and even march in the streets if necessary.
Remember, human rights are your rights. They define who we are. They represent the best in ourselves. Yet, they have been trampled on for far too long. And they will continue to be callously disregarded until a great many of us stand up and say, “Enough is enough!”
Every year on December 10, Human Rights Day, we are reminded once again of how far we have yet to go. Let’s hope by this time next year, we will have made some real progress.
1) About Human Rights Day, UN.org http://www.un.org/en/events/humanrightsday/
2) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN.org http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml
3) Carter, Jimmy, “U.S. Finally Ratifies Human Rights Covenant,” The Carter Center, 29 Jun 1992 http://www.cartercenter.org/news/documents/doc1369.html
4) Program: Human Rights, National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty http://www.nlchp.org/program.cfm?prog=1
5) Sears, John, “Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/library/er_humanrights.html
6) Universal Health Care, Wikipedia, 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_health_care
7) “Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Questions and Answers” (PDF). Amnesty International. p. 6. Retrieved Dec 2012.
8) 60 Minutes report, “Hospitals: The Cost of Admission,” CBS News.com, Dec. 2, 2012 http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=50136261n
Laurence Overmire is the author of the recently released The One Idea That Saves The World: A Call to Conscience and A Call to Action. He has had a multi-faceted career as poet, author, actor, director, educator, and genealogist. His award-winning poetry has been widely published in hundreds of journals, magazines and anthologies worldwide. Overmire is an advocate for peace, justice, human and animal rights, and the environment.
Ed: Stephanie Vessely
Like elephant equal rights for all on Facebook.
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Brute force is about trying all possible keys or passwords. AES uses keys of at least 128 bits (256 bits in your case) so that brute force fails: it is not feasible, with existing or foreseeable technology, to "try out" a non-laughable proportion of the space of possible 128-bit keys, let alone 256-bit keys.
A more effective brute force attack would try potential passwords which are often from a much smaller space of possible passwords (the space of passwords that a human mind can come up with). This is called a dictionary attack. To make such attacks less effective, you will want to use some slowdown in the process, either in the password-to-key transform, or in the encryption itself. It makes more sense, and is much better for security, to do the slowdown in the password-to-key transform, rather than in the encryption. See this answer for details.
Slowdown is only part of the story; you also want a salt. This points to bcrypt or PBKDF2. And you will also need some checked integrity, to defeat active attacks (which are more realistic than usually assumed). Combining a good password hashing, symmetric encryption and checked integrity is not as easy as it seems, so you should rely on an existing standard and library which does the job and has been scrutinized by many specialists. You could do worse than using OpenPGP and the BouncyCastle Java implementation.
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How the Legal System Was Deep-Sixed and Occupy Wall Street Swept the Land
As intense protests spawned by Occupy Wall Street continue to grow, it is worth asking: Why now? The answer is not obvious. After all, severe income and wealth inequality have long plagued the United States. In fact, it could reasonably be claimed that this form of inequality is part of the design of the American founding — indeed, an integral part of it.
Income inequality has worsened over the past several years and is at its highest level since the Great Depression. This is not, however, a new trend. Income inequality has been growing at rapid rates for three decades. As journalist Tim Noah described the process:
“During the late 1980s and the late 1990s, the United States experienced two unprecedentedly long periods of sustained economic growth — the ‘seven fat years’ and the ‘long boom.’ Yet from 1980 to 2005, more than 80% of total increase in Americans’ income went to the top 1%. Economic growth was more sluggish in the aughts, but the decade saw productivity increase by about 20%. Yet virtually none of the increase translated into wage growth at middle and lower incomes, an outcome that left many economists scratching their heads.”
The 2008 financial crisis exacerbated the trend, but not radically: the top 1% of earners in America have been feeding ever more greedily at the trough for decades.
In addition, substantial wealth inequality is so embedded in American political culture that, standing alone, it would not be sufficient to trigger citizen rage of the type we are finally witnessing. The American Founders were clear that they viewed inequality in wealth, power, and prestige as not merely inevitable, but desirable and, for some, even divinely ordained. Jefferson praised “the natural aristocracy” as “the most precious gift of nature” for the “government of society.” John Adams concurred: “It already appears, that there must be in every society of men superiors and inferiors, because God has laid in the… course of nature the foundation of the distinction.”
Not only have the overwhelming majority of Americans long acquiesced to vast income and wealth disparities, but some of those most oppressed by these outcomes have cheered it loudly. Americans have been inculcated not only to accept, but to revere those who are the greatest beneficiaries of this inequality.
In the 1980s, this paradox — whereby even those most trampled upon come to cheer those responsible for their state — became more firmly entrenched. That’s because it found a folksy, friendly face, Ronald Reagan, adept at feeding the populace a slew of Orwellian clichés that induced them to defend the interests of the wealthiest. “A rising tide,” as President Reagan put it, “lifts all boats.” The sum of his wisdom being: it is in your interest when the rich get richer.
Implicit in this framework was the claim that inequality was justified and legitimate. The core propagandistic premise was that the rich were rich because they deserved to be. They innovated in industry, invented technologies, discovered cures, created jobs, took risks, and boldly found ways to improve our lives. In other words, they deserved to be enriched. Indeed, it was in our common interest to allow them to fly as high as possible because that would increase their motivation to produce more, bestowing on us ever greater life-improving gifts.
We should not, so the thinking went, begrudge the multimillionaire living behind his 15-foot walls for his success; we should admire him. Corporate bosses deserved not our resentment but our gratitude. It was in our own interest not to demand more in taxes from the wealthiest but less, as their enhanced wealth — their pocket change — would trickle down in various ways to all of us.
This is the mentality that enabled massive growth in income and wealth inequality over the past several decades without much at all in the way of citizen protest. And yet something has indeed changed. It’s not that Americans suddenly woke up one day and decided that substantial income and wealth inequality are themselves unfair or intolerable. What changed was the perception of how that wealth was gotten and so of the ensuing inequality as legitimate.
Many Americans who once accepted or even cheered such inequality now see the gains of the richest as ill-gotten, as undeserved, as cheating. Most of all, the legal system that once served as the legitimizing anchor for outcome inequality, the rule of law — that most basic of American ideals, that a common set of rules are equally applied to all — has now become irrevocably corrupted and is seen as such.
While the Founders accepted outcome inequality, they emphasized — over and over — that its legitimacy hinged on subjecting everyone to the law’s mandates on an equal basis. Jefferson wrote that the essence of America would be that “the poorest laborer stood on equal ground with the wealthiest millionaire, and generally on a more favored one whenever their rights seem to jar.” Benjamin Franklin warned that creating a privileged legal class would produce “total separation of affections, interests, political obligations, and all manner of connections” between rulers and those they ruled. Tom Paine repeatedly railed against “counterfeit nobles,” those whose superior status was grounded not in merit but in unearned legal privilege.
After all, one of their principal grievances against the British King was his power to exempt his cronies from legal obligations. Almost every Founder repeatedly warned that a failure to apply the law equally to the politically powerful and the rich would ensure a warped and unjust society. In many ways, that was their definition of tyranny.
Americans understand this implicitly. If you watch a competition among sprinters, you can accept that whoever crosses the finish line first is the superior runner. But only if all the competitors are bound by the same rules: everyone begins at the same starting line, is penalized for invading the lane of another runner, is barred from making physical contact or using performance-enhancing substances, and so on.
If some of the runners start ahead of others and have relationships with the judges that enable them to receive dispensation for violating the rules as they wish, then viewers understand that the outcome can no longer be considered legitimate. Once the process is seen as not only unfair but utterly corrupted, once it’s obvious that a common set of rules no longer binds all the competitors, the winner will be resented, not heralded.
That catches the mood of America in 2011. It may not explain the Occupy Wall Street movement, but it helps explain why it has spread like wildfire and why so many Americans seem instantly to accept and support it. As was not true in recent decades, the American relationship with wealth inequality is in a state of rapid transformation.
It is now clearly understood that, rather than apply the law equally to all, Wall Street tycoons have engaged in egregious criminality — acts which destroyed the economic security of millions of people around the world — without experiencing the slightest legal repercussions. Giant financial institutions were caught red-handed engaging in massive, systematic fraud to foreclose on people’s homes and the reaction of the political class, led by the Obama administration, was to shield them from meaningful consequences. Rather than submit on an equal basis to the rules, through an oligarchical, democracy-subverting control of the political process, they now control the process of writing those rules and how they are applied.
Today, it is glaringly obvious to a wide range of Americans that the wealth of the top 1% is the byproduct not of risk-taking entrepreneurship, but of corrupted control of our legal and political systems. Thanks to this control, they can write laws that have no purpose than to abolish the few limits that still constrain them, as happened during the Wall Street deregulation orgy of the 1990s. They can retroactively immunize themselves for crimes they deliberately committed for profit, as happened when the 2008 Congress shielded the nation’s telecom giants for their role in Bush’s domestic warrantless eavesdropping program.
It is equally obvious that they are using that power not to lift the boats of ordinary Americans but to sink them. In short, Americans are now well aware of what the second-highest-ranking Democrat in the Senate, Illinois’s Dick Durbin, blurted out in 2009 about the body in which he serves: the banks “frankly own the place.”
If you were to assess the state of the union in 2011, you might sum it up this way: rather than being subjected to the rule of law, the nation’s most powerful oligarchs control the law and are so exempt from it; and increasing numbers of Americans understand that and are outraged. At exactly the same time that the nation’s elites enjoy legal immunity even for egregious crimes, ordinary Americans are being subjected to the world’s largest and one of its harshest penal states, under which they are unable to secure competent legal counsel and are harshly punished with lengthy prison terms for even trivial infractions.
In lieu of the rule of law — the equal application of rules to everyone — what we have now is a two-tiered justice system in which the powerful are immunized while the powerless are punished with increasing mercilessness. As a guarantor of outcomes, the law has, by now, been so completely perverted that it is an incomparably potent weapon for entrenching inequality further, controlling the powerless, and ensuring corrupted outcomes.
The tide that was supposed to lift all ships has, in fact, left startling numbers of Americans underwater. In the process, we lost any sense that a common set of rules applies to everyone, and so there is no longer a legitimizing anchor for the vast income and wealth inequalities that plague the nation.
That is what has changed, and a growing recognition of what it means is fueling rising citizen anger and protest. The inequality under which so many suffer is not only vast, but illegitimate, rooted as it is in lawlessness and corruption. Obscuring that fact has long been the linchpin for inducing Americans to accept vast and growing inequalities. That fact is now too glaring to obscure any longer.
Glenn Greenwald is a former constitutional and civil rights litigator and a current contributing writer at Salon.com. He is the author of two New York Times bestselling books on the Bush administration’s executive power and foreign policy abuses. His just-released book, With Liberty and Justice for Some: How the Law Is Used to Destroy Equality and Protect the Powerful (Metropolitan Books), is a scathing indictment of America’s two-tiered system of justice. He is the recipient of the first annual I.F. Stone Award for Independent Journalism.
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The national main assessment in 2000 selected fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade students from public and private schools in the 50 states and District of Columbia for assessment in various subjects. Samples were selected using complex multi-stage sample designs that involved sampling geographic primary sampling units (PSUs) at the first stage, schools within PSUs at the second stage, assigning sample types and session types to schools at the third stage, and sampling students at the fourth stage. The goal was to secure a sample from which estimates of population and student group characteristics could be obtained with reasonably high precision as measured by low sampling variability.
The sample designs included provisions to sample particular groups of students, such as
at higher rates than students who were not in these groups. Nonresponse adjustment and poststratification were two of the estimation techniques employed to improve precision. To account for the different sampling rates and the various weighting adjustments, each student was assigned a sampling weight. Sampling weights were necessary to make valid inferences from the student sample to the respective target populations.
In NAEP, the national main assessment provides two types of weights for analysis purposes—modular weights and reporting weights. These weights are calculated for each student sample (i.e., grade/subject combination) in the national main assessment. Each set of weights is calculated to represent the target population. The target population consists of students in the target grade (4, 8, or 12) in public and private schools in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The weights are motivated by the sample types and reporting populations used in the assessment.
The modular weight equals the reporting weight for each SD/LEP student. However, for each non-SD/LEP student, the reporting weight is approximately equal to half of the modular weight. This is because non-SD/LEP students from both sample types are included in each reporting population.
The national main assessment's sample design affects the estimation of sampling variability. Because of the effects of cluster sampling, observations of different students from the same school or geographical area are not assumed to be independent of one another. The term "cluster sampling" refers to the process of selecting many students within the same schools, and many schools within the same geographically defined primary sampling units. As a result of cluster sampling, ordinary formulas for the estimation of the variance of sample statistics, based on assumptions of independence, tend to underestimate true sampling variability and should not be used. Instead, jackknife replication methods are used to calculate variance estimates for assessment data.
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Posted by Tito on Thursday, April 28, 2011 at 11:58pm.
1. Which is an example of an expressive use of language?
A) Others will say that we shouldn't even talk about cutting spending until the economy is fully recovered
B) I want you to know that one of the reasons I kept the government open was so I could be here today with all of you.
C) I don't need another tax cut.
D) None of the above
4. “The top 1% saw their income rise by an average of more than a quarter of a million dollars each. And that's who needs to pay less taxes?.’”
This statement is best described as a:
A) A synonymous definition.
B) A joke.
C) Drama/theatrical definition.
D) lexical definition.
6. “It's also why we have to use a scalpel and not a machete to reduce the deficit..” does this statement eliminates ambiguity? If yes,
7. List and define the 3 components of language?
8. “We recognize that no matter how responsibly we live our lives, hard times or bad luck, a crippling illness or a layoff, may strike any one of us. "There but for the grace of God go I," we say to ourselves, and so we contribute to programs like Medicare and Social Security, which guarantee us health care and a measure of basic income after a lifetime of hard work; unemployment insurance, which protects us against unexpected job loss; and Medicaid, which provides care for millions of seniors in nursing homes, poor children, and those with disabilities. We are a better country because of these commitments. I'll go further – we would not be a great country without those commitments.” This exchange is:
A) an obviously genuine dispute.
B) an apparently verbal but genuine dispute.
C) a merely verbal dispute.
D) not a dispute at all.
20. Below are examples of three different types of language from the President’s Speech. Is each example correct, If not explain why?
Directive: keep annual domestic spending low.
Expressive: And as long as I'm President, we won't.
Informative: It's an approach that puts every kind of spending on the table, but one that protects the middle-class, our promise to seniors, and our investments in the future.
Answer This Question
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Does My Child Have a Learning Disability? Take This Screening Quiz.
If your child continues to struggle academically even with treatment for ADHD, he or she may be one of the 30 to 50 percent of ADHDers who also have a learning disability (LD). The symptoms in this quiz relate primarily to elementary school, which is when LD tends to be identified.
Question 11 of 18
11 of 18
Does your child have difficulty understanding instructions or directions? Following directions?
You must complete the question in order to continue
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities
This test is not intended to diagnose or to replace the care of an educational professional. If you answer yes to a significant number of these questions, you may want to pursue an educational evaluation.
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This photo shows Horseshoe Bend on the Colorado River as it flows through the Grand Canyon. Notice the trees growing along the river’s edge. They look tiny from the top of the canyon. They show how deep the canyon is.
The Colorado River carved this spectacular canyon down through layer upon layer of rock. How can water cut through rock? How did the horseshoe shape form? In this chapter, you’ll find answers to questions like these. You’ll learn how moving water and other natural forces shape Earth’s surface, sometimes in spectacular ways.
Image copyright Vlad Turchenko, 2014. www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
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The Hopi and eagle share a long relationship
Understanding another religion is no easy business. Americans nowadays often fool ourselves that religions can be put on or off like a suit of clothes, and that our own world-view is not religious unless we say so. We -- especially secular humanists -- also claim superiority for our idea of “nature,” an abstract space separate from everyday life, for leisure, imagination, or scientific observation. Here, we can safely root for our favorite charismatic species, while ignoring the destruction of others.
Moreover, our recent arrival in the West, displacing and often destroying native species --Homo sapiens, birds, and others -- makes explaining unusual Native religions even more problematic. But arrogantly judging Hopi eagle-gathering without objective evidence or any personal knowledge does little for mutual understanding of people or environment.
The Hopis have dwelt on the Colorado Plateau for at least a millennium, and probably much longer. Their adaptation to a landscape of little water requires near-legendary toughness and respect for the natural environment. Hopi religion is fundamentally attuned to the environment and its metaphysical underpinnings. “A farmer in the desert never forgets God,” as Vernon Masayesva puts it. The strongest surviving indigenous tradition in North America, Hopi religion focuses on seasonal and daily attention to preserving the world in balance. Appeal to deity operates through prayer, song, and ritual. Like wafers and wine for Christian communicants, certain material elements are basic: cornmeal, tobacco-smoke, honey, and feathers. Pahos that include eagle feathers are perhaps the sine qua non, carrying human prayers to deities and ancestral spirits. Those prayers highlight renewing life for all species, including eagles.
“Eagles are our lifeline,” as Percy Lomaquahu (whose name, coincidentally, means “beautiful eagle”) used to put it. Without them, Hopis are cut off from their means to renew life forces. From a Hopi perspective, the world itself -- not only locally, but globally -- suffers serious problems without their religious intervention. Unsurprisingly, many Hopis see present ecological imbalance as caused by the absence of a similar environmental solicitude among their fellow humans.
Hopis have special relationships with many species, but eagles are qapaysoq hìitu, truly exceptional: eagles are human beings in another form. Each clan in each village only has certain nesting areas it may visit: the rules are strict, ensuring preservation of the population from year to year. Before arriving at the Hopi mesas, the clans migrated from ancestral villages, whose ruins dot the Colorado Plateau. The route of its final migration remains sacred property, associated with the clan’s ancestral spirits. It is only in these precincts where a clan may gather eagles. Eagles born at the clan nests reincarnate the ancestral spirits, answering the prayers of their descendants.
As recorded for more than a century, gathering is very careful, hedged about by taboos whose purpose is explicitly conservationist. On arrival in the village, the eaglet, treated as a human child, has its head washed, is given a personal name, and gifted with baby presents. From then on, it dwells tethered in a rooftop shelter, and is fed with rabbits hunted by young boys, until the Home Dance, when it watches the Katsina spirits perform and absorbs their song-prayers. At the ceremony’s conclusion, the eagles are quietly taken to a private place and quickly suffocated, as painlessly as possible. Their spirits are sent home with the Katsinas until the following year, when both are petitioned to return with their blessing power. The eagles’ bodies are taken to the kivas, where feathers are carefully plucked and arranged by religious purpose. Finally, they are buried in a special cemetery, identically to humans. Hopis treat no other species in this manner.
Eagles and Hopis have interacted for a very long time, as shown by prehistoric rock art along the Little Colorado River. The very basis of these practices requires that humans and raptors renew their relationship annually. It is complete anathema to Hopi interest that eagles should cease to be plentiful. With commissioned studies of raptor populations by wildlife biologists, the Tribe is committed to preserving and enhancing the species. There is no evidence that the small number of eagles and other raptors Hopis gather -- by official federal permit -- has had any impact on species decline. Residential and municipal development on the Navajo Reservation and in nearby towns, and industrial development throughout the West, are, rather, the worry for raptor populations. Failure to address those factors is dodging the real issue. Self-righteous blame of Hopi eagle-gathering is myopic scapegoating, and neglects true threats to those species and possible means to avert them.
Peter Whiteley is a contributor to Writers on the Range, a service of High Country News (hcn.org). He is the curator of North American ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
Note: the opinions expressed in this column are those of the writer and do not necessarily reflect those of High Country News, its board or staff. If you'd like to share an opinion piece of your own, please write Betsy Marston at email@example.com.
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Sichuan quake: $6bn damage to agriculture
Over 30 million people in rural areas affected – rehabilitation of agriculture could take 3 to 5 years
30 June 2008, Rome - The agricultural sector in China’s Sichuan province has suffered enormous damage estimated at around $6 billion caused by last month’s devastating earthquake, FAO said today.
According to an FAO assessment mission that recently visited Sichuan province, over 30 million people in rural communities have been severely hit, losing most of their assets. Thousands of hectares of farmland were destroyed, millions of farm animals died, houses and grain stores collapsed and thousands of pieces of agricultural machinery were damaged.
“In addition to the human tragedy caused by the disaster - mainly the loss of family members - many rural communities in Sichuan province have lost their means to produce food and create income,” said Rajendra Aryal, FAO Senior Regional Emergency Coordinator. “People in the villages have demonstrated great resilience and have expressed their strong willingness to return back to their fields and resume farming and food production. It will probably take three to five years to rebuild the agricultural sector in Sichuan,” Aryal added.
A significant portion of wheat crops could not be harvested after the earthquake due to the lack of labour as a result of deaths and injuries in farming families. Much of the wheat that was harvested before the earthquake -- around 350 000 tonnes in Mianyang Prefecture, one of the areas hit by the quake -- was damaged with the collapse of grain storages.
Shortages of pesticides and fertilizers are jeopardizing future food production, FAO said.
In addition, thousands of greenhouses have collapsed causing severe losses of vegetable crops. Major seed growing areas in the province, producing up to 20 percent of China’s rice seeds, have been badly hit by the earthquake with more than 20 000 hectares affected. Rice fields have dried up due to cracks and craters and irrigation systems have been interrupted. In some villages, up to 70 percent of rice fields have been damaged. The next harvest could face a shortfall between 10 and 50 percent, due to delayed planting, pests and water shortages.
Over three million pigs have been killed by the earthquake, with some villages having lost up to 70 percent of their livestock. Overall livestock losses are estimated at about $2 billion.
Rehabilitation and recovery
“Urgent provision of fertilizers, pesticides, farm tools and machinery, livestock and reclaiming damaged fields will be the main challenge for the next six months,” Aryal said.
The medium and long-term relief efforts will have to focus on the rehabilitation of water reservoirs, dams, animal shelters, the training of farmers in cash crop production and disaster preparedness. Also, the Bureau of Agriculture in each county needs support to rehabilitate damaged infrastructure, office equipment, seed inspection and testing facilities, warehouses and technical extension services.
The Chinese authorities have asked FAO to coordinate the agricultural rehabilitation efforts in Sichuan province.
Diderik de Vleeschauwer
FAO Media Officer, Bangkok
(+66) 2697 4126
(+66) 18997 354
e-mail this article
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You are not currently logged in.
Access your personal account or get JSTOR access through your library or other institution:
If You Use a Screen ReaderThis content is available through Read Online (Free) program, which relies on page scans. Since scans are not currently available to screen readers, please contact JSTOR User Support for access. We'll provide a PDF copy for your screen reader.
Communal Oviposition and Lack of Parental Care in Batrachoseps nigriventris (Caudata: Plethodontidae) with a Discussion of the Evolution of Breeding Behavior in Plethodontid Salamanders
Elizabeth L. Jockusch and Meredith J. Mahoney
Vol. 1997, No. 4 (Dec. 9, 1997), pp. 697-705
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1447288
Page Count: 9
Since scans are not currently available to screen readers, please contact JSTOR User Support for access. We'll provide a PDF copy for your screen reader.
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Although plethodontid salamanders are characterized by a diversity of life histories, several aspects of their breeding biology are highly conserved. Two of these are solitary oviposition and attendance of clutches by females until hatching. We infer evolutionary changes in these reproductive features based on the discovery of oviposition sites and eggs of two species, Batrachoseps nigriventris and B. wrighti. Batrachoseps nigriventris deviates from the ancestral reproductive pattern in two ways: most clutches are laid at communal oviposition sites and female care has been lost. In contrast, B. wrighti may deviate from the ancestral pattern only in the loss of maternal care. A review of the reproductive biology of Batrachoseps and other plethodontids reveals that female attendance of eggs was lost in the ancestor of all Batrachoseps, whereas communal oviposition likely originated following the basal split within the genus. Additionally, communal oviposition and abandonment of clutches have evolved in two other plethodontid clades: Nototriton/Oedipina and Hemidactylium. Studies of taxa that have lost parental care may give insight into factors favoring the maintenance of parental care in other lineages.
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Art to Education
National Museum of Wildlife Art serves approximately 8,000 children throughout the region annually ranging in ages from pre-K to grade 12. We use our collection of fine art to teach a wide range of subject areas including: art appreciation, natural science, western history and creative writing. Learning in a museum setting is fun and effective.
Our Museum Education Programs are comprehensive and compatible with the schedules of the Teton County School District. There is no charge for any organized educational group of children; many groups participate in 4 or 5 programs a year. Museum Programs are created around our permanent collection of art and our temporary exhibitions. In addition, the Children’s Gallery has hands-on interactive exhibits for children. Many of the programs for young children incorporate some time in the Children’s Gallery. Furthermore, artists whose work is on exhibition in our museum will often give special programs for children, such as slide programs, gallery walks, and workshops. We also host performing artists: storytellers and musicians for children. These programs vary from year to year and are announced via flyers to schools, radio broadcasts, and newspapers.
School-aged children and accompanying adults are admitted free of charge when participating in our school education programs unless otherwise noted in the course description. Each Teton County educator participating in our program will receive a complimentary museum membership.
Request a Visit
Would you like to bring your class to the Museum? Tell us when, the group size, and where your class will be visiting from in the form below.
For more information contact:
Grace Davis, Assistant Curator Youth and Adult Education
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LifeStraw: Making a difference
LifeStraw: Making a difference
More than one billion people—one-sixth of the world’s population—are without access to safe drinking water. At any given moment, about half of the world’s poor are suffering from waterborne disease, and 6,000 die each year by consuming unsafe drinking water. The world’s most prolific killer is diarrheal disease borne bacteria like typhoid, cholera, e.coli, and others. Safe water access has the potential to transform the lives of millions.
Until now, there was not much anyone could do about this because systems to clean water were costly and required electricity and spare parts, etc. But there is now hope for a low-cost solution, the LifeStraw, a personal, low-cost water purification tool. Invented by Mikkel Vestergaard Frandsen, the tool is a plastic pipe filter, a little longer than a toilet-paper tube, and about the same diameter. Inside the tube, a series of mechanical screens, carbon particles, and resin beads filter and kill most pathogenic bacteria and microorganisms common in water systems throughout the world. Using a patented material called PuroTech Disinfecting Resin, the filters are rated for 185 gallons of water —approximately one year’s use for a single individual.
Mikkel originally wanted nothing to do with his family fabric business, Vestergaard Frandsen, preferring instead to develop small entrepreneurial enterprises in Africa. A 1992 coup in Nigeria forced his return to Denmark, where his father Torben, CEO of Vestergaard Frandsen, convinced him to join the company, founded by his grandfather Kaj to produce hotel uniforms.
Mikkel’s first task was to find something to do with more than 1 million square yards of surplus fabric the company didn’t need. He had the woolen material cut into blankets and sold to aid organizations. Later, as cheap textiles from China began to undermine the business, he looked to more specialized products. He began with a trap for tsetse flies, made with insecticide-laced fabric, and then expanded with products such as wash-resistant mosquito nets (PermaNet) and plastic sheeting that can be used as blankets or for temporary shelter (ZeroFly.) Ninety percent of the company’s business is malaria prevention. According to the World Health Organization, such nets have helped reduce childhood-mortality rates by 25% in sub-Saharan Africa.
The company developed the LifeStraw in conjunction with Atlanta’s Carter Center. Over the years a partnership was created with The Carter Center, Rob Fleuren from Holland, and Moshe Frommer from Israel.
The LifeStraw was designed with special care to avoid any moving parts, has no replaceable spare parts, and operates without use of electricity, which does not exist in many areas of the third world. The only force required is the natural source of sucking, something even babies are able to perform. But the beauty of the LifeStraw is the price—initially around $2.00, but that could fall as production ramps up.
Most interesting to note about this case is the fact that Vestergaard Frandsen no longer develops hotel uniforms. They focus entirely on water filters, insect nets to prevent the spread of malaria and other textile products that allow for disease control[vi].
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by Julieanne Kost
• After creating your own custom Stroke patterns (using the Stroke Options), save them as a preset. Don’t forget that you can save a Tool Preset in order to save all of the Options for the shape tool (fill, stroke, size etc.).
• To copy and paste the Fill or Stroke attributes from one shape to another, click the color swatch next to Fill or Stroke in the Options bar. Then, click the gear icon and choose Copy Fill (or Copy Stroke). Then select another Shape layer, click the color swatch next to Fill or Stroke, select the gear, and choose Paste Fill (or Paste Stroke).
• An even easier way to quickly apply the fill and shape from one layer to another is to Control -click (Mac) / Right Mouse -click (Win) on the layers panel (to the right of the layer name), and select Copy Shape Attributes (this will copy both the stroke and the fill unlike the tip above that copies one or the other). In the Layers panel, select the layer(s) to paste the attributes and Control -click (Mac) / Right Mouse -click (Win) and select Paste Shape Attributes. Note: you can also Control -click (Mac) / Right Mouse -click (Win) directly on the layer in the image area, but it might be more difficult to select the layers to paste the attributes on.
• All shapes on a shape layer will have the same Fill and Stroke attributes. To apply different attributes to different shapes, put each shape on its own layer by selecting the shape and choosing Layer > New > Shape Layer Via Cut or use the shortcut: Command + Shift + J (Mac) | Control + Shift + J (Win). Note: when cutting a shape to its own layer and/or when merging 2 (or more) shape layers to the same layer, they no longer rasterize but remain vectors!
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To University of North Florida President John Delaney, the St. Johns River and surrounding waterways are more than just unique bodies of water.
They are like a "stew or a soup for scientists to study."
Different ingredients - from the river to saltwater marshes, beaches and the Intracoastal Waterway - all can be found within a short distance. So can manatees, crabs, shrimp, sea turtles and dolphins.
UNF and Jacksonville University plan to pump research dollars into niche programs such as coastal biology, marine biology and coastal engineering to capitalize on the area's geography.
"The St. Johns River is a woefully understudied system," said Quinton White, head of JU's marine biology program.
Marine research institute
JU has raised $5 million for a 30,000-square-foot Marine Science Research Institute.
About $10 million is needed, but construction will begin late this year, even if fundraising isn't complete.
The energy-efficient building will have solar panels and a rainwater drainage system. There will be an amphitheater classroom and a 40-foot pontoon boat classroom.
The building also will house the St. Johns Riverkeeper and Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Officials are working to set up marine biology programs with 12 to 17 Duval County high schools.
Taylor Engineering of Jacksonville donated $1 million to start a coastal engineering institute at UNF.
Bruce Taylor, chairman of UNF's board of trustees, said the program will teach students about coastal construction, navigation, dredging and the effect of hurricanes. As chief executive of Taylor Engineering, he said he knows there are plenty of jobs for program graduates.
Tedious, but important
White said students used to suffer from "Flipper syndrome," in which all they wanted to do was train dolphins. Once they learn about science, he said, they prefer other research.
UNF graduate student Katya Schuster-Barber is studying the habitat of gopher tortoises at Pumpkin Hill Creek Preserve.
Several times a week, she trudges through thick brush to see if any tortoises have fallen into traps she has dug. She measures the reptiles for a study about which is better for the endangered creatures: burning or mechanically cutting the brush.
She knows her findings will have real applications.
"People that aren't biologists sometimes can't see the importance of it, and that's frustrating," she said.
UNF assistant professor Matthew Gilg's research sounds even more laborious. He spends hours looking at larvae under a microscope.
He's examining green mussels, a non-native species increasing in the area, to see what impact they might have on the ecosystem. He takes a boat across the Intracoastal Waterway to collect tiles attached to plastic poles covered in green sludge and barnacles.
That's the fun part, but it's a fraction of the project.
"As a researcher, you really have to care about answering the question, because there's so much tedious work to do," he said.
It's not all lab work. Students get to work outdoors - on boats, in parks and under water. JU students fly in planes to spot manatees and collect data on fish during the annual Kingfish Tournament.
Help for politicians
Not only should the programs boost academic prestige, but officials believe they will benefit the environment and economy.
UNF and JU researchers are working on an annual River Report Card for the city and hope research on the water quality, biology and currents help politicians make crucial decisions.
With a shortage of drinking water in some areas, some advocate pumping water from the St. Johns. Some have suggested deepening the channels in the river.
White said these actions could have a dramatic impact on aquatic animals and plants. The problem is that most people don't understand how the river works, so they don't understand the effects of their actions.
That's where research comes in, White said.
St. Johns Riverkeeper Neil Armingeon, a key leader in the opposition to water withdrawals, said research is critical to preserving the river and encouraging new leaders to take up the cause.
"I used to be one that thought that we knew everything there is to know about the river, but there's a lot to be discovered," he said.
Mayor John Peyton said JU and UNF's efforts will help the city develop strategies to comply with Environmental Protection Agency requirements.
"Given its fragile state and also its importance as an economic driver for our community, we have a responsibility to ensure that we are improving its health and safeguarding our waterways for future generations," he said.
White said a sick river can affect many aspects of the economy, such as shipping from ports and real estate values.
"Nobody wants to live on [a] lime green, polluted, dead fish river," he said. "It's just such an important asset to Jacksonville that we have to take care of it."
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The three largest constellations are gracing the evening skies.
Hydra, the sea serpent; Virgo, the maiden; and Ursa Major, the big bear are visible in the night sky right now. Hydra lies mainly in the southwestern part of the sky, though the tip of the tail will not slither across the meridian, and eventually out of view, until 9:30 p.m. local time. Hydra spans more than one-quarter of the sky but has little to show besides mere length.
The mythical creature's head is a pretty little group of five stars hovering low above the western horizon by nightfall. From there, if the sky is clear and dark, you can follow the scraggly stream of the snake's body. It goes southeastward below the sickle of Leo, past the gobletlike Crater; the Cup; and Corvus, the crow. Then, it heads south of the blue star, Spica, and on out of sight, almost as far as red Antares of summer. [See images of famous constellations in the night sky]
Hydra's brightest star is a red, second-magnitude star named Alphard, which means "the lonely one." Once you've found it, you'll understand why it's named as such. It actually seems brighter than it really is because it's in a large, dull region and has no competition nearby. Some say Hydra commemorates the fabled multiheaded serpent that gave the mighty Hercules so much trouble. Yet the celestial Hydra has only one head.
To the surprise of even some veteran stargazers, there is also another celestial water serpent — Hydrus — which can be found during autumn months not far from first-magnitude Achernar at the southern extremity of Eridanus, the river. Hydra is sometimes called the female water serpent and Hydrus the male water serpent.
The description of Hydra as the largest constellation in the sky refers to its total area in square degrees, according to the official boundaries established by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Hydra covers 1,303 square degrees, or 3 percent of the celestial sphere. Considering the linear extent of this beast — it meanders across 95 degrees of the sky and takes nearly seven hours to fully rise into view — this is easy to believe.
Foolish old figures?
It is far less obvious, on the other hand, that Virgo is the second-largest constellation, with an area of 1,294 square degrees. The main reason is that, in order to see the official IAU boundaries, you would have to consult a star atlas, such as Norton's. Most standard star charts, which include only the principal naked-eye stars, often do not give an accurate idea of constellation size.
However, anyone seriously interested in the sky should supplement their sky charts with a good star atlas. A map of the United States or Illinois does not help people find their way around Chicago, for example; a detailed street map is needed. Similarly, a star atlas will provide the boundary lines for the constellations that were adopted in 1930.
So, the onetime picturesque patterns of people, animals and objects have now evolved into arbitrarily defined areas of the sky. Indeed, some professional astronomers think of the constellations as nothing more than foolish old figures and would prefer that they be removed entirely.
Second largest: the maiden
But the constellations have survived, and occupying much of the southern sky these early evenings is the fair maiden known as Virgo. Unlike most of the ancient constellations, Virgo presents no distinctive pattern of stars to attract attention.
In Greek and Roman tradition, the "maiden" was identified with the goddess of justice, Astraea, who ruled the world during the fabled Golden Age. In the old allegorical star books, the goddess holds some spikes of wheat in each hand, and her brightest star — Spica — glows in one of the ears of grain hanging from her left hand. Spica is the 16th-brightest star in the sky and 250 light-years away. [How well do you know your constellations? Take our quiz]
Also located within Virgo is one of the most remarkable areas of the heavens, known as the Virgo Cluster or the Realm of the Galaxies. A celestial wonderland of star cities numbering in the thousands, the probable total figures become staggering in light of the assertion by reputable astronomers that the average mass of each galaxy is some 2 hundred billion times the mass of the sun. The best estimates indicate that they are located somewhere between 40 million and 70 million light-years from Earth.
Third largest: the big bear
All of the constellations shown on modern star atlases are officially approved by the International Astronomical Union, but while constellations are official, asterisms are not. An asterism is often defined as a noteworthy or striking pattern of stars within a constellation, but that is not always the case. For example, the Big Dipper is not a constellation itself, but an asterism that is part of the larger constellation of Ursa Major, the big bear. Ursa Major is No. 3 on the list of constellations in terms of size, measuring 1,280 square degrees.
Some people occasionally ask why the constellation patterns differ from other similarly designed charts and are not standardized. The two main reasons are that different people see constellations in different ways, and that, as far as astronomy today is concerned, constellations are not considered star pictures but as specific sky areas. Before 1930, no two atlases agreed as to the limits, and much confusion resulted.
Most people regard the Big Dipper as the leading star group in the Northern Hemisphere sky, and most astronomy books use it as a jumping-off place for locating other star patterns. During the early evening this week, the Dipper is nearly overhead. What is remarkable is that these seven stars and the others surrounding it comprised a bear to widely separated early peoples — not only to Old World ancients, but also New World Native American tribes. The bear's nose is third-magnitude Muscida. The bear's paws, known to early Arabs as the "leaps of the gazelle," are marked by an almost equally spaced set of three pairs of stars. The Dipper's bowl is the torso.
But how to explain the abnormally long tail, marked by the Dipper's handle? British writer Thomas Hood (1799-1845) speculated: "Imagine that Jupiter, fearing to come too nigh unto her teeth, lay hold on her tail, and thereby drew her up into the heaven; so that she of herself being very weighty, and the distance from the earth to the heavens very great, there was great likelihood that her tail must stretch. Other reason know I none."
Editor's Note: If you capture an amazing night sky photos, or any other amazing celestial view, and you'd like to share it with Space.com for a possible story or image gallery, please contact us at email@example.com.
Joe Rao serves as an instructor and guest lecturer at New York's Hayden Planetarium. He writes about astronomy for Natural History magazine, the Farmer's Almanac and other publications, and he is also an on-camera meteorologist for News 12 Westchester, New York. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebookand Google+. Original article on Space.com.
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THE LEGEND OF SMALAND
Tuesday, April twelfth.
The wild geese had made a good trip over the sea, and had lighted in Tjust Township, in northern Smaland. That township didn’t seem able to make up its mind whether it wanted to be land or sea. Fiords ran in everywhere, and cut the land up into islands and peninsulas and points and capes. The sea was so forceful that the only things which could hold themselves above it were hills and mountains. All the lowlands were hidden away under the water exterior.
It was evening when the wild geese came in from the sea; and the land with the little hills lay prettily between the shimmering fiords. Here and there, on the islands, the boy saw cabins and cottages; and the farther inland he came, the bigger and better became the dwelling houses. Finally, they grew into large, white manors. Along the shores there was generally a border of trees; and within this lay field-plots, and on the tops of the little hills there were trees again. He could not help but think of Blekinge. Here again was a place where land and sea met, in such a pretty and peaceful sort of way, just as if they tried to show each other the best and loveliest which they possessed.
The wild geese alighted upon a limestone island a good way in on Goose-fiord. With the first glance at the shore they observed that spring had made rapid strides while they had been away on the islands. The big, fine trees were not as yet leaf-clad, but the ground under them was brocaded with white anemones, gagea, and blue anemones.
When the wild geese saw the flower-carpet they feared that they had lingered too long in the southern part of the country. Akka said instantly that there was no time in which to hunt up any of the stopping places in Smaland. By the next morning they must travel northward, over Oestergoetland.
The boy should then see nothing of Smaland, and this grieved him. He had heard more about Smaland than he had about any other province, and he had longed to see it with his own eyes.
The summer before, when he had served as goose-boy with a farmer in the neighbourhood of Jordberga, he had met a pair of Smaland children, almost every day, who also tended geese. These children had irritated him terribly with their Smaland.
It wasn’t fair to say that Osa, the goose-girl, had annoyed him. She was much too wise for that. But the one who could be aggravating with a vengeance was her brother, little Mats.
“Have you heard, Nils Goose-boy, how it went when Smaland and Skane were created?” he would ask, and if Nils Holgersson said no, he began immediately to relate the old joke-legend.
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A collection of articles to support the choice and setup of a homeschool, including articles about homeschool laws, homeschool methods, homeschool records, homeschool resources, homeschool supplies, homeschool schedules, and extracurricular activities for homeschoolers, among other topics.
Homeschool Setup Articles
How to Find Homeschool Laws
The first step to a successful homeschooling experience is to find the home school laws for the state in which you hope to home school. In this article, we review two ways to find homeschool laws for your state.
Homeschool Law Points of Interest
There are a few important areas you should investigate when researching homeschool laws. This article reviews laws that homeschoolers must follow to meet state requirements in the areas of age, homeschool curriculum, assessment, and school year length.
Beginning the Search for Homeschool Curriculum
Beginning the search for homeschool curriculum may be a daunting task.This article provides information on searching for homeschooling curriculum resources and tips on where to find state curriculum resources for homeschoolers.
Beginning the Search for a Homeschool Method
Beginning the search for a homeschool method requires thinking about both the curriculum and the children who are being homeschooled. Some homeschool methods can be used in a variety of circumstances, while other homeschool methods are specific. This article has tips on researching homeschooling methods.
Integrating Homeschooling and Other Schooling
Homeschooling can be enriched by integration with other types of schooling. This article provides information on combining homeschool with public school, private school, and higher education curricula through various means.
Creating a Homeschool Area
Creating a homeschool area in your home can help create a better homeschooling experience. Homeschool curriculum and activities are important but so is creating the environment geared for education. Keep reading for tips on developing your homeschooling space.
A Checklist to Get Your Homeschool Started
Creating a checklist to get your homeschool started is a great idea. This article provides a checklist to help you cover the major elements of preparing to homeschool such as curriculum, homeschooling laws, methods, lesson plans, and more.
Keeping Homeschool Records
There are several types of homeschool records that homeschoolers may have to keep, each one having different requirements. This article covers many types of homeschooling record keeping including records required for your state and records that will be useful and/or necessary for secondary school or college applications.
This article will help you understand unschooling. What is the difference between unschooling and homeschooling? Statistic show over 2 million children K-12 are homeschooled in 2002-03. What is the future of unschooling?
Setting Up A Homeschool Schedule
A homeschool schedule is a must! Your schedule can help you meet homeschool legal requirements for class hours and school days. Get tips on how to set up a homeschooling schedule here as a step towards a successful homeschool experience.
Starting A Homeschool Support Group
Support groups can be important when you home school. Starting a homeschool support group? This article contains information on what to consider when creating a homeschooling support group that will suit your situation and needs.
Choosing a Homeschool Support Group
A homeschool support group may be useful to encourage and support you in homeschooling choices. You may want to consider criteria such as home school curriculum and the support group style before choosing a homeschool support group.
Extra Curricular Activities For Homeschoolers
Extracurricular activities may mean something different for homeschoolers than it does in a school setting. This article reviews types of extracurricular activities for homeschools including field trips, lessons, and homeschooling activities.
Homeschooling online is becoming more popular. There are many resources for online homeschool curriculum, and we've provided some guidelines for assessing online homeschooling sites, as well as a short list of valuable online homeschool resources.
Are you considering Christian homeschool? Want to know more about Christian homeschooling? This article has information on why people choose Christian homeschool curriculum, and the pros and cons of Christian homeschool.
Wondering how to get the most affordable homeschool supplies? This article will give you hints and tips to point you toward some of the best deals in homeschool supplies. Keep reading for great information on homeschool supplies.
The UK homeschool situation, often referred to as home education, is a bit different than it is in the United States. Keep reading to find out more about how the UK homeschool and the US homeschool situations compare.
Looking for homeschool resources? Here’s an article to help you through the maze so that you’ll spend more time getting the help you need from helpful homeschool resources--whether agencies, departments, or websites--and less time searching for information.
Home Education Program
The term "home education program" refers to the same practice of teaching children at home as the term "homeschool." Read this article for more information about home education, why parents choose home education, and different types of home education options.
Homeschool Field Trips
This article explains the value of homeschool field trips. Looking for ideas for homeschool field trips? Look no further! This article helps you in your quest for interesting and educational journeys, both near and far.
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We came upon Hossein riding a bony mule down the trail outside the village. He was a gaunt, bearded man in his mid-50s. From under a threadbare black turban, his warm eyes and snaggletoothed smile conveyed pleasure at seeing Driss again, and he welcomed us to Tamalout. Hossein leaned down and shook our hands, after each shake kissing the tips of his fingers in accordance with local custom. Driss asked if we could stay at his house. Dismounting to walk with us, Hossein said he would have it no other way. In Berber culture, hospitality graces even the simplest of homes.
On the outskirts of the village we had passed a circular lot some 50 feet (20 meters) wide with a stout pole poking through a foot of cut barley. Three young men in turbans and sweaty white smocks were threshing the grain, using whips to drive a half dozen donkeys tethered in a line to the pole. As the animals plodded through the grain, the dust flew up and caught the sun like powdered gold. In the surrounding fields of wheat and alfalfa, men plowed by mule, reaped by hand.
As we entered the village, children saw me and cried, "Arrumi!" ("Roman!"), an offhand tribute to rulers 16 centuries gone and the name by which Berbers still refer to Westerners. Little appeared to have changed since the days of the Latins: Barefoot boys used sticks to prod sluggish cattle toward their pens; turbaned men sharpened scythes on whetstones; women trudged by, amphorae of sloshing water on their backs.
Hossein lived in a dwelling typical of Berbers in the High Atlas—a squat house with stone walls and a wood-raftered roof. The ground floor was a stable in which he quartered his mule, a cow, and a few scrawny chickens. In a room on the second floor, a tarnished bronze dagger dangled from a hook; from another hung a long-dormant clock. Carpets of faded orange, red, and green wool overlapped on the floor. To freshen the air, Hossein opened the windows, and in rushed flies from the stable. Shooing them away, we stretched out on the carpets as Hossein ordered unseen women in another room to prepare lunch.
Storm clouds had given way to a scorching noontime sun as we descended a hairpin trail into a ravine of striated pink-and-yellow rock, heading toward a distant promontory atop which clustered the stone and adobe houses of the village of Tamalout, where Driss, my guide, had a friend, Hossein Ounaminou.
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LearnSwedishwith Us!Start Learning!
In the Swedish language, there are lots of different avledningar, or bound morphemes that you can add to words to change their part of speech as well as their function in a given context. Some examples of avledningar are:
And there are many more. But two avledningar that have been particularly useful to me in speaking Swedish are -aktig (pronounced /’ak:tig/) and -mässig (pronounced /’mes:ig/).
So what do these suffixes mean? Well, -aktig could be translated as the English suffix -like, as in ‘cat-like’ (kattaktig) or ‘machine-like’ (maskinaktig). What’s interesting here is that Swedish also has the suffix -lig, which comes from the same place that the English -like comes from, but has a much closer connection to English -ly in meaning. In the case of English, -ly was an early grammaticalization of the word like, and with time its form and meaning as a suffix has changed. More recently, the same word like has been grammaticalized a second time (which is why we still pronounce it [lajk]) to mean what -like means today as a suffix.
Here’s an example of a word with the suffix -aktig in a sentence:
Michael Phelps är verkligen fiskaktig när han simmar. – Michael Phelps is really fish-like when swims (lit. when he swims).
-mässig is also a very useful avledning. It corresponds to the English suffix -wise:
Svenskabloggen på Transparent.com har mycket att erbjuda innehållsmässigt. – The Swedish Blog at Transparent.com has a lot to offer content-wise.
There is a suffix -vis in Swedish which comes from the same place as -wise, but it is not used in the same way. For example, gradvis isn’t exactly the same as ‘grade-wise’ or ‘degree-wise’, but rather means ‘gradually’ or ‘bit by bit’.
Hope I have been able to enrich your Swedish vocabulary! Good luck using these avledningar!
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A battle is brewing in Fort Ann, Washington County. Troy Topsoil has purchased part of Battle Hill, the site of the Revolutionary War Battle of Fort Anne. The company hopes to mine the battlefield, where an estimated 100 to 200 men were killed, wounded, or captured.
A group of historians and volunteers has planned a day of events to highlight the history of the Battle of Fort Anne, including an afternoon roundtable discussion on the current threat to the battlefield this Saturday, April 28th at Fort Ann Central School.
“This place has remained undisturbed for over 235 years, then Troy [Topsoil] obtained the property and has cleared out trees, built roads, installed culverts and drilled wells, in order to operate a sand and gravel pit,” Fort Ann Town Historian Virginia Parrott, who opposes the project, told me, “To most people in town including the Fort Ann American Legion Post 703, this is a desecration of sacred ground as people have fought and died here in the name of freedom, and are buried on Battle Hill.” [You can read more about the history of Battle Hill here].
“That whole hill is a battle site,” Parrott had previously told the Glens Falls Post-Star. “There was thousands of troops there. We’re not talking about a little group of soldiers … like Roger’s Rangers that went out with 10 or 12 people. We’re talking about Burgoyne’s entire army.”
Anthony Grande, speaking for the mining company, said an archaeologist report commissioned by his company showed no one was buried in the area targeted for the open pit mine. “The battlefield is south of me where there is an issue,” Grande told the Post-Star. “It’s definitely south of there, probably 3,000 to 4,000 feet. I’m not exactly sure.” The company is seeking to open a 30 to 40-acre mine on Battle Hill.
Several historic sources report that at least six men are buried at Battle Hill according to Parrott, who has been town historian since 1975. The site has never been listed on state or national registers of historic places, although the Town of Fort Anne installed a plaque at the site in 1929 and the American Legion places flowers on one of the graves each year. The lack of established protection for important American battlefields is common. “Of the nation’s 243 Revolutionary War and War of 1812 battlefields, 141 have been severely impaired or destroyed” a recent report by the Department of Interior’s American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP) concluded (2007).
Battle Hill was classified as a Principal Battlefield, Priority 2, Class C site in that report, meaning that it was home to a “nationally significant event” and the “site of a military or naval action that influenced the strategy, direction, or outcome of a campaign or other operation.” Furthermore, the report found that “The endangered Class C sites in this category should be the focus of immediate and direct preservation measures by state and local governments and organizations. These sites may not survive without immediate intervention.”
Tanya Grossett, surveyed the battlefield in 2001 for that report and concluded, with help of Jim Warren of NYS Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation and Chris Martin of NYS Archives and Records Administration, that the quarry does fall within the core of the battlefield. Paul Hawke, director of the American Battlefield Protection Program concurred with that finding after a tour of the site last Tuesday.
The land is owned by Gino Vona. According to a story last week in Post-Star, “Vona said he’s offered to donate a small sliver of the site, about 20 or 30 acres, for preservation and he questions whether stalling a project that could create jobs, for the sake of historic preservation, is an appropriate governmental move.”
“These men fought against the king who was taking their things. Many of them were just regular, hard-working people,” Vona told Post-Star reporter Jon Alexander, “Aren’t we talking about doing the same thing?”
The company had applied for a permit to mine the location in August 2009 which did not include a state Historic Preservation Office review and was denied. The company submitted a new application at the end of 2011. The public will be able to comment on the project officially after the application is ruled complete by the NYS Department of Conservation.
The event on Saturday is sponsored by the Washington County Historical Society and will feature Author Karl Crannell, Fort Ticonderoga Chris Fox, Kingsbury historian Paul Loding, and Matt Zembo from Hudson Valley Community College.
The event will begin run from 11 am to 4 pm. There will be a memorial service at Noon; the roundtable discussion will follow at 1 pm at the Fort Ann Central School Auditorium.
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Parasitology is the study of parasites. These can be animal parasites (such as toxoplasma or heartworms) or human parasites. However, many parasites can be transferred from animals to humans (zoonosis) or vice versa. Parasitologists study multicellular parasites such as ascaris lumbricoides or flukes or unicellular eukaryotes such as malaria or leishmaniasis. In general, prokaryotes fall under the field of bacteriology rather than parasitology.
See also: Veterinary Parasitology
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The foundation of the Christian religion is the events that happened at Mount Calvary 2 millennia ago. Jesus's death by crucifixion, subsequent resurrection and ascendancy to Heaven are foundations upon which the Christian religion is built.
Illustration 1: A depiction of goddess Ostara (Eostre).
Consequently the most important holiday in the Christian calendar is the Easter holiday. Easter Sunday marks the day on which Jesus resurrected. That resurrection is the basis of all Christian theology.
Some people like to think Christmas is the most important but it is simply the most commercialised.
There are many calendars in this world, the Chinese have their own calendar defining such things as year of the dog, year of the chicken and so on. This year 2013 is year 4711 in the Chinese calendar and is the year of the rabbit.
The Buddhists have their own calendar based on the nirvana of Buddha. This year (2013) is 2557 in the Buddhist calendar.
However dates as we know them today are based on the Christian calendar, or to be more precise the Catholic calendar, known as the Gregorian Calendar.
Many people might not know, but Easter is also closely related to sun worship and the worship of pagan gods.
Easter is held on the first Sunday after the first full moon of the spring equinox in the Northern hemisphere. The problem was that Easter day tended to drift over the years because the solar cycle (year) is not a whole number multiple of the Earth's rotational cycle (day). As a result civil calendars based on merely counting the number of days tend to drift relative to the solar year.
In 1582 Pope Gregory signed a degree describing an elaborate formula to calculate the date of Easter based on the solar cycle and not on the then widely used civil calendar the Julian Calendar. The resulting calendar, the Gregorian Calendar, is the calendar that is today most widely used as the civil calendar in the world. This year is numbered 2013AD based on the Gregorian calendar. It is the number of the year based on the Catholic formula for calculating the days of Easter.
Other ancient Christian denominations such as the Eastern Orthodox, the Greek Orthodoc, the Coptic and the Ethiopian Orthodox churches have their own year numbers and celebrate Easter on different days to the Catholic based Christians.
The feast of Easter itself is not entirely based on the resurrection of Jesus but was adopted by Christians from pre-existing pagan religions. As alluded to earlier the feast is related to the first full moon after the spring equinox. The equinox is the day of the year when the sun is exactly above the equator and day is equal to night at every latitude in the world. There are two equinoxes one just before spring and summer, the other before autumn and winter. Easter is celebrated after the first full moon of the spring equinox and is related to the most ancient practices of worshipping the sun and the moon.
However even though it is related to sun worship, Easter was not passed on to Christians directly from sun worshippers. The name Easter is not mentioned anywhere in the Bible but is derived from the Eastre the name of the Anglo-Saxon goddess of spring.
The Anglo-Saxons themselves are thought to have adopted the name from Eostre or Austro the Barbarian goddess of dawn. Notice the pagan goddesses are associated with the times of spring or dawn, largely considered by humans to be times of renewal, awakening or resurrection.
Illustration 2: A depiction of Ishtar goddess of fertility, love and sex found on a Babylonian vase kept in a French museu
In Middle East, the ancient Babylonians, whose civilisation existed about 2000 years before Christ, held summer festives linked to the god Tammuz who was brought back (resurrected) from the Underworld every six months. Tammuz had been send to the underworld by Ishtar, the goddess of fertility, love and sex.
The Babylonian legend has it that Ishtar demanded of her sister who was ruler of the underworld that she be let into the underworld. Her sister agreed but with the condition that at each gate to the underworld she shed an item of clothing. Ishtar agreed and proceeded to enter the underworld. At the seventh gate (seven?!) she was completely naked. Despite that she was now naked, Ishtar proceeded to sit on the throne of the underworld whereupon the other gods of the underworld gazed upon her with the eyes of death. She became a corpse and was hung on a nail.
However a servant of the gods Enki pleaded with the gods and Ishtar was resurrected. She was allowed to go back but she had to find someone to replace her. When Ishtar came back from the underworld she found that her lover Tammuz was not mourning her at all. So she send him to the Underworld. Tammuz's sister Geshtinanna was sad and volunteered to spend six months of the year in the Underworld on his behalf. Consequently Tammuz came back from the Underworld every six months and his coming (resurrection) was marked by a festival.
For Christians Easter marks the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ but as we can see the whole idea of death and resurrection of a god or gods had existed beforehand.
Also, nowhere in the Bible are hares and eggs mentioned but today the Easter bunny and the Easter egg are considered contemporary items of the culture surrounding the Easter festival. Where did they come from?
The Easter bunny and East egg have their origins in ancient Barbarian fertility lore. The hare is a symbol of copious breeding and copulation while eggs are symbols of fertility. As mentioned earlier the Babylonian goddess Ishtar was the goddess of among other things sex, love and fertility.
Again as mentioned earlier the name Easter comes directly from Eastre an Anglo-Saxon goddess who - to quote from French scholars Alfred Ernout and Antionne Meillet - “represented spring fecundity, love and carnal pleasure that leads to fecundity.”
In short the contemporary symbols of Easter are directly associated with Barbarian (ancient European) beliefs on fertility, love and sex and the Babylonian goddess of the same.
In fact the followers of Ishtar engaged in what is called sacred prostitution. The requirement was that at least once in their lifetime a follower had to go to the temple and engage in public sex with a complete stranger.
Spring is the time of year when flora blossoms and fauna procreates in abundance and the world renews itself, and ancient humans have made it the time to celebrate renewal. Spring is marked by the time when the sun 'comes back' and days become longer than nights.
The Gregorian Calendar is explicitly defined such that the date of Easter never drifts with respect to the time when the sun 'comes back' in Northern hemisphere terms. The pre-summer (Northern hemispheric) equinox occurs on 21 March each year as defined by the Gregorian Calendar. Leap years, and number of days in months are so carefully defined that the day when sun comes back never ever shifts in the Gregorian Calendar.
Easter Sunday is then set as the first Sunday after the first full moon after the equinox heralding summer. In other words Jesus's resurrection is made to follow the cycles of the sun and the moon. Also, the festival itself is associated with various gods of fertility, love and sex.
The Gregorian Calendar was decreed by Pope Gregory so it is the Catholic church which calculates the dates of Easter for most of the world.
The Protestant and Pentecostal variations of Christianity mostly branched off from Catholicism and use the same date for Easter though I doubt whether most of their pastors and ministers would be able to explain how this date is defined. The process of calculating the date of Easter, called Computus, which had been the subject of much controversy was thus put to rest by Pope Gregory. The name Computus is what eventually gave rise to the English words computation and computer.
Let me make it clear, I am not claiming that Christians worship the sun, the moon and pagan gods. However, I consider it better to open my eyes and seek knowledge than to keep my eyes shut and be led to nowhere. This is not a pun for the Christian practice of praying with the eyes shut either.
However it is clear that their religious practices have borrowed from past religions to a much greater extend than some would admit.
Note that an informed look at the evolution of the Easter holidays, they holiest days in the Christian calendar, does not tally with the creationist view of the world. Like everything in the world, the Christian religion itself is a product of evolution.
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A selection of articles related to hopscotch rules.
Original articles from our library related to the Hopscotch Rules. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Hopscotch Rules.
- A View on the Wiccan Rede
- I was listening to radio evangelist Bob Larson talk to a witch on his radio show. The witch mentioned the Wiccan Rede "as you harm none, do as you will." He snorted and ridiculed the idea that such a simple idea could be a legitimate basis for...
Paganism & Wicca >> The Wiccan Rede
- God The Mother
- IN THE WESTERN WORLD, we are all familiar with the concept of a male god, whether the idea comes from Christianity, Judaism or Mohammedanism. When we think of a male god, at the back of our minds is a picture of an old man in the sky, who has a certain set of...
Religion & Philosophy >> Religions
- Our Pagan Village: The Importance and Persuit of Honor
- Candlelight flickers over the Beltaine revels. Food is laid out in the circle for the feast. Only one rule – no one can feed themselves. Each is dependent on friends and loved ones for sustenance, joy and delight. After an hour of laughter and revels and way...
Paganism & Wicca >> Daily Life
- Bringing it Down to Earth: A Fractal Approach
- 'Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.' B. Mandelbrot W e want to think about the future - it's our nature. Unlike other creatures, humans possess an...
Mystic Sciences >> Astrology
- Christ's Role, As He Might Have Meant It: a Discussion
- It seems that organized religion has assumed the role of Christ in the dispensation of Truth, be it relating to the church itself or in the very Word of God. The Pope, when speaking in his official capacity, is considered to be the mouthpiece of God."...
Religions >> Christianity
- Bibles Do Not Equal Wisdom
- Bibles do not equal wisdom. In other words, all forms of spiritual text no matter how eloquently stated, cannot actually grant wisdom to the reader, merely through the act of reading. Words are only the representations of things, but not the things themselves....
Religion & Philosophy >> Religions
Hopscotch Rules is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Hopscotch Rules books and related discussion.
Suggested News Resources
- Tackling? Get a grip! Every aspect of life carries risk of injury
- THE closest I came to suffering a contact sport injury was when Gillian Walmsley thwacked my left knee hard with her hockey stick. It hurt.
- 6 Great Places To Hike While Runyon Canyon Is Closed
- The farthest from Runyon on this list, but it shares one rare trait: dogs are allowed off-leash (read the rules on this map). Westridge Canyonback sits above Brentwood among a cluster of named open space areas and can be accessed from either ...
- Do not attach yourself to the D.C. streetcar, and other things to know ahead
- And now that the 2.2-mile H Street-Benning line appears to be functional, let's run down the rules for riding it. In November 2014, the D.
- Déjà vu on tax returns
- Ron Wyden of Oregon said he's crafting a bill that would toughen up the ownership threshold for inverted companies, take a more aggressive approach against the so-called hopscotch loans that allow inverted companies to avoid U.S.
- Pfizer Seen Avoiding $35 Billion in Tax Via Allergan Merger
- Pfizer Inc. will be able to permanently avoid paying $35 billion in U.S.
Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site.
Hopscotch Rules Topics
Related searchesisabela province history
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a. Writ issued—asks appropriate questions. Someone who supposedly has property of the debtor, or owes a debt to the debtor is issued a writ asking to verify if that is the case. A bank account may be considered a debt owed to the debtor.
b. Command not to pay. The party is given a command not to pay any debt or turn over any property to the debtor. A command not to pay the debtor may stay in effect until released by the court. If a party turns over property of the debtor, on in the case of a bank pays a check despite this order, they will have to turn over an amount equal to what they had before they violated the order.
c. Answer filed. The party must file an answer stating what they have. They may state that they hold nothing, or that they have a superior right to the property held. A bank will usually assert a defense to a garnishment writ, and will usually say that the debtor owes them a loan. Typically they will win. If any additional property is received after delivery of the writ and before the answer it should be turned over to the creditor, or included in the amount stated in the answer.
We have located some similar legal questions and legal question categories. Check out these challenging questions that askquestions about Garnishment and are similar to Explain the process of Garnishment.. Also, we have included a list of some of our more popular legal question categories. These categories are based on what everyone is asking and answering.
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Article 2-4 Oxygen
The first thing visitors from another world would see upon their approach to Earth is water. Our blue planet sparkles like a jewel bathed in sunlight. Water is apparent from a great distance in all three natural states: liquid, solid (glaciers) and gas (water vapor in the atmosphere).
Life on Earth is based upon water. Just as the majority of the planet is covered with water, all life on Earth is comprised of water. Thus, a comprehension of life necessitates an understanding of water in its relationship to life.
When we study the three states of water liquid, solid, gas-we are studying the "physical chemistry" of water; that is, the relationship between physics and chemistry in water. These three states are in part defined in terms of temperature, In simple and approximate terms, we can say that water which is colder than 32°F (0° C) is solid, or ice. Water which is above 212°F ( 100°C) is a gas, or steam. Between 32°F and 212°F (0° C and 100°C), water is in liquid form.
However, water can exist below 212°F (100°C) as a vapor. If you exhale onto your eyeglass lenses to clean them, you have exhaled a water vapor at a temperature below 212°F. The water that makes up clouds in the Earth's atmosphere is also well below 212°F, so you see there is quite a "grey area" between the defining temperature extremes which separate water into its three states. A limited amount of water may be in the vapor phase as "humidity." This amount is a function of temperature: If it is cold, less water is present at 100 percent humidity than if it is hot. We measure this water in air as a "partial pressure" of water, which can increase with temperature and reaches sea level atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) at 212°F, the boiling point of water.
Oxygen Life began in the oceans, first in simple forms, algae for example, and later evolving into more complex forms. Common to practically all forms of life on Earth today, is the need for oxygen.
In aquatic environments-oceans, lakes, rivers, etc., most life must draw their oxygen out of tile water, which contains dissolved oxygen. For example, fish take water in through their gills to extract oxygen. Terrestrial animals have lungs that can draw oxygen in with air. In both cases, the oxygen is essential for life, though the mechanism for deriving oxygen is quite different: gills versus lungs.
In the atmosphere, oxygen content is fairly constant, about 18 percent. But in water the oxygen content can vary greatly. This is because oxygen dissolves into water at different rates depending upon variables like temperature and pressure. Put simply, the colder the water, the more dissolved oxygen it can hold and conversely, the warmer the water, the less oxygen it can hold.
Refer to the chart on page 21 for a graphic description of oxygen solubility in water according to temperature. Notice that at 590°F (15°C) water cannot contain more than 10.05 ppm dissolved oxygen. Now notice that at 86°F (30°C) water cannot contain more than 7.51 ppm dissolved oxygen. Therefore, organisms that benefit from high dissolved oxygen levels will suffer in warm water.
The value of high oxygen levels in life-containing water is well demonstrated by comparing the richness of life in Arctic waters to that found in tropical waters. In Arctic waters, huge populations of plankton provide fish, sea mammals and a myriad of other life forms with food. This is possible because of the very high levels of dissolved oxygen in the cold Arctic waters.
Warm tropical waters cannot hold high levels of dissolved oxygen, so only those life forms, which have adapted to lower levels of dissolved oxygen can thrive. Tropical oceans are sometimes described as "underwater deserts" because of the limited life forms they support.
The effect temperature and pressure have on the solubility of gases is best described with the carbonated drink example. When you open a bottle of soda or beer, bubbles of carbon dioxide (CO2) begin to form and rise as the compound is released from the bottle. This is the result of a drop in pressure that occurs when the bottle is opened. If the liquid is very cold, the gas release will be slow, but if it is warm and shaken before opening, the CO2, will surge from the open bottle.
Oxygen behaves very much in the manner as CO2 does with regard to solubility in water-according to temperature and pressure. Water at a temperature of 65°F (18°C) has an oxygen capacity twice that of water at 85°F (29°C).
It is important to also understand that temperature and pressure are not the only factors that can limit dissolved oxygen content in water. As organisms draw oxygen from water, it must be replaced as quickly as they extract it. In aquariums, it is common practice to bubble air through the water to charge it with oxygen. This is not an especially powerful way to add oxygen to water, but it works with fish tanks that hold only a small amount of fish in many liters of water. A far more effective way to charge water with oxygen is to spray the water through the air, which many hydroponic growers do to supply their rapidly growing plants with the large amount of oxygen they need to remain healthy.
Plants Plants can derive oxygen from air or water. In nature, plant roots receive water saturated with oxygen following a rainfall. As the soil begins to dry, air permeates so the roots can breathe and absorb oxygen. During watering, the roots receive both moisture and dissolved minerals. If plants are over-watered, their roots sit in soggy, saturated soil and they can die of oxygen deficiency. Over watering is one of the most common causes of houseplant death.
Some plants have adapted to be able to survive in deficient or stagnant water such as water lilies, rice and some carnivorous plants. Most other plants have a much lower tolerance for oxygen deficiency and cannot sit in over-saturated water for very long.
HydroponicsIf a plant's roots are suspended in water, it will absorb oxygen rapidly. If the oxygen content of the water is inadequate, the plant growth will slow in proportion to oxygen availability. Thus the trick is to co-ordinate the supply of water, nutrient and oxygen with the crops' needs according to other environmental factors like temperature of air and water, CO2 levels, ventilation, humidity, moisture capacity of the rooting media, size and type of crop, and day length. This can be difficult in some extreme conditions, but when applied properly the results can be quite dramatic. Hydroponic growers stimulate plant growth by controlling the amount of water, minerals and oxygen in the nutrient solution. These growers work within a narrow realm between irrigating their crop and allowing oxygen into the root zone. Ebb and flow hydroponic systems are based upon the natural principle of irrigation and oxygenation of plant roots. Mineral-rich water is pumped into gravel-filled beds in which the crop is planted. The irrigation ceases and the water quickly drains away. Oxygen follows and fills the gravel bed, allowing the roots to breathe. The roots release CO2, and absorb oxygen. Then the irrigation is repeated and drained away again, basically emulating nature but very quickly. This basic hydroponic method is very reliable; it has been used for decades with different medias such as gravel, sand, wood chips, sawdust, perlite and Rock Wool.
The down side of ebb and flow hydroponics is that the crop is provided with moisture and mineral nutrients at alternating times from oxygen. In other words, when the roots are breathing, they are not being provided with a constant stream of moisture and nutrients. If the media is too absorbent, then the irrigation cycles must be infrequent to allow time for oxygen to penetrate the roots.
"Constant drip" is a more recent irrigation method designed to level out the availability of moisture, minerals and oxygen. Mineral-rich water is constantly provided in a slow drip to plants that grow in a rapidly draining media. The idea is to maintain a constant balance of moisture and minerals without drowning the crop. It can be somewhat tricky to consistently provide a perfect balance. On a hot summer's day, a large plant can transpire a lot of moisture, so water must be provided at a far higher rate than would be required on a cooler day for a small plant.
In recent decades, the leaders in the development of hydroponic technology have moved into "water-culture" methods and away from rooting media. The first and certainly one of the best recognized is the Nutrient Film Technique (N.F.T.), developed in England in the sixties and seventies and made famous by Dr. Alan Cooper. A breakthrough in its day, N.F.T. was based upon the principle of a very thin film of nutrient-rich water flowing slowly over plant roots held within a plastic envelope. The idea is that the nutrient film provides both moisture and nutrients while above it the roots receive a constant supply of oxygen. Today N.F.T. is widely used and well respected by commercial growers and scientific researchers throughout the world. The only drawback is that there is a fairly critical balance between the right amount of moisture and air required in the rooting envelope. If the film is too deep, then the plants will suffer from oxygen deficiency that can lead to root disease. On the other hand, if the pump fails and the film of moisture is interrupted, even for a relatively brief time, the crop can be lost. Because of this drawback, a more reliable and less risky method of water-culture was sought, so "Aeroponics" arose. Aeroponic systems provide roots with a spray of nutrient rich water. Generally, the plant is supported with its roots dangling in the air. A fine mist of nutrient solution is constantly or intermittently sprayed over the roots. This is a great method as long as there is no failure in the pumping system or clogging of spray nozzles...still not completely forgiving or reliable and generally expensive and tricky to set up and run.
The next generation of water cultivation methods was "aero-hydroponics," in which the root zone is divided into two sections. The root tips are immersed in a constantly flowing stream of nutrient solution while the upper roots hang in an air gap and are sprayed or misted with nutrient solution to provide optimum oxygen levels. This is a superb method since a pump failure does not result in water loss to the roots. Generally, aero-hydroponics is more forgiving than the other water-culture methods. Rather than causing dehydration of the crop, pump failure will result in oxygen deficiency from which most crops can recover without a disaster, provided the pump is fixed quickly.
The common link in all of these methods of hydroponic plant cultivation can be found in the oxygen content of the water. As you now understand, warm nutrient is somewhat oxygen deficient, which can have a lot of meaning for a hydroponic grower. Many root diseases, including fungus infestations can proliferate in oxygen deficient environments. I first realized the magnitude of this phenomenon when I observed Pythium destroying crops in Holland growing in Rock Wool. In this case the oxygen deficiency started when the Rock Wool was over-watered. The plants were growing in a saturated sponge. As the Rock Wool dried out, the situation improved, but the next watering led to saturation again. The problem was compounded by the presence of fungus gnats, which seemed to be the vector, or source, of the Pythium. One thing led to another until ultimately, the crop was lost. From this model we learned the importance of deeply analysing problems to learn from experience. Gnat larvae ate and damaged the plants' roots; oxygen deficient conditions caused by high temperature and over-watering stimulated Pythium and the Pythium entered the impaired roots to destroy the crop. In nature, many variables can interact, causing wonderful-or horrible- things to happen. When the plants grow well, there is a lot more things going on than you realize. Similarly, when things go wrong you must look deeper than the obvious to find answers. By better understanding the physical chemistry of water, you can obtain a deeper and richer comprehension of the many phenomena to observe while growing plants.
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In my videos Phosphate Additives in Meat Purge and Cola and Phosphate Additives in Chicken, I talked about the danger of phosphate and phosphate additives, and how phosphates are often added to chicken and turkey to help preserve the meat. But how often is poultry injected with phosphates? The vast majority of chicken products (more than 90%) were found to contain these additives. However, most packages did not list the additives on their label.
Sometimes they call the phosphate additives “flavorings” or “broth,” and sometimes the labels don’t say anything at all. In the above video, we can see a list of the different ways phosphate additives have been listed (if they are listed at all) on ingredient labels. I’d recommend minimizing one’s intake of anything with the four letters: phos. These additives are also used in junk foods and fast food. Some products even have phosphorus and aluminum. We see this a lot in processed cheeses. One grilled cheese sandwich may exceed the World Health Organization’s provisional tolerable daily intake of aluminum by 428%. (I’ve previously touched on the aluminum in cheese in Aluminum in Vaccines vs. Food). More concerning, though, are the levels of lead in some venison (Filled Full of Lead) and mercury in tuna (The Effect of Canned Tuna on Future Wages).
The food industry no longer has to list phosphorus content on the Nutrition Facts label. There have been calls from the public health community to mandate that phosphorus content of foods be included back on the nutrition facts label, but I’m not holding my breath.
All these studies bring home the same strong message, “phosphorus-containing additives are present in most meat products and significantly increase the phosphorus content. Moreover, the lack of this information in the Nutrition Facts labels and even in nutrition databases prevents patients and dietitians from accurately estimating the phosphorus content of their food and their daily intake.”
Michael Greger, M.D.
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(yŏˈrəgwā, gwĪ, Span. ōrōgwiˈ, ōrōwĪˈ) [key
], officially Oriental Republic of Uruguay, republic (2005 est. pop. 3,416,000), 68,536 sq mi (177,508 sq km), SE South America. The second smallest country (after Suriname) in South America, Uruguay extends from a short Atlantic coastline along the north bank of the Río de la Plata to the Uruguay River, which separates it on the west from Argentina. To the north is Brazil. The capital and largest city is Montevideo
Sections in this article:
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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When observing the Italian school system, remember that Italy is not a federal country, but rather a centralized nation where the Ministry of Education (Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione) speaks with absolute authority.
Even though there is a healthy amount of non-state owned educational institution, they are closely modeled on the state owned ones, for the simple reason that they want their diplomas to be recognized.
In the course of this writeup I will use the adjective public schools for the state-controlled schools (that cost very little) and private for the privately owned schools where the students must pay quite a bit of money to enroll (most of them belong to religious orders like the Jesuits and the Salesians). Readers of British background should remember that.
Another important particularity of Italian schools is that you stay with the same group of people for the whole of a schooling cycle, and everybody takes exactly the same courses (excluding University).
The same faces, for years, doing the same things together - unless a student fails a year: in that case, he has to re-take all his courses for that year, obviously in a different class with different people.
This is very different from what they do in Anglo-Saxon countries.
Trouble starts at the age of six
Italian education starts officially when the child is six years old; more precisely, in the first September after the child's sixth birthday.
Many parents consider this to be quite late, but no public school will enroll a child that is not yet six, so the only route for early schooling is through private schools.
This first chunk of school years is called Scuola Elementare, and it lasts five years.
The curriculum is standardized across the country; everybody studies exactly the same things and in the same order. The teachers are free to introduce subjects of local interest, and they can expand the subjects, but this must not get in the way of the standard curriculum.
Which is a good thing, because at the end of Scuola Elementare the pupil is subjected to a countrywide exam, based precisely on the standardized curriculum.
The desired outcome of Scuola Elementare is that the student be able to read, write, summarize, abstract simple problem into simple mathematical/geometrical formalisms; he is also given an introduction to history, geography, and a smattering of Natural Sciences.
Only recently the study of a foreign languge has been introduced; usually it is English, French or German. Most everybody, excluding special areas like Val d'Aosta and Southern Tiröl would like to study English, but the wish is not always granted. You know, we can't just fire all those fossil teachers of French, they will not be retrained, and teach they must.
The student should also be basically socialized, in the sense that he should not attempt to kill his classmates and set fire to the school.
The fine product of Scuola Elementare is then fed into the maw of Scuola Media Inferiore.
But it was not always so: when my mother went through all this, the mandatory schooling was over with Scuola Elementare. Only people with higher aspirations went on.
Nowadays, the State prescribes 8 years of schooling for all, and at this point we have three more to go. Oh, this is a good point to mention it: in Italy, keeping your children out of school is a crime - unless you can prove that they are in a state school, or being home-schooled (which hardly anybody does).
In Scuola Elementare there used to be only one teacher per classroom, and nowadays there are three, divided by subject areas.
There are many private schools in this level, mostly religious ones, typically favored by posh people: the quality of education in public elementari is generally good.
Middle ? Inferior ? three generic years
Scuola Media Inferiore (this is the official name, everybody in Italy calls it simply le medie) expands and elaborates, building crenellated constructions of knowledge on the solid foundations that the previous ... erm, actually, it is just more of the same.
The key difference with Scuola Elementare is that you have to deal with a multitude of teachers, and that is slightly easier to fail a class.
This lasts for three years, at the end of which the State deems you sufficiently educated. You can leave school at this point, but the only jobs you will be able to land will be physical labor. Anything nicer requires you to enter the wonderful world of Scuola Media Superiore
Where our ways part
Remember that up to this point you have not choosen anything. All you have studied was completely mandatory and good for you.
When entering Scuola media superiore (normally called le superiori), you have your chance to make one choice. After this stunning act of freedom, you are once again locked in a little box (in this case, of your own making) for some years.
There are many superiori, but we will violently summarize them here:
- technical 3 years long: these schools teach a trade, like metalworking, masonry, cheese making ... there are many different kinds, some of them tied to local industry and tradition. Notice that these do not give access to University.
- technical 5 years long: these schools teach a trade/profession, like accounting, electronics, navigation ... again, there are many. These schools, compared to the former ones, have also a theoretical and humanities part (five years of Italian literature: no Latin though), touching in some cases advanced Calculus.
- liceo (5 years long), further divided into
- liceo classico/liceo scientico: the only function of these two is to prepare you for University. liceo classico is heavily oriented towards humanities: 5 years of Latin, 5 years of Classical Greek, heavy emphasis on literature and philosophy and a very perfunctory treatment of Mathematics.
liceo scientifico is not particularly scientific, since it is just the liceo classico minus the Greek plus Maths plus Physycs. Latin, Philosophy, Italian Literature are more or less the same.
Again, let me remark how the product of these schools is totally unfit for life: you never learn how to fill in a check, you can't put a screw in a piece of wood ... your only real option is University.
- liceo artistico, liceo linguistico, liceo musicale ...: these licei have a strong slant towards what their name indicates, and actually teach you things that you could use to make a living. Nonetheless, many graduates go on to University studies.
In this layer of schooling, the public school has a spotted record: there are some great licei and istituti tecnici with excellent tradition, that attract good professors. And there are some really crappy ones, usually in the provincial countryside areas.
Private schools (usually licei) are either very very good (the Salesians run some really hard ones), or really bad, more like remedial schools for desperate cases stuck in the middle of superiori.
At the end of your chosen Scuola Media Superiore there is (again) a nation-wide, standardized exam - one per type of school.
It always has a written part followed, some days later, by an oral examination. The Ministry of Education prepares the written tests, and puts them in sealed envelopes that are delivered manu militari (actually, by the Carabinieri) at all the schools in the country on the morning of the exam.
It is clear now why this final Esame di Maturitá is a national focus point for anxiety; it marks the end of Scuola; after that there is either lavoro or Universitá. It also concides with the first year when, since you are eighteen, you can drive a car, vote, go to a real jail and write cheques.
Notice that since Italy is a land of perversion, we don't have a minimum drinking or smoking age.
Anyway, this big, bad, nationwide exam has a 97% success rate for the licei I mentioned above, and much lower success rates for the other schools. I suspect that this is a good thing for a country, since an electrician that does not know well his trade can easily set fire to an office tower, while a half-assed humanist at most can embarass himself over the subjunctive mood. Aorists don't kill.
If you fail the exam, you repeat the last year of school. All of it, all classes.
The important bit, here, is that any 5 years school gives access to any University. This was an important reform, implemented after the student movements of 1968 - before, it used to be that to study Lettere Classiche (classical humanities) you needed a title from a liceo classico, which more or less made sense but was seen as oppressive and classist.
Notice also that many people stop here: it is a minority of Italians that go on to Italian University that, being such a fun subject, deserves its own writeup.
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2013 melt season over Greenland simulated by MAR
2013 Greenland ice sheet SMB
simulated by MARv3.2 in real time
(last update: 03/09/2013)
Fig 1: a) Time series of the cumulated Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) Surface Mass Balance (SMB) in GT simulated by the regional climate model MAR (version 3.2) forced by the ECMWF (operational) reanalysis since 1 Sep 2012 (in green), and 1 Sep 2013 (in red). The 1980-2011 mean simulated by MAR forced by RA-INTERIM is also plotted in black. b) Same as a) but for the daily SMB in GT/day. The absolute maximum/minimum SMB rate of each day is plotted in blue. c) Daily mean GrIS near-surface temperature (TAS) simulated by MAR. The absolute maximum temperature of each day is plotted in blue. d) Time series of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index from Climate Prediction Center.
Fig 2a: Left) Cumulated SMB (in mm) from the 1 Sep 2012 to 31 Aug 2013. Right) Same as Left) but in respect to the 1980-2011 average from the 1 Sep to 31 Aug.
Fig 2b: Same as Fig 2a but for snowfall.
Fig 2c: Same as Fig 2a but for run-off.
Fig 3: Time series of a) the daily mean GrIS near-surface temperature (in °C), b) production of meltwater (in GT/day), c) melt extent (i.e. area where the daily meltwater production > 1 mmWE/day in % of the ice sheet area), d) bare ice extent (i.e. area where the surface density is > 900 kg/m^3 in % of the ice sheet surface) and e) daily mean GrIS surface albedo simulated by MARv3.2 forced by ERA-INTERIM (1979-2013).
(c) Xavier Fettweis, University of Liège, Belgium
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The relationship between hazing and team cohesion.
|Abstract:||Hazing has been widespread throughout history as a form of initiation into fraternities, service clubs, schools, and sport teams. Legislation and anti-hazing programming have been in effect for a number of years to reduce the negative effects and occurrence of sport hazing (MacLachlan, 2000). Although hazing is illegal in most states, some contend that hazing continues for a number of social reasons that serve important team functions such as enhancing team cohesion. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the contention that hazing is associated with enhanced team cohesion. Athletes (N = 167) completed a modified version of the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ; Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron, 1985), the Team Initiation Questionnaire (TIQ; Hoover, 1999), and a social desirability scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960). Results indicated that the more appropriate team building behaviors that athletes were involved in, the more socially cohesive they perceived their team to be. The more hazing activities they reported doing or seeing, the less cohesive they perceived their team to be in sport-related tasks. The results of this study suggest that the argument that hazing builds team cohesion is flawed. Hazing is associated with less, not more, team cohesion.|
Teamwork (Sports) (Research)
Social cohesion (Research)
van Raalte, Judy L.
Cornelius, Allen E.
Linder, Darwyn E.
Brewer, Britton W.
|Publication:||Name: Journal of Sport Behavior Publisher: University of South Alabama Audience: Academic Format: Magazine/Journal Subject: Psychology and mental health; Sports and fitness Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2007 University of South Alabama ISSN: 0162-7341|
|Issue:||Date: Dec, 2007 Source Volume: 30 Source Issue: 4|
|Topic:||Event Code: 310 Science & research|
|Geographic:||Geographic Scope: United States Geographic Code: 1USA United States|
"Rites de passage," puberty rites, and other forms of
initiation into tribal membership or adult status have existed
throughout human history (Van Gennep, 1977). Although these behaviors
may reflect abuse cycles in which victims become perpetrators (Nuwer,
1990; 2001; Ramzy & Bryant, 1962), it has been suggested that these
practices were functional in the adaptations of human groups to a mostly
hostile physical and social environment (Jones, 2000; Weisfeld, 1979).
Indeed, effortful or painful initiations may have been adaptive in the
training of armies by complex societies, and it would appear to be
another easy generalization to the setting of team sports, as athletic
competition between various groups developed. Whatever the earlier
history of these practices may have been, they are clearly manifest in
modern times (Campo, Poulos, & Sipple, 2005; Finkel, 2002; Hoover,
1999). Known now as "hazing," the practice of subjecting
initiates, whether to a fraternity, a service club, a school, or an
interscholastic, collegiate or professional sports team, to effortful,
painful, or embarrassing rituals has been widespread (Nuwer, 1990,
Due to a number of social and other factors, hazing in sport is no longer deemed to be acceptable behavior (Johnson & Hohnan, 2004). Indeed, 44 states currently have laws on the books designed to curtail hazing with specific penalties for hazing and for failing to report hazing (www.stophazing.org/laws.html). Enforcement of anti-hazing laws has increased due to a rash of hazing related negative outcomes including serious injury and death as well as increased institutional liability for hazing related claims (MacLachlan, 2000). For example, the University of Vermont cancelled their team's ice hockey season in 2000 due to a hazing incident. Other sport hazing violations have led to fines, expulsion, withholding of diplomas, and prison terms (Crow & Rosner, 2002). Given the strong anti-hazing sentiment, legislation, and enforcement, the question can be raised, has hazing been eliminated or does hazing in sport still occur?
The difficulty in asking about illegal behaviors in general and hazing in particular is that people are cautious reporting their association with these activities. For example Hoover (1999) found that only 12% of the 61,258 athletes surveyed reported being hazed. However, when asked about involvement with specific activities and not hazing per se, 80% reported being subjected to one or more typical hazing behaviors as part of their team initiations.
One way of assessing the prevalence of hazing in sport is to look to the news media. Although it is likely that the media under report hazing due to secrecy and other issues, the incidents of hazing (if any) that are reported in the media are often those that are the most highly visible (Nuwer, 2006).
A LexisNexis search of over 18,000 news-related sources, including newspapers, journals, wire services, and transcripts of TV broadcasts was conducted for the keyword "hazing" within sports news stories for the calendar year ending January 7, 2004. A total of 154 articles were located, 150 of which described hazing in sport. These articles described 62 separate incidents of hazing from a variety of sports (see Table 1).
The types of hazing that were reported in these articles varied in tone from mild, light-hearted stories (e.g., embarrassing professional athletes by making them wear odd clothes) to reports of severe and dangerous incidents (e.g., charges being filed for sexual assault). The following examples provide a sense of the range and severity of hazing activities.
One article described an investigation of an assault by four soccer players, aged 13 to 17, on one of their teammates who refused to submit to hazing at a preseason practice. The player who refused to be hazed was hospitalized for his injuries (Sandoval, 2002, September 6). Another soccer-related incident was reported concerning a high school freshman who was taped to a goalpost and then had soccer balls kicked at him (Belz, 2003, October 1). Quarterback Patrick Ramsey was also taped to a goalpost when he reached the professional level with the Washington Redskins, but had a bucket of ice dumped on his head (Redskins veterans initiate Ramsey, 2002, August 9). He stated, "You almost consider it an honor. You've grown up seeing this happen to rookies, and now it's your turn" (p. 3-D). A high school freshman wrestler reported he was subjected to beatings by his teammates (Bondy, 2004, January 5). These "red belly" spankings were reportedly encouraged by the coach as a way to administer discipline and attitude adjustment. Another report described how rookies on the Denver Broncos had maple syrup and flour poured on them while they were sleeping (Schetter, 2003, July 31). Rookie players also typically carried helmets and equipment for the veterans. Ori the Colorado Rockies, rookie players were forced to wear clown shoes, platform shoes, stretch t-shirts that exposed their midriffs, and adult diapers in an effort to embarrass them, "all in fun" (Renck, 2002, September 27). One of the worst reports of hazing involved a Methodist College football player who accused his teammates of beating and sodomizing him (Football player, 2002, December 14). Teammates pinned him to a locker room floor, stripped him, wrote on his buttocks with a marker, and then sodomized him with the marker. The hazers were charged with second-degree sexual offense.
Given the strong legal deterrents to hazing now in place, one may ask, "why does hazing in sport continue?" A number of answers to that question have been provided in the popular press, including the suggestion that hazing is part of team tradition and is actually a team bonding experience (Hoffer, 1999; Weir, 2003; Wertheim, 2003). Hazing has further been described as promoting team cohesion, increasing social attraction to the team and its members, and enhancing the ability of teams to work together effectively to attain team goals (Campo, Poulos, & Sipple, 2005; Carron, 1982; Keating et al., 2005; StopHazing.org, 2006; Winslow, 1999). There are really two separate assertions being made in this argument. The first is that hazing promotes team cohesiveness, and the second is that team cohesiveness enhances team performance. There is an ample body of evidence supporting the second proposition (Carron, et al, 2002; Bray & Whaley, 2001; Kozub & McDonnell, 2000). In a meta-analysis of 46 studies, Carton, et al. (2002) found a moderate to large effect size showing a positive relationship between team cohesiveness and performance. They recommended team building focused on both task and social cohesiveness to promote team performance. However, there appears to be little, if any research specifically focused on the link between hazing and team cohesiveness.
A search of the PsychInfo data base found no articles using the keywords "group cohesion," "hazing," "team," and "sports." One study (Turman, 2003) examined the link between coaches' behaviors and team cohesiveness, finding that negative behaviors (creating inequity, embarrassing players, and using ridicule) reduced team cohesiveness, while positive coach behaviors promoted team cohesiveness. It would be risky, however, to generalize from this finding to the relationship between hazing conducted by senior team members and the development of team cohesiveness.
Therefore, the purpose of this research was to empirically assess the validity of the claim that hazing serves to enhance team cohesion. That is, to answer the question, "Does an effortful, painful, or humiliating experience inflicted by more senior members of a team increase new members' attraction to the team?" Two theoretical perspectives appear to be relevant to this question, group identity and Festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance.
Group identity, group membership, and ingroup/outgroup relationships are fundamental aspects of human social behavior. Being a member of an ingroup confers a wide range of benefits on an individual, including survival, protection from enemies, status, and access to group resources. Being a member of a group also requires individuals to pay certain costs, such as time, money, being subjected to social pressures, and expending energy to further group goals (Brinthaupt, Moreland, & Levine, 1991). Attraction to group membership, cohesiveness, is a function of the balance between the costs and the benefits of membership (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959).
When considering hazing and attraction to a sport team group, it would seem that hazing increases the costs of membership without a commensurate increase in benefits. This is so because in most instances of sport hazing, the hazees (athletes) are already members of the team. The hazing is simply an added cost of team membership. Even if the hazing costs are considered in the decision of whether or not to join the team, increased costs of group membership would not be expected to increase attraction to group membership. Thus, from the group identity perspective, hazing does not appear to be an effective way of increasing attraction to the group.
Early research generated by Festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance (Aronson & Mills, 1959; Gerard & Mathewson, 1966) also addressed the effect of effortful initiations on attraction to the group. From a dissonance theory perspective, the effort entailed in a severe initiation, in order to join the group, must be justified by the rewards of group membership. If a great deal of effort has been expended in order to gain membership, a low level of reward would be dissonant with cognitions about the effort. Aronson and Mills (1959) and Gerard and Mathewson (1966) arranged for participants to complete embarrassing or effortful or painful tasks in order to join a discussion group. Upon gaining membership, the participants listened to a sample of the group's interaction. Rather than the fascinating discussion of a highly relevant topic that was implied by the name of the group, they heard a dull, boring, halting, and inarticulate exchange between group members. The low rewards of group membership were then dissonant with the high costs entailed in the initiation. Participants reduced the aversive dissonance by enhancing their perceptions of the attractiveness of the group. Other participants who experienced an easy or trivial initiation were allowed to listen to the same boring discussion. A comparison of the evaluation of the group discussion by the two groups showed that those who had undergone the severe initiation rated the discussion group as significantly more attractive.
These results do demonstrate a positive effect of a severe initiation on the attractiveness of group membership, but there are at least three differences between these experiments and the commonly practiced forms of hazing on sport teams. First, the initiation tasks were imposed by the experimenters, not by the members of the discussion group. In contrast, most hazing in sport is done by more senior team members. Second, the initiation tasks were imposed to earn group membership, rather than being imposed after membership has been granted, as is the case in most sport hazing. Finally, in these experiments, group membership was objectively unattractive and unrewarding. In contrast, team membership in a sport setting is typically highly valued by the new members. It appears then, that sport hazing, as usually practiced, would not be expected to induce cognitive dissonance, but rather would simply increase the costs of membership without a commensurate increase in the rewards of membership. Because the embarrassment, effort, and pain are inflicted by the senior team members, the most likely outcome is reduced attraction to those individuals, and consequently, to the team as whole.
Clearly, the two conceptual perspectives described above do not exhaust the set of concepts that have been applied to explain the effects of maltreatment on those who receive it (Keating et al, 2005). However, the conditions under which hazing occurs on sport teams, as we have outlined them, reduce the applicability of such mechanisms as "the Stockholm sydrome" (West, 1993). Admittedly, other psychological dependent variables may be affected by mal-treatment, both on sport teams and in other settings. However, the focus of this research is limited to the effects of hazing on team cohesiveness, as operationally defined by the measures used.
Neither of the relevant conceptual analyses presented here supports a prediction that hazing will lead to increased team cohesion, but the empirical question remains; does hazing enhance team cohesion? The study presented in this article was designed to provide evidence relevant to that question.
One-hundred and sixty-seven athletes (66 female and 98 male; 3 did not report their gender) from six colleges and universities across the United States were recruited for the study. Participants were members of basketball (26%, n = 44), gymnastics (26%, n = 43), track and field (22%, n = 36), ice hockey (10%, n = 17), and swimming and diving (16%, n = 27) teams. Thirty-five percent of the sample (n = 59) were freshmen, 31% (n = 52) were sophomores, 23% (n = 39) were juniors, 7% (n = 12) were seniors, and 2% (n = 3) were 5th year or graduate students (3 students did not indicate their year in school). The majority of the sample was White (89%, n = 148), with 3% African American (n = 5), 2% Asian (n = 4), 2% Hispanic (n = 3), and 3% other (n = 5) (2 students did not provide race/ethnicity information). The majority of the participants reported that they were not a member of a fraternity or sorority (93%, n = 156). Seventy-six percent of the sample (n = 127) reported living on campus and 24% (n = 40) reported living off-campus. Sixty-four percent (n = 106) attended public institutions and 37% (n = 61) attended private institutions. Thirty-five percent came from urban schools (n =59), 38% (n = 63) came from suburban schools, and 27% (n =45) came from rural schools.
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ). A modified version of the GEQ (Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron, 1985) was used to assess four components of team cohesion: group integration task (GIT; e.g., We'll all take responsibility for any loss or poor performance by our team), group integration social (GIS; e.g., Our team would like to spend time together in the off-season), attraction to the group task (ATGT; e.g., I like this team's style of play), and attraction to the group social (ATGS; e.g., Some of my best friends are on this team). Participants rated their agreement with items on 9-point scales anchored by 1 ("strongly disagree") and 9 ("strongly agree"). Adequate reliability and validity have been demonstrated for the GEQ (Brawley, Carron, & Widmeyer, 1987; Li & Harmer, 1996). Coefficient alphas for the four subscales ranged from .57 to .70 for this sample.
Team Initiation Questionnaire (TIQ). The TIQ (Hoover, 1999) was used to assess team initiation activities including: acceptable behaviors, questionable behaviors, alcohol-related behaviors, and unacceptable behaviors. Respondents were presented with 24 activities and for each activity were asked whether they Did it or saw it, Heard about it or suspected it, or Not done, seen, or heard about it. For those activities that they had done or heard about, students were asked to indicate whether the activity was A tradition or requirement, Appropriate, Inappropriate, and Done when drinking alcohol. Students were instructed to check all of these options that applied to the behavior.
Social Desirability Questionnaire. Socially desirable response biases were measured using the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale (MCSD; Crowne and Marlowe, 1960). The reliability and validity of this measure are well established.
Demographic Questionnaire. Participants were asked to indicate their age, gender, year in school, race/ethnicity, location of campus housing (on or off campus), campus type (public or private), involvement in the Greek system (i.e., fraternities and sororities), location of campus (urban, suburban, or rural), and sport team on which they participated.
Athletes who gave their informed consent to participate in this research were given a packet of questionnaires in a counterbalanced order. All participants completed the demographic questionnaire, GEQ, TIQ, and social desirability questionnaires.
Responses on the TIQ were analyzed to determine which activities were considered appropriate and which were considered inappropriate. Only responses of those participants who indicated that they did or saw an activity, or heard about or suspected an activity, were included in this analysis. Those activities that were categorized by the majority of respondents as inappropriate were designated as hazing (inappropriate team building behaviors) and those that were categorized by the majority as appropriate were designated as appropriate team building behaviors. Eleven activities were categorized as hazing and the other 13 activities were categorized as appropriate team building behaviors. The activities categorized as hazing and as appropriate behavior were grouped into subcategories, as shown in Table 2. Hazing consists of being the passive victim of physical or psychological abuse, being coerced into self-abuse, or being coerced to abuse others. Acceptable team building included required skill development or assessment, being coerced to engage in deviant behavior, required team socialization activities, and required positive behaviors. Coerced deviant behaviors under acceptable team building included "Tattooing, piercing, head shaving, or branding" and "Engaging in or simulating sex acts." These activities may appear unacceptable to many segments of our society, and they were intended to be perceived as questionable or unacceptable in the original Hoover (1999) study, but they were rated as acceptable by the participants in this study.
To examine how team building behaviors related to team cohesion, the number of inappropriate activities done or seen by each participant were summed to create a Hazing Index and the number of appropriate behaviors done or seen was summed to create an Appropriate Team Building Activity Index. The means and standard deviations for these indices are reported in Table 3.
The Hazing Index and the Appropriate Team Building Activity Index were correlated with the four subscales of the GEQ (see Table 3). Three significant correlations were found. The Appropriate Team Building Activity Index was positively correlated with the ATGS subscale of the GEQ, indicting the more appropriate activities the participants did or saw, the more positive feelings they had toward the group. The Hazing Index was significantly negatively correlated with the ATGT subscale and the GIT subscales of the GEQ indicating that the more hazing activities the participants did or saw, the less they were attracted to the group's task and the less bonding and closeness they felt about the group's task. Separate correlations were run for males and females, and there were no significant gender differences in the magnitude of any of the correlations (all ps >.l0). To investigate the effect of social desirability on these relationships, the above correlations were recalculated as partial correlations, controlling for MCSD scores. The correlations did not change significantly.
The pattern of correlations shown in Table 3 suggests that hazing was negatively related to task cohesiveness, whereas appropriate team building was positively related to social cohesiveness. To explore this possibility two composite indices were constructed. A Task Cohesiveness Index was constructed by summing ATGT and GIT scores. A Social Cohesiveness Index was constructed by summing ATGS and GIS. The conceptual and empirical justification for combining subscales of the GEQ in this manner may be found in the article describing the development of the instrument (Carton, Widmeyer &Brawley, 1985). The Hazing Index was negatively related to the Task Cohesiveness Index (r = -.22, p < .005), but not to the Social Cohesiveness Index (r = .07, p = .40). The Appropriate Team Building Activity Index was positively related to the Social Cohesiveness Index (r = .16, p < .05). but not to the Task Cohesiveness Index (r = -.06, p = .48).
To explore the relationship of both appropriate team building and hazing with overall cohesiveness, two additional composite indices were constructed. An Overall Team Building Index was constructed by subtracting the Hazing Index from the Appropriate Team Building Activity Index to reflect the relative balance of hazing and team building activities experienced by the participant. Higher scores on the Overall Team Building Index indicate more team building than hazing, whereas lower or negative scores indicate more hazing than team building. An Overall Group Cohesiveness Index was constructed by summing the four subscales of the GEQ (Carron, Widmeyer & Brawley, 1985). Overall Team Building was significantly positively related to Overall Group Cohesiveness (r = .17, p = .03), whereas neither the Hazing Index (r = -.08, p = .34) nor the Appropriate Team Building Activity Index (r = .07, p = .41) were related to the Overall Group Cohesiveness Index.
Hazing continues to be as issue affecting sport participants. Although some of the hazing behaviors shown in Table 2 (e.g., kidnapped or transported and abandoned) were reported only rarely, others were reported to have occurred quite frequently (e.g., participating in a drinking contest). Fortunately, many of the acceptable team building behaviors were the ones most widely reported (e.g., dressing up for team functions, keeping a specific grade point average). Thus, hazing is not confined to the highly negative events that are reported in the mass media and are an aspect of sport that deserves both scientific and regulatory scrutiny.
Arguments that justify hazing because it increases team cohesion are not supported by the data and analyses reported in this study. Hazing, as defined by the unacceptable behaviors shown in Table 2, was negatively correlated with task attraction and integration, and is unrelated to social attraction and integration. In contrast, appropriate team building activities are related to higher levels of social attraction and integration. It should be noted that some of the coerced deviant behaviors rated as acceptable team building behaviors by the participants in this study may appear to be unacceptable to a large segment of contemporary American society (Table 2). It is beyond the scope of this research to attempt to delineate the norms that define acceptable behavior in contemporary undergraduate culture. However, other researchers (Borsari & Carey, 1999; Larimer, Irvine, Kilmer, & Marlatt, 1997) have begun to do so and have found that excessive alcohol use and other risky behaviors are more likely to be accepted or tolerated by college undergraduates. Additionally, the behaviors included in the category, "Coerced deviant behaviors," may be perceived as less personally demeaning than those in the category, "Coerced self-abuse or degradation" and, therefore, more acceptable as part of team building. Clearly, more research is needed to identify the specific activities used in hazing and team building, and to define the norms that are applied in making judgments of acceptability.
The relationships among hazing, team building, and cohesion are even clearer when it is considered the Hazing Index and the Appropriate Team Building Activity Index were correlated with the Task Cohesiveness Index and the Social Cohesiveness Index. Hazing was associated with lower levels of task cohesiveness, and was unrelated to social cohesiveness. Appropriate team building activity was associated with higher levels of social cohesiveness and was unrelated to task cohesiveness. As new members of a team, the initiates must develop bonds of attraction with older team members. Acceptable team building activities (as determined empirically in this study) appear to accomplish that. It should be noted that the correlations in this study between hazing and team cohesions were quite small, accounting for less than 6% of the variance between the variables. Future researchers may want to include other factors, such as the frequency and intensity of hazing activities and the effects of the role of hazer compared to hazee to further explore this relationship.
It is interesting to note that task cohesiveness was not correlated with appropriate team building, even though appropriate team building activities were associated with higher levels of social cohesiveness. On the other hand, hazing may act to reduce task attraction and prevent task integration with the team. This pattern of results implies that task cohesiveness may develop from a different set of experiences than those included in appropriate team building activities. If we assume that task attraction is initially high for these athletes (after all, this is the sport they have chosen and in which they have competed well enough to become a member of an intercollegiate team), then team building that does not include specific task-related elements might be expected to have little impact on task cohesiveness, even though social cohesiveness may be enhanced. Indeed, only two of the team building behaviors shown in Table 2 are sport-specific (i.e., attending pre-season practice; being tested for skill, endurance, or performance in a sport). It may be that task cohesiveness develops primarily from shared positive experiences performing the team task in practice and competition. Although competition almost always includes the risk of losing, coaches could structure practices to foster the development of task cohesiveness more effectively.
Finally, the Overall Team Building index, reflecting the relative balance of hazing and acceptable team building, was positively related to the Overall Group Cohesiveness Index, showing that the less hazing and the more acceptable team building that athletes experienced, the higher their level of overall attraction and integration. Thus, there is no empirical support for the practice of hazing in this study. These results are congruent with earlier research (Lodewijkx & Syroit, 1997; 2001) that has also found no support for the efficacy of severe initiations in enhancing group attractiveness in natural settings not related to sports.
One limitation of this study was that individual athletes rather than teams were studied. This approach allowed inferences to be made across sports and institutions. Future researchers might include assessment of large teams at a single institution to evaluate differences in hazing and cohesion within a particular setting. Consideration might also be given to assessing teams within the same sport but at different institutions. However, a large sample would be needed to allow inferences about the effects of hazing practices to be discernable against the background of differences between institutions.
Hazing exposes athletes to physical and psychological risks, and is associated with reduced rather than greater team cohesiveness. Why, then, does hazing remain popular as a team building tactic? And how can hazing be stopped? Research focused on the attitudes and beliefs of athletes, coaches, and the administrators of collegiate sports programs may help identify strategies for reducing hazing. Belief in the efficacy of hazing can be addressed by the dissemination of evidence such as that reported in this article. Tolerant attitudes about hazing practices on the part of coaches and administrators may change as awareness of the dangers continues to increase. Clear anti-hazing policies and vigorous enforcement may deter team veterans from hazing "just because they were hazed." Effective, research-based team building programs can be designed to replace hazing. These and other tactics should be explored by researchers and, when sufficiently well-supported by data, they should implemented by teams and institutions
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Lodewijkx, H., & Syroit, J. (2001). Affiliation during naturalistic severe and mild initiations: Some further evidence against the severity-attraction hypothesis. Current Research in Social Psychology, 6, 90-107.
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Judy L. Van Raalte and Allen E. Cornelius
Darwyn E. Linder
Arizona State University
Britton W. Brewer
Address Correspondence To: Judy L. Van Raalte, Center for Performance Enhancement and Applied Research, Department of Psychology, Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109. Phone: (413) 748-3388, e-mail: email@example.com
Table 1. Number of Hazing Incidents from Lexis Nexis Search Sport Auto Racing 1 Baseball 3 Basketball 16 Football 33 Horse Racing 1 Lacrosse 1 Powder Puff Football 1 (a) Soccer 4 Track & Field 1 W restling 1 Total 62 (a) Hazing involving fern ales Table 2. Team Initiation Questionnaire Behaviors Categorized as Unacceptable or Acceptable and the Number and Percent of Respondents Who Reported Doing or Seeing the Behavior and Who Reported Hearing About or Suspecting the Behavior Number and Number and (%) who (%) who reported reported doing or hearing seeing it about or suspected it Unacceptable team building behaviors Passive victim of abuse * Kidnapped or transported and abandoned 14 (9%) 20 (12%) Yelled, cursed, or sworn at 90 (55%) 27 (17%) Paddled, whipped, beaten, kicked, or beating up others 23 (14%) 25 (15%) Tied up, taped, or confined in small places 28 (17%) 17 (11%) Coerced self-abuse or degradation * Consuming extremely hot or disgusting concoctions 27 (16%) 23 (14%) Participating in a drinking contest 85 (53%) 34 (21%) Depriving oneself of food, sleep, or hygiene 31 (l9%) 30 (18%) Acting as personal servant to other players off the field, court 20 (12%) 28 (17%) Coerced abuse of others * Associating with only specific people, not others 33 (20%) 45 (27%) Making prank phone calls or harassing others 51 (31%) 21 (13%) Destroying or stealing property 33 (20%) 26 (16%) Acceptable team building behaviors Skill development or assessment* Attending pre-season practice 138 (91%) 5 (3%) Tested for skill, endurance, or performance in a sport 120 (76%) 11 (7%) Taking an oath or signing a contract of standards 82 (51%) 22 (14%) Participating in a calisthenics contest not related to sport 39 (24%) 23 (14%) Completing a ropes course or team trip 65 (40%) 21 (13%) Coerced deviant behaviors * Tattooing, piercing, head shaving, or branding 58 (36%) 27 (17%) Wearing embarrassing clothing 67 (41%) 29 (18%) Engaging in or simulating sex acts 45 (28%) 19 (12%) Consuming alcohol during recruitment visits 68 (43%) 34 (21%) Team socialization activities * Attending a skit night or team roast 67 (41%) 18 (11%) Dressing up for team functions (other than uniforms) 113 (70%) 16 (10%) Required positive behaviors * Keeping a specific grade point average 112 (70%) 25 (16%) Doing volunteer community service 87 (54%) 31 (19%) * Subcategories of team building behaviors developed by the authors, based on a rational analysis. Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Between Hazing Indices and GEQ Subscale Scores ATGS ATGT M (SD) 35.31 (8.14) 28.36 (6.11) .05 -.18 * Hazing Index 2.60 (2.62) [.01] [-.15] .16 * -.04 Appropriate Index 6.39 (3.13) [.14] [-.04] GIT GIS 25.78 (5.83) 26.58 (5.38) -.23 ** .08 Hazing Index [-.20] [-.00] -.06 .11 Appropriate Index [-.04] [.07] Note. Correlations in brackets are the partial correlations controlling for MCSD scores. Partial correlations are not significantly different from zero order correlations. * p <.05, ** p <.01
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David Bourget (Western Ontario)
David Chalmers (ANU, NYU)
Rafael De Clercq
Ezio Di Nucci
Jack Alan Reynolds
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Thinking and Reasoning 12 (3):309 – 328 (2006)
Matching bias refers to the non-normative performance that occurs when elements mentioned in a rule do not correspond with those in a test item. One aim of the present work is to capture matching bias via reaction times as participants carry out truth-table evaluation tasks. Experiment 1 requires participants to verify conditional rules, and Experiment 2 to falsify them as the paradigm employs four types of conditional sentences that systematically rotate negatives in the antecedent and consequent; and presents predominantly cases having true antecedents. These experiments reveal that mismatching is linked to higher rates of incorrect responses and slower evaluation times. A second aim is to investigate the way not is processed. We compare a narrow view of negations, which argues that negation only denies information, to a search for alternatives view, which says that negations function to prime appropriate alternatives. Findings from both experiments support a narrow reading view
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PROFESSOR LADD has defined psychology as ” the science which describes and explains the phenomena of consciousness.”
While abstruse logic and cosmic philosophy are still legitimate departments of the subject, the new psychology is not strictly metaphysics, it is a physiological psychology, in fact a mental physiology. The very word experimental, as applied to the subject, suggests appliances and individual research quite beyond the scope of logic.
It is a recognition of the law laid down by Professor James, that ” no mental modification ever occurs which is not accompanied or followed by a bodily change,” which renders it imperative that a physician should be well grounded in the fundamental truths of psychology.
The comprehensiveness of the subject is overwhelming. The present essay is an attempt to pre-sent only a few well-recognized facts which bear directly on the subjects of physiology and hygiene.
It may be well at the outset to have a clear idea of our limitations. The old controversy between the spiritualist and the materialist is perhaps not yet ended, but there has been a decided reaction from the ultramaterialism of fifty years ago. The attempt to identify thought and molecular motion has few defenders today. It used formerly to be said by this class of thinkers : ” The brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile.” This is a distressing confusion of two distinct realms in nature, the psychical and the physical.
Recent developments in neurology have thrown much light on the phenomena of brain activity. Cerebration is now thought to be accompanied by a temporary association of nerve cells; but were we able to trace the nervous impulse, thru all its intricacies, to the brain centers, did we know the exact molecular changes which cause the efferent impulse, the nature of a thought would be as much a mystery as ever. Indeed it is doubtful if the question is ever solved by the finite mind. Tyndall said : ” There is no fusion possible between the two classes of facts. The passage from the physics of the brain to the corresponding facts of consciousness is unthinkable.”
It is not claimed that the unknown is necessarily the unknowable, but it is a line of investigation which cannot be taken up in any superficial way. This confession of ignorance is in fact a great step toward a higher knowledge. It is a refined agnosticism. The fact seems to be that the brain is the organ of the mind, just as the body is the organ of the brain.
Simple protoplasm possesses irritability, contractility, and elasticity that is, it has sensation equal to its needs. Professor Sutherland has said : ” A nervous system is an arrangement by means of which an organism becomes conscious of its environment (food, friends, and foes) and adapts itself thereto.”
This is a very comprehensive definition suited to any form of life except unicellular organisms, and even here, aitho there is no aggregation of nerve elements into a system, yet monocellular forms react to touch, pressure, etc.
When the ameba envelops and ingests the food particle that touches its periphery, it evidences a ” consciousness of environment and adjustment thereto.” It is evident that the word consciousness is here used in a general sense. Some psychologists have restricted the term to define a human attribute only, and others have asserted that consciousness without a central nervous system is impossible. From a biological standpoint all life is conscious.
REASON AND INSTINCT
By studying the evolutionary scale of life as it exists today, it is seen that the nervous system, like its accompanying organism, progresses from the simple to the relatively complex, till in man it reaches a development capable of what we call reason.
Undoubtedly psychology has drawn too sharp a line between reason and instinct. The reaction from this was the contention that the lower animals reason, the difference being one of degree, not of kind. The earlier idea that reasoning was an attribute of man only was natural in preëvolutionary times, and was based on the belief in the immediate creation of perfected organisms, the so-called special creation, because special creations had distinct endowments. The evolutionist maintains that since the establishment of the general law, ” from the simple to the relatively complex,” the burden of proof rests on him who claims that at any time or place it ceases to be of universal application.
Perhaps no one has a right to affirm that gravitation is of universal application, and yet experience warrants one in assuming its universality as a working hypothesis till an exception is proved. So it is assumed that the development of the nervous system has been one continuous upward movement, till we have the mind of man. This would lead us to expect to find the difference between reason and instinct one of degree, and in the last analysis this may be so. Evolution teaches that certain species have become side-tracked, and are forever con-signed to inferior positions. These are the animals whose mentality never rises above the plane of instincts. As morphological connecting links are wanting, so in a still more emphatic way is there a gulf between the highest instinct and the human mind.
Professor James says : ” No actions but such as are done for an end, and show a choice of means, can be called indubitable expressions of mind.” Accepting this criterion, that in order to be classed as reason an act must ” show a choice of means,” it is possible to draw a sharp line between reason and instinct.
It is somewhat generally believed that instincts are attributes of the lower animals only, and the fact is overlooked that man is richly endowed in this direction, especially in infancy. Instincts are impulses. ” Theirs not to reason why.” In physiology we call them reflexes. The human infant is born with the instinct to suck fully developed. The tendency to clasp any object that comes in contact with the fingers or toes is very marked. In fact, this instinct is stronger a few hours after birth than at any later period.
New-born children are able to sustain their own weight by grasping a lead-pencil, often with only one hand. The evolutionary bearing of this is very interesting, and shows very beautifully how natural selection could, in the lower animals, propagate this impulse. The young of the chimpanzee whose grasp of the mother was strongest would by this means escape destruction when pursued by an enemy. Of course in man the law of the ” survival of the fittest ” is operative in a lesser degree. The transiency of many infantile instincts, when not exercised, will be again referred to under the subject ” Habit.” Fear and love we possess in common with the animals. The sexual passion is perhaps one of the strongest examples.
DO ANIMALS REASON?
Let the great John Burroughs answer it.
” Apropos of the question, ` Do animals think? ‘ a correspondent, writing from Washington, says that I deny this power to the lower animals because I use the word in a too restricted sense. He then proceeds to say that if we use the word ` chin ‘ to signify ` exclusively a portion of the human face, meaning that portion which is extended perpendicularly downward from the mouth, we would hesitate to say that lower animals have chins. So if we define ” laugh” as spreading the mouth in merriment we could not say that animals laugh.’
” I am quite ready to admit that animals think in as strict a sense as they have chins or as they laugh. A feeling of play and merriment they certainly have, but this feeling is practically entirely physical. I don’t suppose an animal could appreciate a joke, or the comic, or the absurd. Man is the only animal that laughs or weeps, though tears may run from the eyes of a suffering beast. And the chin of a bird or beast is a very rudimentary affair indeed.
” Take the case of the little yellow warbler when the cowbird drops her egg into its nest does any-thing like a process of thought or reflection pass in the bird’s mind then? The warbler is much disturbed when she discovers the strange egg, and her mate appears to share her agitation. Then after a time, and after the two have apparently considered the matter together, the mother bird proceeds to bury the egg by building a new nest on top of the old one. If another cowbird’s egg is dropped in this one, she will proceed to get rid of this in the same way. This all looks very like reflection. But let us consider the matter a moment. This thing between the cowbird and the warbler has been going on for innumerable generations. The yellow warbler seems to be the favorite host of this parasite, and something like a special instinct may have grown up in the warbler with reference to this strange egg. The bird reacts, as the psychologists say, at sight of it, then she proceeds to dispose of it in the way above described. All yellow warblers act in the same manner, which is the way of instinct. Now if this procedure was the result of an individual thought or calculation on the part of the birds, they would not all do the same thing; different lines of conduct would be hit upon. How much simpler and easier it would be to throw the egg out – how much more like an act of rational intelligence. So far as I know no bird does eject this parasitical egg, and no other bird besides the yellow warbler gets rid of it in the way I have described. I have seen a green-backed warbler rearing the young cowbird.
” Another correspondent is sure his dog thinks when he sits up in front of him while he is reading, and taps him on his back or leg as a reminder that he wants the ball in his master’s pocket to play with ; and that his parrot thinks when, on hearing him enter the house, it begins savagely to bite its cage and to make hideous noises, all with a view to obtaining its freedom, so that it can make its way to its beloved master, and caress and play with him. If such things indicate powers of thought, then nearly all animals think. The bee does when it goes forth from the hive in quest of honey; the big midsummer spider does when it shakes its net to frighten you away; the mother bird does when she flutters over the ground at your feet to decoy you away from her nest, etc. But none of these acts can properly be called the result of thinking.
” When a parrot takes a crust of bread and soaks it in its cup of water before eating it, that looks much more like the result of a mental process.”
There are many instances of animal sagacity which seem to show a certain degree of reasoning.
The following is quoted by Professor James:
” I have two dogs, a small, long-legged pet dog, and a rather large watch-dog. Immediately beyond the house court is a garden, into which one enters through a low lattice gate which is closed by a latch on the yard side. This latch is opened by lifting it. Besides this, moreover, the gate is fastened on the garden side by a string nailed to a gate-post. Here, as often as one wished, could the following sight be observed. If the little dog was shut in the garden and wanted to go out he placed himself before the gate and barked. Immediately the large dog in the court would hasten to him and raise the latch with his nose, while the little dog on the garden side leaped up, and catching the string in his teeth, bit it thru.
” Certainly reasoning here seems to prevail.
” In face of it, however, and altho the dogs arrived of themselves and without human aid at the solution of the gate question, I am able to point out that the complete action was pieced together out of accidental experiences, which the dogs followed, I might say, unconsciously.
” While the large dog was young, he was allowed, like the little one, to go into the garden, and therefore the gate was usually not latched but simply closed. Now if he saw any one go in he would follow by thrusting his snout between the gate and the post, and so pushing the gate open. When he was grown I forbade his being taken in, and had the gate kept latched. But he naturally still tried to follow when any one entered, and tried in the old fashion to open it, which he could no longer do. Now it fell out that once, while trying, he raised his nose higher than usual, and hit the latch from below, so as to lift it off its hook, and the gate opened. From thence-forth he made the same movement of the head when trying to open it, and of course with the same result. He now knew how to open the gate when it was latched.
” The little dog had been the large one’s teacher in many things, especially in the chasing of cats, and catching of mice and moles, so when the little one was heard barking, the other always hastened to him.
” If the barking came from the garden he opened the gate to get inside.
” But meanwhile the little dog, who wanted to get out, the moment the gate opened slipped out between the big one’s legs, and so the appearance of his having come with the intention of letting him out arose, and that it was simply an appearance transpired from the fact that, when the little dog did not succeed at once in getting out, the large one ran in, and nosed about the garden, plainly showing that he had expected to see something there.
” In order to stop this opening of the gate, I fastened a string on the garden side, which, tightly drawn, held the gate firmly against the post, so that if the large dog raised the latch, and let go, it would every time fall back on the hook, and this device was successful for quite a time, until it happened one day that on my return from a walk upon which the little dog had accompanied me, I crossed the garden, and in passing through the gate the dog remained behind, and refused to come to my whistle.
” As it was beginning to rain and I knew how he disliked to get wet, I closed the gate in order to punish him in this manner.
” But I had hardly reached the house ere he was before the gate, whining and crying most piteously, for the rain was falling faster and faster. The big dog, to whom the rain was a matter of indifference, was instantly on hand, and tried his utmost to open the gate, but naturally without success. Almost in despair, the little dog bit at the gate, at the same time springing into the air in the attempt to jump over it, when he chanced to catch the string in his teeth. It broke and the gate flew open. Now he knew the secret, and thenceforth bit the string whenever he wished to get out, so that I was obliged to change it.”
If every story of animal intelligence could be carefully analyzed and the history of its development known it would probably be evident, as in this case, that the mentality displayed was hardly worthy the name Reason. There is an association of means and end. The dog remembered that a certain result followed a certain action. In the first instance, when the gate was not hasped, simply pushing against it caused it to open. Accidentally discovering that raising the hasp with his nose, the result open gate followed, simple memory of the association of the two occurrences caused him to repeat the movement. To this class of phenomena psychology has given the name Recept. This word is derived from Latin re (back), capio (to take), meaning something remembered.
This is in distinction from the larger word Concept, from the same root, but the prefix con, together, shows that it covers the association of things received. This term is applicable only to reasoning. In reasoning we put things together and pick out the essential quality of observed facts. In this instance, that the pushing of the gate must take place while the hasp was lifted, so that the hasp would not drop into its place again. Then there is formed in the mind a concept, the principle of hasps in general, and the test of a concept is the power to use the idea under similar circumstances.
This leads to Professor James’ proposition : ” The ability to deal with novel data is the technical differentia of reasoning.” This is very well shown by the further history of the two dogs which I quote again :
” That the big dog in raising the latch did not in the least know that the latch closed the gate, that the raising of the same opened it, but that he merely repeated the automatic blow with his snout, which had once had such happy consequences, transpires from the following :
” The gate leading to the barn is fastened with a latch precisely like the one on the garden gate, only placed a little higher, still easily within the dog’s reach.
” Here, too, occasionally the little dog is confined, and when he barks the big one makes every possible effort to open the gate, but it never has occurred to him to push the latch up. The brute cannot draw conclusions, that is, he cannot think.”
These recepts might be defined as acquired instincts, or if that seems a contradiction of terms, acquired reflexes. It is certainly one step higher than the primary instincts, and is quite suggestive of the way in which our ancestors may have repeated certain actions till a tendency to do the same appeared in the offspring. The reason for many of our human instincts is now lost. Yet it never occurs to us to question these actions in ourselves. ” It takes what Berkeley calls a mind debauched by learning to make the natural seem strange, so far as to ask for why of any instinctive human act.”
It was just said that the transmission of acquired habits might account for instincts, animal and human. This was the generally accepted view, altho it was recognized that the evidence was meager in the extreme. But in 1889 Weismann, of Freiburg, published a strong denial, outlining a theory which increases the scope of natural selection.
Weismann denies that functional qualities are transmissible, denies that the blacksmith’s son is capable of any greater physical development than he would have been had his father followed some sedentary profession.
This view has gained many adherents in the intellectual world, and while it would be out of place to introduce the argument here, it must be mentioned that Herbert Spencer was strongly opposed. The principle of inheritance of acquired characteristics is part of the groundwork of his Synthetic Philosophy, and in the later controversy 3 with Weismann he held his ground manfully.
What we need is to bear in mind the fact that we are richly endowed with instincts, and that these form a basis from which are developed habits, habits of reasoning as well as of bodily movements. Reasoning is also based upon experience both individual and ancestral.
Man may therefore be said to be dominated by three sets of impulses.
(r) Congenital reflexes.
(2) Acquired reflexes.
The second, acquired reflexes, is a somewhat arbitrary division, and its boundaries are difficult to determine. It is the transitional form, and, altho on its upper and lower sides it merges into the two extremes, its very existence tends to emphasize the gulf between instinct and reason. This difference is thus seen to be not merely one of degree but one of kind. The hights to which human reason may mount are indeed uncomprehensible to the common mind. The vast range of phenomena which a great mind can assimilate at a glance often makes him impatient with us common mortals who have to grope our way step by step. It is frequently quoted that Bow-ditch, who translated one of Laplace’s books, said : ” Whenever his author prefaced a proposition by the words ` It is evident,’ he knew that many hours of hard study lay before him, ere it became evident to him.”‘
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I have an assignment to write the article about hairdryers. Could you, please, check if I make sense in the following sentences? I appreciate your help.
1) Dry nozzle is one of the more popular hairdryer attachments among hairdressers. It has a flat tapered end and is essential for hairstyling.
2) Diffuser is a bell-shaped attachment with its narrow end clicking onto the nozzle of the hairdryer. Hairdryer diffuser passes a strong airflow through many sieve-like openings and breaks it into warm breeze.
3) Hairdryer manufacturers position diffusers as the attachment to create curls and body. While diffusers do create curls and body, even some skilled hairdressers can't make it.
Thanks in advance
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Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) in children and adolescents is a complicated condition that can be challenging for everyone involved. This page contains printer-friendly factsheets with information about child and adolescent CFS specifically for healthcare professionals, parents, and education professionals.
CFS in children and adolescents can be difficult to diagnose and manage. This factsheet offers information intended for healthcare professionals (e.g. physicians, nurses, and nurse practitioners) on topics such as helping patients reduce symptoms, understanding how CFS affects children or adolescents in school, and communicating with schools.
When a child or adolescent has CFS, it can be very challenging for both the child and parents. This factsheet offers information for parents (or guardians) that can help them deal with the ways CFS may be affecting their child.
CFS can affect a child or adolescent’s experience at school. This factsheet provides information for education professionals such as teachers, guidance counselors, and other school staff about supporting students with CFS and other chronic conditions in the school environment.
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Technological advances have allowed for racing events that are all but devoid of human error.
For many, the enduring image of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing is the underwater photograph - taken by Sports Illustrated's Heinz Kluetmeier - of swimmers Michael Phelps and Milorad Cavic at the conclusion of the 100-meter butterfly. The frame clearly shows the fingers on Phelps's right hand slightly bent as they transferred the 6.6 pounds of pressure necessary for an Omega touch pad to recognize that the American had finished the race, and done so one one-hundredth of a second ahead of his Serbian contemporary, thus securing for Phelps the seventh of his unprecedented eight gold medals at the Games.
For officials working the event, it was a camera positioned directly above the pool's edge that expeditiously confirmed the blink-and-you-missed-it result. Even Cavic's coach backed off a post-race appeal upon seeing the backup visual evidence. Moreover, Omega reportedly reviewed the swimmers' times beyond the second decimal place, though the record will forever show that Phelps swam the event in 50.58 seconds to Cavic's 50.59 - figures that reflect the shortcomings of pool builders more so than Swiss watchmakers, according to the company. "Omega touch pads and starting blocks are part of an integrated timing system capable of recording times to the nearest one one-thousandth of a second," reads Omega's web site. "However, because it is not possible to build swimming pools in which each lane is guaranteed to be precisely the same length, Olympic and world records are still recorded to the nearest one one-hundredth of a second."
Perhaps the ability to finesse facility construction will at some point catch up to state-of-the-art sports timing, but don't hold your breath. Technological advances have made the timing of races in any number of sports all but devoid of human error, and some feel the best of times in timing is yet to come.
Whereas swimming is the only sport in which participants literally "hit the wall" upon completing a race, dry-land timing must account for individuals as they cross a line. For many events, state-of-the-art timing takes the form of radio frequency identification technology. RFID is accomplished using transponder chips carried by race participants (either strapped around an ankle, laced to a shoe or affixed to a bicycle fork). The chips are electronically signaled to broadcast their own static alphanumeric code and a timestamp to receivers at designated timelines - the start and finish lines of a race, as well as at any desired split timing points in between. The information is then relayed to computer servers, where it is matched to the race entrant's personal identification and processed using race management software for display and distribution.
RFID chips fall into two general categories: active and passive. The battery-powered active chip is the more accurate of the two, taking its broadcast cues from an 18-gauge wire loop stretched across each timeline. This makes it better able to handle high-speed events such as bicycle races (in which case the wire is positioned roughly 18 inches short of the timeline to broadcast its info as the front tire's edge crosses the actual line). "You can actually define a finish line with an active chip," says Mac Read, president of Milliseconds Sports Timing in Salt Lake City. "With a reasonable amount of confidence, you know that the time is going to be accurate and the bike that crosses the finish line first is the one that's going to be read first."
The entire reading process takes, in fact, mere milliseconds. However, unlike the active chip, the passive chip's information may be read anywhere within 3- to 10-foot-wide mats laid across the timeline - enough room for error, potentially, to equate to a runner's full stride or two and a switch in placing between runners in the middle of the pack. "For most events it works out that it really doesn't matter," Read says. "It's possible for the read to occur later in that depth of area, but I would say probably 97 percent of the time the read occurs right as you enter." (A third method of data collection involves chips mounted in racers' bibs and read by sensors located within timeline arches, but its use has been limited in the United States.)
Passive chips have also carried a reputation as being more susceptible to interference from sound systems, radios and metal in the ground, but improvements in their reliability in recent years have impressed Read, whose firm handles the 7,000-participant Ogden Marathon. "We're actually looking at moving back to a passive chip for one of our larger races, and using the active chip in the events where it makes more sense - for bike races and some triathlons," he says.
Heavily populated distance runs in particular lend themselves to passive chips. Timing accuracy to the second decimal place is not critical for an event, such as a marathon, that spans hours, and the cost of the chip relative to its active counterpart ($3 versus $100 or more) makes them virtually disposable, freeing race management from the burden of having to collect perhaps tens of thousands of chips at a race's conclusion. Some event organizers have invested slightly more per unit into souvenir chips bearing the name of the race or its sponsor, thus turning the timing device into a keepsake for participants. Recycling of chips is also gaining in popularity. Athletes can take the chip assigned at one event and reuse it in subsequent races that employ the same timing system.
RFID technology is not without limitations, however. For the much shorter races and consistently tighter finishes common in track and field, high-speed photography is the technology of choice. To pinpoint precisely when a runner's upper torso breaks the plane of the finish line in the 100 meters, for example, a high-resolution camera captures dozens of extremely thin photographic frames per second. "It doesn't work like a traditional camera," explains Sean Gavigan, president of Milwaukee-based PrimeTime Event & Race Management. "It actually takes little time-stamped slivers, and it will tell us exactly, down to the ten-thousandth of a second, when the chest of that track and field athlete crossed the finish line."
Gavigan sees a day when bib-mounted chips will work in concert with cameras to more easily identify sprinters and assign them their times. The two technologies already enjoy a complementary relationship at the American Birkebeiner, North America's largest cross-country ski race at 7,000 participants and an event that presents PrimeTime with some unique challenges. Not only must RFID timeline sensors be buried in snow at points throughout the 51-kilometer race between Cable and Hayward, Wis., a chip may be affixed to an athlete's right ankle, from where it is read a fraction of a second after the left one actually crosses the line. The chip-supplied time stamp is enough to satisfy most recreational participants, who are concerned first and foremost with finishing the race. For elite skiers among the top-50 or so finishers, the camera takes precedence. "We can identify the tip of a boot, which in cross country skiing is what signifies the participant being finished," Gavigan says. "In that case, we integrate the chip identification with our camera system to identify which athlete is finishing, and we can narrow down to the exact point where the tip of the boot crossed the finish line to assign him or her an actual time."
Though a camera ultimately confirmed who had won last year's Phelps-Cavic butterfly battle, touch pads had gotten it right in the first place. It was a small reminder of why they have served as swim timing's standard-bearer for more than four decades. Years ago, Mick Nelson, club facilities development director for USA Swimming, was admittedly intrigued by laser-beam technology being introduced to aquatics, but says that in the end it couldn't outperform touch pads and it "sort of went away." "Right now, we basically want someone to touch a wall so that we have control over the length of the course," Nelson adds. "We are really specific about our dimensions. We cannot be even a thousandth of an inch short on a course, so I think right now we're limited to the touch pad."
Nelson does see advantages to using certain touch pads over others, though. Touch pads extend only as high as the gutter in most competition pools in the United States, allowing water to flow over the top of the pad. The result, Nelson contends, is a faster pool. By comparison, international touch pads extend significantly higher. "That does two things," Nelson says. "Number one, in their defense, it allows your hand to go pretty much anywhere under the starting block and still hit the touch pad; you can't put your hand into the gutter. But the disadvantage to that, and it is a large disadvantage, is that waves bounce off those touch pads, and the only place that water has to go is back into the face of the swimmer. It gives us much rougher water, especially in the sprints."
Touch pads remain the primary arbiter of results at most swimming events, from the Olympic Games on down to swim club dual meets. "At USA Swimming, if your times are going to go forward to qualify you for, say, a junior national competition, or any meet that has a qualification time, touch pads are required," Nelson says. "That way, we're not at the mercy of the human reflexes of somebody pushing a button."
That said, multiple layers of human-reflex timing still exist in support of touch pads. These include manual clock-stopping buttons pressed by lane timers, as well as traditional stopwatches. (Camera backup is typically reserved for Olympic and world championship competition.) One improvement on the stopwatch concept to emerge in recent years is a wireless system of handheld devices synchronized to activate in unison with the starter's signal but stop individually with the manual push of a button by a lane timer. The time from each lane is then sent automatically to the meet-management computer and stored if needed, eliminating the risk of human data-entry error.
Perhaps the biggest advancements to hit aquatics timing since the touch pad can be found in today's starting blocks. Manufacturers have outfitted individual platforms with speakers, so that each swimmer hears the timekeeper's signals at precisely the same instant, as well as light cues, so swimmers who can't hear at all are not disadvantaged. In addition, several models of platforms integrate takeoff sensors with existing touch pad technology to ensure that a swimmer hasn't left his or her mark before a relay teammate touches the wall - a far more accurate system than poolside judges eyeing the exchanges taking place in as many as four lanes at a time. "You're talking about tenths or hundredths of a second, so it's very difficult for the human eye to see when that kid in the water actually hits the touch pad," says Paul Vugteveen, timing sales representative for Brookings, S.D.-based Daktronics. "When we were in the testing stages of our design, we had some video evidence of our system measuring it accurately and human judges measuring it very inaccurately."
In addition to disqualifying relay exchanges, takeoff sensors also detect false starts by measuring the interval between the starter's signal and the swimmer's response. "If the time measured is less than the minimum time required by humans to react to the start signal, the swimmer has 'jumped the gun,' and the timekeeper uses an acoustic signal to indicate a false start," according to Omega's web site. Because a close race can be won or lost at the starting blocks, reaction times can be instantly relayed to a scoreboard as "value-added fan information," says Vugteveen. "That's something that fans and athletes really like to see," adds Colorado Timing Systems marketing director Tina Wallen. "A lot of teams use relay-judging platforms for training. You actually track your start-reaction times, and get faster and faster off the block."
The sharing of start-reaction times, split times and finish times has gotten much quicker, too. Timing data can be posted using real-time scoreboard updates, live web streaming, text messaging, kiosk printouts or any combination thereof. Ultimate ordering of race finishers at large events will likely have to wait, however, particularly if participants started the course in staggered waves or if they are to be ranked by age or other affinity grouping. "Time information isn't hard to turn around, but placing information can change literally until the last finisher crosses the line," Gavigan says. "I have seen it, even this summer, where the second-to-last finisher in a triathlon ended up being the overall winner, based on where he started in relation to the other participants."
Timing a sporting event is a daunting task, and not inexpensive. Investment in RFID chips alone amounted to three quarters of a million dollars at this year's Birkebeiner, according to Gavigan, who adds that timing a high school track meet with state-of-the-art technology could easily run $15,000. "It's definitely an industry where you get what you pay for," he says. "You may be able to get up and running with that, but some of the advances and options out there are what really make it easier to be accurate and to run systems smoothly." This is why PrimeTime, Milliseconds and the two dozen or so other independent sports timing firms in the United States sometimes rent hardware from each other in anticipation of a big event.
In the end, it's worth it. "There are certain events out there that are still going by eight people with stopwatches watching for that smoke" from the starter's pistol, Gavigan says. "It's not completely dead yet. But a lot of the officials we deal with on a regular basis have been doing this for 20 or 30 years. They always like to comment on how much nicer it is now than it was in the past."
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Fun Kids is delighted to announce it has teamed up with the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) to launch a brand new radio series called Techno Mum. The series is designed to introduce young children to engineering and the important role it has in their day-to-day lives.
Fun Kids is the UK’s only radio station dedicated to children aged 11 and under and their families. Broadcasting on DAB in London and the South East, and across the UK online, the station has over 180,000 listeners tuning in each week and aims to provide children with a fun and inspiring station they can call their own.
By introducing the concept of engineering to children at a young age, the series seeks to help children see engineering as an interesting topic just like they would science or history, inspiring them to find out more whether as a hobby or a future career path.
Broadcasting daily at 5.30pm (weekdays), each episode focuses on everyday objects and how they work, from hybrid cars to mobile phones. The series stars two Fun Kids characters, the inquisitive 8-year-old Tim and his Techno Mum! The series will highlight to kids how engineering is the foundation for all the gadgets and objects we use in everyday life, giving them the perfect introduction into the world of engineering.
Speaking on the series, Gareth James, Head of Education at the IET said: ”Engineering affects everyone, everywhere in the world. You could not brush your teeth or drive to work without relying on the work of engineers. Through this exciting new series we want to give children a peek into the life of engineering and highlight the central role it plays in our everyday lives. The Techno Mum series will provide viewers with a basic understanding of what engineering is and the wide range of possible career options available to them in the future.”
Techno Mum is a 15-part series and will be on air from Monday 14th May, as well as made available to download via funkidslive.com and iTunes
A sample episode can be accessed here: http://www.funkidslive.com/audio/Techno-Mum-Money.mp3
Fun Kids plays a mix of music, stories and competitions for the whole family everyday on DAB Digital Radio in London, online at funkidslive.com and through the Radioplayer.
James and the Robot present the breakfast show, every weekday morning from 6.30am to 9am.
Giggle then takes over with sing-a-longs and stories for pre-schoolers until 1pm. After Nap Hour, the Junior Club entertains with music and Animal Hour until 4pm, when Luke gets children home with The Club.
About the IET:
The IET is a registered charity with a remit to share and advance understanding of engineering. One of the ways it does this is through education activities aimed at supporting teachers and providing information for young people on what engineering is and the wide variety of opportunities available. For more information, visit www.theiet.org.
For further information on Fun Kids, please contact:
020 7739 7880
Media Relations Manager
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
T: +44 (0)1438 767336
M: +44 (0)7595 400912
Follow the IET on Twitter
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In the War of 1812 the United States once again fought against the British and their Indian allies. Some historians see the conflict as a Second War for American Independence.
Furthermore, the three-year war marks a traditional boundary between the early republic and early national periods. The former period had strong ties to the more hierarchical colonial world of the 18th century, while post-war developments would move in dynamic new directions that contributed to a more autonomous American society and culture. Although the War of 1812 serves as an important turning point in the development of an independent United States, the war itself was mostly a political and military disaster for the country.
The U.S. Congress was far from unanimous in its declaration of war. America's initial invasion of Canada (then ruled by England) in the summer of 1812 was repulsed by Tecumseh and the British. Although Tecumseh would be killed in battle the following fall, the U.S. was unable to mount a major invasion of Canada because of significant domestic discord over war policy. Most importantly, the governors of most New England states refused to allow their state militias to join a campaign beyond state boundaries. Similarly, a promising young Congressman from New Hampshire, Daniel Webster, actually discouraged enlistment in the U.S. army.
British military dominance was even clearer in the Atlantic and this naval superiority allowed it to deliver a shaming blow to the fragile United States in the summer of 1814. With Napoleon's French forces failing in Europe, Britain committed more of its resources to the American war and in August sailed up the Potomac River to occupy Washington D.C. and burn the White House. On the edge of national bankruptcy and with the capital largely in ashes, total American disaster was averted when the British failed to capture Ft. McHenry that protected nearby Baltimore.
Watching the failed attack on Ft. McHenry as a prisoner of the British, Francis Scott Key wrote a poem later called "The Star-Spangled Banner" which was set to the tune of an English drinking song. It became the official national anthem of the United States of America in 1931.
The most critical moment of the War of 1812, however, may not have been a battle, but rather a political meeting called by the Massachusetts legislature. Beginning in December 1814, 26 Federalists representing New England states met at the Hartford Convention to discuss how to reverse the decline of their party and the region. Although manufacturing was booming and contraband trade brought riches to the region, "Mr. Madison's War" and its expenses proved hard to swallow for New Englanders.
Holding this meeting during the war was deeply controversial. Although more moderate leaders voted down extremists who called for New England to secede from the United States, most Republicans believed that the Hartford Convention was an act of treason.
Federalist New England's opposition to national policies had been demonstrated in numerous ways from circumventing trade restrictions as early as 1807, to voting against the initial declaration of war in 1812, refusing to contribute state militia to the national army, and now its representatives were moving on a dangerous course of semi-autonomy during war time.
If a peace treaty ending the War of 1812 had not been signed while the Hartford Convention was still meeting, New England may have seriously debated seceeding from the Union.
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Burma has already come to an end holding its namesake polls in last November. The elections were regarded as the ugliest vote rigging show of the country's history. According to Burmese junta's 2008 constitution, the incoming legislative body will convene its first session 90 days after the Election Day (7 November, 2010) to elect a president and two vice presidents and to form a new government. So, the new parliamentary session seems to be held in last week of this January as many political analysts have speculated.
Burma celebrated its 63rd anniversary of independence on 4th January, 2011. Burma gained its independence from Britain on 4 January, 1948. But the country experienced with democracy until 1962, when the military seized power to which it has since clung.
The current military junta has emerged in 1988 after violently suppressing mass pro-democracy protests. It held a general election in 1990, but refused to recognize the results after a landslide victory by the National League for Democracy (NLD) led by Aung San Suu Kyi, who has just released from house-arrest recently. She was under detention for more than a decade and a half and freed on 13 November, 2010.
Some ethnic Shan leaders believe that the then Shan's leadership decision to depart the British colonialism on 7th February 1947 had paved the way to Burma's Independence sunshine on 4 January 1948. The decision was taken by the Shan States Council, comprising the ruling princes and people's representatives of Shan States, as Shan State was known then, at the Panglong Conference from 3 to 12 February 1947.
So, up to this day, Shan community believe they deserve autonomy as a free people. However, Burmese military regime has no attitude to allowing equal status to the ethnic nationalities of Burma including the Shans. The major disagreement between junta and the opposition NLD led by Aung San Suu Kyi is no other than to give equal category to all ethnic groups.
Latest political scenario is still blurred although a multi-party general election on 7 November has been done. In accordance with the figures pronounced by Union Election Commission (UEC), a total of 1,148 candidates representing political parties and 6 independent candidates were elected as parliamentary representatives at three levels.
The Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP), led by Prime Minister Thein Sein, won the majority of 882 parliamentary seats or 76.43 percent out of the total1, 154 seats. The USDP is followed by the National Unity Party (NUP) with 64 seats, Shan Nationalities Democratic Party (SNDP) with 57 seats, Rakhine Nationalities Development Party with 35 seats, National Democratic Force (NDF) and the All Mon Region Democracy Party (AMRDP) each with 16 at three levels of parliament.
Meanwhile, the SNDP Chairman Sai Aik Paung told a party conference in Taunggyi in mid-December that the party has achieved extraordinary unity among ethnic Shan nationals. The December 13-15 conference set up about 180 members, including 57 winning candidates from the November 7 election, as said by the Myanmar Times December 20 - 26, 2010 Issue.
The Shan Nationalities Democratic Party won 57 of the 156 seats and the third-largest number of candidates in national and regional legislatures, after the USDP.
Simultaneously, the three ceasefire armed groups have challenged Burma Army that pressured them to transform into Border Guard Forces (BGFs). For that reason, the groups have come around declining BGF plan in order to avoid Burmese junta's oppressive strategies. The UWSA, the NDAA, and the Shan State Army-North are along with the other armed ethnic groups which are defying the military regime's demands on them to join its Border Guard Force (BGF). Actually, the junta's BGF program intended to win over the ceasefire groups through laying down their arms.
Coincidentally, the United Wa State Army (UWSA)'s political wing United Wa State Party (UWSP) has drawn another contradict proposal which includes a point to demand for a state with the Right of Self Determination from the new government, quoting UWSP sources Shan Herald Agency for News said.
The UWSP's new proposal which is to be presented to the new parliamentary government expected to be held early 2011. In the proposal, UWSP says that their armed force will remain in the Wa State to defend their independence. Although they will not secede from the Union, they will steadfastly demand for a state with the Right of Self Determination from the upcoming government, upholding a policy of non-alignment and neutrality.
The said proposal was drawn at the UWSP's 5th annual district level party congress which is being held in Mongmai, 170 km north of its main base Panghsang from 20 to 29 December. According to a Wa officer, after the December Congress, the UWSP leading party committee will send its delegation to talk with the new government on the basis of 'Opposition to War' and 'Work for Peace and Development' principle.
Subsequently, General meeting of the 3rd Central Standing Committee (CSC) of the 14th KNU Congress was fruitfully held from December 14 to 19, 2010, according to the Karen National Union (Supreme Headquarters) source. KNU adopted the four guiding principles delineated by the late heroic leader Saw Ba U Gyi. The four principles are "Surrender is out of the question", "We shall retain our arms", "Recognition of Karen State must be complete" and "We shall decide our own political destiny."
KNU says in its statement dated 23 December 2010: "As the parliament and government that would come into being according to the SPDC Road Map were for realization of the 2008 Constitution, the meeting adopted the view that instead of resolving the problems faced by Burma, it would create more insecurity and conflicts, especially in the political and military fields."
According to SPDC's 2008 constitution, the incoming legislative body will convene its first session 90 days after the election to elect a president and two vice presidents and to form a new government.
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