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FTIR is applied to the measurement of siloxanes present at 50 ppb in biogases such as those from sewage digestion and landfill production. Efforts to reduce pollution of the atmosphere includes use of hydrocarbon containing gases from landfills and sewage digestion as fuel for local gas turbine engines that are used to produce electricity or as pumping stations. However the landfill gases contain contaminates such as oxides of silicon or siloxanes that can plate the turbine section gas path components, degrading performance and creating opoerating reductions for maintenance. The determination of siloxanes biofuels permits the user to take the necessary steps to clean these contaminents out permitting use of the fuel without compromising equipment performance or efficiency. Siloxanes such as Tetramethylsilane, Trimethylsilanol, Tetramethyldisiloxane, Pentamethyldisiloxane and Hexamthyltrisiloxanes have been observed in biogases. There is a need for a concensus standard for measuring siloxanes before biofuels can gain wider usage. KeywordsOxides of Silicon, Industrial Gas Turbines, Landfill Gases,: The title and scope are in draft form and are under development within this ASTM Committee.Back to Top Draft Under Development	<urn:uuid:9f434f5b-cc4c-477e-a6a2-6db2ecca169f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.astm.org/WorkItems/WK24875.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.889548	267	2.9375	3
In the morning Professor David Walton gave us a very interesting lecture about the “People of the Land of Fire”. Several native tribes previously inhabited what we now call Tierra del Fuego at the tip of South America. Discovered by Europeans in the 16th century, they were seen by the explorers as the ultimate savages. The talk described what we know of how the Yaghans lived in this extreme climate without permanent buildings, settlements or even clothes, and how the European colonisers wiped them out, leaving just museum relics and some residual inheritance in the DNA of the present Chilean and Argentine populations. Today is Antarctica Day! Lots of schools, scientists and organisations use the occasion to improve knowledge about the continent and explain its importance. And we found a way that Seabourn Quest could contribute to these activities. Since 2010 IAATO ships have been marking the day by holding a bird count during the morning and pooling the data to help understand bird distributions. Enthusiastic volunteers gathered with expedition staff on the stern at 10:30 AM and began looking for our birds. After the standard 30 minutes we had recorded five species - not as many as on some previous days but we are in the middle of the Drake Passage. With Arty balanced perilously on the rail to help everyone we felt we were saying goodbye to the Antarctic and its birds in a very practical way. Later on, a lecture about Puerto Montt and Valparaiso (debarkation process) was given by the Destination Manager Claudio. In the afternoon the Naturalists and Photo Coaches continued on the open decks in search of seabirds, while the Expedition Staff were available with charts in the Observation Bar. Since Seabourn Quest is reaching Tierra del Fuego Island (Argentina), our Port Expert Geoff Devito talked about “Ushuaia, Argentina The city at the bottom of the World”. Ushuaia claims to be the southernmost city in the world. While this claim is debated by other southern settlements, one thing is clear: Ushuaia is a frontier town that breathes adventure. As this is for many the last stop before or first stop after Antarctica, the constant energy of exploration and is stronger here than perhaps anywhere on the planet. Due to its remote location Ushuaia has had its fair share of sires and scoundrels pass through to find their fortunes (or fates!). Our conversation engaged this spirit of adventure as well as looking at things to do while at the bottom of the world! Later, our Geologist Dr. Jason Hicks gave us a lecture about “Climate Change: Modern Reality or Political Spin?” This presentation looked at climate change from the geologic perspective of “deep time”, where it can be seen to be a natural and continually occurring process. But on the short “human time scale” the massive population explosion and industrialization of the last 100 years is right now starting to cause a rapid and highly uncertain cascade of changes in the world’s climate. This has happened many times in the past millennia of human history, but advanced mechanization coupled with a high standard of living, and commensurately high human expectations are ensuring that this climate change will be far-reaching. At night we were reaching Cape Horn and Tierra del Fuego Island towards the sheltered waters of the Beagle Channel. The ship wasn’t moving as much as in the Drake Passage and we enjoyed dinner, some of us were at the Colonnade and some others at The Restaurant. Mariano Albano, Lecturer/Zodiac Driver To view more photos from the cruise, please visit our Facebook page: http://on.fb.me/1bbkgnD Want to know more? Follow us on:	<urn:uuid:d9228176-c732-4211-a116-4118bad35c9d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blog.seabourn.com/seabourn-ultimate-antarctica-patagonia-dispatch-december-01-2013	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.957049	787	2.65625	3
Sieve of EratosthenesEratosthenes, a Greek mathematician and a friend of Archimedes, devised a method for obtaining prime numbers in their numerical order. This method is known as the sieve of Eratosthenes. The diagram to the right shows the principles on which it works. Look at the drawing of the sieve. Imagine that all the numbers from 1 to 25 are being dropped through the seive. All these numbers drop through the top rack, but on on the second those which are multiples of 2 are caught. These are colored green. On the third rack all the numbers which are multiples of 3 are caught, except of course, those which have already been caught as multiples of two. These are colored yellow. In the fourth rack 25 is caught - this is the only multiple of 5 which is neither a multiple of 3 nor a multiple of 2. It is colored orange. The final numbers that get through to the final rack are prime numbers. You will see that there are black squares on the seive. In the third rack these show where the multiples of 3 would have been caught if they had not been caught by the rack above. The black squares in the fourth rack show where the multiples of 5 would have been caught had they not been caught by the two racks above. You may wonder why there is no rack taking out multiples of 4. This is because 4 is a multiple of 2, and therefore all multiples of 4 are also multiples of 2. Formulae for primesThis 'sieve' method of producing prime numbers is laborous, and mathematicians have long been searching for a simple method of producing them, without success. The expression n2 - n + 41 might appear to be a possible formula for prime numbers. When n = 1 the expression = 41 which is prime When n = 2 the expression = 43 which is prime When n = 3 the expression = 47 which is prime When n = 4 the expression = 53 which is prime and so on. But it breaks down when n = 41. Can you see why? Fermat, a 17th-century mathematician, thought that he had found a formula for prime numbers: 22^n + 1. When n = 1 the expression = 5(22 + 1) When n = 2 the expression = 17(24 + 1) When n = 3 the expression = 257(28 + 1) When n = 4 the expression = 65,537(216 + 1) When n = 5 the expression = 4,294,967,297(232 + 1) However, Euler, showed that the last number is not prime but is, in fact, 641 x 6,700,417. Largest prime knownIt takes a long time to decide whether any number is prime, and to date, the largest one known is 257,885,161 - 1 which, when worked out has 17,425,170 digits. The testing was done on a computer. Number of primesOne may wonder whether the primes go on for ever or whether there is in fact one number which is the largest prime number. Euclid, by a very neat argument, proved that there are an unlimited number of primes. Suppose, he said, that the largest prime number you have found is p. Multiply all the previous prime numbers including p together and add 1. If the result is a prime number, it is naturally, a larger prime than p. If not, it must have divisors none of which can be one of the original primes since they all leave a remainder 1 on division. The divisors of the new number, then, must be prime numbers greater than p. So in either case there is a prime number greater than p, and this process can be continued forever. The distribution of primesPrime numbers have fascinated mathematicians for centuries, in large part because of how they are distributed: at first sight, they seem to occur randomly, and yet, on closer inspection, they reveal a subtle order or pattern, that seems to hold deep truths about the nature of mathematics and of the world in which we live. The German-born American mathematician Don Zagier (1951–), in his inaugural lecture at Bonn University, put it this way: "There are two facts about the distribution of prime numbers which I hope to convince you... The first is that despite their simple definition and role as the building blocks of the natural numbers, the prime numbers ... grow like weeds among the natural numbers, seeming to obey no other law than that of chance, and nobody can predict where the next one will sprout. The second fact is even more astonishing, for it states just the opposite: that the prime numbers exhibit stunning regularity, that there are laws governing their behavior, and that they obey these laws with almost military precision." Properties of primesPrime numbers have many interesting properties. For instance, those which have a starred pattern, similar to the one frequently used to denote 5, can always be expressed as the sum of two square numbers. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic declares that the primes are the building blocks of the positive integers: every positive integer is a product of prime numbers in one and only one way, except for the order of the factors. This is the key to their importance: the prime factors of an integer determines its properties. The ancient Greeks proved (c.300 BC) that there are infinitely many primes and that they are irregularly spaced; in fact, there can be arbitrarily large gaps between successive primes. On the other hand, in the 19th century it was shown that the number of primes less than or equal to n approaches n/log n, as n gets very large (a result known as the prime number theorem), so that a rough estimate for the nth prime is n log n. In his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801), Carl Gauss wrote: "The problem of distinguishing prime numbers from composite numbers and of resolving the latter into their prime factors is known to be one of the most important and useful in arithmetic. It has engaged the industry and wisdom of ancient and modern geometers to such an extent that it would be superfluous to discuss the problem at length... Further, the dignity of the science itself seems to require that every possible means be explored for the solution of a problem so elegant and so celebrated."The earliest known primality test, as discussed earlier, is the sieve of Eratosthenes, which dates from around 240 BC. However, the use of high-speed computers and of fast algorithms are needed to identify large primes. New record-breaking primes tend to be of the variety known as Mersenne primes, since these are the easiest to find. Much remains unknown about the primes. As Martin Gardner said: "No branch of number theory is more saturated with mystery ... Some problems concerning primes are so simple that a child can understand them and yet so deep and far from solved that many mathematicians now suspect they have no solution. Perhaps they are 'undecideable.' Perhaps number theory, like quantum mechanics, has its own uncertainty principle that makes it necessary, in certain areas, to abandon exactness for probabilistic formulations."One of the greatest unsolved problems in mathematics, the Riemann hypothesis, the distribution of prime numbers. There are also some very simple properties of prime numbers which have not yet been proved. A famous example, known as Goldbach's conjecture, is that any number can be expressed as the sum of two primes: 12 = 5 + 7 20 = 17 + 3 34 = 17 + 17 and so on Nobody has, so far, been able to find out why this should be so, and yet no one has found an even number which cannot be split into two primes. It has also been proposed that there are an infinate number of so-called prime pairs which are prime numbers differing by two. (11, 13), (29, 31) are cases, but again, no one has yet to establish whether this is so. See alsoUlam spiral, and Ishango bone. Primes and the hunt for alien intelligenceIn 1941, James Jeans pointed out that the attention of intelligent Martians "if any such there be" could be attracted by using powerful searchlights to flash, in sequence, the first prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, ... Likewise, it has been suggested that the occurrence of sequences of prime numbers in an extraterrestrial radio signal would immediately imply an artificial and intelligent origin. The reception of such a signal occurs in the novel (and film) Contact. Prime numbers were also used in the construction of Drake's cryptogram and the Arecibo message. Related categories PRIME NUMBERS TYPES OF NUMBER Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact	<urn:uuid:61567a00-57f5-43c7-aeff-bc637829acfc>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/primenumber.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961539	1,873	3.828125	4
Canonist, b. in Italy, place and date of birth uncertain; d. in 1678. Some writers place his birth in 1598, others in 1587 or in 1588. It is certain that he studied at Perugia. At the age of twenty he was a doctor of civil and canon law; at twenty-two, secretary of the Congregation of the Council. He held this office for fifteen years. He fulfilled the same functions in several other Roman Congregations. It is not certain that he ever lectured on canon law at the Roman University (Sapienza). He became blind at the age of forty-four. This affliction did not prevent him from devoting himself to canonical studies and from writing a commentary of the Decretals of Gregory IX, which gained for him the title of "Doctor Caecus Oculatissimus", i.e. the blind yet most far-sighted doctor. This commentary includes interpretations of the texts of the most difficult of the Decretals of Gregory IX. It is distinguished by the clearness with which the most complex and disputed questions of canon law are explained. The work is also of great value for the purpose of ascertaining the practice of the Roman Congregations, especially that of the Congregation of the Council, of which the author quotes numerous decisions. Benedict XIV gave this work the highest praise, and its authority is still continually appealed to in the Roman Congregations. It is divided, like the Decretals of Gregory IX, into five books. The first edition was published at Rome, in 1661, under the title of "Jus canonicum seu commentaria absolutissima in quinque libros Decretalium". It has been reprinted several times. Fagnani is reproached with excessive rigour in his commentary on the chapter of the Decretals "Ne innitaris" (Book I, De constitutionibus), in which he combats the doctrine of probabilism. St. Alphonsus calls him "magnus rigoristarum princeps", the great prince of the rigorists (Homo apostolicus, Tract. I, no. 63; Theologia Moralis, IV, no. 669). The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes. Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration. No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny. Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912 Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online	<urn:uuid:2c3ac73b-615e-4a9d-82ca-021031ffad2f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=4551	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945737	841	2.765625	3
Monday, December 27, 2010 Hearing More Disturbing Data about Hearing Loss—This Time in Teen Girls A number of articles in our journal and elsewhere have recently been published on the possible hearing problems that can occur from teenagers not controlling the volume on their portable media players. Many of these studies have originated outside of the United States, but this week, Henderson et al. (doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-0926) share the results of their investigation in trends in noise-induced hearing threshold shifts and in turn in hearing loss among our adolescents. More than 4,000 teenagers completed audiometric testing and completed the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in one of two discrete time periods—1988-1994 and 2005-2006. As you might expect, exposure to loud music heard through head phones seems to be taking its toll—and in this study, the implications are even more concerning for teen females than for males—but overall both genders are at risk for hearing damage in this era where everyone seems to own a portable media player. Unfortunately, only a few of those surveyed seem to be aware that the high volumes being listened to may result in hearing impairment as these teens age. There is some great anticipatory guidance worth giving to our teen patients -- if they will take off their earphones long enough for us to share the take-home message from this study with them. at 12:01 AM	<urn:uuid:f580d22f-cb9a-4c10-ae2b-9aca01d04d15>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://pediatricsblog.blogspot.com/2010/12/hearing-more-disturbing-data-about_27.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952156	288	2.875	3
A group of chimps who behave just like people have been showing off their skills to a TV crew. Normally when we see chimps, it's in a zoo - but this lot live in a house in America. They can cook and open doors and show each other what to do. Their fascinating behaviour has been recorded for a TV documentary. One scientist, Sue Savage Rumbaugh, has been living with chimps for 26 years. She reckons if they're brought up like people, they behave like people. She wonders if children would grow up more like chimps if they were brought up in cages like some animals are. Experts have proved that humans and chimps are made up of lots of the same type of very, very small bits and pieces called DNA. The DNA in humans and chimps is very similar, with only small differences between the two. Obviously this doesn't mean chimps are human, but scientists hope it does prove chimps are lot more like people than we thought. Is this experiment a good idea?	<urn:uuid:eaf96bde-f3db-42cf-a8e9-4bc8fef1f9dd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_6030000/newsid_6037900/6037942.stm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.975028	215	3.296875	3
Experts find key to saving fuel: say gallons per mile. I'll summarize: d/dx 1/x = -1/x2. Research has been done that shows that people believe that an improvement of 1 mpg will always save them the same amount of gas. But this is obviously false, as some simple arithmetic shows. Let's say I drive 12,000 miles a year. (Why 12,000? Because everything that follows will work out to be integers.) If I improve from 15 mpg to 16 mpg, I go from using 800 gallons of gas a year to 750, a 50-gallon reduction. But if I improve from 24 mpg to 25 mpg, I go from using 500 gallons of gas a year to 480, a 20-gallon reduction. A driver driving m miles per year in a car getting x miles per gallon will of course use m/x gallons of gas; the derivative of this is -m/x2. So if you get x miles per gallon already, improving by one mile per gallon saves m/x2 gallons. (I'm assuming here that 1 is small compared to x.) The article claims that this means people wanting to get better gas mileage, if they have multiple vehicles, should always target the least efficient vehicle -- but that's going too far. It might be cheaper to get a 1-mpg improvement for less fuel-efficient cars. There's no reason that the cost of a car should be linear in the number of miles per gallon it gets, all else being held constant. Note that I'm also not saying the cost of a car should be linear in the number of gallons per mile it gets! In fact this would be impossible, because it would predict that cars that get zero gallons per mile could be made for a finite amount of money. "Gallons per mile" is kind of an annoying unit, though, because all cars get less than 1. Perhaps "gallons per 100 miles" would be a good way to go, with most cars measuring between perhaps 3 and 6 on this scale. And people can picture driving 100 miles. (For example, if they have a ten-mile commute each way, it's five round-trips to work.) But on the other hand, there's a temptation to not have to deal with decimals, and there's a big difference between 4 gallons per 100 miles and 5 gallons per 100 miles. Perhaps "gallons per 1000 miles" works nicely; typical values are now 2-digit integers, and rounding to the nearest integer gives roughly the same precision as the current system. (Readers from other countries: please spare me the "in my country we measure fuel economy in liters per 100 km" comments. I know this.)	<urn:uuid:d61b4a34-c72e-4c1c-a60d-640cac321def>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://godplaysdice.blogspot.com/2008/06/gallons-per-mile.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.928482	570	2.828125	3
Belief in God (Some Aspects of a Philosophy of Religion) As philosophy encourages deep thinking about the meaning of life, one can hardly escape the serious issue concerning God. Belief in God in some form or fashion is almost universal. There have never been any truly atheistic cultures. There have been many religious cultures of different kinds. This is not to say that all of them are good and without problems. Religionper se is not all good. Many evil things have been done in the name of God as well as science, custom, or whatever. Any argument for the value of religion or God is not an argument for vindicating the excesses done in the name of God or religion. But philosophy does not begin with the many beliefs as diverse as they are. Philosophy is more concerned with the reasonsfor the beliefs rather than a description of the beliefs. Philosophy raises the pertinent question: is there any justification for believing in God? Our primary concern in this chapter is just that question. In ancient times few people doubted the existence of God. In modern times many people do. We will seek to cover the reasons given for belief in God as well as the arguments used against that belief. We must, first, define a few words. The first one is God. Theos, a Greek word has come to mean a Being who is personal, intelligent, able to achieve his purpose, who is also Creator and Redeemer. Belief in this kind of Being is called theism. Theism is opposed to atheism which is the belief that God does not exist at all. Agnosticism is another Greek word that assumes a position of not being able to know any way or the other. Theism must not be confused with pantheism either. Pantheism is the idea that God is all and all is God. A general tendency of pantheism is to draw some analogy of comparison between the soul and the body of man. The soul is in the body, and similarly, God is the soul of the body of the world. Pantheism doesn't really mean anything different from the world. Pantheism substitutes a spiritual determinism for a materialistic determinism. There is no real problem of knowledge of God in pantheism, in one sense, for in knowing the world and oneself, one has a knowledge of pantheism. Moreover, pantheism is not usually intelligent. occurs solely within the living fragment of itself--man. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), French genius in physics, mathematics, philosophy and theology, was born in Clermont. In philosophy and theology he is better known for the Pensees, which were fragments or scraps of paper on which he had written thoughts about religion. The Wager is one of these ideas or Pensees, published after he died. Our questions about God then become this: what evidence or reason is there to believe that there exists an intelligent being who is not identified with the material world? Is there a Transcendent Being? Why has man come to believe in such a Being? There are some answers given to this that relate to man's early belief in God. Some psychiatrists have argued that belief in God or gods is a projection of man's fears. Primitive man was driven by fears and the idea of worshipping some unknown being occurred to him to allay these fears. Immediately, one can see some problems. First, unlike people of modern historical times, we have no documents to warrant such retrospective psychic examination. One may analyze a person like Luther through his writings, and make some sense, but not pre-historic man. Second, primitive people were generally considered ignorant, but the worship of any god is a fairly sophisticated idea and hidden or invisible beings are not easy to assume. Third, in this practice one is taking modern twentieth century reactions and evaluations and imposing them on a culture which is very little known. Various other theories are available for consideration such as religion arising in despair of magic or belief in God arose as primitives attempted to explain the unexplainable. Welhelm Schmidt has proposed that belief in God arose because man once knew God and this knowledge was subsequently corrupted by adaptations to changing cultures, levels of commitment and degeneration. Schmidt has received a mixed reception among scholars in the area. His view has many commendable features, but as far as the pre-historical religion goes, we must admit that "we know, in fact, nothing certain about the origin of religion and its primitive stages."1 Regardless of how belief in God arose, the question facing us now is: what is the basis for belief in God to continue? Here one sits in the contemporary world. Here is the world one sees--people, things, ideas. But God cannot be seen. There are two options about God. Either God is hidden or he is not. If he is hidden, what is there today that compels a belief in his existence? The answers to this question may be placed under three headings: (l) natural theology, (2) experiential-pragmatic examples, and (3) revelation. The first two answers fit more closely into philosophy, and the third answer involves religion. I. Natural Theology. Is it possible to learn anything about a Transcendent Being from nature itself? Does nature itself, as I examine it, lead me to the conclusion that a God exists? Natural theology sums up the conclusions that one learns from nature. There is a long tradition of philosophers who have believed that natural theology is meaningful. The Catholic tradition from Aquinas in the 13th century A.D. to the present has been the most forceful. Those who argue negatively, that is, there is no knowledge of God possible from nature are of several varieties. Atheists certainly fit into this category. But there are people who believe in God but who do not accept the arguments from nature about God's existence. Immanuel Kant rejected a number of arguments based on nature, but presented a moral argument for God's existence. Some Protestant theologians, John Baillie and Karl Barth along with the American philosopher Gordon H. Clark, fit into this category of rejecting the use of the arguments. All of these affirm a strong belief in God on other than arguments drawn from the facts of nature. The strongest arguments against belief in God have, of course, come from the atheistic camp, and those generally critical of religious belief as in the example of David Hume. We will now turn to sketch the arguments drawn from observations about nature. A. Cosmological Arguments. The arguments we will use are drawn from Thomas Aquinas who adapted them from Aristotle. They will need some adaptation for modern use. There are three variations on the argument. (1) The argument from motion. It is certain . . . that . . . some things are in motion. Now whatever is moved is moved by another, for nothing can be moved except it is in potentiality to that towards which it is moved . . . . If that by which it is moved be itself moved, then this also must needs be moved by another and that by another again. But this cannot go on to infinity, because there would be no first mover . . . . Therefore it is necessary to arrive at a first mover, moved by no other; and this everyone understands to be God.2 The argument needs careful reading. Things must be started in motion by a self-existing Mover. We can look quickly to the criticisms raised against it. First is the question of stopping the motion series with God. Second is, why cannot a series be infinite or eternal? Let's take the argument in reverse order. Why can't a series be eternal? It depends on the type of series one is talking about. Aquinas would admit that an infinite series in numbers or motions would be possible. This may be described as a horizontal series. But it is a vertical series that does not go on to infinity. The existence of man is caused by another, and that by another and so on. This would be a horizontal situation. But once I am grown and independent of my parents there is yet a dependency I cannot escape. I cannot live without air, water, and similar things. This kind of vertical series cannot go on to infinity. It comes to an unmoved Mover.3 Even though it is admitted that a horizontal series to infinity would be possible that may have its problems if one gets away from numbers which are infinite. A numerical series only exists in the mind whereas an infinite series of motion in reality does not. The argument, since it has been drawn from nature, should also take some consideration of nature as it is presently understood. If we can depend upon one leading view in cosmology, we can trace motion back to a cause beyond which we cannot go--the original mass of energy which exploded into space giving motion to gases that became matter and subsequently the planets and systems as we know them. If the Big Bang theory can be accepted there is no infinity of motion. If there was no moving matter once, then the series must stop and be dependent upon something else. Beyond that we cannot go in terms of the Big Bang theory. One could easily postulated God. The second question, why stop the motion series with God? is more crucial. The atheist wants to stop with the motion seen in the world without seeking a first mover. He argues that the argument is contradicted by demanding a first mover. He seems willing to accept motion without an explanation that is eternal, and different from the things in motion. In doing so the atheist must conclude that the world is eternal itself. Matter does exist and needs no explanation beyond itself. But Aquinas accepted the argument that something is eternal. What is it? God or matter? Again, appealing to the Big Bang theory we can say that matter as we know it is not eternal. (2) The second argument is called the argument from efficient causes. Aquinas wrote: In the world of sensible things we find there is an order of efficient causes. There is no case known . . . in which a thing is found to be the efficient cause of itself . . . if in efficient causes it is possible to go on to infinity, there will be no first efficient cause, neither will there be an ultimate effect . . . Therefore, it is necessary to admit a first sufficient cause, to which everyone gives the name of God.4 This argument is similar to the first way, but it uses a different mode. The same questions are raised about it as the first. Therefore, we will not repeat the points. (3) The third argument is called the argument from contingency. Aquinas wrote: We find in nature things that are possible to be and not to be, since they are found to be generated, and to be corrupted and consequently, it is impossible for them to be and not to be. But it is impossible for these always to exist, for that which can not-be at some time is not. Therefore, if everything can not-be, then at one time there was nothing in existence. Now if this were true, even now, there would be nothing in existence, because that which does not exist begins to exist only through something already existing . . . . Therefore, we cannot but admit the existence of some being having of itself its own necessity, and not receiving it from another, but rather causing in others their necessity. This all men speak of as God.5 This argument may be rephrased and still retain the same intention by using the reconstruction of Buswell: "If anything does now exist, then either something must be eternal, or something not eternal must have come from nothing."6 The important argument in Aquinas' thinking was the third one, and the two others merely amplify it. Argument three as well as the other arguments lead to the idea of a necessary being. Bertrand Russell, Anthony Flew and other critics of the argument confess that they have no idea of a necessary being. But this is a confession held strictly about God as a necessary being. They indeed believe in a necessary something but that is the material world as it is experienced. Since something cannot arise from nothing, matter must be regarded as eternal, and that is a necessary being even for the atheist. The argument cannot simply stop with a necessary being, either mind or matter, but must involve the aesthetic aspect of the question: did matter produce mind, or mind produce matter? Evolutionary theory is used often to support the priority of matter over mind. But this poses the cosmic question of the origin of life from non-life. Matter as we define it now and know it scientifically is not creative. Mind is creative, but we know it only experientially from the vantage point of a body. Even then there is yet the mystery of how a mind initiates and brings action through a body. Does our argument make more sense if we conclude for a Being who is Mind and who creates, or a Being that is matter and un-creative? Mind must be the more aesthetically satisfying conclusions. B. Teleological Argument. The teleological argument is the most popularly known of the arguments, but apparently not the most important one with Aquinas. The argument is known as the argument from design, or argument to a designer. About it Aquinas wrote: we see that things which lack knowledge, such as natural bodies, act for an end . . . Hence it is plain that they achieve their end, not fortuitously, but designedly. Now whatever lacks knowledge cannot move toward an end, unless it is directed by some being endowed with knowledge and intelligence . . . . Therefore some intelligent being exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end, and this being we call God.7 This argument is applied by its advocates to the microcosm, the cosmos, and the macrocosm. The snow flake and the blood cell are two examples of a microcosm that illustrate intricate design. In the cosmos of man's experience and being the eye has been singled out as an amazing illustration. The retina alone has 144 million separate entities in it. The eye appears as something designed, not as a result of chance, or slow development. If it developed over a long period of time there is no reason why each part stayed in existence until the other necessary parts were developed. It does not appear the result of a sudden mutation. The conclusion is reached that it has been designed by a designer. The macrocosm is used also to illustrate the seeming designed aspect of man's existence. Spaceship earth appears more and more unique and precarious as we explore space. We have an atmosphere that precludes our being bombed by meteorites. Thinner air would not burn out meteors before they hit the earth. Our rotation on the earth is such that we have liveable temperatures. Slower rotations would alternately freeze us at night and burn us in the day. Our position in reference to the sun is such that we have enough heat but not overheat, and the same is true with cold. Other features could be used in illustration of this idea of design in macrocosm. The basic conclusion is that a designer brought this into being, and in Aquinas' words, this being is God. We must now look at the criticisms of the argument to a designer. The most perceptive critic of the argument in the history of philosophy is David Hume, in the eighteenth century. Anthony Flew follows much of Hume's thought in the twentieth century. Hume raised the following objections. (1) An infinite designer cannot be concluded from a finite design. To put it another way, "Similar causes prove similar effects and similar effects similar causes."8 The intent of the criticism is well-taken, but there is a sense in which the precept could be modified in terms of modern physics. The principle concerning the loss of energy in nature would require a greater cause to achieve the lesser effect. Such a conclusion would require a greater being to create the world than the effects, but even this would not require an infinite God. In fairness, however, to Aquinas, the argument only speaks of God whose infinity is not learned from this argument as from the third argument, and then it would be possible to appeal to God's self-revelation for the idea of infinity. Even Hume admits that the argument may give basis for concluding for a being who has a certain measure of power and intelligence. (2) The second objection--Hume argued that the world may be compared more truly to a vegetable or animal rather than a watch or a machine.9 Regardless of either of these models, they all indicate design. If the world is a vegetable, it is an unusual vegetable that has design manifested in its being. The same would hold true for an animal. There is nothing sacred and necessary about the analogy of a machine. The makeup of both animal and vegetable is both complex and genetically designed. Neither of these models serves to get to an infinite or eternal solution if our physics concerning the origin of the earth is at all meaningful. Hume's analogies in his objection are outdated. (3) Hume rejected the idea of a necessary existent. "There is no being, therefore, whose non-existence implies a contradiction. I propose this argument as entirely decisive, and am willing to rest the whole controversy upon it."10 Speaking of the being of anything as a general term, there is the absolute necessity of conceiving something as necessary. Actually, there are two necessities. First, from Hume's vantage there is the necessity of a necessary material world. This is Hume's alternative to a necessary God. But even the world is not the only necessary if we rule out a Creator. There is, a more fundamental necessary that we cannot escape. We must conceive of the necessity of space. We can--granting our existence somehow--conceive of empty space without anything in it. We cannot conceive of absolute nothing--no-thing. Space is necessary. If space is necessary, why should it be unreasonable to think of God as necessary since matter as we think of it has a beginning. Actually Hume does not really base his entire case on this as he claimed. The real issues are that God cannot be seen, and the problem of evil. We will speak of these shortly. If my observations about space are correct, then Hume's comments about a necessary existence as having no meaning are nonsense.11 (4) The real heart of Hume's objection concerns the matter of chaos in a designed world. To put in another way, if this is a designed world, why do people suffer? Hume appealed to Epicurus' old question and regarded it as unsolved. Summing up Epicurus, Hume wrote about evil and God: Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent? Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent? Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?12 Some options have been proposed to solve this issue before and after the time of Hume. Some, like Brightman, have argued that God is finite and good and is struggling to overcome evil and will do it. Others, as reflected in Christian Science and other pantheisms, regard evil as an illusion and there is only good in the world. Yet others, like Gordon H. Clark, argue that God is the cause of evil.13 A more sober view is to question the formulation of the question of Epicurus. In a similar fashion Edgar Brightman has asked: "Can one believe in a God who allows evil to exist?" The implication of the question is that God is good and powerful and must therefore put evil out of the way. But this turns God into a cosmic policeman who must--absolutely must--do something about the wrong that people do. It is seemingly alright if the wrong involves other people. But the question is also more important in this fashion: "Can one believe in a God who does not allow evil to exist? Neither Hume or anyone would survive if God did what they demanded of him--namely, not allow evil to exist. This raises the question about the nature of the goodness of God. If God did judge as Hume requests, would God still be good? Presumably a God who judged would be bad. Either way God cannot win, and Hume cannot lose. Is the goodness of God in his patience or in his swift judgement? Anthony Flew used this analogy of a father and insisted that a father would do things that God doesn't do. A father would heal his child who is sick and God as father does not. This story is touching and indicting, but there are other stories that suggest a hands-off situation more profound. A father loves his son, but for the son's growing up he gives him more and more freedom to make mistakes for the son must be on his own. The growing freedom may involve hurt and even the risk of death and self-destruction, but a true father gives the son the freedom to be himself. It may even be the choice of the son to involve himself in activities that mean certain death. The protest of the father is of no avail. One may lock up a drug addict son and seek to return him to normalcy, but as soon as the son is out he defies everyone who cares for him and returns to his destructive activities. The father loves and seeks to help, but the son will have nothing of it. God is like this also and there is a true expression of "tough-love" in the earthly as well as the heavenly father. The father is happy when the son follows the path of goodness, righteousness and fellowship with him. The human father also grieves when his son goes wrong. Can the father meaningfully force the son to his ways? Obviously he has the power to do it--certainly God does--but will he use it? Really? The problem of evil will not be solved in a syllogistic fashion as created by Hume or Brightman. It is too complex and difficult. Their options as proposed are not the correct options. They are only traps. Any formulations of the problem will have to consider God's patience, man's freedom, and the wisdom of not using power or force. A few miscellaneous comments are in order concerning other issues in Hume and Flew. One basic underlying issue is that God is not seen. Given the grudging admission of Hume "that the cause or causes of order in the universe probably bear some remote analogy to human intelligence"14 we still do not see this being, only the effects of such a one. This is not enough to erect anything on. It has no comparison to the matters of verification as in science.15 Flew's formulation of the issue of God abounds in some unusual and unnecessary formulations which call forth unnecessary demands, and then just simple abuse against his opponents. Some examples may help. Flew seeks to define God as creator in a way that man has no freedom of will.16 He defined God as omnipotent with the implication that man has no freedom and the logical necessity that the problem of evil must be whipped. It is true that he quoted several creeds for support, but the idea of omnipotence is not necessarily true for Christian theology. More appropriately, God is able to achieve his will and purpose which permits freedom, evil, as well as redemption. Another problem in Flew is his use of the term "universe" in which he wants to see a God who is outside of the universe. What does the universe mean? Is not Flew asking for a view of another universe. Is this required in any theology? A transcendent God is not outside the universe, but only He is not identified with any material of it. God is not the earth or sun, or the stars, although theism believes that he created them. God must be within the confines of space and in that sense God is not outside of the universe, but within it. While I might argue for the existence of God I would not want to define Him as being outside the universe as I understand the term. Another example of the abuse--not logic--of Flew is seen in his comment that Roman Catholics have more juvenile delinquents than anyone else.17 We will return to Flew when we consider other types of arguments, but we need to make a general comment or two about the nature of arguments for God's existence. Arguments for the existence of God are probability arguments, that is, the probability is that a being or God of some kind exists. All arguments are probability arguments and that is as far as the argument can go.18 They are not sufficient for religious experience. The arguments without anything else would offer a very impoverished theology. Next, there are other people who reject the arguments because of the nature of their own philosophical systems. Kant is an example of this. Without going into his philosophy here, a comment of James Collins may be appropriate: The special Kantian analysis of the proofs for God's existence was intended not only to refute these particular arguments but also to expose the impotence of natural theology as a whole.19 But Collins also indicated that unless one accepts Kant's theory of knowledge, his refutation of the proofs are fallacious. Another observation about the proofs is that one may make certain demands that would rule out the arguments. If one requires that God be seen as in the science lab, then the arguments do not give us that possibility. Last, the arguments need closer relationships to what we know presently about the nature of the world. With that we will turn to the last of the rational arguments. C. The Ontological Argument. This is the only rational argument that exists--that is, it does not begin with the visible world, but with a rational idea. Formulated by Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) the argument can be summarized in a simple sentence: "There is that than which a greater cannot be conceived."20 Three simple statements indicate the scope of the argument: Man has an idea of a perfect being. Existence is an attribute of perfection Therefore, a perfect being must exist. It is in this form that the argument has been most widely attacked. Not only in Anselm's day but Aquinas and Kant rejected the argument because existence is not an attribute of perfection. An idea of a perfect 100 dollar bill in your wallet does not bring it into existence. Because of this fallacy, it is generally concluded that the ontological argument is of little value. However, a defense of the argument has been made by Norman Malcolm. He argued that there are two arguments in Anselm. The first form of the argument is that rejected by Aquinas and others. The second form involved the phrase "necessary existence as a perfection." Thus, a necessary being is greater than if it does not necessarily exist. Within the definition of God as eternal, one logically sees the necessity of his being. Malcolm summarized the argument as follows: If God, a being a greater than which cannot be conceived, does not exist then He cannot come into existence. For if He did He would either have been caused to come into existence or have happened to come into existence, and in either case He would be a limited being, which by our conception of Him He is not. Since He cannot come into existence, if He does not exist His existence is impossible. If He does exist He cannot have come into existence (for the reasons given), nor can He cease to exist, for nothing could cause Him to cease to exist nor could it just happen that He ceased to exist. So if God exists His existence is necessary. It can be the former only if the concept of such a being is self-contradictory or in some way logically absurd. Assuming that this is not so, it follows that He necessarily exists.21 The evaluation of the argument of Malcolm wind up being criticisms of logic. They focus on the process of reasoning and there are both supporters and opponents of the argument. What so few admit is the idea of a necessary being beyond the boundaries of the material. Again, the idea of a necessary being is rejected, but all philosophers must affirm necessary being of some kind. The debate is over what it is: God or Matter.22 We must now proceed to the second division of arguments for the existence of God. The title of this sub-division is designed to cover several types that have little in common except they relate to man's personal experience, need, or practice. Beyond that the title serves no purpose other than as an organizing device. The first argument is the moral argument. A. Moral Argument. As noted above, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) rejected the arguments of both Aquinas and Anselm, but he believed in God and did not wish to give up the idea of a Supreme Being. In his Critique of Practical Reason, he formulated two arguments that are similar. The first argument concerns the immortality of the soul which cannot be proven at all, but is, for Kant, a necessary idea. The argument is summed as follows: Man lives under a moral law which requires perfection. Since man does not achieve it in this life, immortality is required that the duty of man may be fulfilled in meeting the demands of the moral law.23 Some practical questions may be raised about Kant's first argument. First, there is no visible moral law in nature and it may seem arbitrary to speak of one as Kant did. Second, why should man be given time to make up his failure? Without some Christian understanding of life after death, why postulate man's survival at all? Third, why not let the judgement about man's failure stand and simply say that he lost out in the race? Fourth, Kant ruled out forgiveness and grace and places life after death on performance which is contrary to Christian values. The second argument may be summed as follows: Happiness should coincide with the degree of morality. Unfortunately it doesn't, yet man has a duty of pursuing the good. Then Kant said: Now it was our duty to promote the highest good; and it is not merely our privilege but a necessity connected with duty as a requisite to presuppose the possibility of this highest good. This presupposition is made only under the condition of the existence of God, and this condition inseparably connects this supposition with duty. Therefore, it is morally necessary to assume the existence of God.24 One of the objectionable features of Kant's argument is that it is a use of God that is certainly contrary to the Biblical model of God. God is useful only for undergirding morality for Kant. Beyond that it is questionable whether God serves any use in Kant's view of things. Another example of the moral argument is that of Hastings Rashdall (1858-1924) who drew on the idea of a standard of truth in all disciplines. Even though a discipline is floundering around in half-truths, there is an ideal to which it hopes to attain in truth. Rashdall argued that: the Moral Law has a real existence, that there is such a thing as an absolute Morality, that there is something absolutely true or false in ethical judgement, whether we or any number of human beings at any given time actually think so or not. Such a belief is distinctly implied in what we mean by Morality.25 Since a moral ideal cannot exist in material things, or in the mind of any one individual, Rashdall concluded that "an Absolute moral idea can exist only in a Mind from which all Reality is derived."26 Consequently, morality leads to the conclusion that God exists. The success of Rashdall's argument does not depend upon whether people follow a moral standard or not. Obviously many do not. B. The Argument from Personal Experience. This argument builds on the fact that religious experience is well-nigh universal. Elton Trueblood wrote: The fact that a great many people, representing a great many civilizations and a great many centuries, and including large numbers of those generally accounted the best and wisest of mankind, have reported religious experiences is one of the most significant facts about our world.27 This argument is designed to indicate that experience of people leads to the conclusion that God exists. But it is one of the weaker arguments and has some problems with it. It proves more than a theist would like to argue for. How can one distinguish between the religious experience of a Muslim, Buddhist, Jew and Christian? All have religious experience and all should be accorded some truthfulness or validity according to the implications of the argument. The argument can be used to argue that all religions are the same and are of equal value. If the argument is to be defended it might be supplemented with a detailed anthropological study as seen in Schmidt's "High God" idea in which the different religions could be traced to a common source of the idea of God. Perhaps then the argument would have some value for the theist. Without some restrictions and further limitations it is not of great value. Another type of the personal experience argument was set forth by A.E. Taylor who used an analogy of art and music which has objectivity. Think of a concert in which many people attend. There are levels of response. The man who comes because his wife coerced him responds negatively. The musician probably has the best appreciation and response to the music, at the same time both critically and aesthetically. Taylor argued that life is somewhat like the concert or beauty in nature. There is something "out there" that calls forth a response. Men differ in their responses, and because some do not see Him one is not justified in concluding that He does not exist. Aberrations there may be in religion, but the overwhelming repetition of religious experience throughout the ages lends support to the argument. Objections exist and the following may be noted. (1) This argument lends support for all kinds of religious experience and is not easily limited to the theist. (2) The object of religious experience is never known. Is it really God that one experiences or some lesser being? (3) Theism would admit the importance and usefulness of experience in religion, but it would not be just any old experience that would be regarded as legitimate. It has been shown that hallucinogenic drugs produce a sense of awareness of the world around, but the production of the experiences does not validate the use of drugs. The drugs can destroy and bad religious experience can do likewise. In the spirit of P.T. Forsyth, we can say that there is an authority for experience, but not authority in the experience. Forsyth meant that religious experience has its place, in relation to other things, but by itself it does not give authority for any conclusions about the truthfulness of God, gods, or whatever. C. The Argument from Practical Use. The argument from practical use is one that appears impressive at first, but then assumes some severe problems. The practical use argument is that belief in God works. It has a certain practicality that results do follow from belief. William James noted examples of people who were sick in body and mind, but through commitment and conversion they became well. The conclusion to be reached from this profound experience is that "God is real since he produces real effects."28 This is impressive when someone says, "I used to be . . ." and now I am a changed person. It is difficult to argue with that. In a similar manner James argued that atheism has little help against pessimism, cynicism, and futility, whereas theism has much to offer in offsetting them. The argument proves too much and raises serious questions for the theist. First, a change of thinking will help most people. If you believe you are capable and confident you will probably work better in that direction. If you believe you are incompetent, you may help yourself in that direction. Second, it proves the truth of many kinds of gods. The polytheistic Hindu gets psychological help in his piety as well as the monotheistic Muslim. There is some value received, or neither would do what they do. Are they worshipping the true God? That can't be decided on the basis of the argument. In light of these points it may be considered the most ambiguous of the arguments although it does make a point indicating that belief can affect how one lives. D. The Wager. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) set forth an argument that is unusual in its nature and compelling in many ways. It has also been a focal point of criticism based on oversight or ignorance. Pascal is often classed as a fideist, that is, a person who says one cannot argue for God's existence, but one must accept it on faith. One statement of Pascal often quoted is the following: If there is a God He is infinitely incomprehensible since having neither parts nor limits, He has no affinity to us. We are then incapable of knowing either what He is, or if He is.29 Pascal does not call forth the traditional arguments. But his statement above must not be taken to say that theists are unreasonable. Reason cannot decide the issue of whether God exists or not. This does not preclude some other way of knowing about God. The point for the moment is that man is confronted with two alternatives: God is or He is not. Pascal then noted: Reason can decide nothing here. There is an infinite chaos which separated us. A game is being played at the extremity of this infinite distance where heads or tails will turn up. What will you wager? According to reason, you can do neither the one thing nor the other; according to reason, you can defend neither of the propositions.30 The wager is then set forth and may be outlined as follows: If I bet that God is: 1. and he is . . . eternity is gained. 2. and he is not . . . nothing is lost (yet a good life may be gained in light of believing in God). If I bet that God is not: 1. and he is . . . eternal life is lost. 2. and he is not . . . nothing lost, except if a wild life has been chosen, which by its nature is self- destroying. Therefore, the betting man, the reasonable man will bet on God. Initially, Pascal indicated that life has its choices and it makes a difference now how one lives--affirming or negating life. This is seen at a deeper level with God. The Biblical God set forth the alternatives: life or death, therefore, choose life. Choose the way of life that affirms life. It is not an argument that proves the existence of God. It shows profoundly the choices and their relevance. Some criticisms have been raised against the wager and one of the most common is the matter of side-bets. If one bets on God--which God? What about a side bet with Vishnu, Allah, as well as the Christian option? Pascal covered the matter of side bets in his comments on the nature of a true religion.31Pascal placed before us three criteria for a true religion: 1. It must teach the hiddenness of God: "God being thus hidden every religion which does not affirm that God is hidden is not true and every religion which does not give the reason of it, is not instructive.32 2. The true religion must explain the misery of man. "That a religion may be true, it must have knowledge of our nature. It ought to know its greatness and littleness and the reason of both."33 3. The true religion must teach how man can know God who is hidden or give the remedy for his alienation and misery. "The true religion, then, must teach us to worship Him only, and to love him only. But we find ourselves unable to worship what we know not, and to love any other object but ourselves, the religion which instructs us in these duties must instruct us also in this inability; and teach us also the remedies for it.34 If we apply these views of Pascal to the major religions of the world, it becomes possible to see the matter of the side-bets in a new light; there is no reason for side-bets. First, pantheistic Hinduism is out for it is the nature of pantheism to identify nature and God. There is no difference between nature and God. It becomes meaningless to talk about God in any usual sense of the term, when one is really talking about nature. God is not hidden. He is the bug, tree, cloud, or man, and other beings. Second, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism are not viable options because classical Buddhism is not a religion about God at all, Confucianism did not begin as a religion, and neither did Taoism. They were humanistic philosophies and none of their classical or original expressions require worship. Their degeneration into religions were not commanded by the founders. This is also true for Buddhism. None of these have anything meaningful for the issue of theism. This leaves three other major options: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Judaism and Christianity have a unique relationship. Judaism offers a knowledge of God based upon God's self-revelation. Only God can reveal God. This is the meaning of Pascal's despair of reason. Judaism affirms that God has revealed himself, but the problem with Judaism is an interpretation problem: it has not been true to its own internal witness. Judaism spoke hopefully of a coming Messiah but did not recognize Him when he came. Pascal's Pensee 555 may be applied to Judaism: All who seek God without Jesus Christ, and who rest in nature, either find no light to satisfy them, or come to form for themselves a means of knowing God and serving Him without a mediator.35 He also concluded that: We know God only by Jesus Christ. Without this mediator all communion with God is taken away . . . . Apart from Him, and without the Scripture, without original sin, without a necessary mediator promised and come, we cannot absolutely prove God, nor teach right doctrine and right morality . . . .36 In other words, knowledge of God came through God beginning in Judaism, and reached its climax in the Incarnation--God coming Himself to reveal Himself in human understanding. What began in Judaism reached its fulfillment in the Incarnation. The issue of Islam assumes another dimension. Islam claims to build on Judaism and Christianity. It presumes to be the successor to two religions. As long as it claims a continuity with the two religions, it has to reckon with the contradictions involved in the claim. There is nothing in Judaism or Christianity to call forth another religion beyond the Messiah. Judaism promised a Messiah, Christianity claims to be built on the Messiah; but Mohammed is neither a Messiah nor a promise of Christian fulfillment. When it became obvious to Muslim scholars that the Bible did not prophesy the coming of Mohammed, they then claimed that Jews and Christians conspired to corrupt the Scriptures deliberately. The Christian Scriptures speak with finality about God's last word to man in terms of the Incarnation. After God has come, anything else is an anti-climax. This covers the major religions of the world in brief. As a matter of side-bets, then on Pascal's grounds there are none to be placed. The only real bet is on God-Incarnate. Only Christianity offers a mediator--a means of helping man to know the hidden God and experience redemption from his misery. The idea of revelation is not usually considered by philosophers as having merit. When one considers the objections of philosophers later, this will be more evident. For now, we must consider the argument. It is one that is specially related to the Judaeo-Christian tradition but culminating in the person of Jesus, the Christ. The claim is made by and for Jesus Christ that He is of the same nature of God, equal with God and come from God. His life is a parable of love, filled with deeds of kindness, healing and compassion. He raised the dead, gave sight to the blind, and did what no other person has done. In consistency with his claim of equality with God is the intense monotheism that he taught as well as was believed by the Jews of his day. Neither He nor they believed that every man is a sub-unit of the divine nature. He was condemned for his claim to equality with God and his claim of being the Messiah of Israel. The crucifixion took place and brought disappointment to his followers. If the death had been the end of the story no purpose would be achieved in these details. But three days later, the resurrection took place as Jesus foretold and out of this event Christianity was born. Jesus was seen after the resurrection by Mary Magdalene, then by the "other Mary," by Cleopas and another person on the road to Emmaus, Simon alone, then the ten together, then eight days later with the disciples now including Thomas who doubted before, then the seven beside the Sea of Galilee and to "above five hundred brethren," then to James, the last appearance at the Ascension, and finally at the appearance to the Apostle Paul. The resurrection becomes the capstone of the Christian belief and it becomes the cardinal element in the claim that Jesus is the Son of God, or God Incarnate. All of this is not limited to the era of Jesus. It is a climax of many things before Him. First, it is related to the messianic promise extending back through centuries of Old Testament history. The prophets speak of a coming Messiah. Jesus said of that claim: I am He. Second, it is related to the acts of God in the Old Testament. Belief in God in Israel made a difference. God said, "Let there be . . ." light, earth, a people of God, an exodus from Egypt's slavery, a promised land, victory over the Canaanites, a kingdom of David, prophets to call forth judgement on the people's sin, and fulfillment of these prophetic denunciations, and let there come forth from Bethelehem a Messiah. Third, in terms of Jewish apocalyptic belief in Jesus' day, the resurrection is the key for identifying the Messiah with God and in the Messiah is revealed God and his word. Fourth, it is related to the miracles of Jesus. Miracles are not ethical principles, but historical events related to real people in real life situations. A miracle is a direct act of God that transcends the normal functions of nature. The resurrection is the beginning point of miracles and other miracles have their reference point to it. If it is true, they make sense. Miracles are projected in the Old Testament as well as the New. The plagues of Egypt, the crossing of the Sea, the parting of the Jordan, and other miracles took place at the right time by command of God. It would have been a falsifying situation if Moses had said: The Jordan will part, but it did not do so. Fifth, the credibility of the resurrection and life of Jesus does not get lost in centuries after the fact when legendization can take place. In contrast to legendization processes, the documents about the life and resurrection of Jesus came into existence before 70 A.D. with many of these as early as ten years after the resurrection occurred. Compare this with the centuries after the life of Buddha and others. The enemies of Jesus were yet alive and could well contest the events. These kinds of facts caused C.S. Lewis to conclude: A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher, He would either be a lunatic--on a level with the man who says he is a poached egg--or else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse. You can shut Him up for a fool, you can spit at Him and kill Him as a demon; or you can fall at his feet and call Him, Lord and God. But let us not come with any patronizing nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to.38 This argument is based on the historical events of the past. The credibility of witnesses and their motives may be examined. The matter of deliberate falsification is out because there is nothing to gain: only loss of life. Probability is enhanced by one other element of the Christian view of things: the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. The facts alone are not everything. One does not believe by facts alone. The witness of God's Spirit is expressed in the statement that "no one can confess `Jesus is Lord' unless he is guided by the Holy Spirit" (1 Cor. 12:3 TEV). The facts are important and necessary but the ultimate conviction of their truth is related to God's Spirit. That is the argument in its summary. We now turn to the objections. The most critical objections to the idea of self-revelation come from Hume and Flew. Let's look at some of them. First, the idea of a miracle. Hume has a celebrated essay on miracles in which he maintained "a miracle can never be proved so as to be the foundation of a system of religion."39 Flew himself avers: The heart of the matter is that the criteria by which we must assess historical testimony, and the general presumptions which alone make it possible for us to construe the detritus of the past as historical evidence, must inevitably rule out any possibility of establishing, upon purely historical grounds, that some genuinely miraculous event has indeed occurred.40 Flew, in the spirit of Hume, indicated elsewhere in his book that the theist seeks to maintain a position in which nothing can count against his belief in God. But here we have a turnabout--Flew and Hume are maintaining that there is nothing that can be, or will be accepted as evidence for miracles, let alone God. If one is close-minded on the issues and rejects out of hand anything for the alternate position, there is not much that can be done to bring together a dialogue which Flew maintains he desires. The second objection is one that has relevance to all of the arguments. That issue is verification. Verification is the norm for Flew and others. It has the ring of scientific authority and brings the question into his framework: can you see, feel, touch, hear or taste God? If you cannot, you are talking nonsense. One has to admit straight out that verification of God in this manner cannot be done. If verification is restricted in this manner, many other things are also meaningless. The intangibles--truth, love, justice and the realm of values--are all meaningless on the standard of empirical verification. Verification is important for science, but even there it has its problems. Which theory of verification do we accept? There are several variations. If verification means reproducibility of an experiment, there is a variation of this in religion. A scientific experiment implies that everyone who wants to can follow certain steps and when this is done certain results will happen. In theology, the same holds true. If you follow certain steps and make certain commitments, then this will happen. By this means you will come to know God. This has been the underlying a basis of all mission programs in which people are converted in any religion. That is one kind of verification but it is not seeing God with the naked eye. On the other hand, there are things in science that are never seen, but are called verified. Speaking about God is somewhat like speaking about pain. We can describe it publicly and even invent words about it. But we never see the pain. Yet we know what other people mean as a general rule when they talk about a pain here or there in their body. We can talk about God, share common experiences, and all these are meaningful, but we don't see God with the human eye. It is not the intention of the arguments to bring this about. The arguments give a reasonable indication that God is. But even the arguments are not enough, granting that they are valid without question. They may point in the direction of God, but we cannot be happy with an "inferred" God. What is needed is an encounter, a meeting with God. The search for God is one of the most important issues of life. If God is, then it is important to seek out the most important Person in the universe. It may be obvious that the author's sentiments fall into the direction of the Christian faith. One basic reason for this lies in the Christian idea of Person. Anything less than a Person is not worthy of the search. God defined as energy, or force is impersonal and could not involve worship. God defined as Mover or First Cause does not demand any more than an intellectual nod of the head. But God as Person would be significant. If God is Personal, then it does not seem phantasy that He who creates would also communicate. The Judaeo-Christian faith as a view offers an aesthetically satisfying view of God. Only God as Person can reveal God. For Further Study Anselm. Proslogium. Translated by Sidney N. Deane. LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court Publishing Co., 1959. Introduction to Saint Thomas Aquinas. Edited by A.C. Pegis. New York: The Modern Library, 1948. Collins, James D. God in Modern Philosophy. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1959. Flew, Anthony. God and Philosophy. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1966. James, William. Varieties of Religious Experience. New York: Collier Books, 1961. Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Practical Reason. Translated by Lewis Beck. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1956. Lewis, C.S. Mere Christianity. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960. The Many-faced Argument. Edited by John Hick and Arthur G. McGill. New York: the Macmillan Co., 1967. The Ontological Argument. Edited by Alvin Plantinga. Garden City: Anchor Books, 1965. Pascal, Blaise. Pensee. New York: The Modern Library, 1941. Temple, William. Nature, Man and God. London: Macmillan Co., 1964. 1Hans-Joachim Schoeps, The Religions of Mankind, translated by Richard and Clara Winston, Garden City: Anchor Books, 1968, p. 8. 2Introduction to Saint Thomas Aquinas, edited by Anton G. Pegis, New York: The Modern Library, 1948, p. 25. 3cf. Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Vol. II, Part II, Garden City: Image books, 1962, p. 61. 4Introduction to Saint Thomas Aquinas, op. cit., pp. 25-26. 6J. Oliver Buswell, Jr., A Systematic Theology of the Christian Religion, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1962, Vol. I, p. 72. 7Ibid., p. 27. 8David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, New York: Hafner Publishing Co., 1957, p. 21. 9Ibid., p. 47. 10Ibid., p. 58. 11Ibid., p. 59. 12Ibid., p. 66. 13G.H. Clark, Religion, Reason, and Revelation, Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co., 1961, p. 221, "I wish very frankly and pointed to assert that if a man gets drunk and shoots his family, it was the will of God that he should do so." 14Hume, op. cit., p. 94. 15Anthony Flew, God and Philosophy, New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1966, Cf. pp. 41, 43, 55. 17Ibid., p. 118. 18Buswell, op. cit., p. 72. 19James D. Collins, God in Modern Philosophy, Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1959, p. 179; see also pp. 167, 170, 189. 20St. Anselm, Proslogium, translated by Sidney N. Deane, LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court Publishing Co., 1959, p. 7. 21Norman Malcom, "Anselm's Ontological Argument," in The Ontological Argument, edited by Alvin Plantinga, Garden City: Anchor Books, 1965, p. 146. 22See also The Many-faced Argument, edited by John Hick and Arthur C. McGill, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1967, for other diverse reactions to the ontological argument. 23Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, translated by Lewis Beck, New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1956, pp. 126-127. 24Ibid., p. 130. 25Hastings Rashdall, "The Morals Argument," in The Existence of God, edited by John Hick, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964, pp. 148-149. 26Ibid., p. 150. 27Elton Trueblood, Philosophy of Religion, New York: Harpers, 1957, p. 145. 28William James, Varieties of Religion Experience, New York: Collier books, 1961, p. 400. 29Blaise Pascal, Pensees, New York: The Modern Library, 1941, p. 80. 30Ibid., p. 81. 31My first encounter with the side bet issue was in Richard Popkins class at the University of Iowa, but for documentary purposes it is implied in Flew, op. cit., pp. 185, 1987. 32Pascal, op. cit., p. 191. 33Ibid., p. 141. 34Ibid., p. 160. 35Ibid., Pensee 555. 36Ibid., Pensee 546. 37Cf. this point by Penneberg in Robert W. Jenson, The Knowledge of Things Hoped For, New York: Oxford University Press, 1969, p. 222. 38C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960, p. 41. 39Flew, op. cit., p. 145, a quote of Hume. 40Flew, op. cit., p. 145.	<urn:uuid:e661cace-d917-4c9d-8b73-6a4737b7069e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.emporia.edu/socsci/research-and-teaching-links/philosophy-book/chp17.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959098	12,125	3.171875	3
I love animals and believe that sharing our lives with them makes us happier and healthier. I’m not alone. As a nation we own 7.5million cats, just over six million dogs and more than a million rabbits —as well as a host of guinea pigs, hamsters, budgies and tropical fish. Now dog welfare charity Dogs Trust is calling on GPs and health professionals to recommend to their patients the benefits of owning dogs. If owning a dog wouldn’t fit your lifestyle, the charity allows volunteers to regularly walk its dogs. The right pet could do wonders for your health, from lowering blood pressure and beating stress to easing depression, boosting immunity and even reducing cancer risk. Here’s what you should bear in mind before you take on responsibility for a furry companion... (1)They help you to slim Simply owning a dog can help overweight children lose pounds. Australian researchers found that children who play with a family dog are 50 per cent less likely to be overweight than those who don’t have one — even if they didn’t take it for regular walks. (2)They help prevent asthma Children who live with a pet during the first year of their life are less likely to suffer from allergies and asthma when they are older, a Swedish research team reports. It’s thought that early exposure to bacteria from animals acts as a natural vaccine against allergies. Children with two or more pets fare even better. A study in the Journal Of The American Medical Association shows their chance of developing an allergy is cut by 77 per cent. (3) They keep the doctor away Pet owners make 20 per cent fewer annual visits to the doctor than non pet-owners, says an international survey of 11,000 people. Psychologist Dr June McNicholas, from Warwick University, has also found that children from pet-owning homes take up to 15 fewer days off school with illness — probably due to them developing a tougher immune system. (4)They protect against cancer Owning a cat or a dog could cut your risk of developing a cancer called non-Hodgkins lymphoma by almost one third, says a US study published by Stanford University. Again, prolonged exposure to animal allergens and the boost this gives the immune system is thought to be behind the benefit. (5)They ease depression A British study found that, three months after losing their partner, widowed people who owned pets displayed fewer grief symptoms, such as crying, than non-pet owners. Pet owners said they were able to talk to their animals at a time when they couldn’t share their feelings with people. Swiss research also found that single women who owned a cat were less depressed than those who didn’t. (6)They slash stress You don’t even have to stroke your pet to reap the stress-busting benefits. Just being in the same room as an animal has been shown to lower blood pressure. One US research team found that watching a fish tank before a dental appointment had the same calming effect as a session of hypnosis. Which pet is right for you? / Good for: People who work from home or are retired and who like walking. Small dogs are better for the elderly as they need less exercise than larger breeds. / bad for: Anyone who’s out of the house for long periods or is too busy for two daily walks, or anyone with / Good for: Elderly people who aren’t so active, or busy people who have little time to spare. / bad for: Couples about to have a baby as toxins in their droppings can be dangerous during pregnancy. They can also become jealous of new babies. Rabbits and guinea pigs / Good for: All kids and families who don’t want a pet that needs exercising. / bad for: Kids who want to cuddle a pet often, as they have a Hamsters, gerbils and mice / Good for: Anyone who has limited space. Younger kids can learn to feed, clean and play with them. / bad for: Hyperactive or excitable kids, as these animals can be frightened easily and bite. / Good for: Kids who are too young for a puppy. My granddaughter has a fish and she loves it to bits. / bad for: Forgetful people — unlike other animals, fish can’t remind you to feed them. Anyone who wants something to be responsive. / Good for: Animal lovers with fur allergies or people who are keen to have a pet that’s a bit different. / bad for: Young children as they can’t be handled much, and busy adults as they’re difficult to look after and have very specific food and temperature needs. Why getting a pet is good for your kids: You may be worried about the hassle and expense of getting a pet but, as a parent, you’ll be doing your kids a big favour. Here are just a few of the things a pet can teach them… / Unconditional love — Kids learn to give and receive love without any judgment or conditions. / Understanding — A pet won’t always do what a child wants, so children must learn to put themselves in the pet’s position and try to empathise with how it feels. / To face fears — One of my sons was afraid of the dark but if our dog, Alfie, slept outside his door at night he felt safe and learnt to beat his fear. / Responsibility — Caring for a pet teaches a child about looking after something helpless that needs food, water and attention. / Confidence — Parents, teachers and friends all have expectations of children but pets don’t care if you fail an exam or aren’t wearing the latest fashion. / Resilience — Children who suffer traumatic experiences cope better when they have a pet to confide in. / About death — For many children, the death of a pet is the first time they experience real loss and it can help them handle grief in future. Thousands of pets, especially dogs, are abandoned each year because people don’t think about the consequences of having them. So before you take the plunge, ask yourself… / Does anyone in the house have allergies? If you or someone else already suffers, a furry pet could make this worse. / Can you afford to add a pet to your family outgoings, including vet costs? The cost of a dog over a lifetime can be nearly £10,000. / Do you have time for a pet? It’s cruel to leave pets such as dogs alone all day. / Are you prepared to deal with problems such as fleas, scratched furniture and unexpected medical emergencies? / Is it fair to have a pet where you live? Cats and dogs need access to gardens. / Who will care for your pet when you’re on holiday? / For more advice and information on owning a pet, visit www.rspca.org.uk / For information on rehoming, sponsoring or walking a dog, visit www.dogstrust.co.uk	<urn:uuid:60e1f5c6-a4f9-4af9-a6d3-6f1fa3aaa50c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.mirror.co.uk/lifestyle/sex-relationships/why-owning-a-dog-can-be-good-for-your-441335	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963696	1,503	2.71875	3
Nerve cells 're-grown' in rats after spinal injury - 26 June 2013 - From the section Health US scientists say they have made progress in repairing spinal cord injuries in paralysed rats. Rats regained some bladder control after surgery to transplant nerve cells into the spinal cord, combined with injections of a cocktail of chemicals. The study, published in the Journal of Neuroscience, could raise hopes for one day treating paralysed patients. But UK experts say it will take several years of research before human clinical trials can be considered. Scientists have tried for decades to use transplants of nerve cells to restore function in paralysed animals by bridging the gap in the broken spinal cord. However, coaxing the cells to grow and form new connections has proved elusive. One problem is the growth of scar tissue as the body's responds to injury, which seems to block cell regeneration. US scientists carried out complex surgery to transplant nerves from the rodents' ribs into the gap in the middle of their spinal cord. They also used a special "glue" that boosts cell growth together with a chemical that breaks down scar tissue in an attempt to encourage the nerve cells to regenerate and connect up. The researchers found for the first time that injured nerve cells could re-grow for "remarkably long distances" (about 2cm). They said that while the rats did not regain the ability to walk, they did recover some bladder function. Lead author Dr Jerry Silver of Case Western Reserve Medical School, Cleveland, Ohio, said: "Although animals did not regain the ability to walk, they did recover a remarkable measure of urinary control." Co-author Dr Yu-Shang Lee of the Cleveland Clinic, Ohio, added: "This is the first time that significant bladder function has been restored via nerve regeneration after a devastating cord injury." The findings may help future efforts to restore other functions lost after spinal cord injury. They also raise hope that similar strategies could one day be used to restore bladder function in people with severe spinal cord injuries. Dr Silver said further animal experiments will be needed to see if the technique could work in humans. He told BBC News: "If we can show in a larger animal that our technique works and does no additional harm I see no reason why we couldn't move rapidly in humans." Commenting on the study, Dr Elizabeth Bradbury of King's College London said several challenges must be overcome before the therapy can be trialled in patients. "There are a number of challenges before this therapy can be brought to the clinic," she said. "Nevertheless this is a remarkable advance which offers great hope for the future of restoring bladder function to spinal injured patients and if these challenges can be met we could be reaching clinical trials within three to five years." Dr John Williams, head of neuroscience and mental health at the Wellcome Trust, said the implications for people are not yet clear. "This is one of a number of ways that one can approach restoration of bladder function in paralysed patients, but careful studies will be needed to optimise which of the technologies under investigation might be of most benefit to patients."	<urn:uuid:ed0d5a25-7150-4ee9-a2ab-aa5801a16361>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bbc.com/news/health-23051516	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946557	645	2.984375	3
8.9 Mango and guava processing technologies Contents - Previous - Next 8.9.1 Mango processing technologies Mangoes are processed at two stages of maturity. Green fruit is used to make chutney, pickles, curries and dehydrated products. The green fruit should be freshly picked from the tree. Fruit that is bruised, damaged, or that has prematurely fallen to the ground should not be used. Ripe mangoes are processed as canned and frozen slices, purée, juices, nectar and various dried products. Mangoes are processed into many other products for home use and by cottage industry. The mango processing presents many problems as far as industrialization and market expansion is concerned. The trees are alternate bearing and the fruit has a short storage life; these factors make it difficult to process the crop in a continuous and regular way. The large number of varieties with their various attributes and deficiencies affects the quality and uniformity of processed products. The lack of simple, reliable methods for determining the stage of maturity of varieties for processing also affects the quality of the finished products. Many of the processed products require peeled or peeled and sliced fruit. The lack of mechanised equipment for the peeling of ripe mangoes is a serious bottleneck for increasing the production of these products. A significant problem in developing mechanised equipment is the large number of varieties available and their different sizes and shapes. The cost of processed mango products is also too expensive for the general population in the areas where most mangoes are grown. There is, however, a considerable export potential to developed countries but in these countries the processed mango products must compete with established processed fruits of high quality and relatively low cost. 126.96.36.199 Green mango processing The optimum stage of maturity should be determined for each variety used to make pickles. There are two classifications of pickles - salt pickles and oil pickles. They are processed from whole and sliced fruit with and without stones. Salt is used in most pickles. The many kinds of pickles vary mainly in the proportions and kinds of spices used in their preparation. One basic recipe for the study of the preparation and storage of pickles in oil is as follows: \|Mango pieces\|\|250 g\|\|Tumeric powder\|\|2 to 4 g\| \|Salt\|\|60 g\|\|Fenugreek seeds\|\|2 to 4 g\| \|Mustard powder\|\|30 g\|\|Bengal gram seeds\|\|2 to 4 g\| \|Chili powder\|\|20 g\|\|Gingelly oil\|\|20 to 30 g\| The ingredients are mixed together and filled into wide-mouthed bottles of 0.5 kg capacity. Three days later the contents are thoroughly mixed and refilled into the bottles. Extra oil is added to form a 1-2 cm layer over the pickles. The product is prepared from peeled, sliced or grated unripe or semi-ripe fruit by cooking the shredded fruit with salt over medium heat for 5 to 7 minutes, mixed and then sugar, spices and vinegar are added. Cook over moderate heat until the product resembles a thick purée, add remaining ingredients and simmer another 5 min. Cool and preserve in sterilised jars. Spices usually include cumin seeds, ground cloves, cinnamon, chili powder, ginger and nutmeg. Other ingredients such as dried fruits, onions, garlic and nuts may be added. 188.8.131.52.3 Drying/dehydration. immature fruit is peeled and sliced for sun-drying. The dried mango slices can be powdered to make a product called amchoo. The use of blanching, sulphuring and mechanical dehydration gives a product with better colour, nutrition, storability and fewer microbiological problems. 184.108.40.206 Ripe mango processing Mangoes are processed into purée for re-manufacturing into products such as nectar, juice, squash, jam, jelly and dehydrated products. The purée can be preserved by chemical means, or frozen, or canned and stored in barrels. This allows a supply of raw materials during the remainder of the year when fresh mangoes are not available. It also provides a more economical means of storage compared with the cost of storing the finished products, except for those which are dehydrated, and provides for more orderly processing during peak availability of fresh mangoes. Mangoes can be processed into purée from whole or peeled fruit. Because of the time and cost of peeling, this step is best avoided but with some varieties it may be necessary to avoid off-flavours which may be present in the skin. The most common way of removing the skin is hand-peeling with knives but this is time-consuming and expensive. Steam and lyepeeling have been accomplished for some varieties. Several methods have been devised to remove the pulp from the fresh ripe mangoes without hand-peeling. A simplified method is as follows: the whole mangoes were exposed to atmospheric steam for 2 to 2 1/2 min in a loosely covered chamber, then transferred to a stainless steel tank. The steam-softened skins allowed the fruit to be pulped by a power stirrer fitted with a saw-toothed propeller blade mounted 12.7 to 15.2 cm below a regular propeller blade. The pulp is removed from the seeds by a continuous centrifuge designed for use in passion fruit extraction. The pulp material is then passed through a paddle pulper fitted with a 0.084 cm screen to remove fibre and small pieces of pulp. Mango purée can be frozen, canned or stored in barrels for later processing. In all these cases, heating is necessary to preserve the quality of the mango purée. In one process, purée is pumped through a plate heat exchanger and heated to 90°C for 1 min and cooled to 35° C before being filled into 30 lb tins with polyethylene liners and frozen at -23.50 C. In an other process, pulp is acidified to pH 3.5, pasteurized at 90°C, and hot-filled into 6 kg high-density bulk polyethylene containers that have been previously sterilised with boiling water. The containers are then sealed and cooled in water. This makes it possible to avoid the high cost of cans. Wooden barrels may be used to store mango pulp in the manufacture of jams and squashes. The pulp is acidified with 0.5 to 1.0% citric acid, heated to boiling, cooled, and SO2 is added at a level of 1000 to 1500 ppm in the pulp. The pulp is then filled into barrels for future use. Mango slices can be preserved by canning or freezing, and recent studies have shown the feasibility of pasteurized-refrigerated and dehydro-canned slices. The quality of the processed product in all of these procedures will be dependent upon selection of a suitable variety along with good processing procedures. Thermal process canning of mango slices in syrup is the most widely used preservation method. The commercial beverages are juice, nectar and squash. Mango nectar and juice contain mango purée, sugar, water and citric acid in various proportions depending on local taste, government standards of identity, pH control, and fruit composition of the variety used. Mango squash in addition to the above may contain SO2 or sodium benzoate as a preservative. Other food grade additives such as ascorbic acid, food colouring, or thickeners may be used in mango beverages. A short description of finished products found in literature is as follows: \|Brix of purée\| Commercial processing conditions may require the use of a preservative. The pH is adjusted to approximately 3.5 by adding citric acid as a 50% solution. The time of heat processing will vary with filling temperature, can size and viscosity of the juice or nectar. Mango squash may be prepared according to flow-sheet described below; the finished product may contain 25% juice, 45% TSS and 1.2 to 1.5% acidity and may be preserved with sulphur dioxide (350ppm) or sodium benzoate (1000 ppm) in glass bottles. Mango squash simplified flow-sheet. Mangoes are washed, stored, peeled with stainless steel knives. The pulp is prepared by using a pulper with fine sieve (0.025-in); Sugar is mixed with water and citric acid = syrup; The pulp is added to the syrup and mixed well; The mixture is strained trough cloth; The squash is heated at 85° C and bottles are filled and closed. For additional heat treatment bottles may need to be maintained at a product temperature of 80°C for 30 minutes if the product is to be processed without preservatives. The bottles are then left to cool in water and stored at room temperature. Two negative points must be avoided: presence of air bubbles (which is a source of quick deterioration) and separation of squash solids (giving an undesirable appearance). The means to avoid these two phenomena are described in the fruit juices section. A type of "squash type" beverage may also be manufactured with '/a pulp + '/a water + i/a sugar and pH adjusted to 3.7 by addition of citric acid. Using different sieve sizes affects the quality and reduces air bubbles to a certain extent but homogenisation and de-aeration of purée or squash seem to be important in order to avoid separation and air bubbles. The squash quality is evaluated on the basis of the following characteristics: pH, titrable acidity, soluble solids, ascorbic acid (by 2,6 dichlorophenol indophenol method), specific gravity. Ripe mangoes are dried in the form of pieces, powders, and flakes. Drying procedures such as sun-drying, tunnel dehydration, vacuum-drying, osmotic dehydration may be used. Packaged and stored properly, dried mango products are stable and nutritious. One described process involves as pre-treatment dipping mango slices for 18 hr (ratio 1:1) in a solution containing 40° Brix sugar, 3000 ppm SO2, 0.2% ascorbic acid and 1% citric acid; this method is described as producing the best dehydrated product. Drying is described using an electric cabinet through flow dryer operated at 60° C. The product showed no browning after 1 year of storage. Drum-drying of mango purée is described as an efficient, economical process for producing dried mango powder and flakes. Its major drawback is that the severity of heat preprocessing can produce undesirable cooked flavours and aromas in the dried product. The drum-dried products are also extremely hydroscopic and the use of in-package desiccant is recommended during storage. 220.127.116.11 5 Canning. This preservation technology is described in various technological flow-sheets in this bulletin. 18.104.22.168.6 Mango bar or "fruit leather" is presented in various flow-sheets. 8.9.2 Guava processing technologies 22.214.171.124 Guava purée Guava purée is used in the manufacture of guava nectar, various juice drink blends and in the preparation of guava jam. The washed sound fruit is first passed through a chopper or slicer to break up the fruit and this material is fed into a pulper. The pulper will remove the seeds and fibrous pieces of tissue and force the reminder of the product through a perforated stainless steel screen. The holes in the screen should be between 0.033 and 0.045 in. The machine should be fed at a constant rate to ensure efficient operation. The puréed material coming from the pulper is next passed through a finisher. The finisher is equipped with a screen containing holes of approximately 0.020 in. The finisher will remove the stone cells from the fruit and provide the optimum consistency to the product. Perhaps the best way to preserve the guava purée is by freezing and the material passing through the finisher can be packaged and frozen with no further treatment. It is not necessary to heat the product to inactivate enzymes or for other purposes. The material can be frozen in a number of types of cartons and cans; however, a fibre box with a plastic bag inside is commonly used and is probably the less expensive. It is also possible to can and heat process the guava purée and this can be accomplished by heating the purée to 195° F in an open double bottom kettle, filling into cans, closing the cans, inverting the cans for a few seconds, followed by cooling. Cans should be cooled rapidly to approximately 100° F before they are cased and stacked into warehouses. 126.96.36.199 Guava juice and concentrate Guava juice can be used in the manufacture of a clear guava jelly or in various drinks. A clear juice may be prepared from guava purée that is depectinised enzymatically. About 0.1% pectin-degrading enzyme is mixed into the purée at room temperature; heating of the product at approximately 120° F will greatly speed the action of the enzyme. After 1 hr. clear juice is separated from the red pulp by centrifuging or by pressing in a hydraulic juice press. A batch-type or continuous-flow centrifuge can be used on the depectinised purée with no further treatment. The clear juice after centrifuge or after press (and subsequent filtration) can be preserved by freezing or by pasteurization in hermetically sealed cans. For shipment to overseas markets it may be advantageous to concentrate either the purée or the juice. 8.10 Recent trends in fruit and vegetable processing 8.10.1 New products The number and variety of fruit and vegetable products available to the consumer has increased substantially in recent years. The fruit and vegetable industry has undoubtedly benefited from the increased recognition and emphasis on the importance of these products in a healthy diet. Traditional processing and preservation technologies such as heating, freezing and drying together with the more recent commercial introduction of chilling continue to provide the consumer with increased choice. This has been achieved by new heating (e.g. UHT, microwave, ohmic) and freezing (e.g. cryogenic) techniques combined with new packaging materials and technologies (e.g. aseptic, modified atmosphere packaging). The overall trend in new fruit and vegetable products is "added value", thus providing increased convenience to the consumer by having much greater variety of ready prepared fruit and vegetable products. These may comprise complete meals or individual components. The suitability of products and packages for microwave re-heating has been an important factor with respect to added convenience. The major trends in the development of fruit and vegetable heat processed products in recent years are shown in table 8.10.1; the number of new fruit and vegetable products is seen in table 8.10.2. TABLE 8.10.1 Fruit and vegetable product trends Heat processed products 1. Canned fruits and vegetables - combination of vegetables in sauces and vegetable recipe dishes. Exotic fruits. 2. Glass packed fruits and vegetables - "Condiverde"/"antipasti" products based on vegetables in oil. - High quality fruit packs. 3. Retortable plastics - Basic vegetables or vegetable meals - Fruit in jelly 4. Aseptic cartons - Ready made jelly 5. Rosti meals - Potato based products in retort pouches 6. Fruit juices - New combinations of juices and freshly squeezed products - Thick and crunch skin-on crisps. Kettle or pan fried chips. Lower fat crisps. Source: C. Dennis (1993) TABLE 8.10.2 Numbers of new fruit and vegetable products \|Frozen vegetable products\|\|66\|\|95\|\|21\| \|Chilled vegetable products\|\|76\|\|81\|\|78\| \|Heat processed vegetables\|\|51\|\|60\|\|38\| \|Heat processed fruits\|\|13\|\|14\|\|5\| \|Fruit juices and drinks\|\|73\|\|83\|\|46\| Source: C. Dennis (1993) New product development in the fruit and vegetable sector is most important in meeting the continued challenge of providing the consumer with choice and high quality products. 8.10.2 A fresh look at dried fruit New fruit varieties and advance in drying technologies are putting a fresh twist on dried fruit applications. Fruits that have been introduced to the drying process include cranberries, blueberries, cherries, apples, raspberries and strawberries - not to mention the traditional mainstays of raisins, dates, apricots, peaches, prunes and figs. Perceived as a "value-added" ingredient, dried fruit adds flavour, colour, texture and diversity with little alteration to an existing formula. The growing interest in ethnic cuisines in U.S.A. and the change to a more healthy way of eating, has also moved dried fruit considerably closer to the mainstream. Found primarily in the baking industry, dried fruit is coming into its own in various food products, including entrees, side dishes and condiments. Compotes, chutneys, rice and grain dishes, stuffings, sauces, breads, muffins, cookies, deserts, cereals and snacks are all food categories encompassing dried fruit. Since some dried fruit is sugar infused (osmotic drying), food processors can decrease the amount of sugar in formula - this is especially the case in baked products. Processors are making adjustments in moisture content of the dried fruit so that a varied range is available for different applications. An added bonus is dried fruits' shelf stability (a shelf life of at least 12 months). Dried fruit is more widely available in different forms, including whole dried, cut, diced and powders. 8.10.3 Citric acid and its use in fruit and vegetable processing. Citric acid may be considered as "Nature's acidulant". It is found in the tissues of almost all plants and animals, as well as many yeasts and moulds. Commercially citric acid is manufactured under controlled fermentation conditions that produce citric acid as a metabolic intermediate from naturally-occurring yeasts, moulds and nutrients. The recovery process of citric acid is through crystallization from aqueous solutions. Citric acid is widely used in carbonated and still beverages, to impart a fresh-fruit "tanginess". Citric acid provides uniform acidity, and its light fruity character blends well and enhances fruit juices, resulting in improved palatability. The amount of citric acid used depends on the particular desired flavour (e.g., High-acid: lemonade; Medium-acid: orange, punch, cherry; Low-acid: strawberry, black cherry, grape). Sodium citrate is often added to beverages to mellow the tart taste of high acid concentrations. It provides a cool, distinctive smooth taste and masks any bitter aftertaste of artificial sweeteners. In addition, it serves as a buffer to stabilise the pH at the desired level. The high water solubility of citric acid (181 g/100 ml) makes it an ideal additive for fountain fruit syrups and beverages concentrates as a flavour enhancer and microbial growth inhibitor (preferably at pH < 4.6). In processed fruits and vegetables, citric acid performs the following functions: Addition of citric acid to reduce pH below 3 will result in inactivation of this enzyme and prevention of browning reactions. 8.10.4 Cherry and apricot oils are safe for food use The oils obtained by cold pressing the kernels of the cherry (Prunus cerasus) and the apricot (Prunus armeniaca) have been declared acceptable for food use by the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food's Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) by June 1993. In its assessments of the safety in use of the cherry and apricot kernel oils, the ACNFP consider specifications that included data on fatty acid composition, the presence of natural antioxidants and the content of cyanide, mycotoxins and heavy metals. The Committee says that it gave particular consideration to the possible presence in the oils of the cyanogenic glucoside amygdalin, from which cyanide is released by enzymic action when the kernels of cherry and apricot are crushed. Amygdalin was found to be absent from the cherry and apricot kernel oils. The ACNFP is satisfied that there are no food safety reasons why the use of cherry and apricot kernel should not be acceptable provided there is compliance with the specifications shown in Table 8.10. 3. TABLE 8.10.3 Specification of purity for cherry and apricot kernel oils as determined by UK ACNFP \|Heavy metals (total)\|\|0.5 mg/kg\|\|0.5 mg/kg\| \|Aflatoxins (total)\|\|4.0 g/kg\|\|4.0 g/kg\| \|Cyanide\|\|0.15 mg/kg\|\|0.15 mg/kg\| \|Pesticide residues\|\|0.01 mg/kg\|\|0.01 mg/kg\| Source: Anon. (1993) The oils are obtained by the mechanical mincing and cold pressing of kernels extracted from cleaned cherry or apricot stones. After filtering, the oils are stored and are to be sold in a raw, unrefined state. The cherry and apricot kernel oils are high unsaturated and are expected to be used as speciality oils for salad dressings, baking and shallow frying applications. 8.10.5 The use of fruit juices in confectionery products During the last decade, the concept of fruit juices has gained immensely on consumer popularity. The majority of new non-alcoholic and alcoholic fruit drink products were a combination of syrups, fruit juices and flavours. The confectionery industry followed suit and new products incorporated fruit juices as part of their confectionery formulations and processes. Fruit juice concentrates of high solids are often used instead of normal or single-fold juices. Juice concentrates are made of pure fruit juices. The process starts with pressing fruits and obtaining pure fruit juice; this is stabilised by heat treatment which inactivates enzymes and micro-organisms. The next processing step is concentration under vacuum up to 40-65° Brix or 4-7 fold. The concentrates are then blended for standardisation and stored. These fruit juice concentrates are often further stabilised by the addition of sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate and are usually stored away from light and are refrigerated or frozen. Depectinised fruit juices are also used to prevent foaming in confectionery processes and are essential for use in clear beverage products. Fruit juice concentrates which are depectinised, and have added preservatives are called stabilised, clarified, fruit juice concentrates. Fruit juices are used in confectionery products in conjunction with natural and artificial flavours which provides intense flavour impact and are cost-effective for a confectionery product. The traditional concern in using fruit juice concentrates in confectionery applications has been the effect of the natural acids on the finished product, particularly the formation of invert sugar during processing. This is a logical concern since concentrates contain differing amounts and types of acids. For example: apple, cherry, strawberry and other berries contain primarily malic acid. Grapes mainly contain tartaric acid. Cranberry is high in quinic acid. Citrus fruits and pineapple contain differing amounts of citric acid. The concentrates, when used, are normally buffered to a pH of 5-7 with sodium hydroxide. In formulating products with fruit juice concentrates, the solids of the concentrate are considered as mostly reducing sugars and a reduction in corn syrup is made to compensate for equivalent amount of reducing sugar being added in the concentrate. The exact replacement can be determined by measuring the D.E. of the concentrate to be added. In formulations when small amounts of concentrate are used (less than 1%), no adjustment is made since the reducing sugar contribution of the concentrate is not significant. Fruit juice concentrates can also be used to provide a source of natural colour, in particular red colour. Grape, raspberry, cherry, strawberry and cranberry concentrates in small amounts are very effective in colouring cream centres. The inclusion of fruit juices in confectionery products is now left up to the imagination of the manufacturer. These products must, of course, hold up to the standards of flavour integrity, and product excellence, during the shelf-life of these products. Contents - Previous - Next	<urn:uuid:70a8d1ce-047a-4f53-9d69-fefa6f00206a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.fao.org/docrep/V5030E/V5030E0p.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.926992	5,188	3.03125	3
Immigrants continue to buoy America’s economic engine While immigrants come to the U.S. for other reasons besides economy, for the most part, they do so to improve the economic well-being of their loved ones after making a money transfer. Naturally, these funds give their spouses and children the financial backing they need to satisfy their daily lives, whether they're routine-oriented – such as shopping for weekly groceries – or for the occasional spending splurges on various forms of entertainment. But as a new study shows, immigrants who work in the U.S. do a great deal of good for the country's finances. According to its latest report, "Immigration and the American Worker," the Center for Immigration Studies reports that the goods and services the country produces would not be as significant were immigrants not here. For example, the report found that the U.S.' gross domestic product – which is the total value of what the American workforce produces, is 11 percent larger thanks to the immigrant community. Their contributions add an estimated $1.6 trillion to the national GDP on annual basis. This contribution improves the lives of both those who originate from the U.S. as well as people who are foreign born. When it comes to the impact immigrants' work productivity has on the native-born population specifically, though, this translates to $35 billion each year. Unauthorized immigrants have also heightened the value of what the U.S. produces each year in the form of goods and services. The report found that between $395 billion and $472 billion is directly attributable to undocumented immigrants. H-1B visa cap reached in five days The levels of success that many immigrants have achieved in the U.S. – illustrated by their contribution to the GDP – helps explain why so many people from overseas seek to come to the U.S. so that they can work. And every year, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services makes a special type of visa available to foreign workers so that they can enter the country based chiefly on their skills in a particular profession or trade. These visas are known as H-1B. Because there are so many people who want to enter the U.S. and a limited number of H-1B visas immigration officials put a cap on how many are distributed, determining who get them on a first come, first served basis. Less than a week after USCIS indicated it would begin the approval and application process for H-1Bs, the 65,000 cap was reached. In short, this means that those who did not file for a high-skill visa will have to wait an entire year if they want to enter the U.S. through this method. It's also bad news for business owners, many of whom hire from overseas due to some individuals' advanced training in specific fields. They, too, will have to wait until April 2014, when the H-1B process begins anew. The benefits and popularity of the H-1B visa application process has prompted many legislators and immigration advocates to request that the cap be expanded so that more people can take advantage of it. As noted by the Brookings Institute, bills are currently being considered in Congress that would raise the cap to 115,000. It would then increase or decrease by 20,000 in the subsequent year, depending on the type of demand there was. The Washington, D.C.-based think tank is in favor of increasing the cap. "The current immigration reform debate is a great opportunity to overhaul the system and move away from an arbitrary race against time for H-1B visas," said Brookings. "A new method that structures America's future immigration system to better meet the demand for high-skilled workers … will be welcomed by employers and workers alike."	<urn:uuid:a8656082-0585-4a45-b1b6-a2a655a307cf>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blog.xoom.com/2013/04/immigrants-continue-to-buoy-americas-economic-engine.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972216	776	2.546875	3
Using Situated Metacognition to Enhance Student Understanding of the Nature of Science Kaatje Kraft (Mesa Community College) Dr. Kraft spoke about how she has used metacognition with her students to improve their understanding of the Nature of science. Her intention is to illuminate the "scientific habit of mind" and at the same time help her students attain a firmer grasp on their own habits of mind. Download the PowerPoint (PowerPoint 5.5MB Nov20 08). You can also download the Audio file of student think-aloud (MP3 Audio 796kB Nov21 08) that Kaatje mentions in her presentation.	<urn:uuid:cc598faf-0763-42d3-aea4-3c6c29ccc2cd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/metacognition/kraft.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.905941	135	2.578125	3
UNFPA Holds Workshop on Population Dynamics and Climate Change 26 June 2009: The UN Population Fund (UNFPA), and the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), in collaboration with the Population Division of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) and the UN Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), held a workshop from 24-25 June 2009, in London, UK, on population dynamics and climate change. The expert group meeting focused on how age structure, household size and spatial distribution affect per capita emissions, and how it should be integrated into climate change modeling, particularly in the context of adaptation and mitigation. Participants also held sessions on climate-induced migration, urbanization and climate change, data needs, population issues in climate change strategies, and how to integrate population issues in UN Delivery As One at the country level. UNFPA's agenda on climate change includes the provision of evidence-based arguments to shed light onto population dynamics and climate change, an issue that has not been sufficiently addressed at the climate change negotiations. This meeting was held as part of UNFPA's celebration of the 15th anniversary of the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD+15). The 2009 edition of UNFPA's flagship publication, State of the World Population, expected be released on 18 November, will focus on gender, population and climate change. [Expert Group Meeting website][Meeting Agenda][UNFPA Population and Climate Change working concept note]	<urn:uuid:b0eb5543-9cf6-4a2e-8247-58f37ce52d02>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/unfpa-holds-workshop-on-population-dynamics-and-climate-change/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.891022	306	2.78125	3
What is Pan-Frying? Pan-frying is cooking meat partially submerged in fat. In pan-frying the meat comes into contact with the pan surface, creating more caramelization and potent flavor. Usually there is only a thin layer of fat or oil in the pan. But, sometimes the meat is pan-fried partially submerged in oil. It might even be half-way submerged in oil. In these situations the meat is often breaded with flour, egg, and bread crumbs. This is also called pan-frying. So as you can see pan-frying is a broad subject. And below we have some recipes that use pan-frying as their main method of cooking.	<urn:uuid:f4219f06-4a91-4993-81a4-48a0cbcd596d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.howtocookmeat.com/techniques/howtopanfrymeat.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.981221	144	3.046875	3
NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - Regular exercise may help reduce the misery of the flu by boosting the immune system's response to the virus, a study in mice hints. Studies have suggested that people who exercise moderately suffer fewer and less severe colds and flu infections than couch potatoes do -- while exhausting workouts may increase a person's vulnerability to these infections. In theory, the benefits of moderate exercise may stem from its effects on immune defenses. Research has found that exercise boosts activity in various parts of the immune system that help limit a viral attack or help clear an invading virus from the body more quickly. In the new study, researchers found that when they had a group of mice regularly run on a treadmill over 3.5 months, the animals developed less-severe symptoms when infected with the flu virus, as compared with mice not subjected to the rodent workouts. In addition, mice that exercised right before flu infection, but not regularly over the preceding months, also showed some protection against severe symptoms -- which in mice means dampened appetite and weight loss. Those benefits, however, were only apparent in the couple days after infection, whereas regular long-term exercise reduced flu symptoms over the whole course of infection. Dr. Marian L. Kohut and colleagues at Iowa State University in Ames report the findings in the Journal of Infectious Diseases. Whether the findings translate to humans is unknown. But they offer possible clues as to why regular exercisers have been found to suffer fewer or at least less-severe respiratory infections. Compared with their non-exercising counterparts, mice that exercised showed lower levels of various inflammatory substances in their lungs soon after being infected with the flu virus. Those levels stayed lower in mice that exercised regularly, whereas they rose over the next several days in mice subjected to just one workout. The regularly exercising mice also showed lower concentrations of virus in their lungs early on. These findings, Kohut's team writes, suggest that exercise boosts "early innate antiviral defenses" -- though the exact mechanisms remain unclear. For now, the results offer one more potential reason to get regular moderate exercise. SOURCE: Journal of Infectious Diseases, November 1, 2009.	<urn:uuid:a9d315a6-79bd-4f83-9a84-266e18d34e71>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.lifescript.com/health/centers/copd/related_conditions/cough_articles/regular_exercise_may_help_battle_the_flu.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950114	443	3.078125	3
How to Tune the Violin The violin has four strings which are tuned in fifths. The scientific pitch of the strings from lowest to highest is: G3, D4, A4, and E5. \|Standard Violin Tuning - A4(Hz):440\| \|String\|\|Scientific pitch\|\|Helmholtz pitch\|\|Semitones from Middle C\|\|Frequency (Hz)\| The violin is tuned in perfect fifths - each string is tuned an interval of a perfect fifth from the string (or strings) next to it. The strings of the violin are tightened or loosened to produce the right note by the pegs and the fine tuners. Some violins only have fine tuners on the E string, whereas others have fine tuners on all 4 strings. If you buy a violin with only one fine tuner, you do have the option of getting the other three fine tuners installed into the tailpiece by a luthier. As their name suggests, the fine tuners are used for tuning the string if the string is off-pitch by a small interval of no more than half a tone or so. When the string is out of tune by half a tone or more, then the pegs are used to tune the note initially, with the fine tuner being used afterwards to make sure the note is exactly in tune. Beginners are usually advised not to tune with the pegs unless absolutely necessary, in order to avoid unnecessary string breakages. If you are beginning to tune from the peg, it is a good idea to tune with a scientific tuner to make sure you are not over-tightening the string, however with most low-end scientific tuners you will still have to be wary of tuning an octave too high or too low. Only move the peg about a few millimeters at a time - you will be surprised at how significantly such a small turn can affect the pitch of the string! - Tuning the Violin - Tuning using a Piano - Relative Tuning - Tuning with Electronic Violin Tuners - Alternate Tunings for the Violin - Common tuning Problems - Quick-Reference Tuning Tips Tuning the Violin When tuning any instrument, you should always tune from below the note, up. This prevents string breakages and systematizes the process of tuning, so you eventually become more familiar with the sound of a perfect, in-tune string. When tuning your violin, you should also always tune using the fine tuners when possible (if you have them - most learner violins should have fine tuners). When a fine tuner has been wound right down to the end of the screw, loosen the fine tuner all the way to the end of the screw before carefully tightening the tuning peg. This way, you prevent the string from being over-tightened. When you are tuning your violin, play the note continuously with your bow and listen carefully to the string as it tightens towards the desired pitch. Remember, you may need to stop to tune halfway through a practice, especially if you are using new strings as they tend to stretch and may need tightening from the peg multiple times per practice session for the first few days. It is advisable to start by tuning the A string first, followed by the D, G then E strings. When you start to become more familiar with the sound of the notes of the different strings, you can try tuning the strings against each other - this is known as relative tuning (see 'Relative Tuning' section). If you want to know more about the physics of tuning any instrument, head over to The Science of Tuning Musical Instruments. Tuning using a Piano Tuning your violin using a Piano or Keyboard is a relatively simple task. The picture above shows the piano keys that correspond with the strings on the violin. Make sure you use the 'Middle C' on the picture as a reference point so you don't try to tune your violin an octave too low, or too high. Play the note on the piano and match the correct string to the note. Remember to use the fine tuners on your violin to tune if the string is out by less than half a tone. Use the pedals on the piano so the note you play is able to sound freely, and so that you can have both hands available to tune the violin. Relative tuning is a method of tuning the violin to itself and is a skill that requires a lot of practice and time. In the beginning, some people find it easier to hear the true pitch of the note by closing their eyes and tilting their left ear towards the F holes. You can try this too while you tune your violin. If you have seen an orchestra play live, you may have seen the orchestra pass around the A. The A string is played by the concertmaster (lead violinist) to make sure all members and sections of the orchestra are tuned properly. As a violinist, you use the A that is 'passed' to you to tune your other strings. To do this, you first make sure the A string is in tune, then play the A and D strings together, listening for the perfect fifth interval to ring in tune. Then play the D and G strings together, followed finally by the A and E. In order to tune like this you must have a good knowledge or what the strings sound like, and what a perfect fifth sounds like too. Perfect fifths tend to sound very resonant, so you may be able to tune this way if you listen carefully to the ringing sound, or by looking at how the strings vibrate when you play them together. Start listening for these notes when you tune as a beginner as it is a great skill to be able to internalize a set note and understand the exact perfect frequency of the note by ear. Tuning with Electronic Violin Tuners Check out our Tuning with Electronic Violin Tuners article to learn about how to use electronic tuners. Alternate Tunings for the Violin Generally, alternate tunings for the violin are not commonly used by violinists. However, fiddle and country violinists employ a range of alternate tunings to suit the style of music that they are playing. Some country musicians like to tune their violin in fourths rather than fifths, while others may cross-tune the violin to suit the style of music they are playing. There are a number of different cross-tunings for the violin. The most common cross-tuning for the violin is when the G string is tuned to an A, and the D string to E, so that the violin strings from lowest to highest are tuned A-E-A-E. The A-E-A-E is tuning is most commonly used for songs in A major. Violinists playing in D major may also cross-tune the violin to the tuning (again from lowest to highest) A-D-A-E, where the G-string is raised one tone higher. There are a number of other alternate tunings for the violin that are less popular, most of which are used only in American folk/fiddle music. If you are a beginner, you should always start learning the violin with standard tuning as standardized tuning gives you a better feel for the instrument and is easier to learn. Common tuning Problems The most common problem when tuning is pegs that slip out of place. To fix this problem try unwinding the peg a round or two and then tighten the peg again, pressing the peg reasonably hard into the peg box while turning the peg. Hopefully the peg will stick, and your violin will stay in tune! If you have wound the fine tuners down to the nub and they cannot screw down any further, you can fix this by first winding the fine tuner back as far as it will go without falling out. Then, tighten the string at the peg, no more than a few millimeters at a time, until the pitch is just under the right note you need. Then you can continue to tune the string at the fine tuner. This method of resetting the fine tuners will prevent the string from breaking or wearing out due to excess tightening. If you find that you over-turn the peg and the string then sounds higher than it is supposed to, you can unwind the peg slightly to fix this as you will not be able to use the unwound fine tuner to tune down. If you still have difficulty with slipping pegs or if you find that your fine tuners are hard to turn then have a look at our Violin Maintenance Guide to read about what you can do to fix these problems. Quick-Reference Tuning Tips Tuning a violin is easy if you follow these simple tips: Top Tip: Remember to always tune from below the note to prevent strings from breaking. Use the fine tuners as much as possible to prevent string breakages. When they become wound down to the nub, loosen them right the way up, use the peg to tighten the string to just below the note, and use the fine tuners to tune the note up the rest of the way. Don't over tighten the string at the peg as you will not be able to tune down with the loose fine tuners. Tune the A string first, followed by D, G then E strings. This is how orchestral violinists tune their violins. It does help to get into a good tuning routine. If you are using a tuner then try humming the right note from the tuner first, before you tune, so you know exactly what note you are looking for. If you can't reach the note with your voice, then just visualize humming it, this has much the same effect. If you are having technical problems (such as pegs slipping) check out our article on How to Maintain the Violin.	<urn:uuid:6c1bf9eb-fa9b-4bdb-a214-076a949d35a3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.get-tuned.com/how-to-tune-the-violin.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949176	2,044	3.796875	4
On May 22nd 2012, countries from around the world will celebrate International Day for Biological Diversity (IDB), an annual event aimed at increasing our understanding and awareness of the world’s biodiversity. A Marine Theme This year’s theme – ‘Marine Biodiversity’ – provides a fantastic opportunity to raise global awareness of the many issues facing the world’s marine ecosystems, and to encourage practical action to protect and conserve them. From tropical oceans and coral reefs, to deep-sea vents and the ice-strewn waters of the Arctic and Antarctic, marine ecosystems are hugely diverse. Current estimates of the total number of known marine species range from 250,000 to at least a million, with some scientists believing that the actual figure could be twice as high. With life in the oceans so incredibly diverse, picking out even a handful of our favourite marine images poses a tough challenge, but we’ve dipped into our ocean imagery to share some of our biggest catches… The whale shark is the world’s largest fish, growing up to a staggering 12 metres long and weighing around 12,500 kilograms. Despite their huge size, whale sharks feed almost entirely by filter-feeding on plankton and small fish. One of the most widespread of all the marine turtles, the loggerhead turtle is also the most highly migratory, with some individuals having been known to cross the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Nautiluses are often considered “living fossils”, having survived relatively unchanged for millions of years. They are found only in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, where they inhabit the deep slopes of coral reefs. Blue rice coral The blue rice coral is endemic to Hawaii. Like many other reef-building corals, the blue rice coral is threatened by factors such as bleaching caused by rising sea temperatures, as well as by disease, destructive fishing methods and invasive species. The smallest marine mammal in the world, the adorable sea otter relies on its fur to keep warm in the water. The sea otter’s coat is the densest of any mammal, consisting of around 100,000 hairs per cm²! Explore more marine species on ARKive. Helen Roddis, ARKive Species Text Author	<urn:uuid:ba44f8f2-b00f-4f13-815b-05f577886445>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blog.arkive.org/2012/05/international-day-for-biodiversity-2012/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.929139	467	3.40625	3
A recent study, found that people who get lots of vitamin E in their food have only about half as much bladder cancer as those who take in relatively little. Researchers once had high hopes that vitamin E would prove to be // an important safeguard against heart attacks. But that idea eventually faded as repeated studies failed to show any protective effect .Now, some think the vitamin may protect against cancer perhaps by warding off the damaging effects of oxygen. The new study shows that dietary vitamin E may also protect against bladder cancer, which kills about 12,500 Americans annually and is four times more common in men than women. The study was based on questionnaires of the eating habits of about 1,000 Houston residents. Those whose vitamin E intake was in the top 25 percent had just half as much bladder cancer as those in the lowest quarter. The actual difference in the amount of vitamin-rich food the two extremes ate was small, however, the equivalent of a single daily serving of spinach or a handful of almonds. The reduction was roughly the same, regardless of whether people got their vitamin E from food alone or in combination with vitamin pills. Researchers also looked at the two most common forms of vitamin E, called alpha- and gamma-tocopherol, and found that only the alpha variety was linked with lower bladder cancer risk. Good sources of this include almonds, spinach, mustard greens, peppers, sunflower seeds and a variety of oils, including olive, cotton seed and canola. Researchers say they would like to tease out which elements of the diet are especially healthful. Many studies have shown that people who eat lots of fruits and vegetables have lower risk of cancer. However, these foods contain more than 100 potentially helpful vitamins, minerals and other substances, and no one knows exactly which components do this. The strongest evidence of vitamin E's cancer effects comes from a study several years ago on nearly 30,000 Finnish smokers. It unexpectedly found those who took alpha-tocopherol pills lowered their prostate cancer risk by one-third. The same study shocked researchers by showing that another once high-flying nutrient, beta carotene, appeared to actually increase their risk of lung cancer. A National Cancer Institute study now under way is testing the effects of 400 milligrams of vitamin E and 200 micrograms of selenium daily on more than 32,000 men for seven years to see if they reduce prostate cancer. However researchers say much more research is needed before they can recommend more than eating plenty of vitamin-rich fruits and vegetables. Related medicine news :1 . Vitamin B12 can help in detecting cancers2 . Vitamins-The answer to Heart Disease?3 . Vitamin E, the latest warrior against diabetes4 . Vitamin Shields Brittle Bones5 . B Vitamin protects and lowers toxicity of Arthritis Drug6 . B Vitamin Supplementatoin Saves Money and Lives7 . Eat Vitamin C and stay young8 . Vitamin C for the heart9 . Vitamin B for Hepatitis10 . Vitamins reduce pre-eclampsia11 . Vitamin E useful for Alzheimers	<urn:uuid:fbbd51c5-6015-410b-9072-5c821999e0a2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news/Vitamin-E-Found-To-reduce-bladder-cancer-risk-4413-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959794	637	3.140625	3
Monday, May 13, 2013 Now and Then on Google Maps The Center for Urban History of East Central Europe has created two interesting Google Maps exploring the history of Lviv, Ukraine. The Lviv Interactive Map shows the locations of buildings, events and people who have been important in the history of the city. The locations are sorted by category and subcategories. For example, the history category of markers includes the sub-categories of Fin-de-siècle City, the Holocaust in Lviv, Jewish city, Postsocialist city, Sacred city, Secession City and Socialist City. The Plan of Lemberg / Lviv uses the Google Maps API to display an 1863 map of the city, the 'Plan von Lemberg'. Using the familiar Google Maps navigation tools users can zoom in on details of the map. Quick links to zoom in on important locations on the map are displayed in the map sidebar.	<urn:uuid:61a9310b-bd61-4636-bcc1-1a3c5c6da61a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://googlemapsmania.blogspot.com/2013/05/now-and-then-on-google-maps.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.863429	191	3.171875	3
TUESDAY, May 18, 2010 (Health.com) — People who experience serious head injuries often require days—if not weeks—of medical care to get back on their feet. For most of them, the mental aftershocks will last long after they’ve checked out of the hospital. More than half of all people who sustain a traumatic brain injury will become depressed in the year following the injury, a rate eight times higher than in the general population, according to a new study in the Journal of the American Medical Association. And only about 45% of those who do become depressed are likely to receive adequate treatment. “We’re not talking about normal day-to-day changes in mood, but symptoms that last for more than two weeks,” says the lead author of the study, Charles Bombardier, PhD, professor of rehabilitation medicine at the University of Washington School of Medicine. Symptoms to watch for include low mood, low energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, difficulty concentrating, acting restless or slowing down, and thoughts of death, says Bombardier. Previous research has shown a higher rate of suicide following traumatic brain injury, he adds. “Any signs that the person may be thinking of killing himself should be taken very seriously.” Brain injuries themselves may cause changes in brain structure and function that predispose people to depression, says Bombardier. But certain factors also seem to increase a person’s risk, including a history of alcohol abuse or depression before the injury. The people who were depressed were more likely than the non-depressed patients to say they were experiencing trouble with pain, mobility, and everyday activities after their injury, but it’s unclear whether these problems were responsible for the depression, or vice-versa. Each year in the United States about 1.7 million people suffer traumatic brain injuries, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). These injuries, which range from mild concussions to coma-inducing trauma, claim tens of thousands of lives each year. Most of the participants in the study sustained their injuries in falls, car crashes, or other accidents involving vehicles. Although this study focused on civilians, the authors note that traumatic brain injury is a “signature” injury among soldiers. As many as 360,000 U.S. soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan have experienced these injuries, the U.S. Department of Defense has estimated.	<urn:uuid:edefc33e-43f9-4117-b51f-cccf7f8436f6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://news.health.com/2010/05/18/brain-injury-depression/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959395	504	2.921875	3
Floodwaters 'threatening Great Barrier Reef' Scientists from across Queensland are converging on the mouth of the Fitzroy River in Rockhampton over fears that sediment and toxic chemicals carried by floodwaters in central Queensland now reaching the ocean may damage the Great Barrier Reef. Marine scientists from James Cook University, the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Natural Resources will be collecting water samples, measuring flow rates and diving on the reef to assess its condition first hand. Dr David Haynes, acting director of water quality and the Coastal Developmental Unit of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, said that sediment could pose a significant threat to the health of the reef. "The main problem with sediment is one of the things it will do is settle on coral and physically smother them in high enough concentrations," he said. "It can also make the water highly turbid and reduce the amount of light that can penetrate through the water and corals are very dependent on light to obtain food; they use algae in their cells to manufacture food. "If the corals are in dirty water then the coral's food source is cut off for as long as the water is dirty." Environmentalists today expressed concern about pesticides and other chemical run-off coming from the large areas of farmland and mine sites that were inundated. Queensland Conservation Council (QCC) coordinator Toby Hutcheon said the floodwaters brought a new threat of pesticides used on farms, as well as heavy metals at mine sites in the coal-rich Bowen Basin. "These are normally contained and prevented from contaminating the environment but they have suddenly been flushed out and there's nothing we can do about them," Mr Hutcheon said. Dr Haynes believes that enhanced nutrients from farms and chemicals from pesticides and other sources can cause damage but he said that one of the most damaging effects may come from the volume of fresh water itself. "In the past what we have found with these sorts of floods is that it is actually the fresh water which can damage the corals more," he said. "Fresh water can be quite toxic to corals, it being a marine animal." During the last major flood event in the 1990s, Dr Haynes said fresh water greatly affected corals. Mr Hutcheon said the wider effects of the flooding on animal life and the environment had been devastating. "All the ground-dwelling animals have been decimated by this because they are not used to these sorts of conditions." Snakes had been washed out of their native habitats and become a threat to both humans and other wildlife and birds had also been displaced and most had lost their main sources of food, he said. "As you go further downstream, because you are having this massive flush-out of all the river estuaries, it basically destroys all the fish breeding habitats and overwhelms the environment," Mr Hutcheon said. Floodwater began to surge out of the Fitzroy River yesterday and while monitoring of the flows and the reef will continue for weeks, Dr Haynes does not expect the water to pose any danger to people using the ocean waters around Rockhampton. Damage to corals and other marine life will depend of how long the flood waters remain in the immediate area before dispersing. "It depends on how the flood plume hangs around, other animals can swim away but corals are rooted to where they are and they have to take anything that comes past them," Dr Haynes said.	<urn:uuid:e31afeed-c588-4bd4-876b-d01514cbbe24>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/news/queensland/floodwaters-threatening-great-barrier-reef/2008/01/29/1201369117981.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968937	715	3.3125	3
The Worlds Famous Orations. Rome (218 B.C.84 A.D.). 1906. To His Army in Scotland Agricola (c.A.D. 40A.D. 93) Born in 37 A.D., died in 93; father-in-law of Tacitus; served in many campaigns in Britain and France, carrying the Roman conquest as far as the northern boundary of Perth and Argyll. IT1 is now the eighth year, my fellow soldiers, in which, under the high auspices of the Roman empire, by your valor and perseverance you have been conquering Britain. In so many expeditions, in so many battles, whether you have been required to exert your courage against the enemy. or your patient labors against the very nature of the country, neither have I ever been dissatisfied with my soldiers, nor you with your general. In this mutual confidence, we have proceeded beyond the limits of former commanders and former armies; and are now become acquainted with the extremity of the island, not by uncertain rumor, but by actual possession with our arms and encampments. Britain is discovered and subdued. How often, on a march, when embarrassed with mountains, bogs, and rivers, have I heard the bravest among you exclaim, When shall we descry the enemy? When shall we be led to the field of battle? At length they are unharbored from their retreats; your wishes and your valor have now free scope, and every circumstance is equally propitious to the victor, and ruinous to the vanquished. For, the greater our glory in having marched over vast tracts of land, penetrated forests, and crossed arms of the sea, while advancing toward the foe, the greater will be our danger and difficulty if we should attempt a retreat. We are inferior to our enemies in knowledge of the country, and less able to command supplies of provision; but we have arms in our hands, and in these we have everything. For myself, it has long been my principle, that a retiring general or army is never safe. Not only, then, are we to reflect that death with honor is preferable to life with ignominy, but to remember that security and glory are seated in the same place. Even to fall in this extremest verge of earth and of nature can not be thought an inglorious fate. If unknown nations or untried troops were drawn up against you, I would exhort you from the example of other armies. At present, recollect your own honors, question your own eyes. These are they who, the last year, attacking by surprise a single legion in the obscurity of the. night, were put to flight by a shoutthe greatest fugitives of all the Britons, and, therefore, the longest survivors. As in penetrating woods and thickets the fiercest animals boldly rush on the hunters, while the weak and timorous fly at their very noise; so the bravest of the Britons have long since fallen. The remaining number consists solely of the cowardly and spiritless, whom you see at length within your reach, not because they have stood their ground, but because they are overtaken. Torpid with fear, their bodies are fixed and chained down in yonder field, which to you will speedily be the scene of a glorious and memorable victory. Here bring your toils anti services to a conclusion; close a struggle of fifty years2 with one great day; and convince your countrymen, that to the army ought not to be imputed either the protraction of the war or the causes of rebellion.3 Note 1. Delivered in 84 A.D. on the eve of the battle of the Grampian Hills. Reported by Tacitus. The Revised Oxford translation. [back] Note 2. The expedition of Claudius into Britain occurred in the year of Rome 796, from which, to the period of this engagement of the Grampian Hills, forty-two years had elapsed. [back] Note 3. Tacitus remarks that, While Agricola was yet speaking, the ardor of the soldiers declared itself; and as soon as he had finished, they burst forth into cheerful acclamations, and instantly flew to arms. Thus eager and impetuous, he formed them so that the center was occupied by the auxiliary infantry, in number 8,000 and 3,000 horse were spread in the wings. [back]	<urn:uuid:e5db1b01-1e0a-474b-832c-ac771117caf2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bartleby.com/268/2/27.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96348	911	2.546875	3
Capt. David Westover, USAF Strategic Public Relations Management: International Perspective Dr. Juan-Carlos Molleda April 22, 2003 (Reprinted with the author's permission) Introduction and overview Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., the United States has entered a new era which perpetuates the vital need for effective international broadcasting to explain its policies, values and culture to the rest of the world. While the global phenomenon of international broadcasting has a long and rich history that dates back to 1915, it remains to be a significant communication strategy used by more than 100 countries in multiple regions around the world today. In this analysis, I will provide a chronological review of the history of international radio broadcasting as a communication strategy used by various countries up until World War II. I will then provide an historical review of the U.S. governments use of international radio broadcasting, covering both its diplomatic and military uses throughout several major conflicts ranging from World War II through the current war in Iraq. I will conclude with a brief analysis of the current situation today and discuss the continued role of international radio broadcasting in U.S. foreign policy and public diplomacy efforts. Origins of International Radio Broadcasting There are varied historical accounts describing the early beginnings of international broadcasting. Wasburn (1992) suggested that Germany may have been the first country to use international radio broadcasting as early as 1915, when it established a regular radio news service that was accepted and used by multiple neutral countries in the region. Bumpus & Skelt (1984) supported the claim that these German broadcasts appeared to be "widely heard and used by the press" (p.7). In addition, these scholars also pointed to Russias initial use of international radio broadcasting dating back to 1917 in its effort to "explain the facts behind the revolution" to the rest of the world. However, on both accounts, these early broadcasts were Morse code transmissions understood only by a relatively few. These authors both highlight Vladimir Lenins vision that radio had the potential to not only to reach the domestic audience in Russia, but also for its vast international possibilities and its "revolutionary value." Lenin urged his successor Joseph Stalin to further radio research when he wrote: "I think from the standpoint of propaganda and agitation, especially for those that are illiterate, it is absolutely necessary for us to carry out this plan" (Bumpus & Skelt, 1984, p.7) "The Russians were the first to establish a government-sponsored, continuous, and extensive system of radio broadcasting, which revealed that such far-reaching systems were developed as a means of attaining significant political and economic goals" (Wasburn, 1992, p.1). According to Wood (1992), it was the year 1927 that marked the birth of propaganda. Great Britain joined Russia and Germany, when it also discovered the use of radio waves as the "perfect medium for communicating with its far-flung colonies in the eastern and western hemispheres of the world" (p. 36). Within the next few years, the Netherlands also began regular transmissions in Dutch to the East Indies, while France started French broadcasts to its colonies. By 1932, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Dutch colonial services developed into "major contemporary international broadcast organizations" (Wasburn, 1992, p.5). Meanwhile in the United States, it was commercial companies that pursued to further the reach of radio broadcasting. KDKA of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania was the first radio station to transmit programs for entertainment, first to broadcast news to the public and was first to have a license to do so (Wood, 1992). American companies such as Westinghouse and General Electric set up radio stations primarily to promote their consumer products. These companies were soon followed by large domestic broadcasting companies such as National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) and Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), while the U.S. government "steered well clear of any involvement in international broadcasting" (Bumpus & Skelt, 1984, p.16). Wood (1992) points out a dramatic turning point in the history of international broadcasting that took place in October 1935. Edward R. Murrow, a journalist and news broadcaster for CBS, attempted to cover a two-segment debate between Great Britain and Italy regarding Benito Mussolinis invasion into Ethiopia, a land where the British had strong vested interests. One the first night, CBS successfully transmitted the British perspective across the Atlantic Ocean via short wave radio transmitters, which proposed sanctions against the Italians. However, the following night just as the Italian delegation was set to be aired in America, Murrow was informed that the short-wave link through London, controlled by the British Post Office refused permission for the broadcast and had pulled the plug on the circuit. This made front page headline, 51 nations vote for sanctions against Italy, Britain cuts off broadcast by Italians. "International broadcasting and anti-broadcasting had arrived as a weapon of considerable effect for influencing the minds of listeners," (Wood, 1992, p.39). When Adolph Hitler became the Chancellor of the National Socialist Government in Germany, he embraced the use of broadcasting as the "chief instrument of political propaganda" and reorganized its primarily domestic broadcasting arrangements to include overseas transmissions. By the end of 1935, Germany had successfully transmitted regular programs to Asia, Africa, South America and North America in German, English, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch (Bumpus & Skelt, 1984). World War II: U.S. Government enters International Broadcasting Wasburn (1992) claimed that much of the current character of international radio stems from what it became during World War II. Concerned with the successes of German propaganda, the U.S. government under the Roosevelt Administration began first looking into international broadcasting in 1940 (Tyson, 1983). When the Japanese bombed Pear Harbor on December 7, 1941, the U.S. entered World War II, clearly marking the shift from the commercial use of broadcast media, only as means of making money, to the U.S. State Departments decision to initiate a strong international voice on the airwaves (Wood, 1992). Although delayed by various political reasons and strong opposition from the commercial radio industry and the general public, the U.S. was the last world power to participate in international radio broadcasts (Wasburn, 1992). In 1942, the Office of War Information was established and charged with several responsibilities including setting up a broadcasting division. Contrary to the German propaganda techniques of falsehood and terror, U.S. international broadcasts were founded on truthful information and "on a much higher moral plain than the psychological radio war that was going on in Europe" (Wood, 1992, p.51). The policy was established from the very first words of its initial broadcast: "This is a voice speaking to you from America we will speak to you about America and the war the news may be good or bad we shall tell you the truth" (VOA Information Book,1982 in Bumpus & Skelt,1984, p.40). While in theory this new policy of "truth only" was refreshing, in reality it was difficult to adhere to during the early defeats of the war; however the U.S. broadcasts earned their long-awaited credibility when the "Voice of America," the official name that developed based on the initial broadcast, began to report allied victories (Tyson, 1983). During the course of the war, the VOA had to adapt to meet the psychological challenges presented by enemy broadcasts. In particular, the Japanese specifically targeted the American soldier by broadcasting "radio warfare, working primarily to divide America from its allies in Asia and the Pacific, to stimulate war-weariness, nostalgia, and a pessimistic view of the war" (Wasburn, 1992, p.20). The Japanese cleverly broadcasted "high quality, light entertainment recorded by Americas top bands, introduced by the sexually charged voices of female announcers" with its primary motive of making the average U.S. soldier "tired of war and killing." As a result, "thousands of GIs fell in love with a voice (one popularly identified as "Tokyo Rose") from which they created in their minds -- a picture of their loved ones" (Wood, 1992, p.51). The follow excerpt was from one of these broadcasts: "Howd you like to go to the corner drug store tonight, and get an ice cream soda? I wonder who your wives and girl friends are out with tonight. Maybe with a war plant worker making big money while you are out here fighting and knowing you cant succeed" (Tokyo Radio, 1943 as quoted by Ryo,1983 in Wasburn,1992). In response, the U.S. Office of War Information "enlisted the aid of the public relations industry and Hollywood," (p.51) signing up celebrities and began to broadcast top-class entertainment in the Pacific Islands as well as in the other theaters of war in the Middle East and Europe. During the war, the VOA grew exponentially, employing more than 3,000 people and broadcasting more than 165 hours a day in over 40 languages "beyond any doubt, international broadcasting had established itself as an arm of American wartime operations" (Tyson, 1983, p.6). The arrival of the VOA marked the beginning of an era in which the U.S. government would employ international radio broadcasting continuously, even to the present day. Post-War Era turns to the Cold War After the war, the U.S. government debated whether it should continue international radio broadcasting. As a result, VOA broadcasts were severely limited and for nearly five years, the fate of VOA remained unknown. A key argument in favor of keeping an operational overseas radio organization was presented from a technical perspective. If terminated, it would be difficult to restore transmission facilities and radio band assignments if it were later deemed necessary to do so (Tyson, 1983). But the overriding factor in sustaining the VOA, pointed to several steps taken by the Communist government of the Soviet Union which "made it increasing clear that it did not share the American vision of postwar collaboration" (p.11). These steps included Moscow establishing the Communist Information Agency in Eastern Europe, which declared its purpose "to unite communist states in the forthcoming struggle against Anglo-American Imperialism" (p.12). In February 1947, the VOA began its first, rather limited, broadcasts into the Soviet Union (Tyson, 1983). By now it was clear that communism and capitalism were in direct confrontation. In 1948, President Harry S. Trumans Marshall Plan, which offered aid to any country willing to renounce communism, marked the first phase of the Cold War (Wood, 1992). This same year, the U.S. Congress passed a bill that fostered a permanent role for the VOA in the information activity of the State Department (Bumpus & Skelt, 1984). As tensions continued to mount between the Soviet Union and the West, a combination of political events, including the Berlin Blockade and the communist take over of Czechoslovakia, prompted the U.S. government to support additional broadcasting efforts (Wasburn, 1992). In 1950, Radio Free Europe (RFE) emerged in Munich, and began broadcasting into the Eastern European countries of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Albania (Tyson, 1983). Unlike the VOA, the U.S. State Department did not want the government to "be explicitly identified with the effort, (therefore) the administration decided to have the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) provide confidential funds and policy control" (p.20). The following year, a similar effort named Radio Liberation, later shortened to Radio Liberty (RL), was launched to broadcast to the people of the Soviet Union. One of the key attributes to the successes of RFE and RL was the cooperation between the Americans in charge of programming and the foreign émigrés who fled their communist controlled countries. Both stations employed the abilities of a great number of these émigrés for commentaries and discussions, utilizing their expertise in history, the arts and religion (Tyson, 1983). From the beginning of their existence, RFE and RL were "in the thick of the Cold War" and "considered key elements in a broad counteroffensive that brought together all available resources" (p. 26). Meanwhile, the VOA gained strength and the support of the U.S. government. In July 1950, the U.S. Advisory Commission on Information stated in its report to President Truman and Congress that, "the propaganda effort of the USSR, now bordering on open psychological warfare, is a major threat to U.S. foreign policy objectives a psychological offensive by the U.S. based on truth is essential if the U.S. is to succeed" (Tyson, 1983, p. 26). As a result, the VOA budget doubled and named Foy Kohler, a Foreign Service officer with nearly 20 years experience and the reputation as one of the countrys leading experts on the Soviet Union. At the end of 1950, the following excerpt from a speech by Kohler summed up the revised objectives of the VOA: "The attempt of Soviet propaganda to convince the world that the U.S. is a warmongering, power-hungry nation, determined to dominate all other nations, has reached a point where it can only be described as aggressive psychological warfare and a major threat to foreign policy objectives of the U.S .the role of the Voice of America in this effort is an important one because of the ability of radio to surmount the man-made barriers of censorship and suppression, and speak directly to the people" (Tyson, 1983, p.28) 1950s bring about new administration, USIA, continued conflict Under the direction of U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, all information activities including international broadcasting were transferred from the U.S. State Department to the newly formed U.S. Information Agency. As part of this shift, broadcasting resources became leaner and budgets grew smaller, all in the name of improved efficiency (Tyson, 1983). It was also during this time that the U.S. military first directly engaged with communist forces in the Korean Conflict. However, as Wood (1992) described it, "in the Cold War there was a reversal of roles: the power radio transmitter became the major weapon of war, and the real weapons of war were kept on a leash" (p.106). Each side avoided attacking targets that could have let to an escalation of the war. In addition, both sides limited the weapons it used and the territory in which it would fight. Nevertheless, South Korean and American troops still suffered more than 580,000 casualties, while North Korean and Chinese troops totaled more than 1.5 million (Wasburn, 1992). A few years later, conflict erupted in Eastern Europe which may have been the result of RFEs overly "enthusiast and optimistic tone" about a change brewing in the air. In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet Unions newly assumed leader, presented a speech to the Communist Party Congress that denounced many of the ideologies of Stalin. RFE and RL rebroadcast the speech to Eastern Europe which directly led to uprisings in Poland and Hungary. These revolts demanded the lifting of the repressive measures formerly used by Stalin (Tyson, 1983). The Poles successfully avoided a direct military conflict, however, the streets of Budapest were seized by more than 200,000 Soviet troops and 2,500 tanks which resulted in the death, imprisonment and fleeing of several hundred thousand Hungarians (Wasburn, 1992). 1960s: JFK, Edward R. Murrow, Cuba and Vietnam When John F. Kennedy became President, he hired Edward R. Murrow as the newest director of the U.S. Information Agency. Murrow, widely known for his acumen and strong communication skills, not only elevated international broadcasting to a higher priority in U.S. foreign policy, but he also concentrated on persuasion and foreign public opinion to influence other nations (Tyson, 1983). During Kennedys short stint in the White House, VOA, RFE and RL each received additional financial support and broadened the scope of their responsibilities. It was Murrows influence that led to one of the expanded goals of RFE (Tyson, 1983): "To persuade its audiences that the communist system which rules them is not immune to change, that its promised world victory will not take place on the contrary, they as individuals, have a vital and peaceful part to play in accelerating the defeat of the world communist movement (p.50)." In the early 1960s, the rise of Cuban leader Fidel Castro brought communism to the door-step of America. In response, Kennedy greatly boosted the VOAs Spanish-language broadcasts to counter anti-American sentiment. However in 1961, the failed Bay of Pigs invasion was not only an embarrassing foreign policy defeat for the U.S., but it damaged the credibility of VOA and Radio Swan, a CIA-financed clandestine station whose sole purpose was to discredit the Castro government (Wasburn, 1992). A year later, the Cuban Missile Crisis once again pitted the U.S. against the Soviet Union. The Kennedy Administration prompted the VOA to patch together a network of commercial AM stations that flooded the Cuban airwaves. In addition, VOA with the help of RFE, made the U.S. position clearly known throughout the world (Wasburn, 1992). After the crisis ended, the U.S. and the Soviet Union signed a treaty limiting the testing of nuclear weapons, established a dialogue between the White House and the Kremlin, and extended an agreement for educational, scientific, and cultural exchanges. It appeared that Cold War tensions were somewhat easing (Wasburn, 1992). However, that was not the case as the Vietnam conflict escalated into a full-fledged war. In 1965, the U.S. began sending combat troops into the region and within three years, that number reached half a million (Tyson, 1983). While much of the historical reflection on Vietnam focuses on U.S. domestic media coverage of the war, the VOA also faced a daunting challenge of maintaining its organizational integrity. John Daly, a former professional broadcaster who was named Director of VOA, struggled with the "battle over policy versus objectivity, as the situation began to polarize the nation" (p.55). The battle enraged in Congress as Rep. Charles Joelson (D-NJ), voiced the opinion of several government officials: "The Voice of America is to promulgate our government policy if that policy is wrong, we ought to change it here, not broadcast statements opposing that policy" (Wasburn, 1992, p.45). In the end, these events led the VOA to adopt a more cautious broadcasting policy, especially towards the end of the war. U.S. international broadcasting in the 1970s and 80s: The overall output of the VOA, RFE and RL, which averaged approximately 2000 hours per week, remained relatively constant from 1970 to the early 1980s. However, their target audiences greatly expanding to reach countries in Africa, India and those formerly under the Soviet bloc (Bumpus & Skelt,1984). In 1973, the U.S. government established the Board for International Broadcasting (BIB), which now openly financed RFE and RL through annual Congressional appropriations. Prior to the BIB, both organizations were secretly funded by the CIA (Tyson, 1983). The BIB also brought a change in the organizational structure of RFE and RL. According to an interview with Malcom S. Forbes, the agency director from 1985 to 1993, "the BIB is an independent federal agency, which provides a firewall for Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty journalists. If there are complaints about broadcasting, they get thrown to us (however) at VOA, theyre always getting pressure from the State Department to temper coverage VOA doesnt have that effective firewall" (Raghavan, Johnson and Bahrenburg,1993). As President Jimmy Carter took office in 1977, he instilled a shift towards building more of a dialogue with the communist countries. In 1978, Carter symbolically changed the name of the U.S. Information Agency to the U.S. International Communication Agency and removed the plaque on the headquarters building that once read, "Telling Americas Story," placing new emphasis on two-way communication rather than one one-way persuasion (Tyson, 1983). While the BIB, VOA, RFE and RL followed Carters new guidelines of implementing a "two-way" dialogue, the communist countries never fully agreed to such terms, and as a result, stepped up its propaganda and jamming efforts against RFE, RL and VOA (Tyson, 1983). Continued conflict in Iran, Afghanistan and in Africa, as well as anti-American rhetoric in the Soviet Union, proved that détente was not the best approach for U.S. foreign policy (Tyson, 1983). In January 1981, President Ronald Reagan took office and immediately pledged the need for "a stronger policy against communist ideology and Soviet aggressiveness" (p. 75). Charles Wick and Frank Shakespeare, the newly appointed directors of the USICA and the BIB, respectively, met resistance from long standing VOA, RFE and RL management who clung to the Johnson administrations policy of "informing only with little effort at persuasion" (p.77). In a 1984 speech, Reagan criticized previous administrations support of international broadcasting: "Despite problems of antiquated equipment and Soviet jamming, the Voice of America has extended the message of truth around the world. Were it not for years of neglect that voice could be heard more clearly and thats why our administration has made the same kind of commitment to modernize the Voice of America that Kennedy brought to the space program" (Wood, 2000, p.70). During his eight years in office, Reagan directed the global modernization of U.S. international broadcasting, which included many projects that were eventually completed after his term in the White House. The impact of Reagans support for U.S. international broadcasting is difficult to quantify, however as Wood (2000) explained: "Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty were instruments of the Cold War that began in 1948. No one thought this war would go on for 40 years and when the end came it was sudden and unexpected, but most important of all, it was nearly bloodless. It was a war fought with words, not bullets; it was paid for by American taxpayers and later described in Washington in December 1991, as one of the best investments ever made by the U.S. government." Puddington (2000) also attempts to quantify the value of RFE and RL when he said: "It is unfortunate the most of the histories of the Cold War deal with RFE and RL as footnotes, or as CIA-manipulated propaganda instruments. For in fact the radio proved one of the most successful institutions of Americas Cold War effort, and made and important contribution to the peaceful nature of communisms demise. Their success can be measured by the gratitude expressed by millions of listeners, for whom the radios often served as a voice of hope and sanity in an often hopeless and insane world (p.313)." 1990s Cold War followed by conflict in the Gulf and the Balkans When the Cold War ended in 1989, the peace would only last a short while before Saddam Hussein led an Iraqi invasion into neighboring Kuwait. This aggression prompted an urgent need for the U.S. government to make rapid changes in their international broadcasts (Wood, 2000). On Thanksgiving Day 1990, the U.S. utilized its Department of Defense resources and began broadcasting the VOA into Kuwait via Volant Solo, the U.S. Air Forces modified EC-130 Special Operations aircraft which provides airborne "surge broadcasting" capability. Volant Solo would later be later renamed Commando Solo (Rouse, 2003). According to Rouse (2003), these radio broadcasts played a large part of the psychological operations (psyops) that helped "to prepare the battlefield by offering the Iraqi soldiers food, bedding and medical care if they surrendered and reminded them of the consequences if they did not." According to Makelainen (2003), the purpose of psyops is "to induce or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to (US) objectives by conducting planned operations to convey selected information to various audiences to influence their emotions, motives, reasoning and ultimately, the behavior of organizations, groups and individuals." In January 1991, the U.S. adopted the Voice of the Gulf, which began non-stop radio broadcasts from both land-based transmitters in Saudi Arabia as well as Commando Solo aircraft. These broadcasts would last until April 1 when coalition forces expelled Iraqi forces and Kuwait was liberated. The text of a February 1991 broadcast went as follows: "Your only safety is across the Saudi Arabian border. That is where the bombing and the starvation stop. The Joint Forces offer you asylum. They offer you a warm bed, medical attention and three filling meals a day. Embrace your Arab brothers and share in their peace" (ClandestineRadio.com, 2003). These radio broadcasts combined with the psyops leaflet and loudspeaker broadcast programs were major motivating factors to the estimated 100,000 soldiers who surrendered or deserted by the war's end (Rouse, 2003). Although radio broadcasting played a key role in the U.S. success during the Gulf War, a major organizational change to U.S. international broadcasting took place two years later. U.S. Senator Joseph Biden (D-Del.), a key member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, visited the Balkans in 1993 to investigate the grave situation first hand and to determine ways to help end the genocide taking place in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Kaufman, 2002). Biden learned how Slobodan Milosevic used state-owned radio and television to inflame the Serbian people by using "daily broadcasts of manufactured atrocities of the Bosnian Muslims" (p.2). After witnessing the power of Milosevics propaganda, Bidens response was that "if the U.S. is to deal with these problems, we have to move beyond military, political and economic weapons we must learn how to fight the media war." The following year, under the newly approved Biden-led legislation, the U.S. International Broadcasting Act of 1994 consolidated all international broadcasting resources and created the Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG). This bi-partisan board would be composed of eight private citizensfour Democrats and four Republicansand the director of the USIA (Kaufman, 2002). The BBG later became an independent federal agency in 1999. As the Bosnia-Herzegovina conflict continued to spread throughout the Balkan region, the U.S. energized the VOA and RFE/RL to adopt a wide range of newly developed, high-tech tactics in addition to their conventional radio broadcasts. With the technology boom of the mid-1990s, these tactics included Internet-based transmissions, fax and e-mail publications. In addition, RFE/RL broadcasted via Commando Solo, which provided the much needed "surge broadcasting" capability into the region. With the help of neighboring nations, the U.S. had created a "ring around Serbia" in which U.S. international broadcasting greatly contributed to the fall of Milosevic in October 2000 (Kaufman, 2002). Kaufman claimed that "this extraordinary outcome was achieved because all U.S. international broadcasting had been consolidated under the single authority of the BBG which facilitated coordination with the Departments of State and Defense and enabled quicker decisions" (p.5). 9/11 and the War on Terrorism The tragic events of September 11, 2001 sent a shock through the world that resonated for days and weeks and even the years to come. According to an editorial in the Christian Science Monitor (2003, March 6) "public diplomacy was a high priority during the Cold War, it afterward fell into eclipse until the events of September 11, 2001." The piece went on to say that "since then the question, why do they hate us? inspired new efforts to explain American values, especially to those cultures from which the terrorists emerged." It was as if the events of 9/11 both crystallized and codified a number of Islamic extremist terrorist acts devised by mastermind Osama Bin Laden. These included the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing in Saudi Arabia, the 1999 U.S. embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania, and the 2000 attack on the USS Cole in Yemen. When U.S. president George W. Bush declared a "War on Terrorism" on September 20, 2001, with it came "a consensus that U.S. public diplomacy requires a commitment to new foreign policy thinking and the need to make clear why the U.S. is fighting this war and why supporting it is in the interest of others, as well as Americans" (Peterson, 2002, pg. 74). An essential part of that commitment is, without a doubt, international broadcasting. Within weeks of the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, U.S. Commando Solo aircraft took over the airwaves in Afghanistan, with radio broadcasts that included the following text: "On Sept. 11, 2001, thousands of people were killed en masse in the United States among them was a 2-year-old girl, barely able to stand or dress herself. Did she deserve to die?" The broadcast went on to further explain that the attacks in New York and the Pentagon were on innocent people an act forbidden by the Muslim Koran (Garamone, 2001). While there have been considerable increases in U.S. government allocations to improve and expand international broadcasting, wide criticism abounded even before the Bush administration launched "Operation Iraqi Freedom." For example, Minow (2002) pointed out in a speech: "In November 2002, Congress finally set aside $30 million to launch a new Middle East radio network (which includes funding Radio Free Afghanistan and Radio Sawa). These efforts are late and in my view, too timid. They are tactical, not strategic. They are smart, not visionary. The cost of putting Radio Free Afghanistan on the air and underwriting its annual budget, for example, is less than even one Comanche helicopter. We have many hundreds of helicopters, which we need to destroy tyranny, but they are insufficient to secure freedom" (p.5). In the final days preceding the U.S. war with Iraq, an interesting phenomenon was beginning to take place. Throughout the extensive international media coverage of the impending threat to Saddam Husseins regime, there were for the first time, widespread accounts of the U.S. governments use of clandestine radio broadcasting and military psyops. It was widely reported in the international media that both of these tactics commenced well before the first air strikes were ordered on March 19. In an article published February 24, Makelainen (2003) explained how "for most of the Iraqi people, radio is the only window to the outside world no wonder that the Iraqi audience is currently targeted by a total of seven coalition-supported radio services, four Kurdish stations and five other (Iraqi) opposition stations" in comparison to one Iraqi government-owned and controlled station. These broadcast operations range from Radio Tikrit, the latest addition in U.S. sponsored clandestine stations, which "initially pretended to be a pro-Saddam station, but in just two weeks time, it radically changed the tone of its broadcasts, sharply criticizing the Saddam regime and urging Iraqi soldiers to defect;" to Radiyo al-Maulumat (Information Radio), a U.S. propaganda operation also broadcasting anti-Saddam messages, part of which programming originates from EC-130 Commando Solo aircraft. Also, Radio Free Iraq, an Arabic-language service that is beamed into Iraq via shortwave facilities in several countries from Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty headquarters in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Makelainen, 2003). In addition to the openness regarding clandestine radio broadcasts and military psychological operations, the Bush administration and the Pentagon also agreed to an unprecedented policy of "embedding media" with the frontline combat forces. According to U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, the main objective of initiating the embedding policy was "we need to tell the factual story good or bad before others seed the media with disinformation and distortions, as they most certainly will continue to do so" (Department of Defense, 2003). Kaufman (2002) accurately summarized the current situation regarding U.S. foreign policy when he said, "In the twenty-first century, the U.S. president will continue to face many kinds of international problems. If events at the end of the twentieth century are any indicator, ethnic, religious, racial, and regional conflicts will cause them." He went on to say that "military, economic, or diplomatic tools will be insufficient to prevent or solve them. Democracy, freedom, and a civil society require constant advocacy and International broadcasting must return to the front page of the U.S. foreign policy agenda" (p.125). In an editorial published more than a decade ago in The Economist (1992) it open with a statement that "more than 100 governments now broadcast their messages abroad...with their purpose to influence opinion in the interest political, cultural or religious of whoever is paying their bills." In a world that has since witnessed terrorism first hand via the live television broadcasts of the tragic attacks of Sept. 11th, followed by the ensuing fall of the Taliban in Afghanistan, and more recently the toppling of Saddam Husseins totalitarian regime, the U.S. still faces a huge public diplomacy, or should I say, an international public relations challenge. As we have seen throughout history since World War I, the battle to win the hearts and minds has been the greatest struggle in human conflict. As this historical review has indicated, international broadcasting has played a central role in U.S. foreign policy and has been credited for its indispensable role in U.S. victories including World War II, the Cold War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo Conflict and by all latest indications, the U.S. war to liberate Iraq. As Malcom S. Forbes succinctly said in an interview (Raghavan, et.al, 1993), "there is no more effective and cheaper means of influencing events in other countries on a daily basis than radio broadcasting it reaches millions of people." To add to the equation, when the U.S. government decided to cut back on its broadcasting and other foreign policy resources after the Cold War, America paid a price. Minow (2002) so profoundly stated that since "many of the resources that had been given to explaining ourselves and our values to the world were eliminated, in the Middle East, particularly, American broadcasting is not even a whisper." Later in the same speech Minow went on to say, "I never dreamed that the ideas of millions of people receive everyday would come from Al Jazeera (p.3). An interesting perspective presented by the Washington Posts Robert Satloff (2003, April 4), is that the Bush administrations direct response to Al Jazeera -- a proposal to create the Middle East Television Network (METN) -- has the potential to "be one of this countrys most ill-conceived and wasteful experiments ever in public diplomacy." Satloffs reasoning is simple. "METN will fail for the same reason that Radio Sawa appears to have succeeded. Whereas the Middle East radio market is tightly controlled by local regimes, with very few transnational options available, the regional television market is overflowing with choice." He says that there is no way that METN can compete with Al-Jazeera and other Arabic satellite news channels "lurid sensationalism and no-holds-barred debates (where) viewers tune in to see graphic details of the bloody side of Israeli retaliation to Palestinian terrorism." Minow (2002) concluded his speech with the following thought, "whatever one thinks of Al Jazeera, it teaches an important lesson: the global marketplace of news and information is no longer dominated by the United States" (p.3). While this may be true however; I feel that the Bush administration was well aware of the global impact of the Al Jazeera effect. This was demonstrated by its carefully formulated policies we have recently witnessed during the U.S. led coalition defeat of Saddam Husseins totalitarian regime. The Bush administrations openness in regards to international broadcasting, military psychological operations and, most importantly, embedding international media on the battlefield have paid off tremendously. While it comes as no surprise, there is an uncanny similarity in the way these new policies adhere to a resoundingly familiar charter: we (and the media) will speak to you about America and the war the news may be good or bad we (and the media) shall tell you the truth. While it has been more than sixty years since the Voice of America adopted its charter, broadcasting the truth has and will continue to prevail. As we have seen throughout this historical analysis, the U.S. president and his administration directly wield the power to determine and shape foreign policy. It is even more interesting to see that throughout U.S. history, the challenge has remained relatively the same -- to overcome misinformation, propaganda and lies about American freedom and democracy. There has never been a time in U.S. history, when the importance of effective international broadcasting has been greater than it is today. Bumpus, B. & Skelt, B. (1984). Seventy years of international broadcasting. Paris: Unesco. Christian Science Monitor (2003, March 6)."Sharing America." Editorial, p.10. Boston, Mass. Department of Defense (2003). Public Affairs Guidance on Embedding Media. [Electronic version] Retrieved March 31, 2003 at: http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Feb2003/d20030228pag.pdf (The) Economist. (1992). Anonymous author "Cross-frontier broadcasting: And nation shall speak guff unto nation" [Electronic version]. Retrieved April 14, 2003 via Lexis-Nexis database. Garamone, J. (2001, October 29). U.S. Commando Solo II takes over Afghan airwaves. American Forces Press Service. [Electronic version]. Retrieved March 22, 2003 at: http://www.af.mil/news/Oct2001/n20011029_1541.shtml. Kaufmann, Edward (2002). A broadcasting strategy to win media wars. The Washington Quarterly, 25(2), 115-127. Makelainen, M. (2003, February 24). "Monitoring Iraq: War of the airwaves." [Electronic version]. Retrieved April 16, 2003 at: http://www.dxing.info/profiles/clandestine_information_iraq.dx Makelainen, M. (2003, April 5). "Shock and awe on the air: U.S. steps up propaganda war." [Electronic version]. Retrieved April 16, 2003 at http://www.dxing.info/profiles/clandestine_information_iraq.dx Minow, N. (2002). The Whisper of America: mass communication or mass destruction. Speech delivered March 19 at Loyola University, Chicago, IL. [Electronic version]. Retrieved March 10, 2003 at: http://www.nationalstrategy.com/nsr/v11n4Summer02/110401.htm Peterson, P. (2002). Public diplomacy and the war on terrorism. Foreign Affairs, Sept/Oct, 8(3), 74-94. Puddington, A. (2000). Broadcasting freedom: the Cold War triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. Raghavan, S., Johnson, S., & Bahrenburg, K. (1993). Sending cross-border static: on the fate of Radio Free Europe and the influence of international broadcasting Interview with Malcom S. Forbes. Journal of International Affairs, 47(1), 73-88. Rouse, E. (2003). A brief history of psychological operations: The Gulf War. [Electronic version]. Retrieved March 14, 2003 at http://www.psywarrior.com/gulfwar.html Satloff, R. (2003, April 4). Wrong answer to al-Jazeera. Washington Post, p.A21. [Electronic version]. Retrieved April 14, 2003 at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A24175-2003Apr3 Tyson, J. (1983). U.S. international broadcasting and national security. New York, N.Y.: Ramapo Press. Wasburn, P. (1992). Broadcasting propaganda: International radio broadcasting and the construction of political reality. Westport, CT: Preager Publishers. Wood, J. (1992). History of international broadcasting, Volume 1. London: P. Peregrinus Ltd. Wood, J. (2000). History of international broadcasting, Volume 2. London: The Institution of Electrical Engineers.	<urn:uuid:e6d93ad9-c297-4f7e-bef2-4443d00a379f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.psywarrior.com/westover.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953948	8,541	2.921875	3
\|Women's Right to Know\| Purpose of the Program During the 2005 legislative session, the Georgia Legislature passed the Woman's Right to Know Act (House Bill 197), which was signed into law by Governor Sonny Perdue on May 10, 2005. This legislation updates Georgia's abortion requirements by ensuring that women are given the opportunity to make an informed decision about the procedure. The Act requires that women who seek abortions be fully informed about relevant issues such as: - Medical risks of abortion, - Abortion methods and associated medical risks, - The possible detrimental psychological effects, - Medical risks of carrying a pregnancy to term, - Probable gestational age of the fetus at the time the abortion is to be performed, - Father's responsibility, - Medical assistance benefits may be available to prenatal care, childbirth, and neonatal care - Information on free ultrasounds Required Annual Reports are attached below. Page last updated 06/14/16	<urn:uuid:9b25b23f-cfc9-4d4a-b77a-40b06352f433>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://dph.georgia.gov/womens-right-know-wrtk	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.905715	197	2.515625	3
In South East Queensland, North Stradbroke Island photographer Julie Sisco captured Tuesday night’s partial solar eclipse with spectacular pictures from the ocean looking inland. It was a rare celestial event as a crescent sun sunk below the horizon at sunset. Viewed from Adder Rock, on North Stradbroke Island, the glimmer of the setting sun on the water added another dimension. The event, known as a non-central annular eclipse, ends the first eclipse season of 2014. According to NASA, out of the 3956 annular eclipses that have and will occur during the 5000-year period from 2000BCE to 3000AD, only 68 of them are non-central. An annular eclipse occurs when the moon does not cover the entire disk of the sun, resulting in a bright 'annulus' (or 'ring-of-fire') being visible, and a non-central eclipse occurs when the centre of the moon's shadow, known as the antumbra, just misses Earth and its shadow edge grazes only a small area of the planet; in this instance, 500 kilometres of a remote area on the Antarctic continent.	<urn:uuid:28789158-6c04-4f54-8947-69cbbf3a8795>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.redlandcitybulletin.com.au/story/2248492/straddie-highlights-the-magic-of-partial-solar-eclipse-gallery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.927442	240	3.1875	3
Searching SPORT Discus Before You Begin Developing Your Search Doing Your Search Finding Results at Lovejoy Library and Beyond What's in SPORT Discus?SPORT Discus is an international database produced by the Sport Information Resource Center. The database provides international indexing of over 2,000 journals, magazines, theses, and conference proceedings. SPORT Discus contains bibliographic references to published information on sports medicine, exercise physiology, biomechanics, training techniques, recreation, facilities and other related subjects. This database is not full text. How do I get into SPORT Discus?Go to the Lovejoy Library Online Information page Go to Journal and Newspaper Databases, go to Education, go to SPORT Discus. Developing Your Search When searching for articles in SPORT Discus, you might be tempted to turn to this database, plug in your search terms, and take the first likely-looking article you run across. However, that is neither a thoughtful nor a critical way to do research. First things first…You have a research question of some sort. Write that down on paper. For example, "I want to find out how keeping fit benefits elderly people." Break that question into major concepts, in this case, fitness, elderly people and benefits. Next things next…SPORT Discuss uses a Thesaurus to index articles. You need to find out if your major concepts match up with their search terms. Click on the Thesaurus button on the right side of the screen. Type in your concept ("elderly") and click Go to Subject. This reveals that SPORT Discus uses the term "aged" for "elderly." Mark the box next to this term and enter Search Checked Subjects. Repeat this procedure for each concept. SPORT Discus will save your concept searches. Click on the Searches button on the side of the screen. The search term will appear with the number of hits highlighted. Click on the box beside each term. You can combine these searches by clicking on the Combine Checked button on the right side of the screen. What if my search term isn't in the thesaurus?Return to the search screen. Click on the Words Anywhere button at the top of the search box. Type in your search term. Look over the list of citations and abstracts. When you find one that looks relevant, scroll down to the bottom until you see the initials DE: There will be a list of thesaurus terms. You can use these to further your search. What if I get too many hits?You can limit your results. Click on the Set Other Limits button underneath the search box. You can limit your search by language, publication year, document type and other variables. You can redo your search with these new limits by typing in the search number (e.g. #1, #2, #3) in the search box. Marking and printing recordsAs you scroll through the list of citations and abstracts click on the box next to each record that looks promising. When you're done, click on the Show Marked Records button on the right side of the screen. Click on the print icon at the top of the screen. Finding articlesAfter you have a list of citations, you'll want to find out which journals are in Lovejoy Library and whether they're in print or microfiche. Go to the Library Catalogs page You can search the online catalog using Telnet or a Web browser. Full text onlineLovejoy Library subscribes to a number of databases that include some full text journal articles. You can search these databases with a single effort. Go to the Journal and Newspapers Databases page Type in the journal title in the search box at the bottom. A grid will appear with the full text coverage dates on the right side. Check the dates of your citations against the full text coverage dates. Click on the hot blue link and type in the journal title. Open up the Keyword box and click on source. Enter the author's name in the second box and click on author. What if the journal I need isn't in the library or available online?You can request a copy of the article you need from another library. An online form for this request is available Paper request forms are also available in the library. Average turn around time for an Interlibrary Loan request is 10 days to 2 weeks. If you have any questions, comments, or need further assistance, please feel free to contact the subject librarian.	<urn:uuid:fa625164-00c6-4ba5-a024-9e943e78108d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.siue.edu/lovejoylibrary/research_tools/research_guides/discus.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.858662	940	2.515625	3
New answers tagged null First some background ... The macros are NULL which expands to an implementation-defined null pointer constant; C11 §7.19 3 NULL typically is an integer constant 0 or (void)0 or the like. It may have a different implementation or type - It could be ((int) 0xDEADBEEF) as strange as that may be. NULL might be type int. It might be type void * or ... Chapter and verse: 22.214.171.124 Pointers ... 3 An integer constant expression with the value 0, or such an expression cast to type void , is called a null pointer constant. 66) If a null pointer constant is converted to a pointer type, the resulting pointer, called a null pointer, is guaranteed to compare unequal to a pointer to ... In C, NULL is a macro that expands either to 0 or (void)0 (or something that has a similar effect). In the first case, you can not differentiate between NULL and 0, because they are literally the same. In the second case, your code will cause a compile error, because you can't compare an integer variable with a pointer. Top 50 recent answers are included	<urn:uuid:dc70da84-84b2-4451-aad5-26d40f830de6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://programmers.stackexchange.com/tags/null/new	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.913149	246	2.734375	3
Catholic Activity: Christmas Crib or Creche The Christmas crib or creche continues to have a universal appeal. Presented here is a background of the creche, and some suggestions on how to create a personalized family crib. It is curious that the fascination of the crib never fades, even though the figures grow old and chipped and the background, with its brown paper rocks, sprinkled with glittering silver, becomes more fantastic every year. It is a fascination that few can resist. Though people may smile at the extravagances and tinsel and silver paper of some church cribs, yet they still take their turn in the queue to light a candle and to gaze into the manger. Children never try to resist the lure of the crib. To them its chief attraction lies in the fact that it tells a story, and a story with a baby in it. Children, left to themselves, are perfectly at home at the crib. They will lift out the bambino to nurse and kiss it — often with the disapproval of the sacristan — for by Epiphany the bambino's face will be kissed quite colorless and his swaddling clothes smeared with finger-marks. Children hardly see the figures in the grotto as puppets; for them it is all real, as real as it was to the peasants of 14th century Germany, who used to take turns at rocking the Christ-child to sleep in his crib, or like the little Dutch boy who took the bambino for a ride on his bicycle. In some churches, and in some countries, cribs are judged simply by their size and magnificence, so that the Christmas crib is not complete unless it grows in grandeur every year. The retinue of the three kings becomes more magnificent, the shepherds grow in number, their flocks increase rapidly. But the curious thing is that, despite all this distraction the three central figures are hardly ever dwarfed. Fashions in cribs have come and gone, but the human trinity round which they center never changes. It is often thought that St. Francis made the first crib, but the devotion is far older than that. It goes back to the first days of the Church, when the actual site of Christ's birth and the clay manger in which he lay were venerated in Bethlehem. In time a silver manger was substituted for the clay one, and a basilica was built over the site. Copies of this crib spread to Rome and over the Christian world. Veneration expanded with the centuries. The crib that was used at Christmas might be a model of the clay manger, or a painting or a mosaic of the Nativity. Various ceremonies grew up around it, until by the 13th century they had evolved into theatrical drama and opera combined, with a snatch of folk-dancing thrown in. Then Pope Honorius stopped the whole thing, and sixteen years afterwards St. Francis of Assisi was allowed to make a wooden manger, to fill it with hay, to tether an ox and ass nearby, and to gather round it a group of people who sang songs and carols in honor of the birth of the Christ-child. That is the beginning of the crib as we know it. Nowadays the custom of having a crib in the home has been considerably revived. What might more often be seen however, is the crib made at home by the different members of the family, instead of the repository article. It is possible to buy designs for cribs, and to make them up yourself. What is better is to try to design your own crib figures and to make them entirely. They may be drawn and glued on wood, carved or modeled; they may be made after the fashion of puppets; if there are children in the family, then their dolls may be utilized. What is important is to have some means whereby the crib-makers are represented at the crib they have set up. This may be done by adding additional figures; or small flags bearing the makers' names can fly outside the crib. There have even been cribs in which ingenious people have stuck among the straw cut-out, full-length photographs of themselves. Not that that particular effect was very beautiful, but at any rate it did convey something of the truth which the setting up of any crib should convey — that we number ourselves among the people who acknowledge Christ and who worship him. Activity Source: Candle is Lighted, A by P. Stewart Craig, The Grail, Field End House, Eastcote, Middlesex, 1945	<urn:uuid:91942b75-df64-4c04-94f8-8410c25b572e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/liturgicalyear/activities/view.cfm?id=477	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977921	935	2.59375	3
The population of Middle-Earth and Aman divided by race and sex. Based on characters from the Hobbit, Lord of the Rings and the posthumously published works including Silmarillion. Only 19 percent of the total number of characters are female with the highest percentage among Valar, Maiar and Hobbits. The low number of females is not due to lack of females in Middle-Earth but due to the fact that Tolkien did not describe many of them. There is only one female Dwarf described, Dís. She had two sons, Fíli and Kíli, who perished in the Battle of Five Armies defending their mortally wounded uncle Thorin. It was this act that made Dís one of very few women included in Dwarven genealogies and the only one mentioned in Tolkien's works.	<urn:uuid:23f25a47-6578-40e7-89bc-a777a71cda70>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://lotrproject.com/statistics/getstat.php?s=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977564	166	2.84375	3
It’s not often that one associates a satellite with French folk songs, but this infographic does that and more. Below you will find the major launches of the early space age — from the Soviet Union’s Sputnik to the Czechoslovakian Magion 1 — showing how satellites quickly evolved between 1957 and 1978. In two decades, satellites changed from simple transmitters and receivers to sophisticated machines that carried television signals and science instruments. Another striking thing about this Broadband Wherever graphic: the number of participating countries. While we often think of the early Space Age as being dominated by the United States and Soviet Union, you can see other nations quickly rushing their own satellites into orbit: Canada, Italy, Australia, India and more. Enjoy the sound bites and cute graphics below. Full sources for the information are listed at the bottom of the infographic.	<urn:uuid:2073c8eb-64ed-4ac2-abd7-cf0618d74363>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.universetoday.com/110226/infographic-shows-the-quick-changing-satellites-of-the-early-space-age/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.948385	176	3.59375	4
Mehndi Latest Designs Biography Mehndi is the application of henna as a temporary form of skin decoration in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as well as by expatriate communities from those countries. The word mehndi is derived from the Sanskrit word mendhikā. The use of mehndi and turmeric is described in the earliest Vedic ritual books. Haldi(Staining oneself with turmeric paste) as well as mehndi are Vedic customs, intended to be a symbolic representation of the outer and the inner sun. Vedic customs are centered around the idea of "awakening the inner light". Traditional mehndi designs are of representations of the sun on the palm, which, in this context, is intended to represent the mind. Mehndi decorations became fashionable in the West in the late 1990s, where they are sometimes called henna tattoos. Henna is typically applied during special occasions like weddings and Muslim Festivals such as Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Azha . Similarly in Hindu festivals like Karva Chauth, Diwali, Bhaidooj and Teej. In some Hindu festivals, many women have Henna applied to their hands and feet. It is usually drawn on the palms and feet, where the design will be clearest because the skin on these surfaces naturally contains less of the pigment, melanin. Henna was originally used as a form of decoration mainly for brides.	<urn:uuid:ed3bcaf9-466d-4111-9cf6-5121c512b0ca>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://hdbridalmehndiblog.blogspot.com/2012/10/mehndi-latest-designs.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.964718	307	2.75	3
Scientists Make a Nutty Discovery About Crickets Sometimes when researchers explore the array of complex and fascinating creatures on this planet, what they find has power to renew our sense of wonder about nature, and even to change the way we look at life itself -- but then again, it's not always so on the ball. Still, scientists recently uncovered a remarkable insect that has them unusually excited. What did they find, you ask? Oh, just a cricket whose testicles are unbelievably big -- that's what.According to a report from News.com, scientists in Britain made the startling find -- a tuberous bushcricket whose testicles account for over 13 percent of its body mass, a percentage greater than any other creature on Earth! "We couldn't believe the size of these organs. They seemed to fill the entire abdomen," said ecologist Karim Vahed. While the sheer scale of the insects' massive private parts is impressive enough, the findings actually have biologists reexamining the role such endowments play in terms of reproduction -- it's not about more getting more bang for their buck. James Gilbert, from Cambridge University, explains: Traditionally it has been pretty safe to assume that when females are promiscuous, males use monstrously-sized testicles to deliver huge amounts of sperm to swamp the competition. Our study shows that we have to rethink this assumption. It looks as though the testes may be that big simply to allow males to mate repeatedly without their sperm reserves being exhausted. The study, which is set to appear in the journal Biology Letters, may not lead to any far-reaching scientific breakthroughs or really impact your life in any way, for that matter -- but don't get testy; Sometimes it's just nice to be reminded of how spectacularly nutty nature can be.	<urn:uuid:ef06ada6-716b-4c95-bb6e-e8b7bb827824>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.treehugger.com/natural-sciences/scientists-make-a-nutty-discovery-about-crickets.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95615	374	2.875	3
S3.SKJ at ISUMVS.IASTATE.EDU S3.SKJ at ISUMVS.IASTATE.EDU Thu Oct 13 13:54:34 EST 1994 From: eccoord at wamani.apc.org (Coordinador Ecologia) Subject: THE DANGERS OF MONOCULTURE TREE PLANTATIONS Date: Thu, 29 Sep 1994 06:12:16 GMT From: Third World Network <twn> THE DANGERS OF MONOCULTURE TREE PLANTATIONS This article highlights the ecological and social impact of large-scale monoculture tree plantations which service the export-led strategy of many Third World countries. A global network of NGOs has been formed to address this issue. By Ricardo Carrere Third World Network Features During the past two decades, tree planting has been increasing on a global scale. This has been encouraged by a number of multilateral financial agencies, as well as by national and international advisory and support agencies. Transnational corporations (TNCs) have also become directly involved through the implementation of large-scale forestry projects in diverse areas of the world. The reasons underlying these tree-planting activities may be very different; for example, tree planting for fuelwood needs at local community level, to halt desertification, and to supply raw materials for local timber and paper industries. Nevertheless, the main thrust arises from large wood and pulp transnationals attempting to secure a homogeneous, abundant and cheap supply of raw materials. To do this, TNCs are trying to locate plantations in regions which exhibit appropriate characteristics for achieving their goal: cheap land and labour force, foreign currency hunger, and environmental conditions that guarantee fast tree growth. Most Third World countries fulfil all these conditions, thus becoming potential suppliers of this raw The terms 'afforestation' and 'reforestation' lead to confusion because they are used to define extremely diverse situations. They are used to refer to monoculture plantations of exotic or native species, (in areas which were either previously covered by forest or used for some other purpose), and also to refer to native or exotic tree planting within agroforestry systems. This is why many people are surprised when environmentalists support certain types of afforestation but oppose others. In order to understand the problems, it is therefore important to define more precisely the concepts being dealt with. The term 'reforestation' should be applied only to the operation of planting local species, with the aim of trying to recover a degraded or clear-felled native forest. The term 'afforestation' should be replaced by 'tree crops' when referring to monocultures that include soil preparation, selected genetic material, agrochemical inputs, a high degree of mechanisation and market-oriented Agroforestry systems also imply tree planting, but these are part of the agro-ecosystem, having both directly productive functions (timber, fruits, leaves, resins etc) and support functions (nutrient recycling, shelter and shade etc). Finally, there are other possible types of afforestation, different from the above: protective landscaping, recreational afforestation. What matters then is not to be Tree planting in itself is not the problem. What has triggered concerns from both environmentalists and local communities has been, and still is, the establishment of large-scale mono-culture tree plantations, mostly composed of fast-growing eucalyptus and pine trees. These plantations are being promoted and established in vast areas throughout The present pattern of industrial tree crops is leading to a number of negative environmental and social impacts. Environmentally, the adverse impacts of these large plantations on hydrological basins are being exposed. This is because the fast-growing species of trees commonly used in timber plantations consume huge volumes of water. Secondly, there are concerns about the possible irreversible changes of soils under plantations of exotic species, which could lead to desertification processes. Furthermore, these large plantations modify the native wildlife substantially . This could lead to a chain of adverse impacts on the different ecosystems involved. The above may also be aggravated by the polluting processes derived from transforming large volumes of wood into pulp and other wood products. It is likely that once plantations become productive, these industries will move to developing countries, given the growing trend towards relocation of polluting industries from industrial countries to the Third World, where standards in legislation for environmental protection are much lower. More information about the Ag-forst	<urn:uuid:4eb8f634-22f0-4daf-bfad-299673e9368b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bio.net/bionet/mm/ag-forst/1994-October/000904.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.90174	1,018	2.75	3
From Our 2011 Archives Preparing Small Doses of Medication From Syringes Called Risky Latest Medications News MONDAY, Jan. 24 (HealthDay News) -- Preparing small doses of medications from syringes can be inaccurate and lead to dangerous dosing errors for infants and small children, warns a new study. The problem is that small doses of potent drugs for young patients are often prepared from stock of less than 0.1 millileter (mL) in size, but the equipment does not permit the accurate measurement of volumes that small, explained study author Dr. Christopher Parshuram, of the University of Toronto. And medications that most often require small doses include powerful narcotics and sedatives such as morphine, lorazepam and fentanyl, as well as immunosuppressants, noted Parshuram, who works in the Department of Pediatrics at The Hospital for Sick Children and directs Pediatric Patient Safety Research at the University of Toronto Center for Patient Safety. It's a Catch-22, he and his colleagues acknowledge. "The safe administration of medications requires formulations that permit accurate preparation and administration, but current equipment does not permit the accurate measurement of volumes less than 0.1 mL," said Parshuram in a Canadian Medical Association Journal news release. In both hypothetical and clinical studies, he and his colleagues looked at 71,218 intravenous doses given to 1,531 infants and children admitted to an intensive care unit in 2006. Of those doses, 7.4% of the children and babies needed preparations of less than 0.1 mL of stock solution, and 17.5% needed preparations of less than 0.2 mL. "Our findings indicate a substantial source of dosing error that involved potent medications and affected more than a quarter of the children studied," the researchers wrote. "Small volumes of stock solution are required because of the relatively low doses needed for infants and young children and the relatively high concentrations of commercially available stock solutions," they added. "The clinical [consequences] of errors occurring as a result of preparing doses from small volumes will be compounded by incomplete safety data, errors in medication orders, and errors in preparation or administration." Since the preparation of small doses of medication is common in pediatric hospitals across North America, there is a need to review preparation methods, regulatory requirements and manufacturing processes, the researchers concluded. The study appears in the current issue of the Canadian Medical Association Journal. -- Robert Preidt Copyright © 2011 HealthDay. All rights reserved. SOURCE: Canadian Medical Association Journal, news release, Jan. 24, 2011	<urn:uuid:06113f02-6df4-4292-b5a4-f5a57d806cbc>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=125021	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.9288	537	3.171875	3
Silence of the Clams What's the price tag for lighting Las Vegas and irrigating Southern California during the past 70 years? What's the price tag for lighting Las Vegas and irrigating Southern California during the past 70 years? Several billion clams, according to a team of scientists that recently studied the ecological impacts of dams and diversions along the Colorado River. When the mighty river flowed freely, an estimated six billion clams thrived in the Colorado River Delta, where sediments from the Rocky Mountains washed into the Gulf of California. But seven decades of dams and water diversions along the river have reduced the flow to a trickle, and cut shellfish in the delta from an average of 5 per square foot to about 0.3 per square foot today, according to the researchers. "These estimates indicate a nearly 20-fold drop in the shellfish productivity in the delta since the river has been diverted by humans," says Michal Kowalewski, a geologist at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Why should we care about a bunch of lost clams? For at least two reasons, says Kowalewski: "One, they tell us something about the destruction of that ecosystem. And two, they are important sources of nutrients to other organisms, such as migratory birds."	<urn:uuid:c8da8087-57bb-45b3-9746-395e4f392284>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nwf.org/News-and-Magazines/National-Wildlife/Animals/Archives/2001/Silence-of-the-Clams.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.94806	265	3.390625	3
In the media and in medical research circles a lot is made about the genetic links to cancer. It is not uncommon to hear that scientists have found that a particular form of a particular gene increases the risk of a particular type of cancer. You may remember from biology class that we get our genes from our parents. Does this mean that we are doomed to get the same cancers that our relatives get. The answer is no. The American Cancer Society reports that most cancers are not inherited and that genes only have a minor affect on risk. It shouldn’t surprise you to hear that smoking substantially increases the risk of many cancers including cancers of the lung, digestive tract, urinary bladder, and liver. All told, smoking is responsible for about 30% of American cancer deaths. I expect what I’m about to say to surprise most readers: the food Americans eat causes as many or even more cancer deaths than smoking! According to Bruce Ames, a prominent researcher with the University of California, common nutrient deficiencies damage our genes and cause cancer in the same ways that radiation and chemicals (including smoking) do. If you were to divide Americans into four groups based upon the amount of vegetables and fruits they eat, the group that eats the least vegetables and fruits gets cancer at twice the rate for most types of cancer as the group that eats the most! Wow! Imagine if a drug company developed a drug that had no side effects and, if taken every day, prevented one third of all cancer. It would be big news. Your doctor would probably suggest you take it. So why don’t we hear more about the positive effects of good food. Perhaps farmers need to do more of the “R&D” that Dr. Stram discusses in his recent post. Oh wait, does that mean that we will have to pay $50 for a small bag of carrots? On second thought, perhaps they should leave the “R&D” to the pharmaceutical companies, thank you very much. Next Week: Can we change genes we don’t like?	<urn:uuid:72560335-1e08-4d8c-b14a-05faf4e887ec>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blog.timesunion.com/holistichealth/an-apple-and-a-few-carrots-per-day-keep-cancer-away/40/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.97212	425	3.0625	3
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is inviting children between the ages of 9 and 14 from around the world to participate in the 24th International Children’s Painting Competition. Participants are to submit their paintings on sustainable energy and energy efficiency to the UNEP office in their regions. Join the competition and you could win cash prizes and help save our future. Remember, we all have the power to make our world a better place. Deadline for submission is 31 May 2015. About the Completion: The International Children’s Painting Competition on the Environment is organised every year by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Japan-based Foundation for Global Peace and Environment (FGPE). Since 1991, it has received more than 3 million entries from children in over 100 countries. Theme: We have the power! Sustainable energy is a form of energy that does not run out or cause harm to our environment. We have the power to make the right energy choices and use it efficiently. For more information on sustainable energy and appropriate examples of what is meant by the terms clean, renewable and energy efficiency, please visit www.unep.org/tunza/children Prizes: Top three winners will also receive a fully paid trip, including for one chaperone, to the venue of the Award Ceremony. 1st Prize – US$3,000, 2nd Prize – US$2,000, 3rd Prize – US$1,000 Regional winners: One winner, chosen from each of the six regions – Africa, Asia and the Pacific, West Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, and North America will receive US$1,000. Participants will be notified of dates and venue via the UNEP website, once confirmed. How to enter: Submit online, post, courier painting(s), or drop off at your UNEP Regional Office and please aim for it to reach them before the deadline – 31 May 2015. (See lists of UNEP Regional Offices: http://unep.org/tunza/tunzachildren/downloads/24th-ICPC-Brochure_2015.pdf.) You can even scan or take a picture of your artwork and then upload it onto our website – www.unep.org/tunza/children. Ensure you capture the full image of your painting and in good lighting. If you are unable to submit online, don’t worry, just post, courier or drop off the painting to your UNEP Regional Office. The envelope or container of the painting(s) should be marked “24th International Children’s Painting Competition.” Where to send your paintings UNEP Regional Office for Southern Africa Cecilia Kinuthia-Njenga United Nations Environment Programme Metro Park Building – Room 729 351 Francis Baard Street P.O. Box 6541 Pretoria, South Africa Tel: +27 (12) 354 8092 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org UNEP Regional Office for Africa (Nairobi, Kenya) Monica Morara United Nations Environment Programme NOF Block 2-Ground Level-South Wing P.O. Box 30552-00100 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254-20 762 1396 Fax: +254-20 7623928 Email: email@example.com	<urn:uuid:55c65db1-67f8-4655-a7d8-7efd700f083a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://unicpretoria.org.za/2015/04/09/24th-international-childrens-painting-competition/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.885152	706	2.515625	3
Last week’s BTC brief discussing the recently released American Community Survey 2010 poverty data noted that child poverty in North Carolina rose from 19.2 percent in 2007 to 24.6 percent in 2010. Essentially this means that since the beginning of the Great Recession, the share of North Carolina’s children in poverty has gone from 1 in 5 children to 1 in 4 children. Child poverty rates have risen all over the country. But North Carolina’s child poverty rate is not only increasing, it is increasing compared to other states. In 2007, North Carolina’s child poverty rate was the 15th highest in the nation and in 2010, the state rate is the 12th highest. Research has shown that child poverty can have devastating consequences including keeping children from achieving in school and even dampening their earning potential later in life. The Great Recession and the lack of a meaningful recovery has been especially hard for North Carolina’s children. Cutting back on the types of investments that provide opportunity for the next generation, such as public education programs, impacts our future prosperity and is a step in the wrong direction. These new child poverty numbers emphasizethe critical importance of investing in our children and in working families.	<urn:uuid:2e3b522f-b702-433a-86b7-7de7324b9f4a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://pulse.ncpolicywatch.org/2011/09/27/what-about-the-kids/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.951851	247	2.65625	3
Treating the brain with magnets went mainstream a few years ago, when the technique proved successful at relieving major depression. Now the procedure, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), shows promise for another mysterious, hard-to-treat disorder: chronic pain. Until now, pain seemed out of reach for rTMS because the regions involved in pain perception lie very deep within the brain. The other disorders helped by rTMS all involve brain areas close to the skull. To treat depression, for example, a single magnetic coil directs a magnetic field at the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain's outer folds. When aimed at different areas of these outer folds, rTMS improves the motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, staves off the damage of stroke, lessens the discomfort that follows nerve injury and treats obsessive-compulsive disorder. The magnetic field affects the electrical signaling used by neurons to communicate, but how exactly it improves symptoms is unclear—scientists suspect rTMS may redirect the activity of select cells or even entire brain circuits. To extend the technique's reach, David Yeomans, a neuroscientist at Stanford University, and his colleagues used four magnets rather than one and employed high-level math to steer the resulting complex fields. Their target was an area called the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), an area active in the experience of all types of pain, regardless of its source or nature. The researchers aimed the magnetic impulses at the ACC of healthy volunteers for 30 minutes. Immediately afterward, subjects underwent a PET scan of brain activity. During the scan, subjects reported minute-by-minute pain sensations from a hot plate applied to their arm. After rTMS, subjects rated their pain nearly 80 percent lower than they had before treatment, and the PET scan revealed blunted activity in the ACC. Next the researchers tested the treatment on chronic pain in people with fibromyalgia, a mysterious pain syndrome that causes pain and tenderness all over the body. Patients received a daily dose from the magnets for four weeks and saw a reduction in their daily pain by almost half, which lasted for four weeks beyond treatment. The study, presented at last October's meeting of the Society for Neuroscience in New Orleans, shows the potential of rTMS for many kinds of pain. The procedure has become increasingly common and available since 2008, when the Food and Drug Administration approved it for treating major depression. “More psychiatrists are bringing it into their armamentarium,” Yeomans says. Now that it appears this noninvasive technique “can affect pain without putting new molecules into your body,” he adds, relief may be close for people for whom drug therapies have failed or simply do not exist. $300 - Cost of a typical transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) session. TMS therapies often include 20 to 30 sessions, at a total cost of between $6,000 and $10,000. 12/08 - Date the FDA approved TMS in the U.S. to treatmajor depression in adults who had failed to improve on an antidepressant regimen. Canada had granted the same approval six years earlier. 1 - Number of conditions TMS is approved to treat: major depressive disorder. Research suggests the technique can also help people with post-traumatic stress disorder, bipolar disorder and Parkinson's disease, among other ailments. 387 - Number of recent clinical trials testing TMS for a variety of conditions, including schizophrenia, anorexia, Alzheimer's disease, autism and cerebral palsy. 1985 - Year TMS was first developed and tested. Anthony T. Barker of Royal Hallamshire Hospital in Sheffield, England, used the machine to noninvasively stimulate the cerebral cortex	<urn:uuid:f72741d4-8339-48c1-84b8-9de6f1ca3e3f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/magnetic-brain-stimulation-could-ease-pain/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935542	767	3.078125	3
'Cookie-shaped' fossils point to multicellular life - 1 July 2010 - From the section Science & Environment Relics of some of the first stirrings of modern life may have been uncovered. Scientists report in the journal Nature the discovery of centimetre-sized fossils they suggest are the earliest known examples of multicellular life. The specimens, from Gabon, are 2.1 billion years old - 200 million years older than for any previous claim. Abderrazak El Albani and colleagues describe the fossils' distinctive appearance as resembling irregularly shaped "wrinkly cookies". The step from single-celled to multicellular organisation was a key step in the evolution of life on Earth and set the scene for the eventual emergence of all complex organisms, including animals and plants. The big question is whether the new West African specimens truly represent large organisms growing in a co-ordinated manner, or are merely a record of the remains of aggregations of unicellular bacteria. The team tells Nature that its analysis of the fossils' three-dimensional structure using X-ray microtomography leans it towards the former explanation. The fossils would have existed during a period in Earth history that came shortly after the so-called Great Oxidation Event, when free oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere rose rapidly. Another oxygen surge that occurred about half a billion years ago co-incided with the Cambrian Explosion - the huge spurt in evolution that established all the major animal groupings. "The evolution of the Gabon macrofossils, representing an early step toward large-sized multicellularity, may have become possible by the first boost in oxygen," Dr El Albani and colleagues said in a statement, "whereas the Cambrian Explosion could have been fuelled by the second. "Why it took 1.5 billion years for the multicellular organisms to take over is currently one of the great unsolved mysteries in the history of the biosphere."	<urn:uuid:0e25a9db-90cb-4e42-b163-79ada2cd6bca>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bbc.com/news/10471599	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93349	409	3.28125	3
Jump to the main content of this page Pacific Southwest Research Station 800 Buchanan Street Albany, CA 94710-0011 Tahoe Science Projects supported by SNPLMA Development of a risk model to determine the expansion and potential environmental impacts of Asian clams in Lake Tahoe Final Report [pdf] Please contact Dr. Sudeep Chandra with questions regarding the final report. In the last 40 years many private and public resources have been expended to restore Lake Tahoe’s fragile ecosystem and water clarity. Recently, the expansion of an invasive species, the Asian clam, was documented in the southeastern part of the lake. The rapid expansion of Asian clam in one year, combined with the demonstrated potential to alter the ecology of the lake via unprecedented levels of algal biomass in the nearshore, represents a major new threat to Lake Tahoe. This proposal was motivated by concerns of agency staff requests for assistance in developing control methods, predicting likely future locations for clam colonization, and assessing the impact of clams on both a local and entire-lake scale. The invasion of Asian clam in a high elevation, oligotrophic, coldwater lake is unique; most introduced species in Lake Tahoe show various life history adjustments and/or phenotypic plasticities compared to other populations in North America. The early detection of this common invader in Lake Tahoe allows for critical research at the beginning stages of an invasion in a rare environment. The primary goal of this project was to develop a risk analysis of Asian clam distribution and its environmental impact by examining the structure, transport, life history, and energetics of existing populations discovered in the lake. \|Last Modified: Jan 22, 2016 02:30:10 PM\|	<urn:uuid:208d7295-7a8e-4cd4-aba8-193122d10516>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/partnerships/tahoescience/r9_asian_clams.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.886855	357	2.515625	3
A pier from the defunct 10th Avenue Bridge over the Mississippi is now down to a nub of stone. Eric Roper , Star Tribune Peer at this Minneapolis bridge pier while you still can - Article by: Steve Brandt - Star Tribune - June 12, 2014 - 7:58 PM A significant piece of early Minneapolis history is close to vanishing with this week’s collapse of one of two remaining piers from the long-gone 10th Avenue Bridge. The pier that’s long stuck out of the Mississippi River just downstream from the east end of the Stone Arch Bridge is now down to a nub of stone. It was undercut by erosion that’s been eating at the pier base for years, exacerbated by a surge in the river’s pace to more than 41,000 cubic feet per second this week. A dogwalker said the pier collapsed sometime between his late morning and evening walks on Wednesday. The bridge carried pedestrians, horse-drawn wagons and, later, cars and a streetcar line across the river between 6th Avenue SE. and 10th Avenue S. on the downtown side. It was built in 1874, closed to traffic in 1934 and sold for scrap for the war effort in 1943, according to a bridge reference guide maintained by John A. Weeks III. The bridge played a prominent role at a time when bridges were few, and workers trudged from jobs on one bank to housing on the other. It also led to the city’s red-light district. John Anfinson, a National Park Service historian, said remnants such as the pier make for a richer heritage. “This historic fabric is something that makes the past real.” The crossing was near one of the three original bridges built in Minneapolis, two of which washed away in 1859, according to Weeks. That left only a single crossing that spanned Nicollet Island, where today’s Father Louis Hennepin Bridge stands. According to Weeks, when the older St. Anthony merged with youthful Minneapolis in 1872, part of the deal was that the combined city would erect new bridges at Plymouth and 10th avenues. The new 10th Avenue Bridge had stone piers that held an iron truss with a deck roughly 60 feet above the river. Weeks estimated the length at 1,100 feet. The bridge eventually was closed because it wasn’t designed to stand up to motor vehicles. “I’m told by people who were around in the ’30s that it was really exciting to walk on, and not in a good way,” said Penny Petersen, a riverfront historian. By then, the sturdier 3rd Avenue Bridge and a different 10th Avenue Bridge had been added. The pier that collapsed has also provided spectator interest. Several years ago, a Canada goose nested atop it, leading bridge walkers to speculate how well the goslings would make their maiden flight to the river about 30 feet below. One day they were gone, presumably landing safely or getting nabbed by one of the area’s eagles. A 2011 column by river area resident Lisa Peters invited guesses on when the pier would collapse. Now only an intact but less visible pier on the east bank remains. Coincidentally, another historic riverfront pier is due for removal near the western pier of the Franklin Avenue Bridge. That’s taking care of a Coast Guard order issued almost a century ago to remove the remnant of an earlier bridge that somehow was never accomplished. Staff writer Eric Roper contributed to this report. Steve Brandt • 612-673-4438 Twitter: @brandtstrib © 2016 Star Tribune	<urn:uuid:0fd13ff4-af62-49df-a3e4-8a6e359e152b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.startribune.com/printarticle/?id=262964321	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96971	767	2.71875	3
On July 22nd 1944, finance experts who had spent the past three weeks gathered at a hotel in New Hampshire, produced two documents setting out their plan for the post-war monetary system. In response, The Economist published this leader article on July 29th, paying particular attention to whether the British government should ratify the Bretton Woods Agreements: THE Monetary Conference at Bretton Woods closed its session at the end of last week with the unanimous agreement of all the participants to the text of two documents, one of them setting up an International Monetary Fund, the other setting up an International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. (The terminology is confusing, since the Fund will conduct a banking business—that is, will deal in currencies—while the Bank is, in the main, a guarantee fund.) The Agreements now go to the governments for ratification, and it has been made clear that no government is committed by the vote of its delegation at Bretton Woods. What has been decided is the form that these two institutions will assume when (or if) they come to birth. These two documents represent a very substantial achievement. The subject matter was technical and contentious, but 44 delegations have agreed. It is true that the conference presented the unedifying spectacle of a technical gathering being jockeyed by purely political considerations, and the determination of the quotas resembled the process of political chaffering more than an objective attempt to achieve equity. Some of the results are ludicrous. Populous and powerful though the Soviet Union is, and immense as its services to the common wartime cause are, it is fantastic to suppose that its part in the financial transactions of the world either is, or for a very long time will be, at all comparable with that of the United Kingdom—yet the Russian quota is $1,200 million against the British $1,300 million. Or again, nothing save the fashionable political myths of the moment could justify a quota for China larger than that for France or double that for Holland—both of which presumably cover those countries' colonial possessions. The management of the Fund and the Bank will have to rise above this sort of petty huckstering. On the whole, however, these can be accepted as surface blemishes and they are offset by many reasons for solid satisfaction with the results of the conference. Not the least of these has been the harmonious co-operation of the American and British delegations. In the main, of course, this was due to the ironing-out of differences beforehand. But it has been demonstrated that solutions worked out in advance by the American and British Governments will be accepted by the United Nations as a whole with a minimum of amendment and—so far as can be judged—an absence of resentment or of charges of dictation. This is an omen of great promise. So far as can be judged from the summaries so far available the two schemes have; in fact, been very little altered from the form in which they emerged from the American-British negotiations. There are, nevertheless, some alterations in the Fund that should be noticed, and it must be said, in candour, that they are not improvements. The item in the joint proposal of last April which was most generally applauded in this country was that which provided for the rationing of a scarce currency and allowed for the possibility of discrimination against a country which persistently failed to make its currency available in sufficient volume. In British eyes, this proposal provided a way out of a dilemma which is greatly feared in this country—the dilemma of being limited in our purchases from sterling countries because we are short of dollars. In the final version, it would appear that this proposal has been dropped. All that is now provided for is that, when a currency is in short supply, the Fund may issue a report "setting forth the cause of the scarcity and containing recommendations designed to bring it to an end." Furthermore, in addition to the omission of this proposal for putting pressure on the chronic surplus country, there are some new provisions for putting increased pressure on the chronic deficit country by taxing it upon the use that it makes of the Fund, in excess of its quota. These two pro-creditor and anti-debtor shifts have altered the balance of the Fund since the April proposals—not by any means fatally, but to an extent of which notice will have to be taken. It is not possible from the summaries to determine exactly how far the Fund would interfere with the working of the sterling area. It appears that "discriminatory currency practices" are to be eschewed, but this might mean almost anything. British opinion will want to know whether the conference agreed with the view expressed by Lord Keynes in the House of Lords last May, that this did not exclude voluntary agreements between, say the United Kingdom and New Zealand to stabilise the expenditure of each in the other's country. Another matter which needs scrutinising with great care is the time-table proposed. It appears to be contemplated that the Fund shall be in operation within eighteen months from now; but there is also to be an interim period during which exchange controls are still to be permitted. What is not quite clear is whether exchange rates have to be fixed before the end of 1945. If this is the proposal, it is hardly practicable. The scheme for a Bank for Reconstruction and Development has had less public discussion, but it would appear to raise less contentious issues. Of its total capital of $10 billion (of which $9,100 million has been allotted), only one-fifth is to be called up in the first place and used as a fund for the Bank's own lending operations. The rest is a contingent guarantee fund, by which the Bank can guarantee issues made on the public market either by itself or by other public or private bodies. As Lord Keynes frankly indicated in his inaugural speech to the Second Commission, it will be the American market (or the American government) which will have to find the money; the other countries will bear their share of the risk. Since the guarantees will relate only to interest and service, very large sums could be guaranteed in this way, at a cost to the borrower of only 1 to 1½ per cent above the market cost. This is, in substance, an extension of the League Loan method of the 1920s. And the memory calls up the one great unknown in the Bank's prospects—how many loans are there likely to be which are safe enough to meet the Bank's standards and yet not safe enough to float on their own merits? But whether the scale of its operations proves to be large or small, the Bank will clearly, pro tanto, be rendering a service. It will be a most useful long-term adjunct to the short-term functions of the Fund. The agreements now come back to the governments for consideration—among others, to the British government. Should they be ratified? Before the question can be answered, it is as well to make a distinction between the content of the agreements and the assumptions on which they are based. From the technical point of view, though they have blemishes, the agreements should be acceptable. That is to say, if the sort of world for which they are designed comes to pass, then those arrangements are probably better, on the whole, than any others to which 44 nations could be brought to agree. But the assumptions need the most careful examination. The whole structure is based on the assumption that the post-war world will be a place in which the nations will be able to balance their incomings and outgoings within a small margin, without exchange controls on current transactions, without "discriminatory currency practices" and without more than a very limited power to change the gold values of their currencies. The margin is smaller than might be thought at first sight.... Now this is a very large assumption. It is not an impossible one. But before it can be said to be a probable one, all sorts of other conditions will have to be established. This has, of course, been recognised from the start. The sort of world in which the Fund would work would be one in which at least the major countries were successful in avoiding unemployment crises, in which there was a substantial lowering of tariffs and other trade barriers, in which creditors behaved as creditors should, in which debtors did not default—in short, in which balances of payments were naturally brought into equilibrium by expansion, not forced into it by contraction. To ask the question whether these agreements should be ratified is in reality, to ask what prospect there is of a reasonably close approach to such conditions.... What are the prospects of an effective employment policy in the United States?... They will need to be answered before the British government can afford to take the risk of ratifying the Bretton Woods Agreements.... Even in deepest crisis, Schachtism will never pay this country. But it is in the British interest to be free to make the best of a bad job if a bad job is what has to be faced. And the circumstances of the United Kingdom dictate other methods of making the best of a bad job from the Americans. If the circumstances of 1931 were to recur, Britain would wish to be able to allow the pound sterling to find its level and to concert measures for stabilising trade within a group to which all countries that would abide by the rules should have access. A Bretton Woods system would not be in the British interest in times of crisis...	<urn:uuid:da3c649e-fd1c-4fd0-a58e-8033e11f13c5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://delong.typepad.com/sdj/2014/07/liveblogging-world-war-ii-july-22-1944-bretton-woods.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.97214	1,915	2.546875	3
Neuropathy is diagnosed on the basis of symptoms and a physical exam. During the exam, the doctor may check blood pressure and heart rate, muscle strength, reflexes, and sensitivity to position, vibration, temperature, or a light touch. The doctor may also do other tests to help determine the type and extent of nerve damage. - A comprehensive foot exam assesses skin, circulation, and sensation. The test can be done during a routine office visit. To assess protective sensation or feeling in the foot, a nylon monofilament (similar to a bristle on a hairbrush) attached to a wand is used to touch the foot. Those who cannot sense pressure from the monofilament have lost protective sensation and are at risk for developing foot sores that may not heal properly. Other tests include checking reflexes and assessing vibration perception, which is more sensitive than touch pressure. - Nerve conduction studies check the transmission of electrical current through a nerve. With this test, an image of the nerve conducting an electrical signal is projected onto a screen. Nerve impulses that seem slower or weaker than usual indicate possible damage. This test allows the doctor to assess the condition of all the nerves in the arms and legs. - Electromyography (EMG) shows how well muscles respond to electrical signals transmitted by nearby nerves. The electrical activity of the muscle is displayed on a screen. A response that is slower or weaker than usual suggests damage to the nerve or muscle. This test is often done at the same time as nerve conduction studies. - Quantitative sensory testing (QST) uses the response to stimuli, such as pressure, vibration, and temperature, to check for neuropathy. QST is increasingly used to recognize sensation loss and excessive irritability of nerves. - A check of heart rate variability shows how the heart responds to deep breathing and to changes in blood pressure and posture. - Ultrasound uses sound waves to produce an image of internal organs. An ultrasound of the bladder and other parts of the urinary tract, for example, can show how these organs preserve a normal structure and whether the bladder empties completely after urination. - Nerve or skin biopsy involves removing a sample of nerve or skin tissue for examination by microscope. This test is most often used in research settings.	<urn:uuid:f9d43e8d-83e0-4bc8-9d72-a782f410ca92>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://diabeticgourmet.com/articles/412.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.906383	472	3.796875	4
By the first decade of the 19th Century, New York City was beginning to outgrow the small area at the tip of Manhattan Island that had defined the city limits ever since a permanent European settlement was established in 1625, give or take a year. The rest of the island was divided up among landed gentry and farmers, and traversed by country roads. There were hills, some of them high; boulders and rocks, some of them iceberg-sized; and streams and ponds. In 1807 the city petitioned the state for permission to expand and come up with a city plan. A group of commissioners decided a grid street plan was the best way to go–other cities such as Philadelphia and Savannah, Georgia had adopted successful grids. And, other than the area around the Battery, Manhattan had already developed along a rough grid. The commissioners drew up a map beginning in 1807 that looked like this. A grid was platted as far north as 155th Street; the mapmakers believed it would take over a century for development to reach that far north. A young surveyor named John Randel Jr. was assigned to formulate a team and formally survey the grid, from North Street (today’s Houston) north to 155th, from river to river. And so they did. Beginning in 1808, Randel and his colleagues were pelted with artichokes and cabbages; arrested by the sheriff for trespassing (and often bailed out by Richard Varick, a former mayor); sued for damages after pruning trees; and attacked by dogs sicced on them by property owners irate at the prospect of streets’ being plowed through their properties… NY Times Randel and his team, using the hand surveying tools of the day, measured precisely the street grid everyone traverses today when in Manhattan, with a few exceptions. Madison and Lexington Avenue are new additions, and small ‘towns’ up-island such as Manhattanville were later incorporated into the grid. Randel’s team roved the island, through thick brush, rock outcroppings, and avoided the occasional angry watchdog or charging bull. By 1811 his survey was complete, but then came the actual mapping and surveying job, done over the next 10 years. A meticulous hand-drawn survey map was prepared, indicating everything on the surface of Manhattan island — what few existing roads there were, houses and rocks (some were in planned roadbeds and would have to be moved or destroyed). When creating such a large survey, the expansion of metal rulers at high summer temperatures were calculated — using longhand math, not battery calculators. Even the curvature of the earth would have to be considered for such a large area. On the above map note two squares marked “Mon’t.” Randal’s team demarcated the intersections of surveyed north-south avenues and east-west streets by placing monuments on one of what would be street corners (here, the northeast corner). As a rule the monuments would be three-foot high marble monuments with the street and avenue marked at the apices (a surviving marble monument, found at 4th, now Park, Avenue and East 26th Street while excavations were taking place in the 1890s for the second Madison Square Garden, is on display at the Museum of the City of New York.) However, where rocks and stone made it impractical to sink marble, iron bolts were used instead. Two of these iron bolts, positioned around 1815, are still in place today. This bolt, installed by Randel’s team, does not bear street markings as do the marble monuments. The only embellishment is the cross at the top, which matches up with the alignment of the street grid. This one has had a chunk taken out of it, probably by a lawnmower — demonstrating the fragility of these nearly 200-year old objects. A second such Randel marker bolt has recently been discovered. It, too, is marked with a cross that aligns with the street grid. Where are they? Both are in public parks that were designed after the grid was. The location of the first is somewhat known among cognoscenti. The second, not so much. You’ll have to beat their locations out of me with a wet noodle. Knucklehead souvenir hunters will remove them with acetylene torches. I’m doing too much with this page as is. If anyone reveals the locales in Comments they will be immediately removed …. Special thanks to Caleb Smith. Museum of the City of New York: The Greatest Grid, through July 15, 2012	<urn:uuid:5d39840e-7b96-4f12-a3aa-df41f7a71995>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://forgotten-ny.com/2012/02/measuring-manhattan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977431	964	3.203125	3
By Sharon Jayson, USA TODAY SAN DIEGO Even after they grow up, some kids don't stop giving their parents grief. And new research presented Thursday shows that an adult child with problems has a negative impact on a parent's mental health, even if the family's other kids are successful. The study of 633 parents and their 1,251 adult children was part of a program on social relationships and well-being presented here on the opening day of the American Psychological Association's annual meeting, where about 12,600 psychological professionals gathered. MORE FORGETFUL? Latest research on memory, from APA The new study of middle-aged parents — with an average age of 50 for the parents and 25 for the kids — found that having even one child with physical, emotional, lifestyle or behavioral problems negatively affected parents' mental health. That held true even if the other kids were successful; just having a successful child wasn't associated with better well-being, the researchers found. In the study, parents rated their kids' achievements in relationships, family life, education and career and they compared their child to their peers. Parents responded to questions about their own psychological well-being, their relationship with their kids and whether each of the children had problems, such as drinking or drugs, illegal activities, divorce or serious relationship issues. The study found that 68% of parents had at least one grown child with at least one such problem in the last two years. At the same time, almost half (49%) said at least one of their children was highly successful; 60% said they had a mix of successful and not as successful children; 17% said they had no children with problems; 15% had no children with higher than average life achievements. ARGUMENTS AND STRESS: Also at the session, Burditt presented another study she co-authored on conflict avoidance that found tension effects with both having an argument and avoiding an argument. The study used data from the National Study of Daily Experiences, which examines people's day-to-day lives, and in particular their daily stressful experiences. "If you have an argument, that makes you unhappy the day of. And if you avoid (arguing), it makes you unhappy the next day. So it's kind of like 'When do you want to feel upset?' " Burditt says. "Avoidance basically has a lingering effect and arguments don't." Using data from 1,842 individuals ages 33-84, with an average age of 56, participants completed short telephone interviews on each of eight consecutive nights. They also provided saliva samples four times a day to measure the stress hormone cortisol. Some people both engaged in an argument and avoided another one on the same day; Burditt's study found that to be the "most harmful for people," but it was also the least frequent occurrence among those studied. FATHERS AND SONS: Data from two studies, the National Study of Daily Experiences and a national study of health and well-being called Midlife in the United States, were used in research also presented at the session on social relationships and well-being. This research focused on how stress among adult children is affected by their relationships with their parents. It found that men who reported having a good relationship with their father growing up were likely to be less emotional when confronting stressful events in their daily lives than those whose relationship with dad was poor. "You're less likely to cope well if your father was not nurturing you, and this is especially true for sons," says Melanie Mallers, an assistant professor of psychology at California State University-Fullerton, who co-authored the study. Participants included 912 adult men and women, ages 25-74,who participated in short phone interviews each day over eight days. They were asked about psychological and emotional distress and if they had experienced stressful events that day, such as arguments, disagreements or tensions that were work- or family-related. Participants also reported on the quality of their childhood relationships with their mother and father, and the study found that men who had a good father-son relationship while growing up reacted less to day-to-day stress as adults. The same outcome didn't hold true for women, she says. "Fathers and sons seem to have a unique way of interacting that cuts across time and has lasting effects," Mallers says. Guidelines: You share in the USA TODAY community, so please keep your comments smart and civil. Don't attack other readers personally, and keep your language decent. Use the "Report Abuse" button to make a difference. Read more.	<urn:uuid:a3e18c99-f120-49e2-9c2a-c7c2ba345095>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/2010-08-13-APA-parents-stress13_ST_N.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.979459	951	2.5625	3
UN: The United Nations classifies rape a 'war tactic' The UN is also setting up an inquiry to report next June on how widespread the practice is and how to tackle it. uman rights groups hailed the resolution as historic. The BBC's Laura Trevelyan said China, Russia, Indonesia and Vietnam had all expressed reservations during the negotiations, asking whether rape was really a matter for the security council. But the US-sponsored resolution was adopted unanimously by the 15-member council. It described sexual violence as "a tactic of war to humiliate, dominate, instil fear in, disperse and/or forcibly relocate civilian members of a community or ethnic group". The document said that the violence "can significantly exacerbate situations of armed conflict and may impede the restoration of international peace and security". During the debate in the council, Mr Ban said: "Responding to this silent war against women and girls requires leadership at the national level." "National authorities need to take the initiative to build comprehensive strategies while the UN needs to help build capacity and support national authorities and civil societies," he added. US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said the world now recognised that sexual violence profoundly affected not only the health and safety of women, but the economic and social stability of their nations. Other speakers identified the former Yugoslavia, Sudan's Darfur region, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Liberia as regions where deliberate sexual violence had occurred on a mass scale. The former commander of the UN peacekeeping force in eastern Congo, Maj Gen Patrick Cammaert, told the BBC he had personally witnessed its impact. "It's a very effective weapon, because the communities are totally destroyed," he said." "You destroy communities. You punish the men, and you punish the women, doing it in front of the men." In the Democratic Republic of Congo alone, some 40 women are raped every day, our correspondent says. Sometimes women are even raped by peacekeepers who are supposed to be protecting them, she adds. The question is whether those in conflict zones who use rape in war will be at all deterred by the new measures, she says. 20 June 2008 - Board member Karima Bennoune Appointed Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights by the United Nations Human Rights Council - UN should recognise Shingal massacres as genocide & feminicide - Protection of the Family resolution increases vulnerabilities and exacerbates inequalities - UN report says Eritrea committed widespread abuses - South Sudan: UNICEF warns women and children being victimized ‘with frightening regularity’ - Equality, Development and Peace: 2015 and Beyond - Call for Action: Include women in the Syrian peace-building process now! - URGENT ACTION: Call on States to Support UN Resolution on WHRDs - Universality Of Human Rights At Stake! Act Now To Oppose Russian Resolution On Traditional Values! - International: Statement of Feminist and Women's Organisations on the very Limited and Concerning Results of the 56th Session of the UN Commission on the Status of Women - Special Rapporteur on violence against women, mission statement for Sudan - Report of the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Heiner Bielefeldt, Human Rights Council 28th Session - Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Rashida Manjoo* - How to follow up on UN Human Rights Recommendations: A practical guide for civil society - Pathways to, conditions and consequences of incarceration for women	<urn:uuid:7d028790-e956-4356-9fb2-a1d9f926c30c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wluml.org/node/4696	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934992	734	2.515625	3
Being a child in 21st century Mexico utterly differs from any other era. The last decade has been a constant whirlpool for Mexico. Political, cultural and economical changes have shaken the country to its core. Primary care physicians, particularly pediatricians, have a burdensome challenge at hand. Problems like obesity have quickly emerged in all age groups. Obese children, childhood type 2 diabetes and sedentary lifestyles have invaded Mexican homes. Nutrition related customs and habits have shifted due to foreign influence and indifferent health authorities. Obesity rates are soaring high, 1 in every 3 children is overweight or obese and 70% of the adult population struggles with this quandary. Only 3% of Mexican youngsters report intense physical activity. Currently, diabetes is the leading cause of death among Mexicans. It is estimated that by 2030, health practitioners will face a nation with a 15% diabetic population. Illegal drug use has reached historical rates as a particular phenomenon is happening. Towering amounts of drugs are accumulating in the country due to increasing northern border pressure and scrutiny. Hence, drugs are becoming more available and cheaper every day. Mexico went from being a transit country to another important market. There are a million more drug users today than there used to be back in 2002. Children all over the republic are in paramount need of professional counseling in the fluctuating socio-cultural dynamics. Gun safety has rapidly become one of the top national issues in the last 10 years. In a country suffocated by crime and violence, thousands of firearms are introduced via the northern border every month. Guns are present in Mexican homes more than ever. This topic is now a priority in the country’s political agenda; nonetheless all children should be addressed directly about this subject. Primary care is declining in Mexico, as well as the rest of the world. Little pay and uneven distribution of practitioners across the country discourages medical students to consider this path. Prevention and quality well-child care could be the mainstay for saving the coming generations. The solution to these problems is much more complex and goes way beyond the doctor’s office. Nevertheless, Mexican health professionals have the moral responsibility to fight from their own trenches. Mexican youth are making a stand against new and baleful threats. Pediatricians have a natural appeal towards protecting and looking after the child’s well-being. Close follow-up for children at risk, reiterative prevention talks in every visit and expeditious referral when needed, could be key interventions. More and better trained pediatricians could hold the key for a better informed and healthier country in years to come. Cesar Lucio is a pediatrics resident in Mexico who blogs at SINESTETOSCOPIO. Submit a guest post and be heard on social media’s leading physician voice.	<urn:uuid:48c62d12-152e-4929-8c9c-60b50d52fbf2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.kevinmd.com/blog/2012/03/mexico-pediatricians.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.951506	567	2.703125	3
an ingenious naturalist, was born, in 1746, at Edzel, in Forfarshire. He studied both at the universities of Aberdeen and St. Andrews, and distinguished himself by his proficiency in the various branches of natural history. He afterwards became tutor in the family of Mr. Graham of Stromness, and when Mr., afterwards Sir Joseph, Banks, with Dr. Solander, visited that quarter, he accompanied them in their excursions through the Orkney and Shetland islands. In 1774 he was ordained minister of the parish of Birsay and Harray, on the Mainland of Orkney. Having been introduced by Sir Joseph Banks to Mr. Pennant, by the advice of the latter he undertook a ‘Fauna Orcadensis,’ and a ‘Flora Orcadensis.’ He died in 1795. In 1813, 18 years after his death, his ‘Fauna’ was published by Dr. W. F. Leach, in one vol. 4to. It bore the title of ‘Fauna Orcadensis; or the Natural History of the Quadrupeds, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes, of the Orkney and Shetland Isles.’ Mr. Low left behind him other MSS., particularly a translation of Torfaeus’s History of Orkney, and a Tour through Orkney and Shetland. an eminent Episcopalian divine. See SUPPLEMENT. a distinguished professor of agriculture. See SUPPLEMENT.	<urn:uuid:505aba21-650c-45ba-9059-201cc783f56a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.electricscotland.com/history/nation/low.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953203	347	2.78125	3
Comparing and Contrasting Political Change through Map Making In this lesson, students will work in cooperative groups to compare and contrast the following presidential elections: 1876, 1896, 1948, 1964, 1972, 1980, and 2008 through the creation of political maps. In addition, each group will provide explanations of campaign platforms for different political parties, voting patterns, and why the election is important for understanding changes in Southern Politics. Students will then present their map and detailed explanations to the class. Busing for Integration vs. Neighborhood Schools This lesson plan will introduce students to the political, social, and economic issues surrounding school desegregation using oral histories from those who experienced it firsthand. They will learn about the history of the "separate but equal" U.S. school system, the 1971 Swann case which forced Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools (CMS) to integrate, and the recent decision to discontinue busing for racial integration in Charlotte-Mecklenburg. They will compare and contrast neighborhood schools with s Introduction to Political Philosophy This course is intended as an introduction to political philosophy as seen through an examination of some of the major texts and thinkers of the Western political tradition. Three broad themes that are central to understanding political life are focused upon: the polis experience (Plato, Aristotle), the sovereign state (Machiavelli, Hobbes), constitutional government (Locke), and democracy (Rousseau, Tocqueville). The way in which different political philosophies have given expression to various Introduction to Ancient Greek History This is an introductory course in Greek history tracing the development of Greek civilization as manifested in political, intellectual, and creative achievements from the Bronze Age to the end of the classical period. Students read original sources in translation as well as the works of modern scholars. The history of medicine: a Scottish perspective In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the approach to medicine was vastly different from today. Health is now recognised, at least in most European countries, as a universal right, but what was it like in the past? How did social and political bound Effective ways of displaying information The power of graphics should not the underestimated. They can express information clearly and simply. This unit will help you to assess which style of graphic to use in different situations. Social work and the law in Scotland Social work is a dynamic profession that is undergoing a period of significant change in Scotland. Social workers have the power to make assessments and decisions that radically alter people's lives. This unit introduces the law as it relates to social wo Forth Road Bridge Scotland's Forth Road Bridge may not be the most beautiful bridge over the Firth of Forth, but it is an incredible feat of engineering and is integral to the economy of the entire area. However, rust is threatening to destroy the cables that suspend the r The poetry of Sorley MacLean Sorley Maclean (1911-1996) is regarded as one of the greatest Scottish poets of the twentieth century. This unit will introduce you to his poetry and give you an insight into the cultural, historical and political contexts that inform his work. MacLean wr Two-Color Multiple Slit Diffraction The Two-Color Multiple Slit Diffraction Model allows users to explore multiple slit diffraction by manipulating characteristics of the aperture and incident light to observe the resulting intensity. An exploration of resolving power in spectroscopy is included in the model. Islamic Societies of the Middle East and North Africa: Religion, History, and Culture This new course offers a panoramic survey of the Islamic societies of the Middle East and North Africa from their origins to the present day. It will deal with the history and expansion of Islam, both as a world religion and civilization, from its birth in the Arabian peninsula in the seventh century to its subsequent spread to other parts of western Asia and North Africa. Issues of religious practices, political governance and movements, gender, social relations and cultural norms will be explo Mary Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley This Honors Program first-year political theory seminar explores the intellectual relationship of Mary Shelley, the author of the novel Frankenstein, to her mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, the author of the first book on women's rights, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. The Importance of Religion in Political Life in the 19th Century: Abraham Lincoln's Experience In this lesson, students will explore the importance of religion in community building in frontier America. They will also analyze the importance of religion in political life in the 19th century. This site offers language instruction materials as well as cultural, political, and social information about countries in Southeast Asia including Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, Vietnam, and the Philippines. NOAA: National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service This website is the homepage of NOAA's environmental satellite monitoring service. The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) provides timely access to global environmental data from satellites and other sources to promote, protect, & enhance the Nation's economy, security, environment, & quality of life. The site features satellite and in situ data from NOAA's Climactic, Coastal, Geophysical, and Oceanographic Data Centers, satellite imagery and research, as we US History I Upon completion of this course you will: Demonstrate comprehension of a broad body of historical knowledge; Express ideas clearly in writing; Work with classmates to research an historical issue; Interpret and apply data from original documents; Identify underrepresented historical viewpoints; Write to persuade with evidence; Compare and contrast alternate interpretations of an historical figure, event, or trend; Explain how an historical event connects to or causes a larger trend or theme; Deve The Sioux Treaty of 1868 This lesson examines Native American sovereignty and the Constitutional power granted to the president and the Senate to make treaties with foreign nations. The site presents the Treaty and related documents, including a photograph of the Indian leader, Spotted Tail. Explanatory text, materials for teachers, and links to further resources accompany the documents. Migration North to Alaska This site offers suggestions for projects that use the Archives' photographs, letters, drawings, and it highlights economic, social, and political factors that prompted thousands to migrate to Alaska. Political Cartoons Illustrating Progressivism and the Election of 1912 This site offers teaching activities, four political cartoons, and a narrative about reforms proposed by three major presidential candidates in 1912: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson. Teaching Petrology in the 21st Century This site is a clearinghouse for a variety of educational and supporting materials for teaching igneous and metamorphic petrology. Some features of the site are a collection of classroom and laboratory activities, teaching materials such as lecture notes and Power Point presentations, a database of ...	<urn:uuid:f9e548ce-eb72-4efe-a23d-1c6f8036b302>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/xpert/scoreresults.php?keywords=Politics,%20power%20and%20political%20economy%20in%20Latin%20Am&start=7800&end=7820	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.921762	1,393	3.484375	3
NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - Black and Hispanic children are half as likely to be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as their white peers, according to a new study that followed U.S. kindergarteners through middle school. "We're seeing that the disparities occur as early as kindergarten and then remain and continue until the end of eighth grade," said Paul Morgan, who led the study at Pennsylvania State University in University Park. "It's a consistent pattern of what we're interpreting as comparative underdiagnosis for minority populations," he told Reuters Health. That's a concern, Morgan said, because it means some kids who could benefit from treatment - including medication or talk therapy - and extra help in the classroom may be missing out. The researchers also found that compared to white children with the condition, minority kids who were diagnosed with ADHD were less likely to be prescribed medications, which include the stimulants Vyvanse, Ritalin and Concerta. They tracked 15,100 kids from the kindergarten class of 1998-1999 using regular parent surveys. At each survey point - kindergarten and first, third, fifth and eighth grades - white children were most likely to have ADHD. All races followed a similar trend over time, with new diagnoses peaking around third grade. By the spring of eighth grade, 7 percent of white kids had received an ADHD diagnosis, their parents reported. In comparison, 3 percent of black kids and just over 4 percent of Hispanic children had been diagnosed. Factors such as a mother's age at birth and family income didn't explain those differences, nor did teacher reports of each child's behavior and learning, Morgan's team wrote on Monday in Pediatrics. Their study was funded by the Institute of Education Sciences. "There just seems to be more wariness and concern in African American groups," both about being diagnosed with ADHD and the medications used to treat the condition, said Dr. Tanya Froehlich, an ADHD researcher at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. "A lot of people are very concerned about their child being labeled and their child being stigmatized both in the school and socially," Froehlich, who wasn't involved in the new research, told Reuters Health. Morgan noted that children with ADHD are allowed certain adaptations and extra help in the classroom. "If you've got certain groups of kids with a disorder who are not being picked up ... they might not be accessing treatment that can help in terms of their school-based functioning," he said. That, in turn, can lead to poor self-esteem and acting out. Untreated ADHD has also been linked to substance abuse, anxiety and depression as children grow older. Talk therapy and parent training are options for families that don't want to use medication, Morgan said. "For someone who truly has ADHD, there's so much that can be done to help that child and to help prevent some of these negative consequences," Froehlich said. Morgan said evidence suggests minority children are exposed to more of the risk factors for ADHD, such as being born small. So if anything, researchers would expect them to be diagnosed with the disorder more often. The new study can't prove the findings represent underdiagnosis of minorities, rather than overdiagnosis of white children, according to Froehlich. But if kids are having problems at school or at home and aren't seeing a doctor, that's a concern, she added. "It's really important if parents feel their child might have a problem to get them evaluated by a trained medical professional," she said. SOURCE: http://bit.ly/cxxog Pediatrics, online June 24, 2013.	<urn:uuid:80b5c50a-a45c-4cc8-81c1-5b75925adb0a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.lifescript.com/health/centers/adhd_pediatric/news/newsbyte2.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.980345	756	3	3
KIHEI - Dr. Marsha Green will present the lecture "Underwater Noise Pollution: Impacts on Cetaceans and Other Marine Life" on Wednesday, Jan. 15, at 6 p.m. at the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary. David Henkin of Earthjustice will join Dr. Green to offer his expertise on current legal issues. The lecture will be followed by a question and answer session. All are welcome to attend. Ocean noise is a form of pollution caused by anthropogenic (human-generated) activities. It includes vessel traffic; military activities, including sonar; geophysical activities used in the exploration for oil and gas (seismic air guns, explosives, etc.); oceanographic experimentation; and underwater construction. According to Green, ocean noise pollution affects all cetaceans. It can result in whale and dolphin strandings, and it can be lethal. It also affects fish behaviors and depletes fish stocks, which limits access to protein critical for developing countries. Depleting fish stocks also affects the fishing industry. Green is the Ocean Mammal Institute's (OMI) president and founder. She holds a doctorate from Temple University in Animal Behavior and Physiological Psychology. Dr. Green is a licensed psychologist and professor at Albright College in Reading, Pennsylvania, where she serves as chair of the Psychology Department. She founded the psychobiology curriculum and lectures on ecological psychology at Albright. Since 1986, Green has been conducting whale and dolphin research in Hawaii. Her initial research on the impact of parasailing and jet skis on humpback whales in the shallow waters of the Hawaiian Islands led her to further studies that documented the effects of noise from vessel traffic on ocean mammals. In 2002, her efforts helped lead to the European Parliament's resolution to ban sonar in European waters until further research was conducted. She was also instrumental in the establishment of the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary. Dr. Green was among the first people to state that strandings of whales were being caused by high intensity active sonar. OMI has been a plaintiff in several federal lawsuits to mitigate the effects of sonar, especially in sensitive whale breeding grounds. She has worked in the United States and internationally to protect whales and dolphins with members of the European Parliament, United Nations, members of the U.S. Congress, NATO officials and a federal advisory committee. Dr. Green believes her major accomplishment on the ocean noise issue has been her work at the United Nations. Her ten-year effort has resulted in ocean noise being recognized as a key "threat to marine ecosystems and living resources" in the "UNCLOS at 30" report (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.)	<urn:uuid:e69d943f-8503-488a-af0c-bd3d85ffc496>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.lahainanews.com/page/content.detail/id/530102/Dr--Marsha-Green-to-discuss-impacts-of-underwater-noise-pollution.html?nav=19	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949742	569	3.0625	3
Mapping Census 2010: The Geography of American Change Mapping Census 2010: The Geography of American Change is an atlas of the American people— who we are, and where we are. Using the latest census data and geographic information system (GIS) technology, this atlas examines how our unique population is moving and changing. These large, full-color maps illustrate population density, age, and racial and ethnic composition with clarity. Mapping Census 2010 is an invaluable resource for government officials, policy makers, and citizens interested in social change. Riley Peake is the cartographer at Esri Press. ISBN: 9781589483194 2012 108 pages $18.95 To order this book: Click the button below to order Mapping Census 2010: The Geography of American Change online from Esri's GIS Bookstore, or call 1-800-447-9778. If ordering from outside the US, see ordering options.	<urn:uuid:2806317c-6e46-4cd4-9bec-dc5429e6222a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://esripress.esri.com/display/index.cfm?fuseaction=display&websiteID=216&moduleID=0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.863247	198	2.984375	3
Until construction of a highway bridge at Fulton in 1930, traffic crossed the Red River on a ferry. The routing of U.S. 67 through the town in 1936 brought tourism. The Arkansas Supreme Court declared Hope the county seat in 1939, after numerous elections to move the courthouse from Washington to Hope. The city’s courthouse was built that same year. In 1941, the government announced a land condemnation order, and work began on the Southwestern Proving Ground (SPG). The government built the army ordnance plant on farmland just north of town. Civilian employees were transported by bus from Hope and surrounding counties. The plant was completed and the first ammunition was tested by the following year. Work continued until the end of the war in 1945. Cotton was the chief crop in town until the 1920s. The poultry industry was also important to the town as was the county’s hardwood forests, which provided timber for lumber companies. John S. Gibson started a watermelon-growing contest to promote the economy in the 1920s. The Ivan and Lloyd Bright 1979 and 1985 melons were listed in the Guinness Book of World Records. The Hope Chamber of Commerce sponsored the first Watermelon Festival in 1926 and it continues to be celebrated to this day every August. Along with former President Clinton, there are many other notable residents from Hope. Thomas F. “Mack” McLarty, Clinton’s first chief of staff, and Vincent Foster Jr., deputy White House counsel were both from the town. Mike Huckabee, Arkansas’s forty-fourth governor, was born in Hope as was his wife, Janet McCain Huckabee. One of the Southwestern Proving Ground army ordnance officers, Major Paul W. Klipsch, an Indiana native, chose to stay in town after World War II. In 1948, he began the production of his now internationally famous Klipsch horns. Nearby Historic Washington State Park is a restoration village preserving the 19th-century town of Washington, which figured prominently in Arkansas and Southwest U.S. history. Evidence suggests that Sam Houston, Stephen F. Austin and others plotted Texas' revolution for independence from Mexico while staying in Hope. Washington also served as the state's Confederate capital after Little Rock was captured by Union troops during the Civil War. Hope is around 120 miles from Little Rock. Information credit: The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture	<urn:uuid:ee935bdf-3315-4955-9727-62571f772fc3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.arkansas.com/m/places-to-go/cities-and-towns/city-detail.aspx?city=Hope	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977629	490	2.734375	3
When you start up Firefox or Internet Explorer, the last thing you want to see is a plain, white screen declaring 'The page cannot be displayed'. But if you ever do encounter one, we have the fix. Whether you work in Windows XP or Vista, tracking down connection failures can be a simple, methodical process. Both XP and Vista are supposed to be advanced, graphical operating systems, but when your connection goes down, you'll find the solution in the command prompt - specifically, the Ipconfig command. Short for "Internet Protocol configuration," Ipconfig is key to establishing and reestablishing your Internet connectivity. Invariably, this command, with its array of appended parameters, is what your ISP's tech support rep will tell you to try when you're having difficulty getting online. Here are five ways that you can raise your IP IQ and troubleshoot your connection yourself. Web connection woes? Refresh your IP address If you use DSL or cable broadband, you probably have a dynamic IP (Internet Protocol) address, which means that your PC's Internet address changes each time you log on. Your IP address should be assigned by DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol). From time to time, however, this process doesn't behave as dynamically as its name implies: Sometimes it doesn't assign a new address at boot-up, and you're stuck with the previous address. Since a fresh IP address is necessary to reach the Internet, when you open your browser, all you see is an error screen stating that the PC cannot establish a connection to the Internet. Whether your system connects directly through a modem or via a router, the first step in getting an IP address assigned is to right-click the network icon in the system tray. From the resulting menu, select Repair. Windows will automatically flush the old addresses and request new ones from your router or Internet service provider, depending on how your PC is connected. Most of the time, this operation works like a charm. But when it doesn't, you'll have to troubleshoot the situation manually, and this is where knowing the ins and outs of Ipconfig can help you get your connection up and running. Click Start, Run and type cmd. In Vista you can save a step simply by typing cmd in the Start Search box. At the command prompt, type ipconfig to see your currently known IP address, the subnet mask, and the default gateway for all adapters. Other adapters might include Wi-Fi and Bluetooth cards, although they may be listed as disconnected. By itself, Ipconfig does nothing more than display information. To make it actually do something -- like refreshing your IP address -- you must add parameters preceded by a space and a forward slash. The two parameters that do the most effective job of repairing your Internet connection are '/release' and '/renew'. Typing ipconfig /release instructs the DHCP server to erase the existing IP address for all adapters, be they ethernet or wireless. The process should take a few seconds, confirmed with a display in the DOS box showing all zeros for the IP address and subnet mask. Now type ipconfig /renew. If the command is successful, a new IP address, a subnet mask, and the default gateway will appear along with the DNS suffix (basically your ISP's address, such as comcast.net).	<urn:uuid:b8d4ef13-27af-40b4-ab09-584f8b651504>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/article/198894/5_quick_fixes_net_connection_hang-ups/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.920636	692	2.59375	3
Invasive Species and Biodiversity An invasive species is an organism that grows and spreads quickly because it can adapt to a variety of growing conditions. Invasive species are often non-native (introduced from other areas) and lack the usual predators that control their population. Non-native species can sometimes coexist with native species without becoming a problem. Concerns arise when a non-native species becomes invasive. Under regular conditions, communities are made up of a variety of species that developed in the area and co-exist in harmony and balance. When a non-native species is introduced, it can grow in an uninhibited manner without the natural controls of its original area. Non-native species can be aggressive or vigorous growers and can overwhelm and out compete the local native species. This upsets the natural balance and results in the loss of the native species and sometimes whole communities, thereby lowering the overall biodiversity and health of an area. Invasive plants can lower biodiversity so greatly that they create a monotypic community (where the invasive species is the only plant growing). Beyond the ecological losses and issues arising from the negative changes brought on by non-native invasive species, there is a social loss as well. Most of us enjoy the outdoors, especially when surrounded by a beautiful garden or the native species in woodlands. An invasive species can ruin this beauty. The term native can be used on a variety of scales. If a species is native to Canada it is not necessarily native to Ontario, and if a species is native to Ontario it is not necessarily native to your local region. A species can be considered native if it occurred in the region before human settlement introduced non-natives from other areas. Local native species are often called “indigenous.” Although species introductions and range expansions have occurred throughout history, human activity has accelerated the long-distance transport of non-native organisms. Non-native plants are sometimes brought into a new area intentionally as ornamentals (by individuals or through garden stores) or for medicinal uses. Invasive species of plants and animals are also unintentionally transported to new locations in the ballast of ships, in animal fodder and packing materials, or through recreational activities such as ﬁshing, boating, hiking, and camping. It is important to be aware of invasive species and to clean all seeds and soil from boots and equipment before moving to a different site. When engaged in water recreation, it is best to let equipment dry in the sun and remain dry for ﬁve days before moving to a new location. Be sure to get any firewood from close to where you will burn it; invasive pests can be transported to new areas when people bring wood from other areas. Some invasive non-native species that have upset local ecosystems include: Giant Hogweed; Purple Loosestrife in wetlands; Zebra Mussels in the Great Lakes; Garlic Mustard and Dog-Strangling Vine in woodlands; non-native Buckthorn in fields and valleys. To help raise awareness, Conservation Halton has published their viewpoint on invasive species, and produced a few fact sheets on some major invasive plant species in our watershed: - Viewpoint: Invasive Species; - Common Reed Grass (Phragmites); - Dog-Strangling Vine; - Eurasian Watermilfoil; - Giant Hogweed: This invasive can also cause severe skin irritations: See even more information and additional resources on Giant Hogweed directly on Conservation Halton’s website; - Periwinkle – common in many gardens. Other invasive species in the watershed include: - Garlic Mustard: You may have seen this invader one in your own garden or expanding its reach in woodlands. Did you know Garlic Mustard is edible? Find Garlic Mustard information and cooking recipes in our Pest-o-Fest brochure; - Gypsy Moth; - Emerald Ash Borer. Preventing the Introduction and Spread of Invasive Plant Species It is important to understand the differences between native species and invasive species, and to use species native to your local region for any planting or restoration projects. The more local the plant, the better suited the plant will be for your site. The following are tips that you as an individual can learn about and do to help prevent the introduction and spread of non-native invasive species: - Use only locally native species for landscaping in and around natural areas, and use or promote using native species in garden landscaping. Always be aware of invasive species and do not use them. The use of non-invasive non-native plants has its place and they are acceptable in some urban areas and gardens away from natural spaces; it is still recommended however that you use only non-invasive native species. - Know or research which species are native to your local area and which are problem invasive species. For native woody and herbaceous plants that occur and are appropriate in Halton, you can start by consulting the “Native Herbaceous Vegetation List” and the “Native Woody Vegetation List.” - Beware when you see the term wildflower in seed and plant mixtures! Often, wildflower is used to include non-native species that require low or no maintenance; many of these can be invasive. Read the label to see what species are included. - Wildflower field guides will sometimes state if a species is native to Canada or Ontario. However, local naturalist clubs or conservation authorities will often have more specific knowledge of local native species in your area. It’s a good idea to approach your local gardening club; in many areas, the interest in native species is increasing and there are groups dedicated to promoting the use of native species. - Discuss the issue of non-native invasive plants with your local garden club, garden centres and nurseries, or naturalist clubs. Encourage planting the right plant in the right location. - Approach your local municipality about including native landscape plantings in municipal by-laws and municipal planting projects. - If you see a priority invasive species please complete an invasive species reporting form or please send an e-mail to Brenda Van Ryswyk. Some of these tips and information come from Conservation Halton’s Landscaping and Tree Preservation Guidelines. While the guidelines were developed to be used by landscape architects and other practitioners who prepare landscaping, restoration, or tree preservation plans for submission to Conservation Halton, they are available to anyone with an interest in learning more about some of the woody and herbaceous (green, leafy) plants that are and are not appropriate in the area. - Learn how you can optimize your garden for local butterflies and wildlife by using native plants; - The Ontario Invasive Plant Council offers: - A "Grow Me Instead" guide which offers native and non-invasive alternatives to commonly planted exotic invasive plants for Southern Ontario; - Many best management practices for removal of specific invasive plants; - Evergreen is dedicated to promoting and using native species. Check out their native plant database that includes information and photos.	<urn:uuid:065f6e2b-160d-4729-acfc-e0c98f5c2197>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.conservationhalton.ca/invasive-species-and-biodiversity	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.932462	1,466	3.875	4
Pattern cutting and grading make up the intricate process of creating the pattern templates which are used by the clothing industry to produce garments. Although two separate jobs, they can be carried out by the same person. A clothing pattern cutter uses a designer's drawing to create a prototype template. There are three ways to do this: Pattern cutting can be done by hand drawing or by using a computer. Taking the prototype pattern, a sample garment is made up. At this stage, designers and garment technologists are able to make the required adjustments and alterations. The pattern grader completes the next stage of the process. Their job involves taking the pattern template and re-sizing it. This is so clothing manufacturers can produce one design in a variety of sizes. Pattern grading is traditionally carried out by hand, using charts to alter pattern proportions, but it is now more typically done using a computer. The two main methods involve: After the accuracy of computerised pattern grades are checked, copies are sent to manufacturers. They then programme automated fabric-cutting machines or transfer the patterns manually on to fabrics ready for cutting, sewing and producing the finished items. Clothing pattern cutters/graders are usually contracted to work between 35 and 39 hours a week. This may involve shift work. Overtime may be required to meet deadlines. Part-time work and job share may be available. Pattern cutters/graders may work in small design studios or in manufacturing environments where garments are made. Many work alongside or near clothing designers, fabric cutters and sample machinists. This can make the working environment quite noisy. Although stationed at pattern tables, cutters and graders can spend quite a lot of time on their feet, using tailors' dummies and taking measurements. This can involve some stretching and bending. Those using technology, rather than manual cutting and grading methods, may spend long periods seated at a computer workstation. Between 4,000 and 5,000 people in the UK clothing industry are employed in clothing cutter roles. It is estimated that 1,000 of these specialise in pattern cutting and grading. The main employers are clothing manufacturers who supply garments to online, mail order and High Street retailers. Opportunities also exist in the more exclusive designer fashion houses. Good opportunities exist throughout the UK, although there tends to be a higher concentration of jobs in the East and West Midlands, North West England and London. With more vacancies than applicants, there is a shortage of skilled pattern cutters/graders. Vacancies may be advertised in local newspapers and in specialist trade publications, such as Drapers. Clothing manufacturers may advertise positions on their websites, and speculative applications may also lead to employment. There are no formal academic requirements to become a pattern cutter/grader, although employers usually require people working in this role to have some related experience in the fashion clothing business. An Apprenticeship is a common route for young people. Academic entry requirements are usually four GCSE's/S grades (A-C/1-3). English, maths, art and design, and design and technology are useful subjects. Apprenticeships and Advanced Apprenticeships provide structured training with an employer. As an apprentice you must be paid at least £95 per week; you may well be paid more. A recent survey found that the average wage for apprentices was £170 a week. Your pay will depend on the sector in which you work, your age, the area where you live and the stage at which you have arrived in the Apprenticeship. Entry to Employment (e2e) can help to prepare those who are not yet ready for an Apprenticeship. In addition, Young Apprenticeships may be available for 14- to 16-year-olds. More information is available from a Connexions personal adviser or at www.apprenticeships.org.uk. There are different arrangements for Apprenticeships in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. It is also possible to study for a related qualification such as a BTEC national or higher national award, certificate or diploma in art and design (textiles), art and design (fashion and clothing), clothing/fashion design technology or production, or design and craft. The London College of Fashion (part of the University of the Arts London) also offers a range of courses in pattern technology and related topics. Mastering the different pattern cutting and grading techniques comes with experience. The combination of working alongside skilled pattern cutters/graders and attending various courses can also enhance practical knowledge. Pattern cutters/graders may be able to work towards a vocational qualification, including: The London College of Fashion runs a wide range of short courses and workshops in pattern cutting and related techniques. City & Guilds offers a vocational fashion certificate, with various design and craft modules, including pattern cutting and computer pattern grading. Each module can be studied individually and may lead to a certificate in its own right. Oil Drilling Roustabouts and Roughnecks work as part of a small team on offshore oil or gas drilling rigs or production platforms. Roustabouts do unskilled manual labouring jobs on rigs and platforms, and Roughneck is a promotion from roustabout. Roustabouts do basic tasks to help keep the rig and platform working efficiently and Roughnecks do practical tasks involved in the drilling operation, under the supervision of the driller. A clothing pattern cutter/grader should have: Promotion opportunities within large manufacturing companies and fashion houses may be available. Clothing pattern cutters/graders may progress to supervising a team as head pattern cutter or grader. With the right skills and experience, pattern cutters/graders may also be able to move into fashion design or a related field, such as retail buying. Self-employment may be possible. London College of Fashion, 20 John Princes' Street, London W1G 0BJ Full-time courses and part-time degree enquiries: Tel: 020 7514 7344. Short course enquiries: Tel: 020 7514 7566 The Textile Institute, 1st Floor, St James' Buildings, Oxford Street, Manchester M1 6FQ Tel: 0161 237 1188 Textile Centre of Excellence, Textile House, Red Doles Lane, Huddersfield HD2 1YF Tel: 01484 346500 Additional resources for job seekers and those already in a job.	<urn:uuid:862b3914-4563-45dd-99f5-9c4f38309f97>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.inputyouth.co.uk/jobguides/job-clothingpatterncutter.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934666	1,331	3.40625	3
The nation's military has long employed female members and now, from fresh recruits to commanding officers, women shoulder the responsibilities that come with key positions. There is no longer any need for concerns that women are not suitable for these kinds of jobs. Some female candidates have been outstanding in their areas of expertise. Female military personnel have been able to further enhance their skills under the "gender equality" and "equal compensation" programs promoted by the military. In the future, warfare is likely to depend on high-tech weapons and the push of a single button could mean the difference between victory and defeat. In the heat of battle, success will rely on a combination of intelligence and information, not brute strength. In this regard, there would be no great difference between male and female military personnel in terms of natural ability. Moreover, in some ways -- for instance, concentration or discretion -- women may be more effective and secure more successful results than men. Accordingly, one day, the extraordinary performance of our female military personnel will be another paragraph in the glorious history of defending our homeland.	<urn:uuid:6dadf64d-76a0-4673-b916-495895790b8b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/02/13/2003401092	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.960317	219	2.609375	3
Make this messy mixture for your own science experiments. Hover over each Learning Benefit below for a detailed explanation. What you need: - white glue - liquid starch - plastic bag with zipper top - measuring spoons What to do: - Spread newspaper on a table — this could get messy! - With your child, measure one tablespoon of glue and pour it into the bag. - Add one tablespoon of starch to the glue. Zip the bag closed. - Press and squeeze the mixture inside the bag to mix the starch and glue. - Open the baggie and test the slime. If it feels too sticky, add in a little more starch. - Try this experiment to investigate the effects of heat and cold on the mixture. Recommended Products for Your Child Ages 5-7	<urn:uuid:4015ac92-806f-4a74-8749-33ad203d2c0c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.scholastic.com/parents/resources/article/science-nature-activities/silly-slime	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.817107	168	3.5625	4
Electricity: Robots and electric eels 1. Start by attracting the children’s interest (Show Powerpoint Slide 1) - Use the demo to find out what they know and to establish that they understand that the robot will not work without the battery. Show a toy robot e.g. one that can climb windows or smooth surfaces and has a flashing lamp. Ask them how the robot can climb the window. Some may correctly say it has suckers on its feet. If they start from this point ask how it moves and then how upwards. Encourage answers including- electricity, battery, motors, circuits, lamp. - To light a lamp a battery and a complete path (called a circuit) made of conducting material are needed. - Note: this activity may be revision. Give out, one between four, bags with assorted contents as listed. Some will have components to make a complete circuit- others will not. As you hand them out explain that some of the groups may not be able to light the bulbs. After this collect all apparatus in the original bags. Encourage the children to discuss the components and ‘wires’ used to connect up the ‘circuits’ and whether they allow electric currents to flow. Also encourage statements such as “our circuit does not work because it does not have a ...” 3. Forest analogy (Show Powerpoint Slides 2- 6) - Tiny particles (electrons) move round a circuit when a current flows. From high above a forest, the trees look like an almost smooth surface, from lower down the trees are seen and from even lower monkeys can be seen which move between the trees. Ask the children to think about what is happening in a metal. Explain that there are spaces in the metals (like between the trees) that very, very tiny particles can move through. Help them to visualise how small the particles are by discussing huge numbers. They may suggest a million. Clarify that they understand this is 1000 lots of 1000 - about the number of people on Merseyside or in a city near them. 4. Thought experiment to try to imagine the size of an electron. - The electrons are VERY, VERY tiny. Imagine a pin head. Then talk about each of a million people putting one tiny dot along a line on the pin head. Explain that it is very difficult to image such tiny dots but they are far, far larger than the particles moving through the wires. Even if a million dots are put on one of these tiny dots, they would be much larger than an electron. Explain that the particles moving round the circuit are called electrons. Encourage the children to discuss the problems of imagining such large numbers and such tiny dots and explain that everyone has this problem – they are far too small to see. Link back to the idea that from an aeroplane they would be unable to see the monkeys moving between the forest trees. 5. Circuit game (Show Powerpoint Slide 7) - Whether the current is flowing or not, the electrons are all around the circuit - Reinforce that a complete loop is needed for the electrons to flow - When a current flows the electrons move round the circuit and the lamp lights - A switch can be used to break the circuit so that the current stops and the lamp goes out. The electrons do not all rush back to the battery - Be careful not to imply that the electrons stop moving completely Give every child a piece of scrap paper and ask them to crush it into a small ball. Ask them all to stand in a large circle. (It is best to arrange where this will be before the session.) Every child should hold the paper ball in their left hand. On the count of ‘1’ each child should take the ball in their right hand and on the count of ‘2’ put it in the left hand of the child next to them. This is repeated as you say 121212 until you say ‘stop’. Put a paper hat on showing a battery. Put the ‘lamp hat’ on a child. Also arrange that the teacher will shout “stop!” after the ‘current’ has been flowing for a while (upper size of children in ring is about 20 - others could watch). Point out that every child has a ball at the start. The balls do not all start in one place. When you say ‘stop’ each should still have a ball. Some practice is usually needed and enjoyed. Once they can do this, discuss what is needed to start the electrons moving round the circuit. You represent the battery because you are saying 121212 - so that the current flows. The teacher is a switch – which will need discussion. The child with the lamp-hat (or another child standing behind) should rotate it to show the unlit lamp when the current stops flowing. (Powerpoint Slide 8). 6. Drawing circuits (If required) - Simple circuit diagrams. Show Powerpoint Slides 9 and 10 Discuss the problem of drawing pictures to represent the components. Symbols do not need labelling and are easier to draw. 7. Experiment (Show Powerpoint Slide 11) - Metals are good conductors, most other materials are insulators (materials which do not allow electricity to flow through them). - Some materials allow electric currents to flow through them and are not metals (e.g. the pencil and the bendy pencil - carbon) To each group of 4 children, hand out a bag of components which form a circuit to light a lamp. Also hand out a collection of items made of different materials. Ask the children to complete the circuit to light the lamp and then disconnect the circuit at one point and connect in an item made of a material to be investigated. Discuss which items are good conductors. Discuss the materials the items are made of. Point out that the lamp is not bright in some cases- e.g. with the bendy pencil. (A sheet could be given to each group to record their results but with young children a discussion works well.) 8. Demonstration using the ‘sound box’ - Some good conductors are better conductors than others. - Water is a conductor. - Salty water is a better conductor than tap water. - People conduct electricity - wet hands cause a better contact. View apparatus list and the assembly and operating instructions for the sound box (PDF, 241 KB). Show that better the conductor the higher the pitch. Reinforce this using the demo buttons on the sound box. Text a good selection of materials including both a 30cm and a 3m bendy pencil. Show that water is a conductor and when salt is added the pitch is raised. Explain that people conduct electricity. People work by tiny currents flowing round their bodies.(Show Powerpoint Slide 12) Hold a contact of the sound box in each hand and listen to the note. Then increase the grip on each contact, then dampen fingers and grip the contacts. Point out that the ‘sound box’ has batteries (3V) in it so it is safe to touch the contacts. Discussion about the frequencies of the sounds heard. Encourage them to explain what they understand from the sounds heard. Link with their music knowledge if appropriate. Discuss the sounds heard in each case. Ask a different child to help with each activity. Ask for a volunteer to test if people conduct electric currents. Voltage can be described as an electrical ‘push’ but only mention it if necessary. 9. Electric eel (Show Powerpoint Slide 13) - Lead into the idea that electricity can be dangerous. These give their prey an electric shock to stun them. (Show Powerpoint Slide 14) They live in water that is a conductor. Discuss electric eels seen at large aquaria. Ask if they remember the eel causing lights to flash. (Note: the electric eel is a fish, not a true eel, found in the Amazon River Basin, South America) 10. Mains electricity is dangerous - Safety warnings: We conduct electric currents which can harm us. - NEVER handle electrical appliances with wet hands. - NEVER play with mains electricity - Use low voltage batteries in class experiments. Show Powerpoint Slides 15 to 20 Show slides indicating that wet hands made good electrical contact. Explain that during class experiments batteries are used. Show pictures of bathroom light cord. Discuss why we do not have wall mounted light switches and sockets in the bathroom. They enjoy this but it is probably better to keep the discussion away from horror stories which they will relate. 11. Demonstration using the ‘sound box’. - Some materials are neither good conductors nor bad conductors (insulators). - These are ‘semiconductors’. - Point out that there is a lot more to learn. View apparatus list and the assembly and operating instructions for the sound box (PDF, 241 KB). (Show Powerpoint Slide 21) Discuss the change in properties and the conditions change. - Materials with interesting conduction properties are used for numerous useful applications. Using a circuit with LDR and a LED show that the changes in illumination causes changes in conduction properties which can be used as a switch to switch the LED on or off. Variations are possible in the combinations of components according to availability. The circuit above with a buzzer instead of the LED works well. Adjust the potentiometer so that in full room light the buzzer is silent. As soon as the circuit was in partial shade the buzzer started to sound. When it was covered it sounded loudly. Using circuit with thermistor and buzzer show that the changes in conduction properties can be used as a switch to switch the buzzer on and off. Discuss possible uses. Children enjoy thinking out uses for sensors. Examples that may be suggested in discussion. Powerpoint Slide 23 They ask about LEDS because they are used in so many devices as indicators. Powerpoint Slide 24 The discussion here will probably open up into an Q/A session with lots of ideas being proposed - using sensors - Scientists are finding out new facts continuously and these are used to develop new ideas. Finally show slide of traffic lights which use LEDs and suggest they look out for them. (Show Powerpoint Slide 25) Explain that the development of LEDs for traffic lights is recent and they last longer and save money ... (When one LED fails the signal continues to function. The signals need replacing much less frequently and even 100 LEDs draw less current than a big filament lamp so saving money.) Or lead into another example of an up-to-date application that they can understand. - Being a scientist is exciting and interesting. Show Powerpoint Slide 28 Explain that semi-conductor materials are used in lots of devices they enjoy using. Computers, mobile phone, sound systems, TV, electric guitars ... If necessary, the ending could be modified to lead into an investigation.	<urn:uuid:38dd7c0e-84dd-4a0a-887b-7e465b2c7590>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.iop.org/activity/outreach/resources/pips/topics/electricity/activity/page_42934.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.918402	2,338	4.28125	4
Natural Health News — Dietary proanthocyanidins – commonly found in apples, pears and pulses – provide protection against pancreatic cancer, according to a new study. Italian researchers conducted study of 1000 people – 326 who had been admitted to hospital with pancreatic cancer and 652 ‘control’ individuals who had been admitted to the same hospitals as cases for other (non cancerous) conditions. The researchers used a well designed food questionnaire to better understand the diets of each of the participants ate. answered a reproducible and valid food-frequency questionnaire.Their findings are published recently in the Annals of Oncology. Even after adjusting for other actors such as gender, age education, history of diabetes, tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and energy intake and even vitamin C and folate intake the study showed that eating an additional portion of fruits rich in proanthocyanidins every day reduced the risk of pancreatic cancer by 25%. Not just pancreatic cancer An earlier study by the same researchers found similar benefits. Published in 2010 in the journal Nutrition and Cancer, this much larger study involved 9,622 cases of cancer and 16,050 controls. Using a similar dietary questionnaire to the one in teh current study The participants’ diets were analyzed for 6 classes of flavonoids, including isoflavones, anthocyanidins, flavanols, flavanones, flavones and flavonols, and 6 classes of proanthocyanidins. For subjects with the highest intake of total flavonoids there was a 44% lower risk of oral cancer and a 40% lower risk of laryngeal cancer compared to those whose intake was the lowest. Those whose intake of flavanones was among the highest had a 49% lower risk of oral cancer and a 40% lower risk of laryngeal cancer. Those whose flavonol intakes were highest experienced a 38% and 68% lower risk of these diseases respectively and a 62% lower risk of esophageal cancer. When colorectal cancer was examined, subjects whose intake of anthocyanidins was highest had a 33% less risk of the disease compared to the lowest group. For those with the highest intake of flavonols, flavones and isoflavones, there was a 36%, 22% and 24% lower risk respectively. Proanthocyanidins a specific type of antioxidant flavonoid, also emerged as protective against the disease. Nature provides the blueprint Proanthocyanadins are a type of tannin and are the pigments made by many plants. In autumn, when the leaves on trees turn first to red then gold it is these flavonoids and related compounds glycans – which are yellow in colour – that causes the leaves to fall. The word “apoptosis” which is used medically to describe the programmed death of cells, including cancer cells, in fact comes from the Greek meaning “leaves that fall from trees” Flavonoids and glycans have an important role to play in the regulation of the cell cycle and in this way, the scientists speculate, including more of them in our diets, can help reduce the risk of cancer cells growing. Fruit is the major source of proanthocyanadins in our diets. All types of blue and red berries, apples, grapes are good sources of proanthocyanadins. They are also present in plums, apricots, avocados, dates as well as kidney beans, black beans and pinto beans, most types of nuts, dark chocolate, red wine and cinnamon. Sign up here to receive regular updates from us	<urn:uuid:b3ee8f96-2736-4049-b1e5-224e89125ebf>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nyrnaturalnews.com/food/2012/09/an-apple-a-day-could-keep-pancreatic-cancer-away/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959721	761	3.09375	3
[image-36]The ability to use satellites to locate a storm that could evolve into a severe storm or hurricane will likely become more accurate for this year's Atlantic hurricane season beginning June 1. By then, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's or NOAA's, weather forecasters will be able to further improve the use of sensors aboard the NASA-NOAA Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership satellite known as Suomi NPP. U.S. Polar Environmental satellites such as Suomi NPP provide complete global coverage twice daily, while NOAA/NASA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites offer imagery over a fixed area. To improve the ability to better find and track hurricanes, NOAA scientists are finding ways to incorporate data from Suomi NPP's Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite, or VIIRS sensor, that allows observations of Earth's atmosphere and surface during nighttime hours and offers enhanced capability to see through clouds. VIIRS provides many advances over previous operational imagers and advances compared to its research predecessor, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometers currently operating on NASA's Aqua and Terra satellites. It is these advances in polar imagery that will give forecasters a new tool to improve their predictions. [image-51]Similarly, the radar on board the NASA/Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission or TRMM satellite has the capability to see through and distinguish between precipitating cumulus and the cirrus clouds which TRMM's infrared sensor also detects. The next-generation of these sensors is set to launch from Japan next month aboard the Global Precipitation Measurement satellite. VIIRS Day-Night Band Sees Through Night The information to track storms comes from satellites surface stations, weather balloons, radar and aircraft. Most current satellites provide important information during day and night, although observations in the visible part of the spectrum are limited at night. That is where VIIRS has an advantage. The VIIRS day-night band is sensitive enough to provide storm information even under limited moonlight conditions, a major advancement for storm analysis. The Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder or ATMS sensor aboard Suomi NPP also provides temperature and water vapor measurements with greater accuracy than similar microwave instruments onboard earlier satellites. In relatively clear areas away from the storm center and in the eye of intense storms, the Cross-track Infrared Sensor, also on Suomi NPP, enhances ATMS temperature and moisture information by providing measurements with even greater vertical and horizontal resolution. "This is a new source for gathering temperature and moisture structure within and around the storm, showing us what is steering the storm, and affecting changes in the storm intensity," said Mark DeMaria, technology and science branch chief of NOAA's National Hurricane Center in Miami. It is not a simple process for hurricane forecasters to add new information to their forecasting models. To be able to use ATMS data, the top height of the hurricane forecast model had to be raised, said Fuzhong Weng, acting chief of Satellite Meteorology and Climatology Division for NOAA in College Park, Md. Weng assembled a research team including researchers from Florida State University in Tallahassee, Fla., in 2012 to investigate using Suomi NPP data for hurricane forecasting. In research results published in the Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres, the researchers found that the four hurricanes studied, including Hurricane Sandy which made landfall on the U.S. east coast in October 2012, the addition of Suomi NPP observations would have improved storm predictions, largely because of improved prediction of the storm's path which turned out to be closest to what actually occurred. Suomi NPP's VIIRS day-night band also significantly also relocated the path of Tropical Storm Flossie occurring in the Hawaii area last July. With the use of the day-night band, hurricane forecasters were able to more accurately locate the center of the storm, resulting in a more accurate forecast track of the storm. NOAA's National Weather Service uses large-scale global models to calculate a storm's projected path, size and intensity. The path and intensity of storms, and storms that could become hurricanes, are updated every six hours through the hurricane season. That information is relayed to the National Hurricane Center which zooms in to looks at the storm area in greater detail with its NOAA’s Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting System. The ability to observe Earth's atmosphere and surface through clouds and during nighttime will help forecasters find storms starting at night. "Forecasters will get a better assessment of the current position and structure at the beginning, which affects every other aspect of the storm," DeMaria said.	<urn:uuid:393bcb37-f9d9-4471-b711-a0a59dcc15be>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/more-precise-hurricane-forecasts-with-nasa-noaa-suomi-npp-viirs-satellite-sensor/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930605	954	3.125	3
This sponsored post, part of a series on Asia’s Young Social Entrepreneurs, is brought to you by DBS Bank. In partnership with the National University of Singapore, DBS is a proud supporter of the Social Venture Challenge, an Asia-wide competition for social enterprises. The White House released a new report this month documenting the impacts of climate change in the US, and the findings suggest that the discussion has long moved beyond “Is climate changing?” to “How can society better manage climate change?” Climate change is real. In particular, it found that temperatures in the US over the last decade have been the warmest on record. Heavy downpours, resulting in massive floods, have been increasing for certain regions, while other regions have been experiencing severe drought. Since the 1980s, the intensity and frequency of hurricanes and storms have increased. And sea levels continue to rise while ice continues to melt. The picture is clear. Society will have to get used to dealing with severe weather conditions and natural disasters. But is humanity well-prepared when it comes to responding to them? Not always, according to the team at Interclo. Following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, Nabeela Ahsan, a fashion designer and founder of Interclo, was volunteering to support relief efforts. As she sorted through clothing, she found, to her surprise, donated wedding gowns, sweaters, and jackets. “She couldn’t help but think to herself, never in the best of months do people wear jackets and fur in Haiti. It’s always so warm,” recalled Mateen Kirmani, Director of Strategy & Marketing at Interclo. When disaster strikes, everybody wants to help, says Kirmani, but what happens is that relief organizations end up with items they can’t use. “They have very little control over the donation process. They only control when to switch on the drive and when to switch it off,” he said. Both appropriate and inappropriate donations arrive on site for volunteers to sort, but because of the sheer volume, they often don’t get sorted well. For relief efforts abroad, most items get shipped overseas and sit at the port, waiting for someone to come sort them once again. “A lot of times, like in the case of Haiti, the donations that were either climatically or culturally inappropriate end up sitting at the port, blocking access for really important relief supplies to come through,” said Kirmani. Once items are finally attended to, up to 60 percent of clothing ends up in landfills because they are unfit, unhygienic, and non-reusable. Realizing this is an inefficient manner to respond to disasters, Ahsan decided to do what she does best: design clothes. She began working on a project to design suitable clothing that can be distributed during recovery efforts. It became the Survival Plus, a waterproof, lightweight jacket that can also be used for sleeping or sitting. Because of its easy-to-clean fabric, the Survival Plus remains hygienic longer and can simply be wiped down. “It’s also a product that has good use after a disaster. You can use this product when you go out for a picnic. You can use it as a floor mat,” explained Kirmani. “They all come vacuum-packed. The cool thing is when access is blocked, let’s say in a mountainous region there are landslides and you can’t reach people via road or rail, the product is light enough for you to be able to airdrop to remote locations.” While working as a management consultant in Singapore, Kirmani was contacted by Ahsan to get advice on starting Interclo in Asia, since the region’s population density is so high that any disaster impacts a large number of people. Kirmani eventually felt the desire to join Ahsan on her project, and ended up leaving the private sector. He wanted to work on something that left behind a significant positive impact. “As I helped Fortune 500 companies grow their business, I realized that it’s great helping clients that praise you for the work that you do for them, but at the end of the day, I used to ask myself what’s the impact,” said Kirmani. Kirmani joined Ahsan to make Interclo a business and today, the Survival Plus is ready to be manufactured and shipped out when needed. It costs $40 to $60 depending on the version, which is up to 50 percent less than what relief organizations spend on the items the Survival Plus can replace. But realizing that relief organizations are hesitant to be the first to try a new product, Interclo has been searching for their first customer. When they do, that’s when things can change quickly, says Kirmani. “That’s what happened with a company we know of called ShelterBox. They have a kit for disaster response and they face the same challenges as we are right now but over the last three years, they’ve become really big,” he said. “It’s really about getting this to the decision makers.” Kirmani remains optimistic. The Social Venture Challenge gave Interclo an opportunity to get good connections. Christopher Chua, the ex-Secretary General of Singapore Red Cross, is now mentoring the team and Kirmani is hopeful that this will result in a breakthrough for the company. “We’re really happy to have him on board,” he said. Watch this video to learn more about Interclo: Social Enterprise Buzz is a media company dedicated to covering social enterprise news from around the world. We publish a range of stories from startups to entrepreneurship, innovation, and finance, which showcase business making the world a better place. Read more.	<urn:uuid:15c098a2-bde3-4b50-b911-3ecb7a0cde6d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.socialenterprisebuzz.com/2014/05/20/a-disruptive-idea-to-distribute-clothing-after-natural-disasters/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956673	1,237	2.765625	3
Haiti has the most privatized social-service sector in the Americas, with some 80% of the country’s basic services provided by the private sector through non-governmental organizations (NGOs). No other country in the world has more NGOs per capita. Edmond Mulet, head of the UN mission in Haiti, conservatively estimates that there were more than 10,000 before the January 12 earthquake. Many Haitians ironically refer to their country as a “republic of NGOs.” The Haitian government, regularly accused of corruption by the U.S. State Department, has been marginalized in post-earthquake recovery and rebuilding efforts. Less than one cent of each dollar of U.S. earthquake relief is going to the Haitian government. As reported by the Associated Press, NGOs working on disaster assistance receive 43 cents, while 33 cents of that same dollar ends up with the U.S. military. This has been the pattern of aid since deposed Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide—not one of Washington’s favorite politicians—was elected in 1990. An umbrella organization of anti-Aristide activists and NGOs called the Group of 184, for example, was largely financed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, and the International Republic Institute. As Peter Hallward reports in his book Damming the Flood, USAID and other government agencies from Northern countries provide 70% of the funding of NGOs in Haiti. The other 30% comes from corporate and individual donations. Thus, the label “non-governmental” is a bit of a misnomer. In Haiti, the state has been circumvented, and unelected organizations that are unaccountable to the Haitian people have been carrying out a program of neoliberal transformation. The relationships between the NGOs and their donors continually undermine the Haitian people’s right to self-determination, while the organizations are at same time cultivating and profiting from the poverty they are entrusted to fight. One of the largest NGOs, the American Red Cross, has come under fire for its handling of earthquake relief funds. The Red Cross collected $255 million from private donations, but allocated only $106 million to Haiti relief. This left $149 million of donations unaccounted for. Exposing the massive overheads of the big NGOs, Bill Quigley of the Center for Constitutional Rights notes that more than $200 million was given to the U.S. Red Cross, which had only 15 employees in Haiti before the earthquake, while Partners in Health and their 5,000 (mostly Haitian) employees received $40 million. Despite the passage of two months and the raising of billions of dollars of relief aid worldwide (totals can be tracked here), the lack of transparency and accountability has negatively affected the delivery of services. Haitian prime minister Jean-Max Bellerive stated his frustration with the disorganization: “We don't know who has given money to NGOs and how much money have they given. . . . At the moment, we can’t do any coordination or have any coherent policies for giving to the population.” The recent Post-Disaster Needs-Assessment donor conference in Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic, on March 16, did little to change the status quo of NGO-led development. The meeting was another example of Haitians’ exclusion from the decision-making process in the rebuilding of its own country. The paternalistic nature of the meeting led Haitian president Réne Préval to angrily challenge the U.S. State Department. He called its allegations of corruption “arrogant” and demanded that the Haitian government have veto power over any reconstruction projects. Despite Préval’s challenge, the result was more of the same. There was no discussion of working with popular Haitian organizations, which are crucial to local development. The “experts” decided that Haiti should take steps to further strengthen the private sector, transparency, and good governance. The final irony of the donors conference is that the NGO prescription to the Haitian government is what the NGOs themselves desperately need: more transparency. Kevin Edmonds is a NACLA Research Associate.	<urn:uuid:2f9746a0-a927-42f6-b95e-f86686be907b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://nacla.org/news/ngos-and-business-poverty-haiti	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956292	865	2.59375	3
Cardiac Science's Powerheart AED G3 Plus Defibtech's recently released ReviveR View AED, which is the first AED equipped with a video screen to show users how to perform CPR and use the device. In a crowded Boston North Station, three bystanders waiting for a train heard a man cry out and immediately sprang into action. They removed his shirt, started chest compressions and cleared his airway while a transit police officer ran to get the station’s automated external defibrillator (AED). They shocked the man’s heart with the AED, saving his life. Their actions were enabled by the confluence of three trends: 1. Dramatic improvements in AED design have greatly increased ease of use and affordability, placing an effective cardiac treatment modality in the hands of lay rescuers. 2. The likelihood of having an AED nearby in an emergency has increased significantly, due to the passage of Good Samaritan laws protecting individuals who aid the injured or ill, as well as laws mandating or encouraging AED deployment. 3. Increased numbers of Americans have received AED/CPR training, enabling them to deliver early defibrillation using public access AEDs. Shocking the victim within a few minutes of sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) is crucial to survival.(1, 2) Each life saved with an AED demonstrates that America has the beginnings of a safety net against SCA, which is the leading cause of death in the U.S., according to the Heart Rhythm Foundation. However, with SCA survival rates estimated at only 5 to 8 percent, there is a long way to go. To make the net stronger, I encourage cardiology professionals to advocate for the deployment of AEDs not only in public spaces, but also throughout hospitals and other clinical environments, in response to research studies suggesting that AEDs can improve in-hospital response to cardiac arrest.(3, 4, 5) Dramatic improvements in AED ease of use, affordability The public access AED is unique, when compared to other cardiac treatment modalities, because it saves lives before, not after, patients arrive at a hospital. An AED’s lifesaving capability stems in large part from its easy-to-use design, another distinguishing characteristic compared to most cardiac treatment modalities. As part of a research study at the University of Washington Medical Center, a group of sixth-graders took an average of 90 seconds to complete defibrillation with an AED on a mannequin, compared to 67 seconds for emergency medical technicians and paramedics.(6) All of the children placed the electrode pads correctly and all remained clear of the “patient” during the shock delivery. This ease of use, as well as the AED’s effectiveness and affordability as a treatment, has led to the deployment of more than 1 million AEDs, across America, according to Chris Chiames, executive director of the Sudden Cardiac Arrest Association. He also estimated that these AEDs save 10,000 to 15,000 lives per year. Even as the list of lives saved by AEDs grows, the American Heart Association (AHA) estimated that 45,000 to 50,000 more lives can be saved each year if AEDs were more widely available. As a practicing cardiac surgeon, I first became interested in AEDs long before Defibtech was founded, after seeing a demonstration of an early model, which cost $4,000 and was not very easy to use. Gintaras Vaisnys, Defibtech’s co-founder and current president, and I both realized back then that AEDs could make a tremendous lifesaving impact if they could be engineered to be easy to use and inexpensive. Today AEDs cost less than $1,500, making them as ubiquitous as fire extinguishers. Public AED availability has increased significantly The increased number of deployed AEDs has been spurred by the passage of Good Samaritan laws protecting users of AEDs from liability, as well as by laws mandating or encouraging AED deployment. However, Good Samaritan laws and available public dollars to purchase AEDs vary from state to state. For example, some states only cover trained rescuers from liability, not all rescuers. As a result, some organizations have balked at AED implementation because they believe it may increase their liability exposure. However, organizations take a greater liability risk by not implementing AEDs. according to Dana Miller, executive director of Stat Pads, a service that helps organizations to avoid liability pitfalls through proper program implementation, training and maintenance. Miller said she has heard some concerns that AEDs will increase liability risk, but it’s not the norm “People understand that they’re more at risk not having them than having them,” Miller said. “We’re also seeing a trend of more and more insurance companies and law firms purchasing them, and these are people who assess risk and defend risk.” Miller’s statement is supported by the nation’s courts, which have increasingly recognized AED availability as a “standard of care.” Organizations including fitness centers, amusement parks, airlines and transportation authorities have been sued and have paid settlements or damages for not having AEDs, or for not having staff properly trained on how to use them. For example, Marlene Allen, the widow of Dr. James R. Allen, filed a lawsuit against the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) and Amtrak after her husband died on an MBTA train unequipped with an AED. She settled her lawsuit after the MBTA agreed to improve its emergency procedures. Subsequently, the MBTA has deployed more than 100 AEDs on its subway and commuter trains. One of these AEDs saved the man at Boston’s North Station. This legal environment favoring the deployment of AEDs has led to several states and municipalities mandating AEDs in locations such as schools, fitness/athletic facilities, assisted living facilities, government buildings and high-rise buildings. In some cases, EMS departments help to coordinate AED distribution. One of the best examples of coordination between government and EMS is the $45 million Rural Access to Emergency Devices (Rural AED) Act, through which tens of thousands of AEDs have been distributed across America. States receiving these federal grants often work closely with state EMS departments to determine the best placement for the AEDs. Bob Stickel, president of LifeSavers Inc., a national AHA training center and AED distributor, has worked closely with Maine’s EMS bureau to deploy more than 1,130 AEDs throughout Maine – in police, fire, and EMS departments; in medical and dental clinics; and in town halls, schools, colleges, parks, libraries, and museums. Hospitals and health centers also have become involved in encouraging AED implementation. In Rochester, Minn., and Richmond, Va., the Mayo Clinic and Virginia Commonwealth University Health System work closely with EMS departments in community-wide efforts to improve sudden cardiac arrest survival. Rochester achieved a 46 percent survival from ventricular fibrillation rate in 2006-2007 due to its effort, according to a publication from the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium.(7) More Americans have received AED/CPR training If you enter “AED saves” into a Google search, page after page of stories about people saved with AEDs will appear. In many of these stories, one or more of the rescuers have received AED/CPR training. In the Boston save, for example, the three responders were a student nurse, a registered nurse, and an emergency room technician. Having an individual with AED/CPR training within earshot of a SCA victim is not unusual – and not an accident. It’s the result of a concerted effort by organizations such as the AHA to teach people across America about cardiac resuscitation techniques. According to Chiames, more than 10 million Americans receive first-time or refresher CPR training each year, with most courses including AED training. Many workplaces train staff to participate in response teams as part of their AED program implementation. Companies including Starbucks, Trans International, and Kraft Foods have AED response teams that have reported life saves in the workplace. The individuals on the teams become a lifesaving resource not only at work, but also in their communities. Deploying AEDs throughout hospitals Research studies conducted within the hospital environment suggest using AEDs throughout hospitals and other clinical areas can improve resuscitation rates.(3, 4, 5) For example, the Atlanta VA Medical Center instituted a program of upgrading existing defibrillators and placing AEDs throughout the hospital, while also educating staff. Successful resuscitation rates more than doubled after this program was implemented. The prevalence of both in-hospital and out of-hospital SCA demands that America continue to build its AED safety net. So far, that net has saved tens of thousands of Americans. Unfortunately, hundreds of thousands more have fallen because the net isn’t complete. As cardiology professionals, we have a duty to continue this work. Dr. Glenn W. Laub is the CEO of Defibtech, which designs and manufactures AEDs. www.defibtech.com. He is chairman of cardiac surgery and director of the Heart Hospital at St. Francis Medical Center in Trenton, N.J. Dr. Laub is a member of numerous organizations including the American College of Cardiology, the American College of Chest Physicians, the Society of Thoracic Surgeons, and the American Heart Association. 1. Capucci A, et al: “Triping survival from sudden cardiac arrest via early defibrillation without traditional education in cardiopulmonary resuscitation.” Circulation, 2002; 106:1065 2. Hallstrom AP, Omato, JP, et al: “Public-Access Defibrillation and Survival After Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest.” New England Journal of Medicine, August 12, 2004; 351(7):637-646 3. Zafari AM, et al: “A program encouraging early defibrillation results in improved in-hospital resuscitation efficacy.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology, August 18, 2004; 44(4):846-852 4. Kaye W, et al: “Strengthening the in-hospital chain of survival with rapid defibrillation by first responders using automated external defibrillators: Training and retention issues.” Annals of Emergency Medicine, February 1995; 25:163-168 5. Rossano JW, et al: “Automated External Defibrillators and Simulated In-Hospital Cardiac Arrests.” US Pharmacist, 2009; 34(2):12-15 6. Gundry JW, et al: “A comparison of naive six-grade children with trained professionals in the use of an automated external defibrillator.” Circulation, 1999; 100:1703-1707 7. Nichol G, Thomas E, Callaway CW, et al. “Regional variation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest incidence and outcome.” JAMA. 2008; 300:1423-1431.	<urn:uuid:429e779b-85a9-4daa-8db3-fe0f71612236>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dicardiology.com/article/extending-aed-safety-net-can-save-more-sudden-cardiac-arrest-victims	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950775	2,381	2.578125	3
This and much else that's generally believed about the world's most famous explorer can now be dismissed as bunkum. Over recent decades, a mass of data has been assembled from widespread and disparate sources, inferences pieced together, and an argument constructed that's as persuasive as it is fascinating and astonishing. Like the proverbial train wreck in slow motion, paradigm shifts in how the world understands major events and personalities appear explosive in hindsight only. As history and human awareness actually run their course, any major insight – and the scrutiny that led to its occurrence, especially when the insight transcends deeply held beliefs – will almost always face irrational resistance from the guardians of respectable conventionality. As a rule, the wave of change enters mass consciousness some time after the quantum shift in Received Opinion has occurred. So it is with the explosion of the "Christopher Columbus" myth – built up by long accretion to this faulty rendering of "Cristóbal Colón," itself the pseudonym of a controversial, almost sphinx-like man who really did make those famous, trans-Atlantic voyages – but whom history so far has represented in a manner that could scarcely be more at odds with what the facts now show. According to Manuel Rosa, the world's foremost authority on "Christopher Columbus," not only was the immortal navigator of royal blood, but the Catholic Monarchs of Spain – whom "Columbus" adroitly deceived for more than twenty years – participated in a far-flung conspiracy to hide his true identity. "Considering the sheer number of people who've been misled," says Rosa, "the audacious scope of the original deception, the magnitude of the misapprehensions that gathered around it over time, and the fact that it's taken half a millennium for the real identity of 'Columbus' to emerge, his real achievement was beyond doubt one of the most extraordinarily successful, double-agent spy missions in all of history." Rosa is not alone in this radical revisionism. Distinguished maritime historian João Abel da Fonseca says, "The evidence Rosa presented is so plentiful that one merely needs to enumerate it to come to this obvious conclusion. Columbus' high nobility birth is an issue that is no longer worth wasting our time debating." Professor Trevor Hall, who specializes in 15th and 16th century Portuguese contacts with West Africa, supports the new paradigm: "Columbus was a Portuguese spy for King João II." No less an authority than Manuela Mendonça, President of the Portuguese Academy of History, has publicly affirmed that, "Columbus was a Portuguese-born noble belonging to the house of Viseu." The nucleus of this very complex and broad-based argument appeared ten years ago, when Rosa's first book – the 640-page O Mistério Colombo Revealdo (The Columbus Mystery Revealed) – came out in Portuguese. Over the next few years, highly acclaimed translations appeared in Spanish, Polish and Lithuanian. "This book . . . will, with absolute certainty, be talked about for a long time," says University of Valladolid Professor D. Felix Martinez Llorente. With nearly 200 pages of stunning new material, the special, limited edition that's being released this month – for the first time in English – promises to be another, enduringly provocative conversation piece. On May 20th, to commemorate the 510th anniversary of "Columbus’" death, Manuel Rosa will present a lecture, "Who Really Was Columbus?" at Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio. The event includes a reception, dinner, and discussion following the lecture. In case you're unable to attend, while supplies last, you may still order Columbus: The Untold Story through Amazon – or directly from its New Jersey sponsor, Nowy Dziennik, Polish Daily News. About The Author: Manuel Rosa is a Portuguese-American, investigative historian and author who emigrated from the Azores to the Boston area in 1973. He currently lives in North Carolina and works at Duke University’s Cancer Institute. Mr. Rosa received the Boston Globe’s Art Merit Award in 1976, the Lockheed Martin Lightning Award in 2002, and the American Institute of Polish Culture’s “Special Recognition” Award in 2015. Rosa has spent a quarter century investigating America's legendary "discoverer." He has authored five books on Columbus in several languages other than English and has appeared on BBC, NPR, the Travel Channel's "Expedition Unknown," and numerous foreign-language media. His work was featured on the cover of Newsweek's Polish subsidiary in 2011. Mr. Rosa has advised UNESCO and the Haitian government on matters related to Columbus' lost ship, the Santa María. He has lectured on Columbus at American and European universities.	<urn:uuid:34e0baab-3a82-4642-83dc-b46d5b3a167d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://1492us.blogspot.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.948304	987	2.625	3
An Unhealthy Method of Garbage Disposal Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources The Department of Natural Resources strongly discourages individual property owners from using burn barrels to dispose of household garbage and prohibits commercial and government facilities from using burn barrels. Garbage normally includes wet food scraps and plastic, which are not allowed to be open burned. Therefore, you may burn only the materials that are allowed to be open burned -- namely, leaves, plant clippings, paper, cardboard and clean, untreated wood. Burn barrels operate at low temperatures (400-500 degrees F), resulting in incomplete combustion of the wastes being burned. Burning prohibited materials -- such as plastics, asphalt, rubber and other man-made materials -- generate additional hazardous air pollutants. A 1994 study done for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency showed that each pound of garbage burned in a burn barrel emits twice as much furans, 20 time more dioxin and 40 times more particulates than if that same pound of garbage were burned in an incinerator with air pollution controls. Burn barrels often emit acid vapors, carcinogenic tars, and "heavy metals" such as lead, cadmium and chromium, as well as unhealthful levels of carbon monoxide. The closer you stand to the burn barrel, the more of these harmful chemicals you inhale. Residual ash is another result of incomplete combustion. Frequently, a significant portion of material in the barrel -- especially at the bottom -- is not burned up. Ash disposal outside of a sanitary landfill can cause problems sooner (for those immediately exposed) or later (for example, if water contacting the ash becomes contaminated and gets into groundwater and/or surface water). Materials that may not be burned in a burn barrel -- such as tires, plastics and rubber -- also should not be burned in a furnace, woodstove or similar home heating system. What can individuals do instead of burning household and yard wastes? Instead of burning, the DNR recommends that you: - Reduce usage -- buy in bulk or larger quantities and demand less packaging on the products you buy. - Reuse items -- find someone else who can use it, have a yard sale, or donate it to a resale organization. - Recycle newspaper, office paper, cardboard, corrugated cardboard, magazines, aluminum, metal and acceptable plastics. - Compost leaves and plant clippings. Consult DNR district or area staff, University of Wisconsin-Extension and your local government to find out whether local ordinances allow you to compost raw vegetables, bread, egg shells and coffee grounds. - Chip brush and clean wood to make mulch or decorative chips, or use it as heating fuel in wood stoves or boilers. - Dispose of allowable waste material at licensed incinerators or landfills. (There are only two licensed incinerators in the state. They are the Barron County and the NSP-LaCrose incinerators). For more information about what items may be disposed of at licensed incinerators or landfills, contact the Recycling Program at your DNR district or area office.	<urn:uuid:2586d356-b356-4dca-8cf7-2a4f0c92cb86>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.co.adams.wi.gov/Departments/SolidWaste/BurnBarrels/tabid/186/Default.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.909454	640	3.3125	3
You are not currently logged in. Access your personal account or get JSTOR access through your library or other institution: Sea Otter Predation and Community Organization in the Western Aleutian Islands, Alaska James E. Estes, Norman S. Smith and John F. Palmisano Vol. 59, No. 4 (Summer, 1978), pp. 822-833 Published by: Wiley Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1938786 Page Count: 12 Preview not available Predation by the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) limits epibenthic invertebrates, especially sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus polyacanthus), in turn allowing a luxuriant development of the macroalgal canopy. Where sea otters are abundant, sea urchins are small and scarce in shallow water, and the association of fleshy macroalgae apparently is regulated by competition. Sea urchins are larger and more abundant in deeper water, where they are less accessible to sea otters. Macroalgae are most abundant, and competition in the plant association is severest, near the sublittoral fringe where sea otters can remove sea urchins most efficiently. In deep water, competition among maccroalgae is reduced because the light intensity is lower and grazing by sea urchins increases. On islands where sea otters are absent, sea urchins are abundant, large, and are probably limited by intraspecific competition; and they have eliminated fleshly macroalgae. Available data suggest that the association of Laminaria spp. and Agarum cribrosum contributes most to primary production in nearshore areas of the western Aleutian Islands. Where sea otters are absent and sea urchins have eliminated this plant association, some higher trophic forms also are absent or less abundant than where sea otters are common and the plant association is well developed. Earlier studies of sea otter food suggested that low-density populations of sea otters consume primarily sea urchins and mollusks in the western Aleutian Islands. Later studies of high-density populations showed a wider variety of foods consumed, with fish an important component of the diet. These studies support our observations on the differences in availability of these foods between islands with and without sea otters. Ecology © 1978 Wiley	<urn:uuid:2e50395c-4d5b-47fa-8086-01f9d424149e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.jstor.org/stable/1938786	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.901322	500	3.1875	3
\|Student Learning Outcomes -\| - Identify the choreography technique with correct terminology and analyze the musical phrasing. - Perform the choreography with proper dance techniques and skills required while exhibiting proper body placement, coordination and flexibility \|Description - \| \|Introduction to the basic concepts of choreography and dance composition. Students will be given the opportunity to create original beginning dance works for individuals and groups to be performed in front of a live audience. Includes beginning dance technique and practice of basic choreographic skills.\| \|Course Objectives - \| \|The student will be able to: \| - Choreograph a full-length dance piece, teach it to other students and develop it for performance. - Demonstrate knowledge of choreographic principles through the creation of a dance. - Illustrate the skills required to teach choreography to other dancers. - Apply productive work habits in the choreographic process. - Critically appraise the dance production and pre-production process in choreographic and logistic terms. - Combine elements of choreography, costuming, performance skills, and other theatrical elements to communicate an artistic intention successfully. - Evaluate the aesthetic effectiveness of a dance piece. - Apply performance skills to dance material. - Perform choreography in rehearsal. - Apply knowledge and teaching skills gleaned from participation in fellow students' pieces to their own choreographic process and rehearsal context. \|Special Facilities and/or Equipment - \| - Dance Studio and Audio Set up. - Theatrical environment or setting including Stage. - Appropriate dance exercise clothing and/or costume as required. \|Course Content (Body of knowledge) - \| - The art of making dances - Selection of musical or other accompaniment - Development of costume style and period - Stylistic consistency - Incorporating choreographic devices - Choreography form and composition - Principles of Group Choreography - Use of Props or sets - Rehearsal Process - Counting choreography and score - Teaching skills - Rehearsal skills as a dancer in other choreographers' works - Time Management - Auditioning, Casting, Coordinating, Implementing - Enhancement of personal choreographic and teaching skills through observation and investigation of other choreographers at work - Cast meeting and Call board procedures - Music editing and re-production - Working conceptually with lighting designer - Determining Program Order for aesthetics and practical considerations - Selection of a Title for a performance or dance piece - Tickets sales and promotions - Performance skills - Coping with performance anxiety - Facial expression - Evoking desired performance quality from dancers - Production analysis - Criteria for judging the aesthetic merits of a dance piece - Criteria for assessing pre-production elements of a dance performance \|Methods of Evaluation - \| - Evaluation of students' choreographic score for content, clarity, and functionality. - Objective examinations on reading assignments regarding choreographic inquity. - Cooperative learning assignments. - Term Paper \|Representative Text(s) - \| \|Fahey, Thomas. Fit and Well. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill Publishing, 2011. \| Ryan, Walter J. Technical Manual and Dictionary of Classical Ballet. 2011. \|Disciplines - \| \|Method of Instruction - \| - Lecture and Demonstration. - Collaborative learning and small group exercises. - Lecture with visual aids and clips from video, films. - Discussion and Problem-solving performed in class. - Laboratory and Demonstration. - Quiz and examinations review performed in class. \|Lab Content - \| - Demonstration and practice of elementary technique of developing choreography for performance. - Demonstration and practice of proper body awareness and alignment in all choreography and dance exercises. - Demonstration and practice of memorizing and performing choreography in groups or solos for performance including stagecraft. \|Types and/or Examples of Required Reading, Writing and Outside of Class Assignments - \| - Written critique of a live dance performance - Optional writing exercises based on recommended reading.	<urn:uuid:d5b83da3-4322-4585-90d0-a3843561a082>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.foothill.edu/schedule/outlines.php?act=1&rec_id=6023	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.861471	868	3.515625	4
LONG BEACH, Calif. — Astronomers have found tentative traces of a precursor chemical to the building blocks of life near a star-forming region about 1,000 light-years from Earth. The signal from the molecule, hydroxylamine, which is made up of atoms of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen, still needs to be verified. But, if confirmed, it would mean scientists had found a chemical that could potentially seed life on other worlds, and may have played a role in life's origin on our home planet about 3.6 billion years ago. The findings were presented Jan. 9 at the 221st annual meeting of the American Astronomical Society . "It's very exciting," said Stefanie Milam, an astrochemist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., who was not involved in the study. If the findings can be verified, "this will be the first detection of this new molecule. It gives us a lot of hope for prebiotic chemistry in this particular region." Some astronomers think that the ingredients for life are formed in cold, gas-, dust- and plasma-filled interstellar clouds. Comets, asteroids and meteors forming in these clouds bear such chemicals, and as they continually bombard planets, they could have deposited the chemicals on Earth or other worlds, said Anthony Remijan, an astrochemist at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Charlottesville, Va., who led the research effort. [ 7 Theories on the Origin of Life ] Science news from NBCNews.com So while life may have emerged from hydrothermal vents on Earth — a theory that many scientists support — the molecules that eventually transformed into the earliest life forms had to come from somewhere, and that "somewhere" may have been space. To test this theory, astronomers look for the chemical fingerprints of simple, inorganic compounds forming in interstellar clouds. These compounds aren't life or even carbon-based, but they can react with other molecules to form some of the building blocks of life, such as amino acids or the nucleotides that make up DNA. In recent years, scientists have found several different prebiotic molecules in space, said Brett McGuire, doctoral candidate in chemistry and chemical engineering at the California Institute of Technology. In the hunt for these molecules, Remijan and colleagues scanned a star-forming region of the Milky Way called L1157-B1 using the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy (CARMA). They found a very weak signal of hydroxylamine, which makes sense since, inside L1157-B1, a violent gas jet is slamming into the interstellar medium; the shock from this gas outflow would be sufficient force to trigger these chemical reactions in the otherwise frigid depths of an interstellar cloud. The result: hydroxylamine. In turn, hydroxylamine could react with other compounds, such as acetic acid, to form amino acids that could be dumped onto other worlds during space-rock collisions. "We have some very preliminary evidence of its detection, a very weak signal that kind of looks like a line," McGuire told LiveScience. The signal is extremely faint and doesn't definitively confirm the presence of hydroxylamine. But the signal does seem to come from the right region, McGuire said. The findings are exciting, but they are not yet a definitive chemical signature of hydroxylamine, Milam told LiveScience. "Every molecule has a fingerprint, and basically what he's presented is the thumb print. So we need all the other fingers to confirm that this is the actual molecule." To confirm the finding, Remijan's team will keep probing the star-forming region for more signals that could confirm what they're seeing isn't coming from some other chemicals, Milam said. - Extreme Life on Earth: 8 Bizarre Creatures - Spacey Tales: The 5 Strangest Meteorites - 5 Bold Claims of Alien Life © 2012 LiveScience.com. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:290bbeb2-8191-4cc2-8ff7-2121aaceb68b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50449504/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946119	829	3.484375	3
WORLD'S FIRST LAPTOP THE LONGEST LIST OF THE LONGEST STUFF AT THE LONGEST DOMAIN NAME AT LONG LAST What was the world's first laptop? The world's first laptop was released in 1981 by the Osborne Computer Corporation and was called the Osborne It weighed a lap crushing 24.5 pounds, came with a speedy 4.0 MHz CPU, a whopping 64K of RAM, an eye pleasing built-in 5" monitor and dual 5-1/4 inch, 91K drives. All this could be had for a mere $1795.00 USD. British industrial designer Bill Moggridge designed the GRiD Compass 1100 which was released in April 1982. The GRiD Compass 1100 was the first laptop to take the form of laptops as we know them today, with the clamshell design, but one would have set you back about $8,000.00 USD. \|The Osborne 1 \|\|The GRiD Compass 1100 Page Sponsored By: Bid Web Directory	<urn:uuid:8d08bc58-7dfa-4c97-b475-0aa354e25fcf>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://thelongestlistofthelongeststuffatthelongestdomainnameatlonglast.com/first407.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934361	223	2.53125	3
This text is part of: Table of Contents: As soon as they caught sight of the leading files of their comrades, the spirits of the Romans revived from the depths of despair. Perseus should have made up his mind after capturing and killing several of the foragers to content himself with this chance success, and not wasted time in beleaguering the detachment. Or if he did attempt that he ought to have left the field while he could do so safely, as he knew he had no heavy infantry with him. Elated with his success he waited till the enemy appeared, and then sent a hurried message to bring up the phalanx. It was too late to do this now. The phalanx, hastily brought into action and disarranged by the speed of its advance, had to meet troops in proper formation and ready for battle. The consul, who was first on the ground, at once engaged the enemy. For a short time the Macedonians held their own, but they were completely outmatched, and with a loss of 300 infantry and 24 of the select cavalry of the "sacred cohort," including their commander Antimachus, they attempted to leave the field. But there was almost more turmoil on their return march than in the battle itself. The phalanx, called up so hurriedly, marched off with equal haste, but where the road narrowed they met the troop of prisoners and the carts loaded with corn, and were brought to a standstill. There was great excitement and uproar; no one would wait until the troops of the phalanx could make their way through; the soldiers threw the carts over the cliff, the only way of clearing the road, and the animals were lashed till they charged madly among the crowd. Hardly had they got clear of the column of prisoners when they met the king and his discomfited cavalry, who shouted to them to face about and march back. This created a commotion almost as great as the crash of a falling house; if the enemy had continued the pursuit and ventured into the pass, there might have been a terrible disaster. The consul, satisfied with this slight success, recalled the detachment from the hill and returned to camp. According to some authorities, a great battle was fought that day, 8000 of the enemy slain, amongst them two of the king's generals, Sopater and Antipater, 2800 made prisoners, and 27 military standards captured. Nor was the victory a bloodless one. Above 4300 fell in the consul's army, and 5 standards belonging to the left wing lost. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system.	<urn:uuid:3878e4f2-eb0e-486e-9953-0b5b546cf827>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Liv.%2042.66.3&lang=original	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.980853	601	2.984375	3
Copying and Moving Formulas You copy and move ranges that contain formulas the same way that you copy and move regular ranges, but the results aren't always straightforward. For an example, Figure 3.3 shows a list of expense data for a company. The formula in cell C11 uses the SUM() function to total the January expenses in range C6:C10. The idea behind this worksheet is to calculate a new expense budget number for 2011 as a percentage increase of the actual 2010 total. Cell C3 displays the INCREASE variable. In this case, the increase being used is 3 percent. The formula that calculates the 2011 BUDGET number, which is in cell C13 for the month of January, multiplies the 2010 TOTAL by the INCREASE, which is =C11C3. Figure 3.3 A budget expenses worksheet with two calculations for the January numbers: the total in Cell C11 and a percentage increase for next year in Cell C13. The next step is to calculate the 2010 TOTAL expenses and the 2011 BUDGET figure for February. You could just type each new formula, but you can copy a cell much more quickly. Figure 3.4 shows the results when you copy the contents of cell C11 into cell D11. As you can see, Excel adjusts the range in the formula's SUM() function so that only the February expenses in cells D6:D10 are totaled. How did Excel know to do this? To answer this question, you need to know about Excel's relative reference format, which is I discuss in the next section. Figure 3.4 When you copy the January 2010 TOTAL formula to February, Excel adjusts the range reference automatically. Understanding Relative Reference Format When you use a cell reference in a formula, Excel looks at the cell address relative to the location of the formula. For example, suppose that you have the formula =A12 in cell A3. To Excel, this formula says, "Multiply the contents of the cell two rows above this one by two." This is called the relative reference format, which is the default format for Excel. This means that if you copy this formula to cell A4, the relative reference is still "Multiply the contents of the cell two rows above this one by two." However, the formula changes to =A22 because A2 is two rows above A4. Figure 3.4 shows why this format is useful. You only had to copy the formula in cell C11 to cell D11. Thanks to relative referencing, everything came out perfectly. To get the expense total for March, you need to paste the same formula into cell E11. You'll find that this way of handling copy operations will save you incredible amounts of time when you're building your worksheet models. However, you need to exercise care when copying or moving formulas. Let's see what happens if you return to the budget expense worksheet and try copying the 2011 BUDGET formula in cell C13 to cell D13. Figure 3.5 shows that the result is 0! Figure 3.5 Copying the January 2011 BUDGET formula to February creates a problem. What happened? The formula bar shows the problem: The new formula is =D11D3. Cell D11 is the February 2010 TOTAL, which is fine. However, instead of the INCREASE cell in C3, the formula refers to a blank cell in D3. Because Excel treats blank cells as 0, the formula result is 0. The problem is the relative reference format. When the formula was copied, Excel assumed that the new formula should refer to cell D3. To see how you can correct this problem, you need to learn about another format—the absolute reference format—that I discuss in the next section. Understanding Absolute Reference Format When you refer to a cell in a formula using the absolute reference format, Excel uses the physical address of the cell. You tell the program that you want to use an absolute reference by placing dollar signs ($) before the row and column of the cell address. To return to the example in the preceding section, Excel interprets the formula =$A$12 as "Multiply the contents of cell A1 by two." No matter where you copy or move this formula, the cell reference doesn't change. When this occurs, the cell address is said to be anchored. To fix the budget expense worksheet, you need to anchor the INCREASE variable. To do this, you first change the January 2011 BUDGET formula in cell C13 to read =C11$C$3. After making this change, copying the formula to the February 2011 BUDGET column gives the new formula =D11*$C$3, which produces the correct result. You also should know that you can enter a cell reference using a mixed-reference format. In this format, you anchor either the cell's row by placing the dollar sign in front of the row address only such as B$6 or its column by placing the dollar sign in front of the column address only such as $B6. Copying a Formula Without Adjusting Relative References If you need to copy a formula but don't want the formula's relative references to change, follow these steps: - Select the cell that contains the formula you want to copy. - Click inside the formula bar to select it. - Use the mouse or keyboard to highlight the entire formula. - Copy the highlighted formula. - Press Esc to deselect the formula bar. - Select the cell in which you want the copy of the formula to appear. - Paste the formula.	<urn:uuid:0113b07b-6743-462b-85cc-6bd094d72773>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.quepublishing.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1594811&seqNum=4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.916624	1,175	4	4
J. López-Gáy, SJ * The term Buddhism comes from the title ("Buddha", the re-awakened one, attributed to Prince Siddhartha Gautama (d. ca. 483 B.C.), a native of the Himalayan region. Shaken by the presence of suffering in the world, he renounced everything to seek enlightenment. He gained enlightenment (bodhi) under a fig tree, sitting in the so-called Lotus position, with his legs crossed. He gave his first discourse on the "Four Noble Truths": all is suffering, longing and desire are the origin of all suffering, absolute detachment from every form of desire is the destruction of suffering, and the way to attain this destruction is the Eightfold Path (right view, right thought, right speech, right action... right concentration and right meditation). Certainly rather than beginning a ((religion», Buddha wanted to present an anthropological soteriology. Buddha was a great teacher and a group of followers gathered around him. With time schools or factions were formed: Hinayana Buddhism or "little vehicle", closely related to monks, which strives to attain liberation from suffering through self-discipline, and Mahayana Buddhism or "great vehicle", which is the most widespread form of Buddhism in the world today. It lays great emphasis on compassion, the principle represented by the figure of Bodhisattva, a being who has obtained enlightenment but remains on the threshold of nirvana in order to help others. Today, Buddhists are the fourth religious community in the world after Christians, Muslims and Hindus. Though 50% of all Buddhists live in Asia, recently they have moved to Europe and the United States. The need for and necessity of dialogue and meetings is more essential than ever. How can we dialogue with them? Where should the proclamation begin? On the Catholic side there are many documents on interreligious dialogue and Buddhists themselves agree that "hostility towards Christianity (or any other Religion) is not, of course, a proper Buddhist attitude".(1) There is also an immense amount of literature on this subject today. 1. The starting point must be the field of knowledge and reason. The act that began Gautama's career was, in fact, an act of knowledge: through mental concentration (dhyana), he reached understanding (prajña). He was called by his followers the Enlightened One (Buddha), who knows everything perfectly. We must not forget that Buddhism came into being as the result of reflection, becoming a real doctrinal body or law (dharma). Within the three paths (margha) of Indian spirituality — the path of action (rites, sacrifices), the path of goodness, and the path of knowledge whose goal is wisdom Buddhism chose the latter.(2) The first Buddhists appeared in India with revolutionary theses such as the non-existence of God and of the soul, the non-substantiality of things, etc., theses supported in the teaching of Buddha. Buddhas are never presented as saviours, but as "teachers and guides" of gods and men.(3) For Hindus who followed revelation, the words of a Master, though he was enlightened, had no value. But Buddhists looked for reasonable arguments. Ignorance (avidya) is presented by Buddhism as the source of all evils, and it must be destroyed as soon as possible. The first Buddhist communities strived to know the real nature of things. It was a constant quest starting from the teachings of Buddha, which later took concrete form in various philosophical systems. One of the first books written still in pali is on "right view", the first stage of the Eightfold Path, which means, among other things, overcoming all ignorance and seeing everything according to the wisdom of Buddha. "When, dear friends, a noble disciple understands ignorance, the origin of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the path that leads to the cessation of ignorance, he has already obtained the right view... and he has reached real Dhamma".(4) All Buddhist writings, in reality Mahayana writings, have this philosophical orientation, from the books on the Perfections of understanding (Prajña-páramitá) to the most famous texts in Chinese, such as the great Sutra on the Eight levels of knowledge characteristic of great beings, preached by Buddha (Pa ten jen kiao king). (5) In this context we should say a few words about one of the characteristic attitudes of our Buddhist partners in dialogue. And this is adhimukti. This important Sanskrit word in Buddhist texts means mental openness, receptivity. It is the mind's ability to remain open before a new message. The opposite attitude, unsuitable for a Buddhist, is mental closure, which rejects any new idea or schema that is proposed. Disciples must have adhimukti if they are to face up to the new ideas of the doctrines proposed. Thanks to adhimukti Bodhisattvas can know the profound expressions of truth more and more every day. Adhimukti also reaches the realm of the sentiments, the emotions and artistic creation, and it is the foundation for real humanism.(6) Should we Catholics who are also asked for this mental openness, not cultivate this dialogue with Buddhists in the field of reason and "knowledge"? Those who do not reason become mentally and humanly closed, they fall into liberalism and fundamentalism. It is true that our religion is a religion of the Word (written and we should not forget sapiential literature and handed down), but it has always developed in the philosophical field, in the field of knowledge. It is sufficient to remember the first contacts with gnostics, apologists, and later Scholasticism. In practice we should know the Buddhists texts and their doctrine and be able to use also their same forma mentis. Historically, we should remember that the content of the first encounter of Catholic missionaries, Frs. Xavier and Torres, with Buddhist followers of Zen in Japan, reached us with the title of Disputas (Discussions) in dialogical form on fairly philosophical themes.(7) 2. Dialogue with Buddhism remains open because Buddhism is not a "book" religion. "Book" religions which have to follow the Book faithfully become fundamentalist. The Buddhist doctrine was handed down orally first of all, in monastic circles. For them, the word was heard (sruti) and passed on orally. The memory of this tradition was essential. The need for a written doctrine was one of the subjects discussed in the Council of Pataliputra (247 B.C.). Shortly afterwards, the term lippi or written teaching appears, and in the first century B.C. the Buddhist canon was established with some 30 volumes written in the Pali language. Oral tradition is always the guarantee of authenticity and written discourses begin with the sentence: "I have heard...". The presence of many lay people, the fact that Buddhism spread outside the monasteries, and the formation of Mahayana, led to an immense amount of writings, first in Sanskrit and later in Chinese. Today the critical edition (mainly in Chinese) is collected in the Taishó (Tokyo) and contains more than a hundred volumes. (8) This fact, which is fundamentally an advantage for dialogue, creates some concrete problems. Problems which do not come from the love of books (though some texts are preserved in the stupa reliquary), but from their interpretation and from the diversity of the texts establishing new sects or factions within Buddhism. 3. As a complement of these two ideas, we should say something about prajña, in Japanese chie, or "understanding, transcendental wisdom", which is "enlightenment", an insight into the ultimate truths. It is one of the virtues or páramitá, and it becomes the principle that guides all other virtues. It is knowledge in its final stage. The path of Buddhism begins with morality, it follows with concentration and meditation (dhyana, in Japanese zen) and rises to understanding. The whole river of the moral, cognitive and meditative path of Buddhism flows into the ocean of understanding. Understanding is always open to new insights (movement of ascent), and at the same time, it influences our daily social life (movement of descent). Why should we, Christians and Buddhists, not travel part of this path of ascent together? It would be a path of study, reflection (a study which is not limited to a simple knowledge of Buddhism, but being wise, in the Latin sense of the term, sapere, about the contents of Buddhism) and meditation towards the height and the depths, towards perfection. And why should Buddhists and Christians not understand in this world together, bringing the fruits of their wisdom, striving to enlighten our lives and that of others? An enlightenment that becomes a real "!help". The influence of wisdom in our moral life is decisive. And here we should not forget the five precepts of Buddhism, which are exactly the same as the Christian precepts (refrain from taking life, refrain from taking that which is not given, refrain from misuse of the senses, refrain from telling lies, refrain from self-intoxication with drink and drugs), still similar to the ten precepts of novices and the rules of monks.(9) But wisdom has a connotation with "meditation", which we have presented with the Sanskrit and Japanese term most used in the West today, Zen. In the Eightfold Path there is one stage, defined as right concentration or mental exercise through successive levels of recollection, which involves four levels of contemplative experience (dhyana, zen) and another four of union (arúpa). Many Christians, not only in Asia, pray in the style of the Asian traditions, in the concrete of Buddhism. And Zen offers a field for experience of the inculturation of prayer, and in actual fact Zen can be practised as a way of dialogue. In this approach, Zen is practised in order to penetrate into the experiences of Buddhist meditation, so that we may understand it not only theoretically but as an experience, and so that we may share the Christian experience of contemplation with Buddhists.(10) It is true that in Buddhist meditation faith is not its basis nor the meeting with the Other its aim. Individuals want to be themselves without any mediation. Immediate psychological-therapeutic answers are expected from meditation, they are anthropologically oriented in that the individual is restored to a more genuine relationship with his world and his own nature. The body and its positions, as a symbol of the whole person, have a special value. It is true that Buddhist meditation is accompanied by words such as emptiness, nothing, silence, etc. Ambiguous terms, which can be accepted because of their ability to free what is within man. So they use expressions such as "fulIness, the real I", etc. These are the fruits and responses provided by Buddhist meditation that we can gather. One thing is true: Buddhists who have had experience, help us to discover how we too can have experience, from which all mysticism comes. 4. Wisdom must also have a necessary influence in the social and human life of individuals. Nâgârjuna, one of the great Mahayana thinkers (3rd cent.), said, "seeking mental concentration and gaining real wisdom would be meaningless if it were not with a view to the salvation of all creatures".(11) From purely mental understanding a horizon opens towards universal compassion, the fruit of wisdom which descends towards everyone, in order to help everyone. And if we think about Christian love, in these ideas we find another point of contact for dialogue. We have spoken about the ten Buddhist virtues, and now we should say that the first of all these virtues is "generosity" (dána), which means not only "giving" but also renouncing everything for others. The ideal figure of Mahayana Buddhism is the Bodhisattva, the enlightened being who renounces entrance to Nirvana in order to help others. The Bodhisattva develops infinite compassion in order to be the saviour of all creatures. It is a radical unselfishness, and he takes "saving vows" for the sake of all.(12) Among these vows the most well known is the one made by Amida, when he was still a Bodhisattva, to save those who invoked his name. (13) Thanks to his supreme understanding the bodhisattva is a being of infinite light who knows all the needs of beings, and has deep compassion, vision and love. In iconography, many Bodhisattvas, such as Avolokitesvara or Kannon, are portrayed with eleven swathing bands and a thousand hands open to compassion. The Bodhisattva knows how to use all the means necessary to save men, and here we have the so-called "skill in means" (upáya, in Japanese hóben), which ch. 2 of the book of Lotus speaks of.(14) This aspect of "means" becomes another point of contact between Buddhism and Christianity. At the same time, this ideology of "means" helps us to solve many problems which we find in the philosophy and historical development of Buddhism. Many of these Bodhisattvas are almost deified. Among the means some offer the sacrifice of their own flesh for the sake of others. "Bodhisattvas even throw themselves into the fire of hell to alleviate the suffering of others" (words of Sântideva, an 8th century Buddhist thinker). (15) Assuredly, the idea of needs and the use of ,means- to save others springs from compassion. "Compassion" appears in the most ancient Buddhist texts. Compassion-kindness (maitri-karuná, in Japanese ji-hi) was also an essential element of early monastic life. Soon the concept of Buddha's "great compassion" appeared, which developed into Mahayana Buddhism where we find the figure of Buddha as father, doctor and compassionate teacher.(16) In some Chinese texts there are not only ideograms for compassion (jihi), but also those for "love" (ai), as in the Lotus. The Bodhisattva's compassion leads to giving. An operative love. Man, the sinner, must have "Faith".(17) Faith presupposes a theology of "helping others" (tariki), in the concrete of Amida's helping others to obtain salvation. Are these not new points that should be developed in dialogue and proclamation? 5. We have suggested some positive points for an encounter and dialogue between Christians and Buddhists. But there are difficulties in this encounter which I would like to point out, stressing the most important differences. In spite of these difficulties, we must consider the possibility of a real dialogue, encounter and mutual enrichment between Buddhism and Christianity. And it seems that the time has arrived. Professor of Missiology at the Pontifical Gregorian University. 1. M. O'C WALSHE, "Buddhism and Christianity, a positive approach", in The Wheel, n. 275, Kandy, 1980, p. 276. 2. Dhammapada, one of the most ancient texts written in Pali (today translated into modern languages), ch. 20 is entitled "The Path". 3. Dhammapada, verse 276. 4. "The Discourse on Right View. The Sammaditti Sutta and its Commentary. Translated from the Pali by Bikkhu Nanamoli", from nos. 377 / 379 of the vol. The Wheel, Kandy, 1991. 5. Translation and examination in Revista de Estudios Budistas, n. 11 (1996), pp. 69-78. 6. These ideas are taken from F.TOLA, "Budismo e humanismo", ibid., n. 9 (1995) pp. 73-74. 7. Xavier's and Torres' "Discussions" with Buddhists were published by P. SCHURHAMMER, in the original language, Spanish, with the German translation, and a commentary, Die Disputationen..., Tokyo 1940. Xavier tells of his conversations with a Zen Bonze on philosophical subjects, e.g., in his letter of 5 Nov. 1549, in any edition, under number 90, n. 19. 8. Taishó Shinshú Diazokyo Kankokai, Tokyo 1960, new ed. (the first edition is of 1927). The edition is the work of the Japanese Buddhologist Takakusu Junjirô, it follows the chronological order of the texts, and includes more than 3.360 works. Further information in KOGEN MIZUNO, Buddhist Sutras. Origin, Development, Transmission, Eng. trans. Tokyo 1982, especially on the Taishô, pp. 184-185. 9. I have translated all the precepts, the rules of the monks, etc., in my book, La Mistica del Budismo. Los monies no cristianos del oriente, Madrid 1974, ch. 5, pp. 150-176. 10. A wonderful book with an excellent bibliography and practical experiments which are being carried out in the East, J. DINH DUC DAO, Preghiera rinnovata per una nuova era missionaria in Asia, Roma 1994. TH. MERTON, Mistici e maestri Zen, Milano 1969. See the writings of two Catholic missionaries, W. JOHNSTON and Y. RAGUIN, who opened a way in this dialogical mystical experience. 11. An idea repeated in his commentary on the sutra of understanding, Maháprajñâpáramitá-sastra, see the translation by E. LAMOTTE, Le traité de la grande virtue de sagesse, I vol., Lovanio 1944, p. 984. The Chinese text in Taisho, vol. 25, no. 1509. 12. J. LOPEZ-GAY, "El bodhisattva en los sûtras del Mahdyâna", in Boletín de la Asociación Española de Orientalistas, 22 (1986) 258-283, where "the original vow", the "four great vows" and the ten vows that all Bodhisattvas take are explained. 13. There are a great number of writings on Amida: one book in French and Italian is by H. DE LUBAC, Aspects du Bouddhisme. Amida, Paris 1955, Milano 1980: the entire second part, from p. 141 onwards is on Amida. Amida's saving vows to save all those who call on him, in the sutra ,"The Larger Sukhávatï-vyúha", vol. XLIX of the series Sacred Book of the East, Oxford 1894, pp. 1-72, see pp. 73-75, with an explanation of these two vows 18 and 21. Other texts in the art. cited. 14. In the English translation of the Lotus, this chapter is entitled: The Tactfulness, in the Chinese edition of the Taisho, vol. 9, no. 262, pp. 5-10; in the English trans. The Threefold Lotus sutra, 5th ed. Tokyo 1982, pp. 51-66. 15. Many complementary texts in H. DE LUBAC's book, p. 16 ff. 16. Cf. T. OHM, L'amore a Dio nelle religioni non cristiane, a cura di P. Rossano, Alba 1956: Amore nel Buddhismo, pp. 320-346 (original in German). Ch. 1 of H. DE LUBAC'S book cited is entitled "La carità buddistica". F. MASUTANI, "On Mercy and Love", in the book: A comparative Study of Buddhism and Christianity, 3rd ed., Tokyo 1962, 163-174. E. LAMOTTE, "La bienveillance boudique", in Bulletin de la Academie Royale de Belgique, 38 (1952) pp. 381-403. J. LOPEZ-GAY, "Buda corno Padre en el Hokekyô", in Studia Missionalia, 33 (1984) pp. 127-144 (I have indicated the places where the characteristic of "love" is used). 17. An English translation of Tannishô, by Tosui Imadate, published in the book, SUZUKI T., Collected Writings on Shin Buddhism, Tokyo 1973, pp. 207-222. There are also translations in Italian and Spanish. Cf. F. SOTTOCORNOLA, Bologna 1989. 18. J. LOPEZ-GAY, "Palabra y comunicación en el budismo", in Oriente-Occidente, 12 (1994/95) pp. 27-38. Ref.: in Omnis Terra, n. 318, June 2001.	<urn:uuid:5f072864-7fb6-4a9a-a363-dd0b10ccb9a2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://sedosmission.org/old/eng/lopez_gay.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.936633	4,437	2.90625	3
How to Build an Igloo Have you ever wondered how to build an igloo? Dr. Norbert Yankielun shares the importance of “the appropriate snow for the appropriate shelter,” tips on technique, a small village of surprisingly elegant igloos, block shelters, slab shelters, and snow caves rises in gleaming white around us. It’s a perfect winter day in the Upper Valley–clear, bright, cold but windless–and I’m inside an igloo. It’s nice. The muffled sounds of shouts and laughter filter in from outside, while sunlight works through the blocks of snow in a greenish-blue glow. And, although it’s not exactly toasty, it’s comfy enough that there’s a twinge of disappointment when a door is finally cut into the dome’s bottom (I’ve helped finish the structure from the inside), and it’s time to scuttle out and let others have their turn. “Others” being the large crowd of kids and their grown-ups that have come for the annual igloo-building event at the Montshire Museum of Science in Norwich, Vermont. The workshop is led by engineer Norbert E. Yankielun, D.E., who, as author of How to Build an Igloo: And Other Snow Shelters (W.W. Norton, 2007; $15.95), has literally written the book on constructing with the white stuff. It’s his 17th year leading the igloo build, but Dr. Yankielun’s enthusiasm is still fresh and infectious. As he stresses the importance of “the appropriate snow for the appropriate shelter,” encourages “good sharing,” and offers tips on technique, a small village of surprisingly elegant igloos, block shelters, slab shelters, and snow caves rises in gleaming white around us. The annual igloo workshop is just one of many events offered every week by the Montshire, a family treasure nestled alongside the Connecticut River. Housed in a building that is itself an exhibit–with a see-through elevator shaft, an outer “wind wall” that makes air patterns visible, and exposed beams and timbers offering a view into its construction–the museum takes full advantage of its gorgeous country setting to educate and entertain. Three floors of interactive exhibits engage visitors in learning about the flora and fauna of the Connecticut River watershed, not to mention the basic scientific principles behind, among other things, trajectory, rhythm, flow, and light. Exhibits range from the high-tech, including a video camera with which visitors can track a teeming colony of leafcutter ants, to the beautifully simple, such as the ball chain suspended from a bicycle rim. (Tug on the chain and it snakes and coils to demonstrate wave formation.) Nature lovers may watch as young salmon swim against an in-house current, and thrillseekers may become intimately acquainted with centrifugal force on the human centrifuge (think Disney teacup). Tired of manipulating the wind to form drifts at the Aeolian Landscape? Sit yourself in front of a heat-seeking camera and watch your personal hot spots projected onscreen. Perfected your knowledge of various local frog sounds? There’s a whole room devoted to blowing bubbles! In the end, just like the strange and wonderful interior of an igloo, the Montshire reveals the natural world to be an extraordinary place. MONTSHIRE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. 1 Montshire Road, Norwich, VT. 802-649-2200; montshire.org. Open daily 10-5. The 2012 igloo-building day is scheduled for February 25. Find 17 more ideas for winter fun now!	<urn:uuid:9077cd81-bd52-4a17-90df-bb8155a4476d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.yankeemagazine.com/article/10things-interact-2/igloo	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.924691	793	2.546875	3
The term harassment can mean different things, and can take place in different settings, including your home, your place of work, your school or via the phone or the internet. The person carrying out the harassment might be a neighbour or groups of people living nearby, an ex-partner, family members or someone at work or school. If you are experiencing any of the following, particularly from the same person on more than one occasion, this is an indication that you may be experiencing harassment: - verbal abuse or threats, including blackmail - violence, including threatening behaviour, pushing and shoving or actual physical harm - sexual harassment, including verbal remarks or unwanted physical contact - damage to your property or possessions - information spread maliciously in a way that is calculated to cause distress, for example ‘outing’ you to your family or neighbours or telling lies about you. There are also other, more subtle, forms of harassment. These can include things such as unwanted attention, being followed or persistent sending of letters or unwanted gifts. For more information on various types of hate crime, see the section on Hate Crime.	<urn:uuid:8645d78a-d3f8-4727-9c8a-81c81154cc20>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.galop.org.uk/harassment-for-individuals/what-is-harassment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.941485	230	3.390625	3
With college-application deadlines looming, high schoolers across the land are frenetically preparing for one more shot at the SAT, agonizing over personal essays, or wrestling with financial aid forms. And while wealthy applicants hire pricey tutors and admissions consultants to help with the process, many low-income candidates and students of color despair of capturing a seat in the freshman class. Surely, there must be a better way. Recently, UC Berkeley sociologist Jerome Karabel proposed in a commentary in The New York Times an alternative pathway to top-ranked colleges: a lottery. Karabel suggests that this approach, which would involve randomly choosing among applicants who met a “high academic threshold,” could help counter an admissions system that consistently privileges the privileged. Lottery admissions procedures in higher education have been considered repeatedly over the last four decades, and there are now both research findings and real-life experiments that can inform us about the results. First, a lottery with a threshold, such as that proposed by Jerome Karabel, is unlikely to benefit low-income candidates and students of color. Second, although random selection may seem equitable in the abstract, it tends not to be regarded as fair in practice. A college-admissions lottery was evidently first proposed in a 1969 letter to the editor of Science by the education scholar Alexander Astin, who suggested that a lottery could serve to increase the enrollment of minority students. “In the interests of putting the concept of ‘equality of educational opportunity’ into practice,” he said, colleges “might want to consider abandoning altogether the use of grades and tests in admissions, and instituting instead a lottery system.” A lottery-with-threshold was suggested by the UC Davis professor Norman Matloff in a 1995 Los Angeles Times op-ed piece. Essentially, Matloff’s rationale for this policy, which he proposed for use at the University of California, was that applicants above the threshold could be regarded as having equal claims to the resource in question-a college education. The lottery-with-threshold idea has been widely promoted by the Harvard University law professor Lani Guinier, who advocates this approach as a means of increasing the representation of people of color on college campuses. A prominent critic of admissions tests, she recommends a lottery for applicants who exceed a threshold based - oddly enough - on admissions test scores. Would a lottery with an SAT-score threshold increase the representation of low-income and minority applicants, who tend to score lower on admissions tests? A recent analysis by political scientists Bernard Grofman and Samuel Merrill showed that it was not possible to find a threshold that was high enough to make the “equal claims” argument plausible, and yet low enough to yield a substantial improvement in the representation of lower-scoring groups. They gave an illustration showing that “a lottery-based system with a realistic minimum threshold will result in only a minuscule rate of minority acceptance compared to that of whites.” A similar conclusion was reached by the economists Anthony Carnevale and Stephen Rose in a recent study based on data from 146 top U.S. universities. These researchers also found that, because of the reduction in the academic qualifications of admitted students, a lottery-with-threshold “would likely result in dramatically reduced graduation rates or lowered standards.” What about public reaction to lottery admissions? According to a College Board report, the lottery approach “was experimented with several decades ago,” but abandoned when highly qualified applicants were rejected and weaker applicants from the same high school were accepted. A medical school lottery in the Netherlands was decried by citizens there as “immoral” and was curtailed in 2000 after a public protest. And a nationwide survey of 2,100 adults conducted in 1999 found that 83 percent rejected the idea of lottery-based college admissions. A college-admissions lottery may seem appealing at first blush because it provides equal access - at least for a certain group of candidates. But random selection does not automatically imply fairness. The decision to treat all individuals - or individuals “above a threshold” - as interchangeable requires justification, just as any other selection principle does. And dissatisfaction with the status quo is not an adequate justification. We as a society need to do the hard work of crafting admissions policies that are consistent with our ethical and educational principles. We can do better than casting lots. More like this story Dr. Rebecca Zwick is a professor in the Department of Education at UC Santa Barbara's Gevirtz School. This work first appeared in Education Week online.	<urn:uuid:a9a75475-05e5-4418-89e0-cea3bdb5c24d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.independent.com/news/2007/dec/19/casting-lots-college/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.964111	940	3.078125	3
Brief information on Forbidden City The Forbidden City, also known as the Palace Museum (Gugong in Chinese), was the imperial palace during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is located in the center of Beijing and to the north of Tiananmen Square. It served as the residence of 24 emperors, and was the political and ceremonial center of Chinese government. Rectangular in shape, construction of the Forbidden City was begun built in 1406, and finished in 1420 during the Ming Dynasty. It covered 74 hectares, and was surrounded by a moat and a 10 meter-high wall; The Forbidden City is divided into two parts. The southern part, or the Outer Court, was where the emperor exercised his supreme power over the nation. It consists of the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Middle Harmony and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Hall of Supreme Harmony was where the emperor held ceremonies. The northern part, or the Inner Court, was where the emperor lived with his family. The Forbidden City was listed as a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1987, and is regarded as the largest and best-preserved palace complex in the world. Nowadays, the Forbidden City is open to tourists and has become one of the most popular attractions in Beijing, and even in China. *You can download the bilingual note to show it to a taxi driver or someone else to find your way to Forbidden City if you plan to visit Forbidden City and have language problems. Chinese Pinyin: Gu Gong Opening Times: 08:30 -16:20 (Oct 16 - Apr 15); 08:30 - 17:00 (Apr 16 - Oct 15) Location: close to Tiananmen Square How to Get to: Take bus No. 124, 810, 812, 814, 846, 855, 202, 211, 101, 103, 109, 1, 4, 20 or 52 and get off at East Tian’anmen Bus Stop Reviews of Forbidden City from Users There are 2 reviews of Forbidden City from other Beijing travelers. If you have been to Forbidden City before and would like to share your review, please submit your review here. It was clear and a balmy -12℃ in Beijing on the first day of 2010 when my taxi driver D dropped me at the Forbidden City’s northern entrance, The Gate of Divine Prowess located on the opposite side to Tiananmen Square and the Forbidden Cities Main Me The Forbidden City is the largest palatial complex in China and the royal home to the emperors of Ming and Qing dynasties. With an area of over 720,000m2 and 9999 rooms and halls, it is rectangular in shape and has 4 gates one on each side. The compl Other Useful Resources on Forbidden City Attractions If you know any other website or web page about Forbidden City Attractions, please share it here. - Beijing Facts - Beijing Travel Tips - Beijing Attractions - Beijing Transportation - Beijing Food - Beijing Shopping - Beijing Nightlife - Beijing Accommodations - Beijing Weather - Beijing Tourism - Beijing Pictures - Beijing Travel Reviews	<urn:uuid:5e9d8dd5-4a64-4474-a5c3-21ad683d67ba>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.chinatouronline.com/china-travel/beijing/beijing-attractions/Forbidden-City_70.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954181	657	2.921875	3
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (March 14, 1908 – May 4, 1961) was a French philosopher, strongly influenced by the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and the hermeneutic philosophy of Martin Heidegger. He is sometimes considered an existentialist thinker because of his close association with Jean-Paul Sartre, though significant differences remain between these thinkers. Merleau-Ponty’s primary philosophical contributions are his emphasis on perception and his notion of corporeality as the lived bodily experience of the world, which for him is the basis of all knowledge. His later work focuses on the role of language and the spontaneity of expression. His work has influenced many areas of philosophy, particularly that of cognitive science, feminism, and environmental philosophy. Merleau-Ponty was born on March 14, 1908, in Rochefort-sur-Mer, France. In 1930 he received his aggregation in philosophy at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, where he met Jean-Paul Sartre. Afterwards Merleau-Ponty taught philosophy at a number of different high schools throughout France. He completed his Docteur des Lettres after finishing his two dissertations that were to become his first major works, The Structure of Behavior (1942) and the Phenomenology of Perception (1945). In 1949, Merleau-Ponty was awarded the Chair of Child Psychology at the Sorbonne, and in 1952, at the age of forty-four, he was appointed the Chair of Philosophy at the College de France, the youngest person ever to achieve this position. He held the position until May 1961, when he died suddenly of a stroke, apparently while preparing for a class on Descartes. Merleau-Ponty is interred in Le Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. In The Structure of Behavior and Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty argued against the empirical or “naturalist” tradition (beginning with John Locke), which held that perception was the causal product of atomic sensations. At the time this atomist-causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents, particularly in behaviorist psychology. At the same time, however, Merleau-Ponty argued also against the rationalist or idealist tradition that gave primacy to the intellect in our understanding of the world. In contrast to both these positions Merleau-Ponty held that perception is the dominant, active dimension in knowing, in that it is the primordial openness to the lived world (Lebenswelt). This primordial openness, then, is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception. Merleau-Ponty was greatly influenced by the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl, who held to the essential unity of consciousness in that "all consciousness is consciousness of something." Within this unity, however, a distinction can be made between the "act of thought" (noesis), which comes from the subject, and the "intentional object of thought" (noema), which comes from the object. In Husserlian phenomenology, the correlation between noesis and noema is the first step in the constitution of an analysis of consciousness. While studying the posthumous manuscripts of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty discovered certain aspects of Husserl's later work that called into question some of the claims of Husserl’s earlier work, for the later work revealed particular phenomena which cannot be assimilated within the noetic-noematic formulation. This is particularly the case when one attends to the primordial experiences of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), of subjective time (which is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought) and of the Other (which transcends all objectifications). For this reason, the distinction between "acts of thought" and "intentional objects of thought" does not constitute an irreducible ground, as Husserl had initially argued. Rather this correlation appears at a higher level of analysis; or in other words, it is founded on a more primordial ground. For this reason, Merleau-Ponty does not suppose at the outset a noetic-noematic ground. Instead, he develops the thesis according to which "all consciousness is perceptual consciousness." In doing this, he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualizations should be re-examined in the light of the primacy of perception. Taking the study of perception as his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's own body (le corps propre) is not only a thing, a potential object of study for science, but also a permanent condition of experience, a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world and its investment. The primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience in so far as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension. In his Phenomenology of Perception (1945), Merleau-Ponty develops the concept of the "body-subject" as an alternative to the cartesian "cogito." Rather than trying to establish the reality of essences, and in turn the world, on the primacy of the cogito, Merleau-Ponty held that consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are all intricately intertwined and mutually ‘engaged’. Moreover, against empiricism he held that the phenomenal thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of our body and its sensory functions. Taking up and coinciding with the sensible qualities it encounters, the body as incarnated subjectivity intentionally reconstructs things within an ever-present world frame. This occurs not through its conscious intentions but through a pre-conscious, pre-predicative understanding of the world and the things in it. Things are that upon which our body has a grip, while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the world's things. The dependency upon experience and a corporeal subjectivity means we are limited to an essential partiality in our view of things. Nonetheless, the fact that things are given only in a certain perspective and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality, but on the contrary establishes it, as there is no other way for things to be co-present with us. The thing seen in perspective transcends our view and yet is immanent in it. By a pre-conscious act of ‘original faith’ we immediately place this phenomenal thing in the world, where it blends in with other things and behaves like any "figure" against a certain background. Just as much as our own unity as a bodily subject is not a unity in thought, but one that is experienced in our interaction with our surroundings, so the unity of the thing is ‘perceived’ as pervading all of its perspectives. We do not consciously construct the thing, but rather allow it to construct itself before our eyes; only when this unconscious process results in perceptive ambiguity (i.e., when the body is unable to present us the thing in any clearly articulated way) does the subject consciously interfere and clarify his perception. Apart from such instances, the subjectivity of the perceiving body operates unknown within the subject, engaging the pre-objective factuality of the world in which it too participates. Thus, in this way we encounter meaningful things in a unified though ever open-ended world. The highlighting of corporeality as intrinsically having a dimension of expressivity that is fundamental to the constitution of the Ego is one of the conclusions from The Structure of Behavior that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works. Following this theme of expressivity, he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body, such as in intellectual operations and the products and actions of one's cultural life. In doing this, he carefully considers language as the core of culture and examines the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense. In this way, he enriches his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account the ‘logic’ of language, painting, cinema, literature, and poetry. It is important to clarify that Merleau-Ponty’s interest in diverse forms of art (visual, plastic, literary, poetic) was not primarily motivated by a concern for beauty as such. For he did not attempt to elaborate any normative criteria for art, and one does not find in his work a theoretical attempt to discern what constitutes the work of art. Rather his interest in aesthetics focuses mainly on his important distinction between primary and secondary modes of expression. This distinction appears in the Phenomenology of Perception and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language (language parlé et parlant). Spoken language (le language parlé), or secondary expression, relies on our ‘linguistic baggage’, that is, on the cultural heritage that we have acquired, as well as the brute mass of relationships between signs and significations. Speaking language (le language parlant), or primary expression, is language in the production of sense or meaning; it is language at the advent of thought, at the moment where thought breaks through and makes itself understood. It was speaking language or primary expression, then, that interested Merleau-Ponty in art and which motivated his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions. This subject also overlaps his analysis of action, intentionality, perception, and the interconnections between freedom and external conditions. More particularly, in his discussion of painting, Merleau-Ponty says that at the moment of his creative work, the painter starts either with a certain idea and then tries to actualize it, or with the material and attempts to form a certain idea or emotion; in both cases, though, there exists in the activity of painting a pregnancy between the elaboration of expression and the sense or meaning that is created. Beginning with this basic description, then, Merleau-Ponty attempts to explicate the invariant structures that characterize expressivity, attempting to take account of the over-determination of sense that he had described in "Cezanne's Doubt." Also, among the structures to consider, the study of the notion of style occupied an important place in "Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence." In spite of certain similarities with André Malraux, Merleau-Ponty distinguishes himself from Malraux in respect to three conceptions of style, the last of which is employed in Malraux's "The Voices of Silence." Merleau-Ponty noted that "style" is sometimes used by Malraux in a highly subjective sense, understood as a projection of the artist's individuality. At other times it is used in a very metaphysical sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a mystical sense), in which style is connected with a conception of an "über-artist" expressing "the Spirit of painting." Finally, at still other times, style is reduced to simply designating a category of an artistic school or movement. For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses of the notion of style that lead Malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of Italian Renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time, a conclusion that Merleau-Ponty disputes. According to Merleau-Ponty, it is important to consider the heart of this problematic, by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception, which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of historicity and intersubjectivity. Despite Merleau-Ponty's own critical position with respect to science, his work has become a touchstone for anti-cognitivist strands of cognitive science. This has occurred largely through the influence of Hubert Dreyfus. Dreyfus' critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind) in What Computers Can't Do consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist psychology in order to argue for the irreducibility of a corporeal know-how that occurs through discrete, syntactic processes. Moreover, through the publication in 1991 of The Embodied Mind (by Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch) this association was extended to another strand of anti-cognitivist cognitive science, namely, “embodied” or “enactive cognitive science.” It is through the influence of Dreyfus and these others, then, that Merleau-Ponty (and phenomenology) became a focal point in theories of cognition. This has led, in turn, to various neurophysiological accounts of the interrelatedness of mind and body in the knowing process. Merleau-Ponty’s work has also drawn the interest of some Australian and Scandinavian philosophers, who have been inspired by the French feminist tradition, including Rosalyn Diprose and Iris Young. Diprose's recent work uses Merleau-Ponty conception of intercorporeality, or indistinction of perspectives, in order to critique individualistic identity politics from a feminist perspective. In doing this, she analyzes the irreducibility of generosity as a virtue, where generosity has a dual sense of both giving and being given. Iris Young, as well, uses Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body in her essay "Throwing Like a Girl," and its follow-up, "'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later." In these works Young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of males. Young observes that while a man usually throws a ball by putting his whole body into the motion, a woman generally restricts her movements as she throws the ball; generally, then, in sports, women move in a more tentative and reactive way. Young refers to Merleau-Ponty’s argument that we experience the world in terms of the "I can"; in other words, we are oriented towards certain projects based on our capacities and habits. Young uses this in her thesis that in women, this intentionality is often inhibited and ambivalent rather than confident. Finally, Merleau-Ponty’s work has been appropriated as well by certain environmental thinkers in their attempt to forge an “eco-phenomenology.” Eco-phenomenology attempts to rethink the idea of “nature” through a phenomenological analysis of our experience of nature and the intrinsic relations which are operative within the world. Merleau-Ponty’s notion of corporeality suggests an inner-dynamism within the play of nature. David Abram, for example, explains Merleau-Ponty's concept of "the Flesh" as "the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity." (Abram, 66.) This leads to a concept of nature in which subject and object are dialectically united as determinations within a more primordial, unified reality. All links retrieved October 16, 2014. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.	<urn:uuid:0c4e7688-b959-4af6-83e2-02aca4b68cdb>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956887	3,315	2.984375	3
Who Employs Nuclear Medicine Technology Majors? - Major medical centers - Smaller hospitals - Independent imaging centers - Universities involved in clinical research Careers in Nuclear Medicine Technology When is nuclear medicine used? Bone scans (used to detect cancer), and cardiac stress tests (used to look for heart disease), are two of the most common tests in which nuclear medicine is used. In addition, procedures involving the thyroid gland, lungs, brain, gall bladder, and stomach are performed by nuclear medicine technologists. PET imaging now enables oncology, cardiac and brain imaging. What does a career in nuclear medicine technology look like? Nuclear medicine technologists administer radioactive drugs called radiopharmaceuticals. These materials are attracted to specific organs, bones, or tissues in the body, and they produce emissions detectable by special cameras (scintillation cameras). The camera builds an image of a specific organ by capturing the data points from which radiation is emitted; this image is enhanced by a computer and viewed by a physician on a monitor for indications of abnormal conditions. These safe diagnostic procedures use small amounts of radiation when compared to that of diagnostic x-ray procedures. Who should go into nuclear medicine technology? If you want to work in a field which can help restore health, and if you enjoy hands-on learning and have a good manual dexterity, nuclear medicine technology may be the career path for you. Teamwork in cooperative learning situations and small group projects should feel comfortable. Attention to details and computing and quantitative skills are also important. What is the expected job growth and median salary? - According to the National Bureau of Labor Statistics: - Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to increase by 19 percent from 2010 to 2020, about as fast as the average for all occupations. - In 2010, about 63 percent of nuclear medicine technologists were employed in hospitals. The remainder were largely employed in physicians' offices or diagnostic labs. - The median annual wage of nuclear medicine technologists was $68,560 in May 2010. For More Information Last modified March 29 2012 12:32 PM	<urn:uuid:5cee2eeb-3e69-442b-8ba8-1624f796b568>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.uvm.edu/~cnhs/mlrs/?Page=nmt.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946809	431	2.90625	3
To celebrate our Summer for Children’s Literacy, and to promote awareness for this serious situation that we’re raising funds to improve, we have four bookmarks that you can download and print for free! Each bookmark features our A Force for Childhood Literacy logo, featuring artwork by Joe Hogan, and a different fact about childhood literacy. - Fact # 1 – Nearly 40% of U.S. 4th graders do not achieve basic levels of reading proficiency. - Fact #2 – The lowest income neighborhoods in North America have one book for every 300 children. - Fact #3 – 80% of preschools and after-school programs do not have age-appropriate books for kids to access. - Fact #4 – 85% of kids in the juvenile prison system and 60% of adults in jail are functionally illiterate. Download the bookmarks here. Print and cut out some simple reminders that many children can’t access the book that you’re reading right now. You can share some with your friends or even leave a few at your local library! And please consider donating to support children’s literacy through the button on our sidebar!	<urn:uuid:09b505bd-b6ae-466c-b746-d4b826449932>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.eucantina.net/archives/13700	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.929103	242	2.828125	3
Introduction and HistorySituated between the headwaters of the Chemainus and South Nanaimo rivers on southern Vancouver Island, Mt Whymper and its neighbours, Mts Landale, Service and El Capitan, mark the southern terminus of alpine terrain on the Island. Mt Whymper also has the distinction of being the highest mountain in Canada ...... The mountain bears a name familiar to all mountaineers but is not named after Edward, conqueror of the Matterhorn. Rather, it is named for his elder brother Frederick. In the days before photography, those with artistic skills were sought after and readily employed by entrepreneurs needing a permanent visual record of their activities in the burgeoning economic milieu of the west coast. Frederick Whymper (1838-1901) was one such artist and had already worked in the Cariboo and for Alfred Waddington in the Homathco Valley before arriving on Vancouver Island in 1862. At this time the Vancouver Island Exploring Expedition (VIEE) committee, under Dr Robert Brown, was formed in order to extend knowledge of the Island beyond the east coast and a few west coast settlements that could be reached by sea. Brown hired Frederick as the expedition’s artist and he spent the summer of 1864 exploring and sketching the mountains, rivers, lakes and valleys of southern Vancouver Island. There is firm evidence that the younger – and arguably more famous – Whymper visited Vancouver Island sometime in the period 1901-1905. Since the first year in this period coincides with his brother’s death, it would be logical to conclude that he did so for family reasons. There is also a suggestion that Edward climbed Mt Arrowsmith in 1905. There is no evidence, however, that he climbed to the summit of the mountain that bears his family name. In contrast to a century and a half ago, Mt Whymper and its neighbours find themselves at the centre of the industrial carnage all to often evident on Vancouver Island. The Cowichan, Chemainus and Nanaimo river valley bottoms and far up every remotely accessible slope have been clear-cut to devastating effect. Intermittent road closures can often frustrate access. A gated road with a surly custodian may turn you away one day only to be replaced by his charming and welcoming brother the next. You take what you’re given in this neck of the woods. In spite of all this, Mt Whymper is well worth a visit. If the roads are open and clear, the summit is only an hour or so from the highest road and, if you ignore the devastation in the immediate area, the southern Island views of mountain and sea are spectacular. Vancouver Island can be reached by air from Toronto, Vancouver, Seattle, Calgary and Edmonton to Victoria, Nanaimo, Comox or Campbell River and by ferry from Port Angeles to Victoria on The Coho and on BC Ferries from Vancouver to Victoria or Nanaimo. Public transport on the Island is notoriously poor and anyone arriving by air would be advised to rent a car. There is some gravel road involved in getting to the access spurs but, generally, a normal 2WD sedan is fine. Progress up the access spurs is for high clearance 4WD vehicles only. Most visitors will approach the area from the Island Highway 19. Just north of the Chemainus traffic light on the highway turn west (left) at either Smiley Road or McMillan Bloedel Haul Road. Both lead to Copper Canyon Main. Proceed ~ 1km to the gate and begin your negotiations with the gatekeeper. Assuming success, proceed west on the graveled but well surfaced road. At about 35 km from the gate at the turnoff for Reinhart Lake keep left to follow the Chemainus River. The turn is well marked by an old donkey engine. At ~ 42 km from the gate, watch for a marked spur “C27” on the right. Lock in 4WD here. Proceed up C27 for 1.5 km and make a very sharp uphill right turn onto spur C29. Note that C29 can also be accessed directly from Copper Canyon 2.5 km beyond the C27 turn. From the C27/29 junction proceed a further 3.5 km right to the top of C29 being careful to keep right at a critical junction 2.0 km after turning on to it. Elevation at the top of C29 is 1,080 metres. Current Road ConditionsAs well as patience with obdurate gatekeepers, come prepared with a sufficient amount of the same quality in reserve in case you have to walk the access spurs. Upper Copper Canyon Main has been worked very recently and winter blowdown and washouts are a non issue. As of mid June 2011, Copper Canyon Main is completely clear and 2-wheel driveable. C27 and C29 are both 4WD accessible. A major washout on C29 at the 1.3 km mark noted in January 2010 has been repaired and the road is currently accessible to about 800 metres elevation. It would look to be another 2 weeks before the road melts out right to the top parking area. Always check conditions with Timberwest beforehand. Park at N48 56.807 W124 09.010 for the standard SE Ridge Route or a little lower at N48 56.913 W124 08.976 for the E Ridge option. Summary of Summit Routes The standard and shortest route to the summit of Mt Whymper. Runs from the top of spur C29 west up the slash and into old growth above. Class 3 bluffs lead to open, gentler angled ridge hiking to the summit. A longer and more challenging route than the SE ridge. Usually used as part of a traverse of the massif. Start from the pass on Copper Canyon Main between Whymper and El Capitan Mountain to the southeast. Access from an undriveable spur off the last hairpin bend on C29. Several steep sections with at least 2 bushy Class 3/4 gullies on the upper ridge. A little flagging but no trail. Follow the line of least resistance. Red TapeThe whole trip described above is on private land leased by the Crown to Timberwest Forest Corp. You should consult their website regarding road openings and closings before you go. A very useful number to have is the gatehouse at the entrance to Copper Canyon Road at 250-246-9808 As always, make sure that you have left a detailed trip plan with someone responsible. The RCMP and the appropriate SAR agency will respond in an emergency but it is up to you to have the mechanism in place that will initiate the call-out process if it becomes necessary. Camping etcCurrently there is a ban on camping in the watershed. Mt Whymper is generally considered a day trip anyway. Fires are strictly prohibited. Giardia is well documented throughout Vancouver Island, so if you collect any water in the area, sterilise it by boiling or chemically. Useful linksFor additional route information refer to Island Alpine – A Guide to The Mountains of Strathcona Park and Vancouver Island, Philip Stone, Wild Isle Publications, 2003, ISBN 0-9680766-5-3 For precise directions get hold of a copy of Backroad Mapbook. Volume III: Vancouver Island Weather and other considerationsYoubou weather will likely reflect the most accurate forecast for Mt Whymper. For winter trips consult Vancouver Island Avalanche Conditions	<urn:uuid:cbfd264c-9597-4e2a-b854-bdda722efd09>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.summitpost.org/mt-whymper/439368	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943768	1,543	2.890625	3
According to the Agricultural Marketing Research Center, the United States made almost two billion pounds of butter last year. Yesterday while I was drinking coffee, eating eggs (cooked in Amish butter) and listening to NPR, a story about butter consumption in the U.S. sparked my interest. I decided to ghee-k (pun, anyone?) out on butter stats. People have been eating butter since 6,500 B.C.—we know this because archaeologists have found butterfat on ancient containers. And people will probably always continue to eat butter. I’m pretty sure that if every lactating animal went extinct, humans would find a way to make butter out of their own milk. Butter is important in almost all cultures (another pun) for many reasons. You might have seen pictures of the baby Krishna eating butter. Butter is a sacred necessity in many Eastern traditions, and finds a creamy place in Hindu and Buddhist practices as an offering. But as the 1900s loomed on the horizon, a chemist from France had a different idea about butter: it needed to be better butter. So he invented margarine. And trans fats were left to wreak havoc on society’s cholesterol levels. They still do today, as more margarine is eaten than butter in the United States. Now check this out: Nutritionally, everything is the same in the margarine vs. butter comparison, except for the trans fat levels. Margarine contains nearly five times the amount of trans fat that butter contains. The American Heart Association has recommended that people stop eating trans fats entirely, as they have adverse effects on HDL and LDL cholesterol levels (HDL is good, LDL is bad, and trans fats raise the bad cholesterol and lower good cholesterol). Good news for those trying to get fit: butter, when applied to rice or veggies in small doses, can trick your body into thinking it is satiated. And, your body needs fats to transport nutrients to your body. Lipids are important molecules (which are inherently fatty or waxy) and they are crucial in storing energy in the human body (and other bodies too!). So you need fats, lipids in particular. You can’t utilize protein energy without fats to accompany it. You can consume healthy fats in the form of fish, lean meats, butter, nuts, avocados, and healthy oils (olive, coconut, safflower, etc.). When you are working out, you use all your carbohydrate energy within 20-30 minutes. After that, your body resorts to energy from fats. I promise from the bottom of my heart that if you are exercising a lot and eating butter, you will get stronger—not fatter. If I am hiking, running a long race in the mountains, cycling or back-country skiing, I tend to eat butter (plain and normal, hazelnut, almond or peanut butter) to get energy because it is more effective metabolically than eating carbs or sugar. This makes sense, because if you look at a chart of fat content in various demographic groups (I found one in Nina Planck’s book, Real Food: What to Eat and Why), the groups that were/are likely active for most of the day eat the highest level of fat. For example, hunter-gatherers, lumberjacks, Eskimos, Nigerian tribes, Pacific Islanders, and other indigenous groups all eat diets that contain up to 60 percent fat. The take away message is that as long as you are maintaining an active lifestyle, getting outside, and eating a balanced diets, it’s okay to butter your bread or put butter on your carrots. Or rap hilariously about butter and Paula Deen. Have a phat week, and keep it buttery! Here’s some hip-hoppin’ butter: Love elephant and want to go steady? Editor: Cat Beekmans Photo: Wikimedia Commons/Skarg.	<urn:uuid:ec1e0cb7-0839-46e1-8cc2-48025cc22ef6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.elephantjournal.com/2014/01/butter-probably-wont-make-our-butts-bigger-jenna-penielle-lyons/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.942038	816	2.625	3
Rabies is a ‘zoonotic’ disease meaning it is caused by a virus which can be passed from animals to humans. It is found on all continents and infects wild and domestic animals. Worldwide, more than 50,000 people die of rabies every year, most of whom are aged 15 years or less. People are at risk if they are bitten by an infected animal, typically a rabid dog. While dogs cause around 99% of cases, bat rabies has also recently emerged as a public health threat in Australia, Latin America and Western Europe. Human deaths following exposure to foxes, raccoons, skunks, jackals, mongooses and other wild carnivore host species can occur but are very rare. If left untreated, rabies is nearly always fatal but swift administration of post-exposure prophylaxis with rabies immunoglobulins can prove highly effective. Is it preventable? Yes, rabies can be prevented by immunisation. However, despite the development of a safe and effective vaccine against rabies, the disease continues to threaten human life, particularly in Asia and Africa where 95% of cases are recorded.	<urn:uuid:13690664-e223-4d92-8a1b-f39db76a6fe5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.vaccinestoday.eu/diseases/disease/rabies/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958956	241	3.71875	4
The summer of 1990 saw the opening of the first class in Hanna Somatic Education. It is the flowering of a series of developments that have led to a discipline that is as consistently effective as any branch of medical science. SOMATIC EDUCATION is the use of sensory-motor learning to gain greater voluntary control of ones physiological process. It is "somatic" in the sense that the learning occurs within the individual as an internalized process. In its purity, somatic education is self-initiated and self-controlled. However, somatic education has emerged during the twentieth century as a procedure whereby this internalized learning process is initiated by a teacher who stimulates and guides the learner through a sensory-motor process of physiological change. Prior to the advent of this teacher-learner form of somatic education, the same self-transformatory events have been a commonplace of human history. "Miraculous" cures and healings have always occurred. Extraordinary transformations of the body -- supernormal strength, radical changes in physical skills, stigmata appearing on the body -- are the common lore of martial, athletic, and religious history. Before the twentieth century the closest approximation to teacher-learner somatic education was the work of shamans and Asian healers who helped initiate the sensory-motor learning process by means of symbolic manipulations and movements that evoked powerful physiological transformation in their "patients", healing them in extraordinary ways. Because the mechanisms of such healings are hidden within the internal process of individuals, they have always had the aura of mysteries -- a mythology of good and bad spirits or good and bad energies accounted for this hidden process. It is this same hiddenness that causes the work of twentieth-century somatic educators to appear to be "miraculous" in the same mysterious way that the prescientific world viewed shamanistic work. The results of self-learning should not be understood as "miraculous," but as somatic. It is our task to achieve an understanding of the somatic realm in general -- and of somatic education in particular -- so that the mystery and the mythology will be dispelled. In this way, somatic education can become a discipline available to all humans. The salutary results of self-teaching, self-learning, self-healing, and self-regulation should not be understood as "miraculous," but as somatic: they are genetically-given capacities intrinsic to all human beings. F. Matthias Alexander, father of the Alexander Technique, was the first person to take somatic education out of the realm of shamanistic mystery and establish it as a verifiable, pragmatic technique. Alexander, during the years from 1904 to 1955, elaborated this internal self-teaching technique by means of discoveries he had made within himself in the course of a sustained effort to change his own posture. He had excessive habituation of the startle reflex -- a posture condition causing lordosis of the neck vertebrae, depression of the chest wall, and a too-forward carriage of the head. This distortion of the windpipe also distorted the projection of his voice. Alexander attempted, at first, to change this habitual cervical curvature by main force, that is, by trying to force the neck to be straight; but, of course, the habituated muscles sprang back into their usual place. He then despaired of the "goal" of attempting to straighten his neck and, instead, concentrated his proprioceptive attention on the "means-whereby" his neck, shoulders, chest, and head moved together. Rather than focusing on the "end" of a straight neck, Alexander focused his attention on the "means" by which he was unconsciously using his neck, shoulders, chest, and head while doing any movement whatsoever. What he termed the "means-whereby" was an analytical procedure of breaking down the total movement of the body into its several component parts and of sensing those parts without any concern for the goal of neck straightening. By focusing proprioceptively on the "means-whereby", Alexander changed his posture. By "inhibiting" the "end" and focusing proprioceptively on the "means whereby," Alexander gradually, but surely, taught himself to control the muscles of the upper trunk, achieving an admirably tall neck and erect posture. He changed his posture -- something no one believed possible -- and he did so in a systematic, straight-forward manner. This was the beginning of somatic education in the twentieth century. John Dewey, the philosopher, recognized and extolled Alexander's achievement as a major event. Dewey's personal experience of changing and mastering his own posture under Alexander's tutelage taught him that not all problems are solved by intellect, for some are solved by direct experience of oneself -- a somatic insight. Specifically, what Dewey learned and extolled in the Alexander Technique was how it solved a physiological problem by experimentally interrupting a habitual pattern and then sensing its several components in order to enrich ones awareness of what one is unconsciously doing. What was habitually unconscious was made conscious by means of new sensory information. This allowed new motor control to occur. Dewey saw Alexander as the pioneer of a radically new venture in physiological self-education -- a procedure which achieved a better integration of the reflexive and voluntary elements in ones response patterns. Quite independently of Alexander's work, another approach to somatic education was made by a teacher of physical education in Berlin -- Elsa Gindler. Gindler conducted classes in Gymnastik, where she invited her students to focus upon the sensations within their bodies as they went through various movements. Students were asked to focus their attention not on the movements themselves, but on the internal feelings of these movements; for example: How is one breathing during the movements? How does the weight of the body during movement shift over the heels, the hips, and so forth? Gindler was making her students focus on the "means-whereby" rather than the "end" of external movement. The result was that "miraculous" changes began to occur in the bodies of those who trained with Gindler. Again, the principle was the same: Turn conscious attention inward to the proprioceptive background of an objective movement, and the quality of the objective movement begins to improve. Greater self-control is gained by means of greater sensory awareness. From the 1930's onward, Gindler's students spread from Berlin throughout Europe and the United States in the work of such notables as Charlotte Selver, Carola Speads, and Ilse Mittendorf. These early pioneers of somatic education taught others how to gain greater voluntary control of their physiological process by sensory-motor learning. Extraordinary changes occurred -- "miraculous" transformations exciting the interest of increasing number of people in the same way as John Dewey was excited. This excitement was attenuated, however, by the singular inexplicability of these physical transformations. It appeared -- both to the scientific world as well as to the popular world -- to be a case of "mind over matter". Thus, the excitement was a spark that could not catch fire: mind-body dualism prevented the public from understanding the event. The fact that bodies were changed was an intriguing phenomenon; however, except for a small number of fascinated devotees, it was a curiosity that did not garner general interest. Somatic education remained on the frontier of the health care field, but it could not enter; it was not yet clinically precise. There was no general theory as to its nature; there was no clear diagnostic procedure; there was no predictable consistency in its results. Another presence was added to this burgeoning field by another Alexander: Gerda Alexander. She had no relation, intellectually or familially, to F. Matthias. Working from her center in Copenhagen, she expanded the field of sensory-motor learning with new emphasis: she taught her students to become masters of proprioception -- sensory awareness became almost an end in itself. The end was self-knowledge, and this sensory knowledge resulted not only in grace, coordination, and good carriage, but also in a calm, measured life of the spirit. This was similar to the effects of the other Alexander's methods. Gerda Alexander's system of Eutony involved long and intense explorations of the minutiae of the sensory realm. As ones self-sensing became more precise, the usual somatic effects took place: there was always enhanced motor control of the body, and oftentimes there were "extraordinary healings" and bodily transformations. Alexander's long, intense sessions of sensory exploration had an effect not only on her own students but also on an Israeli admirer of her work, Moshe Feldenkrais. Feldenkrais, already trained in the techniques of F. Matthias Alexander when he was living in London, devised his famous Awareness Through Movement exercises by following Gerda Alexander's format of intense sensory exploration while lying quietly on a floor. Moshe Feldenkrais, who was both an electrical engineer and research scientist in high-energy physics, was Europe's first black belt Judoka. He not only introduced judo to France during the 1930s, he even brought Kano, judo's great master, to Paris. In the wake of his activities, Le Club du Jujitsu centers gradually sprang up throughout France. Feldenkrais was another pioneer somatic educator. He brought the tradition one step farther toward becoming a clinical modality by dealing directly with neuromuscular pathologies. From his point of view, however, the technique of Functional Integration (which he invented) was not clinical; it was purely educational. He was teaching others to "know what they were doing": that is to say, he was teaching sensory-motor awareness and control. Throughout his career, Feldenkrais explicitly denied that his techniques were designed to be corrective of pathologies. He was resolute in holding a purely positive, educational viewpoint: he was teaching greater self-awareness so that a person could be increasingly freed from unconscious restraints of the brain. The result of his lessons in self-awareness sounds almost identical to the way in which Dewey described his Alexander lessons. In a statement published in the directory of the Feldenkrais Guild, Feldenkrais says that "after the lessons, upon receiving again the habitual stimuli, one is surprised to discover a changed response to them." Feldenkrais estimated that he had created over a thousand Awareness Through Movement exercises. These movement patterns, which could be performed by oneself, were a combination of F. Matthias Alexander's practice of focusing on the "means-whereby" of ones movements and Gerda Alexander's practice of intense sensory scrutiny while lying quietly on the floor. It was a combination that was greatly effective in creating enhanced voluntary control -- a far more sophisticated version of the work of the two Alexanders -- and it not only improved posture but movement in general. It was, however, Feldenkrais' method of hands-on somatic education -- termed Functional Integration --that constituted his own major advance in this field. He accepted F. Matthias Alexander's insight that control of the head leads to control of the entire body. He equally accepted Alexander's insight that the fundamental cause of postural distortion was the startle reflex. From a clinical standpoint, the startle reflex was his prime diagnostic tool. Functional Integration was distinguished by two procedures: (1) like F. Matthias Alexander, Feldenkrais used his hands to provide sensory information (the "means-whereby") to make the learner aware of unconscious movement patterns in his body; (2) from his knowledge of judo he applied the principle of going with another person's resistance and never going against it. This second procedure was a brilliant and fortuitous discovery of how habitual or spastic muscular contractions can be encouraged to relax. The art of judo was almost instinctual to Feldenkrais; so much so that if he encountered muscular resistance when pulling a limb in a certain direction, he instantly went in the opposite direction: rather than trying to force the muscle to stretch, he brought the origin and insertion of the muscle together. The result was surprising: the muscle began partially to relax. This proceduure, which I have termed Kinetic Mirroring, constitutes the unique efficacy of Functional Integration. As Feldenkrais describes it, "If you do the work of a muscle, it ceases to do its own work"; that is, it relaxes. Kinetic Mirroring was Feldenkrais' prime method of starting the process of muscular relaxation. After Kinetic Mirroring, he could use various "means-whereby" techniques to show the person the new movements that become possible with the now-relaxed muscles and joints. Initially, Feldenkrais' use of Kinetic Mirroring was so identified with judo that his early book, The Higher Judo, sounds not like judo but Functional Integration. Later, as he became more conversant with neurophysiology, he realized that he was using a sensory-motor feedback technique that was genuinely cybernetical: if the motor neurons have a set program of muscle contraction (painfully high tonus) and if the sensory feedback from the muscle cells informs the neurons that the programmed ratio of muscle origin to muscle insertion has been exceeded, then the motor neurons shut down their firings, causing the muscle to begin relaxing. The cybernetical principle behind this induction of relaxation is the same as that of a thermostat: if the furnace is programmed to maintain the temperature at seventy-two degrees, and the feedback from the ambient air reaches seventy-three degrees, the furnace shuts off. In the hands of a competent practitioner, Kinetic Mirroring plus the sensory information of "means-whereby" manipulation was more effective than any previous system of musculoskeletal therapy. The affected muscles relaxed in ways that were considered "impossible" by other therapies. Functional Integration was not, however, therapy; it was education. In summary, then, Feldenkrais elaborated a procedure that was the first approximation of clinical somatic education. He stepped boldly into a room whose size appeared enormous in its promise, and he established the validity of Kinetic Mirroring as well as richly confirming Alexander's use of the hands in teaching the learner the "means-whereby" his movements are controlled. Feldenkrais created the fragments of a system which he could never bring together conceptually. His best effort was his early book, Body and Mature Behavior, which attempted to found an analysis of human movement on a description of gravitation's effects on muscular reflex actions. He later attempted to expand the theory in the ill-fated book, The Potent Self, which he decided was not publishable. Unfortunately, it was eventually published by his followers, but it only added theoretical confusion to his ideas. Kinetic Mirroring was Feldenkrais' prime method. In diagnosing muscular problems, Feldenkrais echoed Alexander's discovery of the startle reflex, but got no farther. Muscular contraction in the anterior of the body and its consequences of shallow breathing and feelings of anxiety were, for Feldenkrais, the constants of neuromuscular pathology. The fact that the majority of adult humans suffer from chronic muscular contraction of the posterior muscles of the back and neck remained a mystery: he had no way of accounting for it. Nor did he have a way of accounting for the genesis of scoliosis, which is of equal significance in pathologies of human posture. This is ironical, inasmuch as Feldenkrais had a grand passion for the topic of neural reflexes. He put all his eggs in one basket, the startle reflex, having been encouraged to do so by his presumption that this reflex was beneath all neurosis and that teaching the neurotic to relax his abdominal muscles and breather deeply was superior to psychoanalysis. This Reichian viewpoint, elaborated in Body and Mature Behavior, was also eventually abandoned. Because of this theoretical confusion, Feldenkrais' practice of Functional Integration was far superior to his teaching of it. At an intuitive level, Feldenkrais was a master, but it was difficult for him to explain why. Accordingly, he was threatened by direct questions from his students, usually responding with angry tirades against the questioner. It is a pity that Feldenkrais inaugurated a tradition of training that presented demonstrations, showed techniques, and taught hands-on practice, but left it to the student to figure the matter out. It was not intentional; he simply could not verbalize what he intuitively knew so well. Thus, an aura of mystical confusion swirled around his training, as if he were a Zen master waiting for his students to become enlightened. This mystical confusion continues in the Feldenkrais Guild to the detriment of a teaching that had all the possibilities of becoming a truly clinical discipline of enormous value. Consequently, the work of his students has more nearly approximated the level of practitioners of the Alexander Technique; that is, they help movement to improve, but few practitioners are able significantly to alter serious neuromuscular pathologies, nor do they usually claim to be capable of this. Feldenkrais echoed Alexander's discovery of the startle reflex, but got no farther. Even so, Feldenkrais opened a door to the possibility of a system of clinical somatic education. What was lacking was (1) a comprehensive diagnostic theory for understanding the origin of the typical neuromuscular postural distortions; (2) a general somatic theory of sensory-motor process; and (3) a method of somatic education that not only gave the learner the sensory feedback of Kinetic Mirroring and "means-whereby" instruction, but also went the full route of engaging the learner's motor actions so as to use the full capacity of the sensory-motor feedback loop. Hanna Somatic Education 1. Diagnostic Theory It is my understanding that perhaps as many as fifty percent of the cases of chronic pain suffered by human beings are caused by sensory-motor amnesia (SMA). This is a condition in which the sensory-motor neurons of the voluntary cortex have lost some portion of their ability to control all or some of the muscles of the body.1 Sensory motor amnesia occurs neither as an organic lesion of the brain nor of the musculoskeletal system; it occurs as a functional deficit whereby the ability to contract a muscle group has been surrendered to subcortical reflexes. These reflexes will chronically contract muscles at a programmed rate -- ten percent, thirty percent, sixty percent, or whatever --and the voluntary cortex is powerless to relax these muscles below that programmed rate. It has lost and forgotten the ability to do so. Muscles held chronically in partial contraction will predictably (1) become sore or painful; (2) become weak with constant exertion; (3) cause clumsiness because of their inability to coordinate synergetically with overall bodily movements; (4) cause a constant energy drain of the body; and (5) create postural distortions and poor weight distribution that will cause secondary pain typically mistaken for arthritis, bursitis, herniated disks, and so on. Perhaps as many as fifty percent of the cases of chronic pain are caused by sensory-motor amnesia (SMA). These symptoms of SMA are commonly misdiagnosed by traditional health care practitioners, for they attempt to treat them by intervening mechanically or chemically in the local musculoskeletal areas affected. Such local intervention has no lasting effect upon the symptoms, inasmuch as it treats a functional problem of the brain as if it were a structural problem of the peripheral body. The result is a chronic pathology that cannot be successfully treated by traditional health care: the condition seems medically incurable, leaving no option but the use of analgesic drugs that only mask the symptoms. Medical researchers are all too aware of this lack of success in the diagnosis and treatment of what they term "regional muscular illness." Rheumatologist Norton M. Hadler frankly expresses his professional embarrassment that "the primitive nature of our understanding of the pathophysiology of such regional musculoskeletal illnesses as backache, neck pain, or shoulder pain is a reproach to clinical investigation."2 Hadler sees this difficulty compounded by the fact that sufferers of regional muscular illness constitute the dominant health complainants: "In multiple studies, such individuals represent a major portion of the patients seen by family physicians, primary care internists, industrial physicians, rheumatologists, orthopedists, osteopaths, and chiropractors."3 The condition of SMA, so little understood and affecting such a large portion of the population, can be remedied by only one means: a reeducation of the voluntary sensory-motor cortex. The cortex must be reminded sensorially of what it has forgotten so that, once again, it has full motor control of the muscular areas affected. When it does so, the symptoms mentioned above disappear, and the chronic, medically incurable situation is alleviated. SMA can only be overcome by education, not be treatment. An internal process must occur whereby new sensory information is introduced into the sensory-motor feedback loop, allowing the motor neurons of the voluntary cortex once again to control the musculature fully and to achieve voluntary relaxation. SMA occurs by three pathological processes: (1) the trauma reflex, (2) the startle reflex, and (3) the Landau response. This is the general nature of SMA pathology. Specifically, SMA occurs by three pathological processes: (1) the trauma reflex, (2) the startle reflex, and (3) the Landau response4. Minor causes of SMA are atrophy caused by disuse (as with bedridden or wheelchair-bound persons) and habitual misuse of the muscular system (as with "dentist's hump," caused by working stooped forward). The trauma reflex occurs as a protective muscular response to severe injury. It is the reflex of pain avoidance. Cringing, for example, is the overt manifestation of this reflex. When blows occur to one side of the rib cage, the muscles traumatized will go into chronic contraction. After hernia surgery, for example, the abdominal muscles on the herniated side will usually be in constant contraction. If the left leg is broken or the left knee is in long-term pain, the person will avoid the left leg and become noticeably pulled to the right side in scoliosis. These are examples of SMA caused by the trauma reflex. The startle reflex occurs as a stress response to threatening or worrisome situations -- whether actual or imagined. If the threatening situation triggering the startle reflex occurs often enough and strongly enough, the muscular contractions of the reflex become chronically potentiated, resulting in the contractions of permanently raised shoulders, depressed chest, taut thigh adductors and, in severe cases, chronically contracted elbows and knees. An indirect effect of a chronic startle reflex pattern is shallow breathing, which affects functions of the heart and the central nervous system -- the latter creating chronic dominance of the sympathetic nervous state. These are examples of SMA caused by the startle reflex, a subcortical brain mechanism not directly controllable by the volitional pathways of the cortex. The Laudau response is an arousal response that contracts the posterior muscles, erecting the back in preparation for movement forward. The muscles affected are the central extensors of the spine, the rhomboids, gluteus medius/piriformis, and hamstrings. This response occurs in situations where action is demanded of the person, for example, a knock on the door, the ring of the telephone, a response to a request, and so forth; all unfortunately, are occurrences typical of daily life in urban-industrial societies. The constant repetition of these situations and the Landau response makes these muscular contractions chronic. The world of business is a world where as much as eighty percent of those over the age of forty have pain and stiffness from spines that are chronically contracted from the pelvis to the neck. These are examples of SMA caused by the Landau response, a subcortical reflex which, once habituated, is beyond the control of the voluntary cortex. It becomes chronic. It is important to note that the effects of these three chronic reflex patterns are universally mistaken for "the inevitable effects of old age." aging, however, is not a pathology, nor does longevity have any relation to these symptoms, except in the sense that the longer we live, the more the traumas and stress we have experienced. "Old Age" is a cryptopathology which further invalidates the ability of the medical practitioner to diagnose SMA. 2. General Somatic Theory There are two distinct ways of perceiving and acting upon physiological processes: first, one can perceive a body and act upon a body; second, one can perceive a soma and act upon a soma. The first instance is a third-person standpoint that sees an objective body "there", separate from the observer -- a body upon which the observer can act, for example, a doctor "treating" the patient. The second instance is a first-person standpoint that sees a subjective soma "here": namely, oneself. The soma learns to change itself. A soma, then is a body perceived from within. The word soma describes the rich and constantly flowing array of sensings and actions that are occurring within the experience of each of us. The somatic viewpoint offers insights and possibilities that are categorically not possible from the bodily viewpoint that is the established perspective of physiological science and medical practice. What each human experiences is himself -- an acting, sensing being. Experience (this is a cognate of the more traditional terms "consciousness" and "awareness") is a sensory-motor event, in which sensing cannot be separated from moving and moving cannot be separated from sensing -- they are the warp and woof of personal reality. This inseparability means that what we do not sense, we cannot move; what we cannot move, we cannot sense. Our experience is comprised of two layers: the phylogenetic and the ontogenetic. What is given to us phylogenetically are the myriad sensory-motor programs that have evolved through the mammalian, vertebrate lineage back to the earliest life forms. These programs, reflexive and autonomic in nature, are the ancient biological ocean upon which experience floats. I have termed this biological unterlage the Archesoma5. It embodies the "unconscious" processes upon which somatic life depends. Its functions are "involuntary". The ontogenetic layer is composed of the myriad sensory-motor programs that have been learned since birth. They are elaborated during childhood growth out of the ocean of reflexes beneath them. The ontogenetic layer of experience is, then, the result of learned adaptations. It constitutes that part of our experience which we call "conscious" and that part of our actions which we call "voluntary". Our conscious, voluntary experience arises out of -- and totally depends upon -- our unconscious, involuntary layer of experience. At birth, we are little more than involuntary reflexes and autonomic processes. Only gradually do we learn our way into the realm of conscious, voluntary control. If, however, something occurs to evoke strong involuntary, autonomic reflexes, we can find our sensory-motor realm taken over by unconscious control against which we can do nothing directly; we can only, once again, learn our way out of this loss of volition. Neurologically, this distinction between phylogenetic and ontogenetic layers is the distinction between subcortical, lower brain structures and cortical, upper brain structures. When sensory-motor amnesia occurs, we can say with certainty that subcortical reflexes have robbed the cortex of its learned controls. Somatic education is the only pathway we can take in order to overcome SMA and gain greater voluntary control of our physiological processes. This, briefly, is the theoretical context upon which clinical somatic education rests. The larger outlines of somatic philosophy have been discussed elsewhere 6. 3. Sensory-motor Education Sensory-motor amnesia is overcome by a sensory-motor process reminding the voluntary cortex of what it has ceased sensing and doing. This can be done in several ways, two of which have already been discussed: (1) by helping the person become sensorily aware of his unconscious, involuntary movement patterns (the "means-whereby"); and (2) by Kinetic Mirroring, which begins a process of relaxation of involuntarily contracted muscles. A third method of overcoming SMA -- and one that is far more effective than the other two -- is the Pandicular Response. Pandiculation is the name given to an action pattern that occurs generally throughout the vertebrate kingdom. It is a sensory-motor action used by animals to arouse the voluntary cortex by making a strong voluntary muscle contraction in order to feed back an equally strong sensory stimulation to the motor neurons. It is a way of "waking up" the sensory-motor cortex. Pandiculation is a way of "waking up" the sensory-motor cortex. When you see a dog or cat wake up, it will pandiculate; namely, it will strongly contract the large extensor muscles of the back that are essential for running. Then it may pandiculate in reverse, by contracting the anterior muscles into a flexed posture. Pandiculation prepares the animal for normal sensing and moving, readying its voluntary cortex for efficient functioning. Birds pandiculate by lifting one wing in a backward direction while also extending the homolateral leg backward. A.F. Frasier, who is the acknowledged authority on this phenomenon, has verified that pandiculation occurs even in the foetal stage. Through fluoroscopic study of lamb foetuses, he has observed this event of cortical programming occur as an occasional extension of the limbs of the foetus 7. Pandiculation occurs in human beings. Pregnant women report not only "kicking" of their foetus but also slow extension which distends their bellies. The fact that pandiculation occurs generally in vertebrate and mammalian animals, both prenatally and postnatally, indicates the phylogenetic depth of this ancient action pattern. Upon awakening, human beings also pandiculate: they extend their backs, legs, arms, and jaws in a typical stretch. Young humans stretch their limbs in much the same way as other mammals. In every case, it is directly linked with awakening -- it is an ancient sensory-motor pattern of cortical arousal. The Pandicular Response is the prime sensory-motor method used by practitioners of Hanna Somatic Education. Rather than the practitioner focusing on providing sensory feedback by his own manipulations, the learner is invited to make a strong voluntary contraction of the amnesic muscles, thus creating his own strong sensory feedback and providing a simultaneous sensory reinforcement to the motor neurons while they are continuing their voluntary contractive activity. The Pandicular Response is the prime sensory-motor method of Hanna Somatic Education® The effects of the Pandicular Response are startling. Muscle groups that may have been in continual contraction for forty years or more will not only release but, with minor reinforcement, will also stay in this relaxed state. The sensory-motor change is both immediate and comfortable. The fact that long-term chronic muscular contractions can disappear so quickly is, neurologically, not surprising. If the change is made at the heart of sensory-motor experience, the peripheral musculature has no option but to lower its contractile rate. Muscles are the servants of the brain and have no will of their own. Looked at closely, we can see how the Pandicular Response operates. If, for example, the afflicted client has lost forty percent of his cortical voluntary control to subcortical reflexes, he still retains sixty percent of his voluntary control; however, he is unable to relax the muscles below the level of forty percent. But the use of the Pandicular Response opens a main avenue for regaining voluntary cortical control: the client cannot relax the muscles below forty percent, but he can voluntarily contract them above that ratio -- say, seventy percent. This voluntary contraction, if both strong and prolonged, creates exactly the sensory feedback the cortex is lacking. If this strong contraction is released very slowly, the sensory arousal of the motor neurons is such that, when the muscles are released to the point of their original contractile rate, they continue to release below that rate --to thirty percent, then twenty percent, then ten percent, until the ideal state of zero involuntary stimuli in the muscle is reached. Learning to teach the client to perform pandiculation in this exact manner is neither obvious nor easy, but, once learned, the practitioner has added a major component to the edifice of clinical somatic education: authentic achievement of voluntary sensory-motor control. Greater cortical control is the attainment of greater freedom and autonomy -- the apparent species goal of a race that is endowed with a cerebral cortex of enormous learning capacity. An authentic clinical somatic educator can predict with accuracy the overcoming of a specific malady. In summary, clinical somatic education requires a comprehensive understanding of how pathological functions can occur, a general theory of human sensory-motor functioning, and a powerful set of methods of reversing this pathology with predictable efficacy. When all three conditions are fulfilled, we have a new modality in the field of health care: one whose practitioners know what they are doing, know what needs to be corrected, and know how to correct it. An authentic clinical somatic educator is one who so clearly sees what is the case that he can predict with accuracy the overcoming of a specific malady. The clarity and predictive certainty of Hanna Somatic Education are the qualities needed in a clinical modality in order to stand the test of scientific scrutiny and verification. It is what is necessary if we are to have a clinical modality that will solve widespread problems of human suffering that are clearly not being taken care of through medical and other therapeutic means. It is what is necessary if we are to begin constructing a positive science of human health and autonomy.	<urn:uuid:33913f5e-5f6a-4704-a33c-a7299268a755>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.somatics.com/hannart.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958549	7,171	2.53125	3
Unfortunately, gross food has become the norm in most supermarkets, with packaged food ingredient lists reading more like chemistry homework than something you'd want your family to eat. But in many cases, marketers have figured out a way to keep toxic additives and disease-promoting food packaging off of the label, making your job as a consumer harder than ever. We're here to clear up the confusion and help you avoid some of the grossest foods on the market. What it is: The toxic flame retardant chemical brominated vegetable oil, or BVO, was initially used to keep plastics from catching on fire. Where it is: For decades, the food industry has been adding it to certain sodas, juices, and sports drinks, including Mountain Dew, Fanta Orange, Sunkist Pineapple, and some Powerade flavors. (Gatorade announced it would remove the compound from its drinks in Spring 2013.) BVO's purpose? To keep the artificial flavoring chemicals from separating from the rest of the liquids. Why it's bad: Scientists have linked too much BVO to bromide poisoning symptoms like skin lesions, memory loss, and nerve disorders. More from Rodale News: 14 Foods Your Doctors Eat What it is: Titanium dioxide is an inorganic compound, a mined substance that is sometimes contaminated with toxic lead. Where it is: Commonly used in paints and sunscreens, big food corporations add it to lots of things we eat, too, including processed salad dressing, coffee creamers, and icing. Why it's bad: The food industry adds it to hundreds of products to make dingy, overly processed items appear whiter. "White has long been the symbolic color of 'clean,'" explains food industry insider Bruce Bradley, who shares the tricks, traps, and ploys of big food manufacturers on his blog, BruceBradley.com. "Funny, when you use real food, you don't need any of these crazy additives -- I think I prefer the real deal." What it is: Maggots are fly larvae, tiny rice-shaped creatures that feast on rotting foods. Where it is: The Food and Drug Administration legally allows 19 maggots and 74 mites in a 3.5-ounce can of mushrooms. Why it's bad: While maggots do have their place in the medical world—they can help heal ulcers and other wounds—most people think it's pretty gross to eat them! If you need another reason to ditch canned goods, consider this: Most are lined with bisphenol A, or BPA, a plastic chemical that causes unnatural hormonal changes linked to heart attacks, obesity, and certain cancers. What it is: Traditionally, cheese makers used rennet derived from the mucosa of a veal calf's fourth stomach to create the beloved, versatile dairy product. But Bradley notes that cost and the limited availability of calf stomachs have led to the development of several alternatives, including vegetable rennet, microbial rennet, and—the food industry's rennet of choice -- a genetically modified version derived from a cloned calf gene. Where it is: It's used to make the vast majority of cheese sold in the United States. Why it's bad: The long-term health effects of eating genetically engineered foods has never been studied in humans. And since GMO ingredients aren't listed on the label, it can be tough for consumers to avoid rennet from this source. "With all these rennet varieties often listed simply as "enzymes" on an ingredient panel, it can be very hard to know exactly what kind you're eating when you buy cheese," says Bradley, author of the soon-to-be-released book, Fat Profits. What it is: Grocery store meats are commonly infused with veterinary medicines, heavy metals, and staph bacteria, including the hard-to-kill, potentially lethal MRSA strain. Where it is: Unfortunately, the problem is far from rare. A study published last year in the journal Clinical Infectious Diseases found that half of grocery store meat tested harbored staph bacteria. Researchers ID the overuse of antibiotics in industrial agriculture as a major cause in the rise of superbugs in our grocery store food. Why it's bad: MRSA kills about 19,000 people a year in America -- that's more annual deaths than from AIDS in the U.S. Purchasing grass-fed meat and eggs from organic farmers is a more sustainable choice. More from Rodale News: The 9 Best Grassfed Hot Dogs What it is: Glyphosate, the active chemical ingredient in the popular weed killer, Roundup, is a hormone-disrupting chemical now used primarily on corn and soy crops genetically engineered to withstand a heavy dousing of the chemical. Nonorganic farmers dumped 57 million pounds of glyphosate on food crops in 2009, according to U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) figures. Where it is: Roundup is so heavily used around homes and in farm fields that it's now being detected in streams, the air, and even rain. Because it's a systemic herbicide, it's actually taken up inside the plant ... meaning we eat it. Yep, it's legally allowed in our food, and in an amount that worries scientists. It's found in most nonorganic packaged foods because most contain corn- or soy-derived ingredients, the crops that are most often heavily doused with Roundup. Why it's bad: Glyphosate exposure is linked to obesity, learning disabilities, birth defects, infertility and potentially irreversible metabolic damage. To avoid pesticides in products, eat organic and avoided processed foods as much as possible. And use caution -- "all natural" foods often are chockfull of pesticides and genetically engineered ingredients. More from Rodale News: The New Meat Label That Could Save Your Life What it is: It's a bitter, smelly, orange-brown substance known as castoreum, explains Bradley. "In nature, it's combined with the beaver's urine and used to mark its territory." Where it is: It's used extensively in processed food and beverages, typically as vanilla or raspberry flavoring. Why it's bad: This gross ingredient won't show up on the label. Instead, companies using it in making processed food list it as "natural flavoring." This poses a dilemma for vegans and vegetarians -- and anyone who wants to avoid eating any creature's anal excretions. What it is: Today's cows produce double the amount of milk they did just 40 years ago, thanks largely to a genetically engineered, synthetic hormone called recombinant bovine somatotropin, or rBST. Where it is: It could be in milk that's not organic or not labeled as rBST free. Why it's bad: Scientists link rBST to prostate, breast, and colon cancers. It's banned in other countries, and although still legal here, many dairies are moving away from it due to consumer demand. Choose organic milk to ensure that the cows producing your milk are fed a diet free of antibiotics, hormones, and pesticides. What it is: Phthalates are plasticizing chemicals used in everything from pesticides and fragranced soaps and shampoos to nail polish and vinyl shower curtains. Where it is: A 2010 study published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives found phthalates are winding up in our food, too. The source could be direct exposure to pesticides containing the hormone-disrupting chemical. Or to another potential source, human sewage sludge applied as a fertilizer to farm fields. The sludge can be tainted with shampoo chemicals that wash down the drain -- it all winds up at the water-treatment plant, the source of the sludge. (Note: Use of human sewage sludge is banned in organic farming.) Why it's bad: Phthalate exposure, even in small amounts, has been linked to behavioral problems in children, allergies and asthma, eczema, and unhealthy changes in our hormonal systems. More from Rodale News: 9 Appalling Facts About Meat What it is: L-cysteine is a non-essential amino acid made from dissolved human hair (often from China) or duck feathers. Where it is: It's used as a commercial dough conditioner to improve the texture of breads and baked goods. Why it's bad: Eating something derived from the human body violates Muslim beliefs. Hair and duck feathers pose an ethical dilemma for vegans, too. More from Rodale News: Wheat Belly: The Real Secret to Losing Your Gut What it is: Carmine, a bright red food colorant, is actually the crushed abdomen of the female Dactylopius coccus, an African beetle-like insect. Where it is: Look for it in red candies and red-tinted yogurts and juices (particularly ruby red juices) -- it's often listed as carmine, crimson lake, cochineal, or natural red #4 on ingredient labels, according to Bradley. Why it's bad: Not only is the thought of eating bug juice gross, but it also poses an ethical issue for some vegetarians and vegans. What it is: Factory-farm conditions are rife with bacteria. On top of that, processing plants mix meat from hundreds or thousands of different cows, potentially creating a public health hazard in the mix. To try to make the meat "safer," industry typically puts the beef through an ammonia gas bath. Where it is: The USDA deems the gross process safe enough, and allows the meat to be sold without any indication that it received the gas treatment. (The process is banned in meats earning organic certification.) Why it's bad: You might order your burger with pickles or lettuce, but you likely don't want a side of ammonia, a poisonous gas. The kicker? Evidence suggests that blasting beef with it might not even be fully effective at killing germs. Look for organic, pasture-raised meats for a safer option. Often, you can buy these meats directly from local, sustainable farmers. What it is:Many artificial food dyes found in hundreds of everyday foods are made from petroleum-derived materials. Where it is: Dyes are used in cereals and candy to make them more "fun" for kids, in pickles to make them appear fresher, and in place of actual real ingredients in a variety of foods. Example? Betty Crocker Carrot Cake Mix is actually a carrot-free product, with "carrot flavored pieces" cooked up from corn syrup and artificial colors Yellow 6 and Red 40. Why it's bad: Orange and purple food dyes have been shown to impair brain function, while other dyes have been linked to ADHD and behavioral problems in kids and brain cell toxicity. You're getting ripped off, too. It's cheaper for food companies to use fake dyes than real ingredients. (Tropicana Twister Cherry Berry Blast contains 0 percent berry and cherry juice, despite its name.) What it is: Depending on where your shrimp comes from, it could be tainted with chemicals used to clean filthy shrimp farm pens. Just as gross, farmed shrimp from overseas is often full of antibiotics, mouse and rat hair, and pieces of insects. Where it is: Contaminated shrimp tends to come from critters imported from overseas shrimp farms. If you're looking for safer options, choose domestic shrimp. For the best options, consult the good fish list. Why it's bad: Only about 2 percent of all imported seafood is inspected, meaning this nasty stuff is making its way onto your plate. What it is: An industrial nonstick chemical that falls under the perfluorinated chemicals class is utilized in certain food packaging. Where it is: These suspect chemicals are commonly used to coat the inside of popcorn bags to prevent sticking and grease leakage. The same chemicals are also in the nonstick coating of many pots, pans and baking sheets. Why it's bad: A study published in January 2012 in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that nonstick chemicals in popcorn bags significantly damage the immune system, opening the floodgates for a whole host of other health problems. Nonstick chemicals are also linked to high cholesterol, sperm damage and infertility, and ADHD. Popcorn -- made the good old-fashioned way, in a pot on the stovetop -- is still a great option.	<urn:uuid:64349f94-0f2e-403f-bdd5-edd383e1465a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/list/201307/15-grossest-things-youre-eating	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940384	2,572	2.609375	3
How we change what others think, feel, believe and do The Good-Enough Mother Winnicott sees the key role of the 'good enough' mother as adaptation to the baby, thus giving it a sense of control, 'omnipotence' and the comfort of being connected with the mother. This 'holding environment' allows the infant to transition at its own rate to a more autonomous position. "The good-enough mother...starts off with an almost complete adaptation to her infant's needs, and as time proceeds she adapts less and less completely, gradually, according to the infant's growing ability to deal with her failure" (Winnicott, 1953) The 'not good enough' mother leads to 'false self disorders' in the child. "In the cases on which my work is based there has been what I call a true self hidden, protected by a false self. This false self is no doubt an aspect of the true self. It hides and protects it, and it reacts to the adaptation failures and develops a pattern corresponding to the pattern of environmental failure. In this way the true self is not involved in the reacting, and so preserves a continuity of being." (Winnicott, 1955-6) He sees the micro-interactions between the mother and child as central to the development of the internal world. After the early stage of connection with the mother and illusions of omnipotence comes the stage of 'relative dependence', where they realize their dependence and learn about loss. By moving away from the child in well-timed small doses, the mother helps develop a healthy sense of independence. Her failure to adapt to every need of the child helps them adapt to external realities. Three key aspects of the environment identified by Winnicott are holding, handling and object-presenting. The mother may thus hold the child, handle it and present objects to it, whether it is herself, her breast or a separate object. The good enough mother will do this to the general satisfaction of the child. The trick of the good-enough mother is to give the child a sense of loosening rather than the shock of being 'dropped'. This teaches them to predict and hence allows them to retain a sense of control. Rather than sudden transition, this letting go comes in small and digestible steps, in which a Transition Object may play a significant part. "The baby quickly learns to make a forecast: 'Just now it is safe to forget the mother's mood and to be spontaneous, but any minute the mother's face will become fixed or her mood will dominate, and my own personal needs must then be withdrawn otherwise my central self may suffer insult.' Immediately beyond this in the direction of pathology is predictability, which is precarious, and which strains the baby to the limits of his or her capacity to allow for events." (Winnicott, 1967) The final phase of development, to independence, is 'never absolute' as the child is never completely isolated. Throughout our lives we are dependent on others, seeking company and belonging. We soon feel lonely if we are isolated for any length of time. The mother's role is thus first to create illusion that allows early comfort and then to create disillusion that gradually introduces the child into the social world. Winnicott was a pediatrician who was concerned with the development of children. He took a softer approach than such as Freud and Lacan, perhaps moderated by his teacher, Melanie Klein. This included views about the role of parents. This helped popularize his teachings, especially after guilt engendered by more Freudian approaches. Winnicott and Klein both recognized that the child needs to realize that the mother is neither good nor bad nor the product of illusion, but is a separate and independent entity. Laplanche described primal seduction as the offering of a message by a parent to a child. Communication from an other entices the child away from its state of one-ness with the mother. The mother can be viewed as a 'container' for the infant's bad objects, as the child projects these into the mother. A critical ability for her is in accepting and surviving this onslaught with equanimity. Winnicott, by the way, is at pains to say that the 'mother' role can be any person who acts in the role of 'carer' who bonds with the child. Winnicott, D. (1953). Transitional objects and transitional phenomena, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 34:89-97 Winnicott, D.W. (1955-6) Clinical varieties of transference. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 37, 386 Winnicott, D. W. (1967). Mirror-role of the mother and family in child development. In P. Lomas (Ed.), The Predicament of the Family: A Psycho-Analytical Symposium (pp. 26-33). London: Hogarth And the big	<urn:uuid:4f1261ec-1435-44e6-a428-2ff351c85be7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.changingminds.org/disciplines/psychoanalysis/concepts/good-enough_mother.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947751	1,034	2.9375	3
Citizens have stopped countless crimes over the years and saved lives by becoming actively involved in protecting their communities. I know that the police can never do their job as effectively as possible without the assistance of the community. As the additional “eyes and ears “ of law enforcement citizens can help to reduce crime, improve safety and increase the quality of neighborhood life by knowing what to report and how to report it. It is important in today’s society that you know the proper way to observe someone or something suspicious in order to accurately relay that information to the police. The following goals need to be met: Learn the importance of being observant Learn observation skills that can be employed in your Neighborhood Understand that observation is the first step in reporting incidents or suspicious activities relating to criminal activity or terrorism. Before we begin a discussion on how to properly observe people, vehicles and incidents that may affect us, we should learn what to observe. Physical setting – Specific location, time of day, day of week People – What do they look like? How are they acting? How many of them? Specific Items – What are they important? Routines – Did you notice any reoccurring patterns or routines? How often did they occur? Who was involved? Observing a shocking event can be traumatic. Most people will focus on or “zero in” on the event and not think about other items that may be important such as the number of occupants, the description of the occupants or other valuable information such as the license plate number or specific vehicle descriptors such as previous or new damage. One of the keys to successful memory retention after witnessing an event is recognizing the importance of using good observation skills to keep your neighborhood safeFollowing we will present information that will improve your observation skills when observing people and vehicles. The first step is to remain calm. Often in stressful situations individuals allow their fears or nerves to take control. It is crucial to stay calm, remain in control of your senses and be alert to your surroundings. Never place yourself in danger when you are observing possible suspicious or criminal activity. Remember, stay calm and remain alert to your surroundings.When observing people start with the basics… gender, race and approximate age. Although these categories are broad, it is amazing how many people can’t even describe the most fundamental individual characteristics. Repeat this process for all people observed (i.e.. three Hispanic females about fifteen years of age). Once you have made a mental note – or better yet, taken a moment to write down the information – move on to move specific information. Begin with the primary actor and then observe the others. The primary actor is the one who appears to be leading or controlling the incident. Make note of specific identifiers such as: height, weight, hair color, clothing description (shirt, pants and shoes). Once again, repeat this process as necessary for the number of individuals you are observing.When you have recorded this information, take a moment to reorient yourself to the entire event. Stay alert and begin broadening your perspective. Often observers become myopic or have “tunnel vision” when an incident occurs. This can be extremely dangerous and significantly reduce the amount of information that you observe. Take a deep breath, step back if possible and broaden your perspective. What other events are occurring? Who else is affected? What is the overall situation? Finally, the last step is to observe and record any other detailed information that may be beneficial to other officers or investigators.What details can you add about vehicles, witnesses, time of day, location of activity, or outcome of the incident? Vehicles can actually be more difficult because of the similarity between models by the various manufacturers and the lack of knowledge about automotive designs on the part of the observer. Many people cannot distinguish between a Ford and a Chevy, while others cannot tell the difference between one foreign car and another. When it comes to vehicles, the only way to improve your observation skills is to spend time learning about the various makes, models, styles and types of vehicles that are on the road today. As observers, you may want to develop tools to help yourselves when describing various vehicles. One easy tool may be as simple as picking up guides from local car dealers on their types of vehicles, or locating an automotive magazine like “Auto Trader” that would show pictures of all types of vehicles and provide brief descriptions. Once you have established the Make and Model of the vehicle, you can move to specific details such as the body style, color and overall appearance. To complete your picture of the vehicle, we want to add as many details as possible such as damage to the vehicle and if that damage appeared old (rusty) or new. Describe any bumper stickers you notices or signs or lettering on the vehicle. Did it have a phone number listed to report accidents or comment on driving? Was there a company logo on the vehicle and can you describe it or are you familiar with the company? At this point we also want to add any details about the overall incident that the vehicle was involved in or the environment surrounding the scene. Were there multiple vehicles, what time of day was it, what were the weather conditions, what was the direction of travel? Did you see the occupants and can you provide descriptions of them? There are numerous ways to improve your overall observation skills. One of the best is simply to practice by observing various events and then recalling the circumstances in a manner that would be beneficial to others during an investigation. Other practices to assist with your observation skills include staying calm and being patient when observing an event. If you become over anxious or unduly upset, you may not be able to respond or assist if you are requested or required to do so. Remember to pay attention to your overall surroundings so you can react appropriately if the circumstances should warrant it. Always be alert to specific incidents that may pose harm or potentially be dangerous (explosions, gas leaks, group turmoil). Note your general environment (inside, outside, night, day, rain storm, snowing, downwind exposure) and how it is affecting the incident. Make sure that you actively work to avoid “tunnel vision” and observe the entire scene on a regular basis. This will give you a more accurate overall picture of the incident and keep you from focusing in on only one or a few items. Finally, be aware of people’s reactions to the incident. This information could be crucial during an investigation. For example, did someone calmly walk away from an explosion, did they speed away from an accident scene, or did they simply stand back and stoically watch the fire? Pay attention to your overall surroundings Be alert to specific incidents around you that may be potentially dangerous Note the general environment Observe the entire scene Be aware of people’s reactions By organizing your thoughts and methodically recalling and categorizing details of an event, you can become an excellent observer and subsequent effective witness for investigators. Next time we will discuss how to report an incident to the police and most importantly how to get the police to respond to a call based on proper reporting technique.	<urn:uuid:8921e2d4-15a1-4379-a990-c1f73472dea1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blog.ctnews.com/crimewatch/2011/11/28/improving-crime-observation-skills/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956795	1,464	3.25	3
Stop 1: The Gallery - 200 East Pratt Street The Gallery (Figure 1a) is a shopping area located across the street from the Inner Harbor. The Gallery shopping area has interior floor tiles made of limestone, a sedimentary rock (Figure 1b). The tan limestone is from central France. The limestone formed from sediments and shells deposited in shallow, clear seawater millions of years ago. As layers of sediment slowly built up over time, the burial pressure and natural chemical cements changed the sediments into solid rock. The marine fossils present and the fine grain size of the material surrounding the fossils reflect the environment of deposition. Not all of these fossils are easily recognized because of the way the stone was cut. Most fossils have been sectioned at various angles between horizontal and vertical. The small, black tiles on the floor (Figure 1b) are also limestone. This limestone came from Spain. Exit The Gallery, turn right and walk north along Calvert Street, where a polished red granite covers the exterior walls of The Gallery (Figure 1c). This red granite is from Taivassalo, Finland, and is of Precambrian age, more than 544 million years old. Granite is an igneous rock formed by the cooling of molten magma. The slower the magma cools, the larger the crystals, and conversely, the faster it cools, the smaller the crystals. The large crystal size indicates that this granite formed deep inside the earth where cooling took place slowly. The two minerals essential to any granite are feldspar and quartz, but mica is another mineral often present. The feldspar crystals in this rock are pink to red in color. Feldspar minerals are the most abundant mineral group in the earth’s crust. The smoky colored mineral is quartz, the second most common mineral found in rocks. The black mineral is biotite, a type of mica. One distinct property of micas is that they split into fine sheets or layers along cleavage surfaces similar to pages of a book. Further along the building wall, about half way along the block, there is a section of the granite which has a smooth, polished finish adjacent to one with a rough texture, or “flamed” finish (Figure 1c). A “flamed” finish is caused by exposing the surface of the rock to the heat of a torch. The differential temperature causes rapid expansion and flaking of surface fragments. Different finishes provide variety in the texture and appearance of the same stone. Continue walking north along Calvert Street. At the corner of this block, within the same office-shopping complex, look to the right at the interior of 111 South Calvert Street. The same pink to red granite from Finland is used in the lobby floor along with inlaid strips of South Dakota gneiss. The gneiss formed during the same Precambrian Era as the granite. This is a good opportunity to compare the igneous granite with the gneiss, which is a metamorphic rock. The granite has conspicuous crystals of the quartz, feldspar, and mica, scattered throughout. In the gneiss, the same components tend to occur in alternating irregular bands of lighter minerals and darker, generally elongate, minerals that were recrystallized under tremendous pressure (Figure 1d).	<urn:uuid:704caa76-a2de-4d43-a998-de6aa7e1ecdc>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.mgs.md.gov/geology/geology_tour/stop1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.933491	689	3.234375	3
Print this page Your family may not be together when disaster strikes, so plan how you will contact one another and review what you will do in different situations. Consider a plan where each family member calls, texts or e-mails the same friend or relative in the event of an emergency. Traditional means of communication may be limited during a widespread emergency situation due to system damage or overload. It is important that you identify several different ways to communicate with your family and friends to let them know you are safe. Printable Family Communications Plan Sheet from the Department of Homeland Security Emergency Communication Tips - Long distance lines often work even if local phone lines do not. - Designate an out-of-area contact person. Family members should call this person to report their location if they cannot reach each other. Provide your contact person with important names and numbers so they can assist in keeping others posted on your situation, and let your friends and family know whom they can contact to check on you in case of an emergency. - Cell phone networks are often overwhelmed during an emergency; do not rely on using you cell phone for calls. - Text messaging on cell phones sometimes works even when the network is overwhelmed. - Make sure you have at least one phone in your house that does not require electricity to work. (Cordless phones and most business phone systems do require electricity.) - Avoid making non-emergency calls! - Keep coins and important contact information with you for pay phones, which often have service restored before residential customers. - Make sure your entire household knows necessary emergency contact information. - Program an ICE or in-case-of-emergency point of contact into your cell phone in case you are incapacitated. This should be a family member, friend, or relative. - If internet connections are available, social networking sites such as Twitter, Facebook, Myspace and others may be used to communicate with friends and family.	<urn:uuid:0acad735-c83b-48fd-bc6a-f40cf5b59d08>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.polkcountyiowa.gov/emergency-management/emergency-preparedness/make-a-plan/communication-plan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.939311	398	3.34375	3
For Immediate Release, December 19, 2013 Contact: Noah Greenwald, (503) 484-7495 Endangered Species Act Protection Affirmed for Two Washington Plants After 8-Month Delay to Reexamine Science, White Bluffs Bladderpod, Umtanum Desert Buckwheat Still Found to Need Protection PORTLAND, Ore.— Federal scientists confirmed today that two extremely rare eastern Washington plants granted Endangered Species Act protection in April 2013 do indeed need protecting. Rejecting a Rep. Doc Hastings-led effort to derail the plan, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reaffirmed that the best available science shows that Umtanum desert buckwheat and White Bluffs bladderpod deserve federal protection and designated critical habitat. \|Umtanum desert buckwheat photo by Ted Thomas, USFWS. Photos are available for media use. Protections for the two plants, which are found only in Washington’s Hanford Reach National Monument, are the result of a settlement reached between the Center and the Service in 2011 to speed up protection decisions for 757 species around the country. “The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has gone the whole nine yards and determined that the science showing these plants to be endangered is sound,” said Noah Greenwald, the Center’s endangered species director. “No doubt Congressman Hastings and his ilk will still not be satisfied, though — and not because of problems with the agency’s science, but because they just oppose saving these plants in the first place.” As part of today’s decision, the Service affirmed its designation of 344 acres of protected critical habitat in Benton County for Umtanum desert buckwheat, but reduced critical habitat for the White Bluffs bladderpod from 2,861 acres to 2,033 acres in Franklin County. All private lands were removed from the critical habitat. The Service contended the areas removed are now too degraded to support the plant, a decision that highlights the importance of protecting species as quickly as possible. Both plants were discovered during a 1995 botanical survey of the Hanford Reach and made candidates for protection in 1999, when more habitat may very well have been suitable. “These plants are part of what makes the Hanford Reach, the last free-flowing stretch of the Columbia River so special,” said Greenwald. “Each of these plants is found on only one spot on Earth, leaving no doubt the Endangered Species Act’s powerful protection is crucial to their survival.” The buckwheat is a woody plant that can live up to 150 years and is limited to a weathered basalt outcrop on the top edge of the Umtanum Ridge in Benton County, where it is threatened by fire, invasive species, off-road vehicle destruction and stray cattle. The bladderpod is a showy flowering perennial limited to the White Bluffs area of the Hanford Reach and threatened by fire, invasive species, ORV damage and landslides caused by seepage from agricultural irrigation. The Hanford Reach was designated a national monument in 2000, in part because of its well-recognized plant and animal diversity. Since then, some threats have been reduced. For example, newly constructed fences now keep ORVs and cows away from rare plant populations. Endangered Species Act protection will trigger development of a recovery plan for these species, as well as further actions to secure their future, including removal of nonnative plants, plans to protect them from fire, and further protection from irrigation-related harm and recreational activities like ORV use. The Center for Biological Diversity is a national, nonprofit conservation organization with more than 625,000 members and online activists dedicated to the protection of endangered species and wild places.	<urn:uuid:a55f2414-0fbc-4912-bcff-61417a41dbf1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2013/washington-plants-12-19-2013.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.933775	781	2.75	3
4. Cirsium helenioides (Linnaeus) Hill, Hort. Kew. 64. 1768. Carduus helenioides Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 825. 1753; Cirsium heterophyllum (Linnaeus) Hill Perennials, 40–120 cm; runner roots. Stems single, erect, ± arachnoid-tomentose; branches 0 or few, ascending. Leaves oblong to broadly lanceolate, 20–40 × 4–8 cm, finely spinulose-dentate or proximal cauline pinnatifid, lobes undivided, finely spinulose-dentate, main spines 1–2 mm, abaxial faces white-tomentose (with non-septate trichomes), adaxial glabrous; basal present at flowering, petiolate, bases tapered; cauline sessile, reduced distally, bases clasping, not decurrent; distal (few, well separated), oblong or linear, the uppermost reduced to linear bracts. Heads borne singly or less commonly 2–5 in terminal clusters. Peduncles 2–10(–30) cm (elevated above distal leaves). Involucres broadly ovoid, 2–3 × 2–3.5 cm, glabrous or loosely arachnoid. Phyllaries in 8–10 series, imbricate, green, ovate or lanceolate (outer) to linear-lanceolate (inner), abaxial faces with a prominent elongate glutinous ridge, outer and middle tightly appressed, margins entire, apices with ascending, weak spines 0–1 mm; apices of inner phyllaries attenuate, flat. Corollas red-purple, 25–30 mm, tubes 10–23 mm, throats 8–14 mm (noticeably wider than tubes. , lobes 7–10 mm; style tips 4–5 mm. Cypselae light brown, 3–5 mm, bodies and apical collars concolorous; pappi 20–30 mm. 2n = 34. Flowering summer (Jul–Aug). Fjordlands; 0–50 m; of conservation concern; Greenland; Iceland; Europe; Asia. Cirsium helenioides is one of only two species of the genus that have native populations in the Old World and the flora area. Neither reaches the North American mainland. The conservation status of Cirsium helenioides is not known; it is known in the flora area only from a single fjord and possibly should be considered of conservation concern.	<urn:uuid:4456b6f9-13d0-4277-a218-d04446629e70>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200023670	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.794724	571	2.515625	3
Moose moms abandoning research calves DULUTH — Minnesota moose researchers the past two springs have tried to capture and place radio collars on newborn calves, only to have many of the moose mothers abandon their young. The problem surfaced in 2013, during the first year of a major scientific study to find out why northeastern Minnesota’s moose population, including calf survival, has been crashing in recent years. The situation became so dire last month that officials nearly canceled the entire project. The study is the first ever in Minnesota to look so closely at calves, and the first worldwide using real-time GPS devices to track the calves for their first year. Another study underway has expanded research into why adult Minnesota moose are dying. Last year, researchers placed GPS transmitters on 49 calves. Crews in helicopters homed in on the GPS-collared cows, landed and found the newborn calf. They weighed the young, took blood samples and body temperature readings, in addition to attaching the GPS collar. “It was all done in matter of minutes and we were out of there,’’ said Glen DelGiudice, lead moose researcher for the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources and head of the calf project. Despite efforts to move quickly, however, nine of the 49 – more than 18 percent of the GPS-collared calves – were abandoned and left to die. Flight, not fight Most of the cows would run away when crews approached. Some returned as if nothing had occurred and resumed nursing the calf. But some cows never came back, even after crews left the woods. Others returned to the calf or twin claves multiple times but then ultimately left for good. Researchers saw it all because both mother and calf were transmitting their locations. “We just didn’t understand what was going on, why they would come back but then leave again,’’ DelGiudice said. “We knew there would be some (abandonment) but there’s no research on anything like this. Nobody had real data on what we were seeing.” In past studies in Alaska, for example, crews sometimes had to fend off aggressive cow moose that were trying to protect their calves. In Minnesota, the cows are almost always running away, and some are staying away. The Minnesota team figured that researchers in past studies, who didn’t have real time data to confirm if abandonment occurred, may have drastically underestimated the frequency with which cows left their young. Over the winter, DelGiudice and other Minnesota researchers tried to figure out what had gone wrong. They compared data on both mother and young involved in abandonments and those that stayed together. They found no biological or circumstantial differences. They consulted with moose experts in Canada and Sweden and came up with a new plan for this spring’s effort: Ditch the helicopter. “We really thought that would solve the problem; if we went in on foot and didn’t have that added disturbance of having the helicopter involved,’’ DelGiudice said. “Nobody said before, ‘Don’t use a helicopter.’ But that’s sort of what we boiled it down to after the fact.” But they were wrong. When cow moose began to give birth early last month, crews drove back roads in trucks and used GPS to home in on the new mothers, waiting 48 hours or so for the pair to bond before they walked in. But they ended up with the same problem. By May 15, a dozen calves had been collared and seven had already been abandoned. Five of the nine cows involved had walked away from their newborns and ultimately didn’t return. DelGiudice ordered the entire project stopped. “As of May 15, I was going to pull the plug. That would have been the end of our calf research project,’’ DelGiudice said Thursday. One last try DelGiudice came up with one more idea. He would shrink the work crew down to just two people “and instead of getting a blood sample and weight and rectal temperature, all we did was put the collar on and get out … less than 60 seconds,’’ he said, figuring the reduced disturbance and minimal handling time would bring cows back to their calves. That strategy appears to have worked. Since the study started up again May 21, 10 calves have been collared, with eight cows involved, and none of the calves has been abandoned. It’s not the 50 calves researchers had hoped to follow for the next year, to see how many survive and how many perish, but 11 was better than none, DelGiudice noted. Already, one of the 11 calves has been eaten by wolves. But early indications are that this year’s calf crop is doing better than last year, when all but nine calves were dead by winter. Collars were removed or were programed to fall off those remaining nine calves over the winter. Eleven “is a small sample size. But we think we now have a way to do this,” DelGiudice said, noting that funding for 50 calf collars already has been approved for 2015. “We’re not getting all the information we had hoped to. … But having the collars on them is by far the most important thing.” In the meantime, six of the seven abandoned calves this year were captured and taken to the Minnesota Zoo in Apple Valley. The seventh perished before crews could find it. Last year, all of the abandoned calves died in the woods. “We don’t want to see any capture-related mortality. But we know there is going to be some and we have to look at the bigger picture. We need to find out what’s wrong with the moose situation here,’’ DelGiudice said. Brent Patterson, field researcher and moose expert for the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, said he’s seen similar reaction by some Ontario moose, but not all. Cow moose in Algonquin Provincial Park are very defensive of their calves, he said, but those just outside the park did occasionally leave and did not come back. “In Algonquin, we had zero abandonment, it just didn’t happen. We had a hard time collaring calves the cows were so aggressive,’’ Patterson said. “But outside the park, we had some of the same issues Minnesota is having. ... We really don’t know for sure why it happens.” Patterson said the only differences between the two, geographically close populations are that moose in the park are never hunted, but they also had more predation, namely wolves, than the moose outside the park. It’s also not clear why some moose abandon calves that have been collared while abandonment is almost unheard of among fawn deer that are handled and collared. “The only thing we can say is that keeping that disturbance to a minimum and the handling time as short as possible seems to be the difference. But we don’t know why,’’ he said. Ron Moen, moose researcher for the Natural Resources Research Institute at the University of Minnesota Duluth, said GPS tracking of cows that were not approached by people showed they rarely strayed more than a few yards from the calving site. “It just didn’t happen,’’ he said. “It’s amazing how they held tight.” He said the abandonment rate in Minnesota “was a surprise. It’s a mystery to us. You’d think that the maternal bond would be so strong that the cows would stay, or at least come back,’’ Moen said. Minnesota moose decline Northeastern Minnesota’s moose population has dropped to an estimated 4,000 or fewer animals, less than half the estimated 9,000 moose in 2006. Scientists say moose may be the victims of multiple problems, including warmer temperatures, increased parasites like ticks and brain worm, heightened predation by wolves, a decline of prime habitat and other factors. The situation became so bleak by 2013 that the DNR canceled the state’s long-running moose hunting season and began two major research projects to find out what was wrong. In addition to the calf study, another team of researchers is watching about 100 GPS-collared adult moose. Researchers want to know where they go to eat, sleep, give birth and, especially, where and when they die, and why. Crews are homing in on dead moose within hours to recover the bodies for lab tests before predators and scavengers eat the evidence. Data so far shows that 21 percent of adult moose are dying in the first year they are collared. Moreover, 74 percent of the calves fitted with radio collars perished in the first year, most in the first few months. That's considered far too low a survival rate to sustain a viable population. “The good news is that, so far this year, we’re seeing better survival for both the adults and the calves we have collared,” DelGiudice said. “It’s still early, and we really don’t know why … but, even though it was a tougher winter, we’re seeing less natural mortality.”	<urn:uuid:4b720dc5-27fd-4b46-948d-a4ee8747a157>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dl-online.com/content/moose-moms-abandoning-research-calves	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977014	1,992	2.984375	3
“Mommy, what does mere mean?” a friend’s four-year-old asked, puzzled by a sentence — “Mere minutes later” — in the Superman comic he was looking at. He didn’t recognize mere as a number, and he couldn’t figure it out by himself. But his question revealed that this preschooler had learned to read. Most children learn to read later, in school, gaining fluency and confidence in the primary grades. A few, however, enter kindergarten having already figured out the magic of letters, sounds, and words, or else they pick up the skill so quickly that by the end of kindergarten they are ready for longer books with chapters. These are early expert readers. Like my friend with his Superman comic, some learn to read on their own, while others are taught by parents, babysitters, or older sisters and brothers. But however they gain the skill, early expert readers are fluent long before their peers, and they present a challenge for parents, teachers, and librarians. They are capable of the decoding needed for reading chapter books but not yet ready for the content of many books written for children years older. They need books that will appeal to their particular level of emotional and social development while employing their reading skills and satisfying their desire for longer stories. As Charlotte Huck wrote in her seminal work Children’s Literature in the Elementary School, “Children of varying academic abilities are more alike than different in the character of their reading interests.” Children from four to seven years of age are interested in their own world and curious about the way things work, but they are primarily egocentric and just beginning to form empathy. While starting to assert their independence, they seek warmth and security in relationships with family and with others outside the family. The world of fantasy is very real to them. Their sense of right and wrong is absolute: bad will be punished, good rewarded. Their sense of humor is taking shape. One example of a chapter book that meets early expert readers at their developmental level is Little Pear by Eleanor Frances Lattimore, originally published in 1931. Little Pear, a five-year-old boy growing up in a small village in China, is the center of each episode. He is well loved by family and friends, and when he ventures out in the village and even beyond, the world he encounters is a safe one. Some of his escapades would be disastrous if not for the help he receives from strangers: the tall man on the road carries him on his shoulders to the city, feeds him dumplings, and sends him home in a horse cart; the family in the houseboat fishes him out of the river and dries him off when he slips off the riverbank. All of his naughtiness ends with easy solutions and his parents’ quick forgiveness. Realistic children and everyday adventures characterize books such as Maud Hart Lovelace’s Betsy-Tacy, Eleanor Estes’s The Moffats, Laura Ingalls Wilder’s Little House in the Big Woods, and Beverly Cleary’s books about Henry Huggins and Ramona Quimby. First published more than fifty years ago, in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, these books suggest a protective view of childhood and convey a sense of innocence: a safe world populated with helpful, kind adults; loving families; adventures that end well. The child is at the center of it all. Curiosity gets him into scrapes, but never into real danger. The episodic format of most of these books is ideal because early expert readers have not yet developed a long attention span. The plots move from beginning to end in a clear, linear progression, with few changes in time, such as flashbacks or prologues. Likewise, there are few changes in voice or point of view. Friends and family, humor, a safe world where risks end well and mischief is seldom dangerous: these are the story elements that early expert readers enjoy. In contrast, consider The Crow-Girl by Bodil Bredsdorff. Originally written in Danish, this chapter book was named a 2005 Batchelder Honor Book for outstanding translation, and it is a beautiful story. The format, length, and vocabulary of The Crow-Girl make it accessible to early expert readers, but the content is much too dark. In the opening chapter, the Crow-Girl’s grandmother prepares her to recognize death. “If I’m lying here completely still one day and don’t answer you, take my hand and feel it. If it’s cold and stiff and you can’t move it, it will be because I’m dead.” After her grandmother’s death, the child journeys into a world that is decidedly not safe. Resilience, generosity, and friendship, however, carry the story to a satisfying conclusion, and I recommend this enthusiastically in the middle grades. But it is not appropriate for fluent five-, six-, and seven-year-olds. The Hundred Dresses by Eleanor Estes, with its square format and plentiful watercolor illustrations, seems at first glance to be appropriate for this audience. Both the theme and the style of writing, however, make it too sophisticated for very young readers. Told in the third person from the point of view of Maddie, the quiet follower, the story is driven primarily by guilt. The narrative begins after the key events have taken place — after alpha girl Peggy has taunted and ridiculed outsider Wanda Petronski, with her one dress and her immigrant’s name. Much of the emotional power of the book derives from inferences that the reader needs to make about the characters, relationships, and emotions. For example, the girls describe their teasing of Wanda as having “fun with her”; the teasing is designed to ridicule Wanda, and the use of the word fun is ironic. Throughout the book Maddie, Peggy’s reluctant sidekick, tries to convince herself that no harm is being done: “Anyway, they never made her cry.” Wanda ultimately rewards her tormentors with pictures of themselves and, as Maddie struggles to believe that Wanda’s generosity cancels their meanness, we are left to wonder if anyone has recognized and admitted the girls’ acts of cruelty — perhaps only the reader. The use of irony and inference puts this classic children’s book beyond the reach of an early expert reader. Annie Barrows’s Ivy and Bean and sequels present a much more straightforward picture of friendship. Talkative Bean and quiet Ivy prove to be a perfect combination. Like Lovelace’s Betsy, Tacy, and Tib, Ivy and Bean have a joyful connection, rich in shared fantasies and outrageous schemes. Their adventures are funny, mischievous, and never dangerous. In The Year of the Dog by Grace Lin, friendship is one of several themes. During the Chinese calendar year of the dog, Pacy, a Taiwanese American, asks important questions: how can I find a best friend, what am I good at; and how can I be both Taiwanese and American? Her mother answers with family stories, often funny and surprising, always comforting. Pacy is at the center of the book, surrounded by a loving family, with her mother’s stories connecting her to her family and heritage. Two other books rich in family and traditions are Wilder’s Little House in the Big Woods and Louise Erdrich’s The Birchbark House. Wilder’s book, the first in a series of nine, chronicles the life of a pioneer family in a log house in Wisconsin in the 1870s. The series continues as the family grows and moves further west, traveling by covered wagon. In Little House in the Big Woods Laura and Mary are very young children, making this book especially appropriate for early expert readers. Written as a straightforward third-person narrative, the story is linear and episodic. Laura’s world is the cabin and the woods around it, with occasional visits with cousins and neighbors. The details of pioneer life — hunting and farming, cooking, making butter and maple syrup—are all seen from Laura’s perspective. There are dangers such as wolves and bears, but the little house is always a safe place: “She was safe inside the solid log walls . . . All around the house was a crooked rail fence, to keep the bears and the deer away.” Most of all, Laura has Ma and Pa to protect her, and they are capable, caring, and constant. The days always end with Laura and Mary tucked in their beds, Ma and Pa by the fire, music from Pa’s fiddle filling the house. Later in the series, calamities and hardships occur, such as Mary’s blindness and the terrible winter of hunger and endless blizzards. But the themes in the first book are safety, security, and the permanence of family. The Birchbark House by Louise Erdrich, a National Book Award finalist, parallels the Little House books, focusing on an Ojibwe family living on an island in Lake Superior in 1847. Even the illustrations are similar: detailed pencil sketches drawn with warmth and humor. Omakayas’s family is strong and loving; daily life is punctuated with humor and the wisdom of the grandmother and others in the community. As the year passes, details and traditions of Ojibwe life are woven into the story in a fashion similar to the descriptions in the Wilder book. Perhaps it is because of these similarities that the difference between the two books is so striking. The Birchbark House is a book about danger and the impossibility of escape. White people, or chimookoman, moving westward threaten the Ojibwe way of life. The book’s two-page preface begins: “The only person left alive on the island was a baby girl.” This baby is beautifully dressed and clearly loved, but “the family who had loved her was gone. All of the fires in the village were cold. The dead lay sadly in blankets, curled as though sleeping. Smallpox had killed them all.” Later, when smallpox strikes again, scarring a lovely older sister and taking the lives of many others, seven-year-old Omakayas must play a role far beyond her years. I enthusiastically recommend The Birchbark House to children in the middle grades and older for its craft, its history, and the emotional power of story. But rather than safety and security, its themes are vulnerability and resilience. The stark descriptions of disease, death, and the pain of loss make this inappropriate for young children. Fortunately, of course, many other chapter books are appropriate, and they don’t need to be entirely free of conflict or difficulties. In Winnie Dancing on Her Own by Jennifer Richard Jacobson, for instance, Winnie’s friends want her to take ballet with them, but Winnie proves to be terrible at ballet and is miserable at being left out. With help from her supportive father, the third grader learns that friends can have different interests and still be friends. Since the world of fantasy is still quite real for young readers, books that feature toys and animals have great appeal. Toys Go Out by Emily Jenkins relates six adventures of three unusual best friends: a smart toy stingray, a tough toy buffalo, and a third toy simply named Plastic. A clever toad manages to win over the owl who is saving him for a birthday feast in the classic A Toad for Tuesday by Russell E. Erickson. Cleverness and mischief is a winning combination in Lady Lollipop by Dick King-Smith: Lollipop, a smart pig, helps a swineherd teach a spoiled princess a much-needed lesson. Another pig, Mercy Watson, the star of Kate DiCamillo’s series, is inevitably the center of humorous domestic calamities. Specific reader guidance for these early expert readers is not needed for long. Their peers catch up, and within a few years they become indistinguishable from their classmates. But during the first years, reader guidance is crucial. Naturally, we hope early readers will become lifelong readers. The first step is finding satisfying and appropriate books for them in the early primary grades. Titles Discussed Above Annie Barrows Ivy and Bean; illus. by Sophie Blackall (Chronicle, 2006) Bodil Bredsdorff The Crow-Girl; trans. from the Danish by Faith Ingwersen (Farrar, 2004) Kate DiCamillo Mercy Watson to the Rescue; illus. by Chris Van Dusen (Candlewick, 2005) Louise Erdrich The Birchbark House; illus. by the author (Hyperion, 1999) Russell E. Erickson A Toad for Tuesday; illus. by Lawrence Di Fiori (Lothrop/Morrow, 1974) Eleanor Estes The Hundred Dresses; illus. by Louis Slobodkin (Harcourt, 1944) Eleanor Estes The Moffats; illus. by Louis Slobodkin (Harcourt, 1941) Jennifer Richard Jacobson Winnie Dancing on Her Own (Houghton, 2001) Emily Jenkins Toys Go Out; illus. by Paul O. Zelinsky (Schwartz & Wade/Random, 2006) Dick King-Smith Lady Lollipop; illus. by Jill Barton (Candlewick, 2000) Eleanor Frances Lattimore Little Pear; illus. by the author (Harcourt, 1931) Grace Lin The Year of the Dog; illus. by the author (Little, 2006) Maud Hart Lovelace Betsy-Tacy; illus. by Lois Lenski (Crowell, 1940) Laura Ingalls Wilder Little House in the Big Woods; illus. by Garth Williams (Harper, 1932) From the November/December 2008 issue of The Horn Book Magazine.	<urn:uuid:35e05a67-f63c-46e5-8d83-06399d9df55d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.hbook.com/2008/11/choosing-books/horn-book-magazine/safe-passages-makes-good-early-expert-reader-book/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955621	2,922	2.859375	3
2011 National Book Award Winner, The Swerve: How the World Became Modern W. W. Norton & Company ABOUT THE BOOK In the winter of 1417, a short, genial, cannily alert man in his late thirties plucked a very old manuscript off a library shelf, saw with excitement what he had discovered, and ordered that it be copied. The man was Poggio Braccionlini, the greatest book hunter of the Renaissance. His discovery was the last surviving manuscript of an ancient Roman philosophical epic, On the Nature of Things by Lucretius—a beautiful poem of the most dangerous ideas: that the universe functioned without the aid of gods, that religious fear was damaging to human life, and that matter was made up of very small particles in eternal motion, colliding and swerving in new directions. The copying and translation of this ancient book fueled the Renaissance, inspiring artists such as Botticelli and thinkers such as Giordano Bruno; shaped the thought of Galileo and Freud, Darwin and Einstein; and had a revolutionary influence on writers such as Montaigne and Shakespeare and even Thomas Jefferson. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Stephen Greenblatt is John Cogan University Professor of the Humanities at Harvard University. Among his books are Will of the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare, a Finalist for the 2004 National Book Award in Nonfiction and a New York Times best seller, and Hamlet in Purgatory. He holds honorary degrees from Queen Mary College of the University of London and the University of Bucharest.	<urn:uuid:ad2ed69f-1c11-4775-822f-099bfd377a53>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nationalbook.org/nba2011_nf_greenblatt.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935099	320	2.640625	3
On January 24, 1848 James Marshall discovered gold at Sutter's Mill, touching off the California gold rush. Related categories 1 Discovery of Gold John A. Sutter tells about the events leading to the discovery and its effects on his plans for building an empire by supporting the needs of a growing state. The Gold Rush Diary of George Bonniwell Use your mind's eye to visualize the tough journey made by George Bonniwell from his home in Milwaukee to the gold fields of California as you read his diary. Gold Rush! California's Untold Stories This site preserves and supplements four major exhibitions celebrating the gold rush sesquicentennial, at the Oakland Museum of California. In Their Own Words and Images A small collection of letters and photographs from the California Gold Rush. Land of Golden Dreams Online version of the Huntington Library's exhibition of the original manuscripts, drawings, letters, paintings, books, and diaries from the California gold rush decade, 1848-1858. The Maritime Heritage Project Passenger lists of 20,000 immigrants arriving during California's gold rush. The Virtual California Gold Country Travel along "Historic Highway 49" and visit the old mining camps and learn about their history. Last update:August 20, 2015 at 6:24:08 UTC	<urn:uuid:2ee816b7-7f04-4cb0-85fe-31df70668913>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Region/North_America/United_States/West/Gold_Rushes/California	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.906242	271	3.609375	4
If you have kids, you’re going to get the inevitable question: Where did the universe come from? And you’re likely going to take a long pause before trying to present the science of the big bang. Before you head down that path, know this: CERN physicist Tom Whyntie has created a new TED-ED video that explains, in three animated minutes, how the universe began, why it’s expanding, and other basic phenomena that concern cosmologists and particle physicists. Phew. By the time you’re done, you might be eagerly awaiting a where-do-babies-come-from video. That’s hopefully somewhere in TED-ED’s media pipeline too.	<urn:uuid:8617ba01-7748-4afb-b6bb-6847d640bf8a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.openculture.com/2013/04/cern_physicist_explains_origins_of_universe_for_beginners.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.913454	151	2.609375	3
Working with Young Children introduces your students to the fast-growing field of child care services and early childhood education. Your students will develop skills for guiding children effectively while keeping them healthy and safe. Working with Young Children applies child development principles to child care settings. On-site photos enhance the inviting, colorful format. Internet activities are included in every chapter. This text provides current health, safety, and nutrition information. Additional topics include: technology, cultural diversity, family stressors, and child care careers. A much-requested chapter on Child Development Principles and Theories has been added! This chapter contains current information on brain development and features the developmental theories of Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gardner. Cross-Curricular Links and Workplace Links are added to the end-of-chapter activities. Topics include the CDA credential; guidance principles; water play, sand play, and blockbuilding experiences; updated health and nutrition information; and on-the-job applications. Back to top Rent Working with Young Children 6th edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Judy Herr. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Goodheart-Willcox. Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now.	<urn:uuid:ada3015a-574a-4e15-a6f5-2292f5300221>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/working-with-young-children-6th-edition-9781590708132-159070813x	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.923987	279	2.875	3
Water-wasting and uncaring about gels, shampoos and soap going down the plughole: that's how the British emerge from a survey on showering habits of western Europeans. Women in Britain are particularly guilty of wasting shower water and not caring about contaminants, says the report for the Royal Society of Chemistry. But men in Britain have little to be proud of because they don't care about what they wash down the drain. The most glaring contrast in the survey shows that only 35% of British men give thought to contaminants compared nearly two-thirds of Spanish women who do care about them. The French and Spanish emerge most commendably from the survey, demonstrating greater restraint in water conservation and concern about washing contaminants into the water system. Adults in Western Europe are most likely to shower for between two and five minutes, indicates the report, conducted by Ipsos MORI. The opinion research company carried out the survey as part of the Royal Society of Chemistry's current campaigning on water supply and quality internationally. Respondents in Great Britain, France, Germany and Spain were asked how long they typically ran the water for when taking a shower. Overall adults in France and Spain showed the highest level of concern for contaminants that are washed away during showering, with a higher proportion very or fairly concerned than in Britain or Germany. They were asked how concerned they were about contaminants from gels, soaps and shampoos that are washed into the water system. The recent RSC report Sustainable Water highlighted the need for research into the effects of flushing contaminants down the drain into the sewage system. Richard Pike, chief executive of the Royal Society of Chemistry, said today: "It's an embarrassment that the British appear to be a right shower when it comes to caring about water. We are an island surrounded by water and criss-crossed by rivers but also highly and densely populated. "We must not wait until the 59th minute before we tackle impending environmental disasters. Are we so short-sighted that we act only when the consequences are already upon us? "We have to take on board the critical message that water is a precious resource and in the years to come it is going to become increasingly scarce. We can save water massively by using less when washing, without compromising hygiene. "One should be able to shower thoroughly in a couple of minutes; we hear stories of people staying in the shower for half an hour at a time, which is absurd and self-indulgent. They say that it helps them relax. "Well, if we had a population of five million and not 60 million such self-indulgence might be tolerable. "But today, with the world facing water shortages, that simply doesn't wash." \|Contact: Brian Emsley\| Royal Society of Chemistry	<urn:uuid:923ac814-fc7c-4bae-b323-2d53e2e25a8c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news-1/British-showers-most-wasteful-and-inconsiderate-in-Western-Europe-23915-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958339	582	2.765625	3

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