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It may be one of the most important sites in automotive history-the home of the first moving assembly line and the place where workers first were offered $5-a-day wages-but today, there are few signs to show the significance of the old Ford (NYSE:F) plant in the struggling Detroit suburb Highland Park beyond the Model T name on an adjacent shopping center. That could change if a Motor City community and economic development group has its way. The Woodward Avenue Action Association, known as WA3, is launching a new crowdsource fundraiser intended to not only save the historic factory but possibly help turn it into a tourist and learning center, which is among the options under study for the building's future. WA3's new crowdsourcing campaign is an initially modest one. The group needs $550,000 to acquire several of the remaining buildings on the property. It has already received more than $400,000 in grants and now hopes to raise another $125,000 to secure the purchase. (More from The Detroit Bureau: Is Cadillac's Elmiraj real or illusion?) Eventually, organizers say, they will need still more cash to begin restoration and renovation. Designed by legendary architect Albert Kahn and once known as the Crystal Palace because of its large windows and abundant natural light, the Highland Park Assembly Plant was actually the third Ford Motor factory and the second to produce the Model T. But with huge demand for his "Tin Lizzie," Henry Ford desperately needed to increase production. (More from The Detroit Bureau: Tesla Model S gets best-ever crash safety rating) He also needed to ensure a reliable source of labor at a time when workers routinely quit because of the grueling demands of the automotive assembly line. That led the industry pioneer to begin offering $5-a-day wages. But Ford had another motive in mind. It also created a new class of increasingly affluent customers who he rightly assumed would also buy the Model T rather than taking the streetcar to work. The factory first opened in 1910 but Ford continued to struggle with booming demand for the little car. He came up with an idea reverse engineered from the slaughterhouses of the Midwest where carcasses where pushed along a conveyor, each worker hacking off a specific slice of meat. Highland Park began pulling partially assembled Model T bodies along a conveyor-initially by rope-workers at each station assigned to complete a specific task. (More from The Detroit Bureau: Happy Birthday, Dear Henry. Ford founder would turn 150) The move helped Ford steadily reduce production costs, dropping the price of the flivver from $800, when it was first introduced, to just $300 by the end of its run. The plant's taxes and jobs helped turn the surrounding community into one of the most affluent in the country, but despite its original breakthroughs, the multistory plant grew increasingly outdated and what was once described as "the factory that changed the world" was largely abandoned by the late 1920s as Ford Motor opened its even more massive factory complex along Detroit's Rouge River. Some component and tractor assembly operations continued for a while but the plant has largely been abandoned, with some portions surviving as a company storage depot, and a section as a clothing warehouse. The surrounding suburb has also faded away and is now under emergency financial management. (Read more: China helps drive the Ford Focus to No. 1 spot ) Despite being added to the National Historic Landmark registry in 1978, there have been concerns the old Model T plant could suffer the same fate as so many other once-prosperous Detroit factories-such as the Packard plant a few miles away that has been steadily collapsing, the prospects of saving it growing increasingly dim. The "$5 A Day" campaign has a deadline of Sept. 19 to complete the initial financing package. It could prove especially appropriate as that deadline comes just weeks before the 100th anniversary of the moving assembly line which, a statement from Ford noted, began operating on Oct. 7, 1913, "creating and defining the industrial age." Those who want to donate to the $5 A Day campaign can call 248-288-2004 or visit www.woodwardavenue.org. More From CNBC - One college student rides the Tesla stock wave - Three things that could slow down Tesla - Musk: Tired but optimistic about Tesla's future - Society & Culture - Henry Ford	<urn:uuid:f10d8dbf-905a-44e3-847f-0e48e16e66fd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://finance.yahoo.com/news/crowdsourcing-save-historic-ford-model-150426264.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96644	908	2.78125	3
Effects of Automobiles on Society This essay attempts to describe the effects of automobiles on society. The history of transportation has undergone a major shift in the twentieth century. Historically, transportation was dominated by the railroads; attention in the recent years, however, has turned to the 20th century modes of freight and passenger movement namely: the automobiles, including cars, trucks and buses. These modes of automobiles present massive opportunities to understand the tremendous need for independent and liberal modes of rapid mobility. The essay also discusses the effects of automobiles on environment, common people and cities asserting that automobiles have revolutionized lifestyles and become an indispensable and basic component of society. It is not possible to attribute the origin of automobile to one person, although its history can successfully be traced back to some major technological developments in Europe. In the United States, Henry Ford and some other prominent pioneer auto makers commenced mass-producing cars and made the industry of automobile as a primary transportation mode. (Cohen, 2003) Automobiles, nowadays, are considered as one of the significant ways for transporting millions of people around the world, particularly in developed countries. Most of the people are dependent on their trucks and cars for travelling to and from their work, to transport goods, to perform distinctive tasks, to visit relatives and friends. The ever increasing number of automobiles produced and sold today has transformed the auto industry into a gigantic global giant. (Berger, 2002) The automobile has made huge impact on different segments of society including shopping centers, motels, theme parks, superhighways, dive-through banking and drive-in restaurants. The enormous spread of automobiles has also created some major complexities including significant increase in vehicle accidents and related death and injuries, noise pollution, more dependence on fossil fuels and the grave need to maintain vast roadway systems. (Cohen, 2003) The advent of automobile had proved a defining moment in the lives of ordinary people. It was a new lifestyle and the beginning of new life. The first automobile powered on steam was invented by Richard Dudgeon, a native to New York. (Elliot, 2006) Prior to the invention of automobiles, the traditional means of transportation were bicycle, horse and streetcars. The innovative invention of automobile made it possible for the common person to live outside major cities with much convenience. More job prospects and opportunities became available as people were able to provide and support themselves with transportation. As such the automobile proved to be an enormous economy boost and uplift for the society. (Armi, 2006) Automobile has become a primary and major foundation of mass transportation in the twenty first century. Everything about our society and culture has developed around this essential form of transportation. Even though, automobile exhausts are extensively polluting the environment and atmosphere, the demand for automobiles is on a continuous rise. With this increase in demand, there is a dire need to search for sufficient petroleum and oil to run automobiles. These resources are limited and a dire need is felt to find enough resources for meeting the future demand of oil and petroleum to run automobiles. (Armi, 2006) For most of the people, especially in developed countries like United States, automobiles are considered as the second most costly expenditure of the citizens, with housing as the first. Some of the factors, which are taken into consideration, while purchasing a car are; price, the style and features of fuel efficiency. Manufacturers of automobiles invest huge amount to establish particular images for certain cars and their endeavors can be rewarded handsomely. (John 2003) The automobile has a significant impact on different aspects of life. With the increased production of automobiles, people demand improvements in the roads. Prior to the advent of automobiles, most of the roads were not paved. It was demanded by the drivers that roads should be paved for the purpose of creating better conditions of driving. The local and state government also formulated regulations to protect citizens and control traffic. In fact a huge development occurred in cities with the increased use of automobile. (John 2003) The effects of automobile on the environment have been massive. Automobiles, from the manufacturing process ultimately to junkyard; consume resources; transform space; and pollute land, water and air. Vast quantities of glass, rubber, plastic and different other materials are required for manufacturing automobiles. Moreover, assembling also requires thousands of vehicles through machine and human labor. (John 2003) The production process of automobiles consumes huge amounts of energy, and factory output ultimately produces its particular array of pollutants. Automobiles, on the roads, are the major consumers of gas and oil, stimulating continuous drilling, refining and transporting of petroleum products for meeting the ever growing demand. Most of the cars having internal combustion engine recurrently dominate automobile momentum, huge amounts of pollution is dispensed by the cars in the form of noise, air emissions, used oil and disposable parts. (Dunn, 2005) Despite its dramatic effect car has been viewed as not only a benefactor but an environmental threat, as a benefit to freedom, liberation and individualism, and as the bane of society. Car is publicized by the enthusiasts as a technical, reliable and practical means of conveyance. It has made scores of places which are more accessible, easier to maintain, cheaper and longer-lived as compared with an urban horse. Automobiles have changed the quality and pattern of transportation in the society. Gas fumes are considered as not worse than coal smoke produced from steam engines as well as manure from horses. The automobiles are also praised by the street sweepers as their job has been made much easier; fewer manure pits and stables; and less manure to pick up. (McShane, 2004) Most of the environmental damage is caused by automobiles as fabricating one car ultimately produces tons of waste and polluted air. Extracting bauxite, iron ore, petroleum lead and different other raw materials are necessary to process steel, plastic, aluminum, rubber, glass and other related products required to manufacture automobiles. They consume limited resources as well as use huge amount of energy, causing grave environmental repercussions. (Curt, 2000) It is still unclear whether the automobiles pollute or has polluted excessively to different forms of manufacturing in the economy. In recent years, manufacturers of automobiles have been held responsible for pollution standards or have endeavored to improve conditions voluntarily, mostly due to the grave concerns found among different segments of society. Although air pollution is the most-discussed and best known environmental effect considered in society, there are some other factors including traffic noise. Traffic noise is not at par in gravity with air pollution, considered as an environmental hazard, is however significant. The automobiles, as in different other cases, did not invent noise pollution. Particularly in and around cities, massive crowds, steam whistles, factory machinery, grinding gears and screeching brakes from streetcars and clanging bells contributed heavily to urban noise. (Dunn, 2005) However the massive volume of automobiles has added a particular new dimension to the noise pollution. Although, mostly cars can be blamed for causing noise pollution, the buses, motorcycles and trucks are also contributors of noise pollution. The noise pollution can produce everlasting damage to health. It may also increase stress and ultimately can result in hearing loss. Automobiles indirectly contribute to visual intrusion or visual pollution. The entire automobile infrastructure- paved over highways; landscapes for roads; parking lots; service stations; car washes, strip shopping centers; signs; billboards and different other types of advertisements or promotions- assault the distinctive aesthetic sense of many people. (Curt, 2000) In the later half of twentieth century, both sexes-male and female- have become more similar in their usage and access to cars. This convergence of attitude suggests more about specific actions executed by women to acquire parity. Women, since later half of twentieth century, have insisted on equal access, particularly to automobiles. The main reason for this claim of parity is the increasing volume of dual-income families. The dual-income in family has enabled to afford more than two vehicles. (Dunn, 2005) It is a common phenomenon in most of the developed countries that each generation of young women, regardless of race, class or ethnic affiliation is involved in driving as automobiles have become an integral part of life’s expectations. Moreover, as the automobile society matures, there is increasing number of older people who continue to drive unless safety issues and health problems intervenes. More women are making journeys and travelling more miles. One of the major elements influencing the increasing demand of automobiles, particularly cars, is income. Although income is not the only influence that shapes the norms of modern society, it seems that it is the dominant factor. Ethnic and racial differences reveal certain variations in the propensity of people either to access automobiles or to drive. An aging and multicultural society cannot anticipate a universal gender standard, although the white middle-class female in United States has remained a role model in the recent past. (Dunn, 2005) The automobiles have transformed cities and reshaped the landscape of nations. The transformation of the cities by automobiles was in fact a twentieth-century phenomenon, built upon the effect of transportation technology. The emergence of a private mass transportation technology has effectively replaced public mass transportation technology, offering owners of car the flexibility to “shop, work and enjoy recreation”. (David, 2002) Although there had been a congestion in major cities from the confluence of carriages, horses, streetcars and bicycles prior to the advent of automobiles, the impact of automobile on cities is not profound and unique. This phenomenon simply reconfirms that the specific transportation technology has always remained a robust force in the making and remaking of major cities. But since World War II, cars have mostly shaped cities, particularly of developed countries and also their suburbs to a huge extent. (Chafe, 2004) Automobiles, especially cars, have not only replaced rail service and great deal of pedestrianism, but they also strongly influence growth of inner-city in areas lacking any type of transportation service. Rails in the past had connected different urban cores directly with their periphery prior to the invention of automobiles, but in a distinctive manner. Streets of the cities, in the past, had generally followed the general patterns of the streetcars as well as transportation routes and ways before them, but it was just a matter of time before automobiles, especially cars, outgrew the ultimate limits of the old routes. The acquisition of automobile is considered as acquiring liberty of movement; having overall access, under all circumstances, to different places which are mostly not accessed in an appreciable manner by public transport. This freedom of movement also maintains a sophisticated and desirable link with the countryside; being capable to go off for a weekend; and transporting elderly or small children. (John, 2003) Automobiles have played a vital role in the location of most of the human activities, particularly dictating work and residence. Moreover, vacant land is connected by the roads and streets. The accessibility extended by automobiles have benefited people in every walk of life including; bankers, landlords, contractors retailers and a wide array of consumers. Modern cities in particular bear a robust physical impression of automobiles and different other motorized vehicles. A vast area of land is dedicated to roads and streets, parking lots, driveways, stations, traffic signs, signals, car dealerships, automobile-oriented business and more, ultimately influencing every segment of society. (David, 2002) It is concluded from the arguments and presentations made in the paper that automobiles have become an integral part of society. Automobiles have influenced every segment of society effecting and shaping the today’s world. The evolving ‘automobile society’ of twentieth-century world resulted in liberty and freedom, not only on a single type of transportation, but also on petroleum, evolution of new suburban and urban forms, huge commercial development and engulfing pollution. The dependence and auto usage have significantly increased, especially in women and older people. The automobiles have influenced the public life to a huge extent, extending the overall boundaries of cities on a pace and scale which is not experienced before. Although, transportation of different types continuously play a main role in extending the borders of urban areas, the automobile has successfully extended them to a large extent. People, not only in cities, but in suburbs have become absolutely dependent, particularly on car for shopping, work, recreation and obtaining services. Armi, E. (2006) The Art of America Automobile Design. University Park: Pennsylvania State Berger, M. (2002) The Devil Wagon in God’s Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America. Hamden, CT: Archon Books. Chafe, W. (2004) The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II. New York: Oxford University Press. (Sixth edition) Cohen, L (2003) A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York. Random House Curt, M (2000) Coast to Coast by Automobile: The Pioneering Trips. Stanford, CA : Stanford David L (2002) The Automobile and American Culture. University of Michigan Press Dunn, J (2005) The Automobile, its Enemies and the Politics of Mobility. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Elliot, S (2006) The Roaring 1920’s: The Effects of the Automobile on American Life. Associated Content. Retrieved from John A. (2003) Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age. Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University Press McShane, C (2004) Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City. New York: Columbia University Press. (3rd ed) Do you need a reseach paper on this or similar topic? Order custom research paper	<urn:uuid:5a596bc9-5be3-4416-9178-96679354fb08>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.customresearchcenter.com/samples/effects-of-automobiles-on-society.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.951114	2,824	3.09375	3
Economics and Morality Finance & Development, Economists may prefer to be value neutral, but many critics find fault in the relationship between economics and virtue ECONOMISTS prefer to sidestep moral issues. They like to say they study trade-offs and incentives and interactions, leaving value judgments to the political process and society. But moral judgments aren’t willing to sidestep economics. Critiques of the relationship between economics and moral virtue can be grouped under three main headings: To what extent does ordinary economic life hold a capacity for virtue? Is economic analysis overstepping its bounds into zones of behavior that should be preserved from economics? Does the study of economics itself discourage moral behavior? Capacity for virtue After a rough day at work, or when the bills come due, many of us feel what Henry David Thoreau meant when he wrote in 1854: “The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation.” Indeed, philosophers since the time of Aristotle have drawn a line separating economic life from a life that is virtuous or well lived. For example, Aristotle wrote in the Nicomachean Ethics, “The life of money-making is one undertaken under compulsion, and wealth is evidently not the good we are seeking; for it is merely useful and for the sake of something else.” These philosophers note that people often work only to earn money for such necessities as food, shelter, and clothing. In contrast, they point to a range of freely chosen human activities that are better aligned with virtuous behavior: love and friendship, art and music, bravery in war, participation in the community, healing the sick, helping the poor, and so on. But the compulsions and necessities of work life have other aspects, too. Thoreau’s friend and fellow Transcendentalist philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson said in 1844: “[W]hether thy work be fine or coarse, planting corn, or writing epics, so only it be honest work, done to thine own approbation, it shall earn a reward to the senses as well as to the thought: no matter, how often defeated, you are born to victory. The reward of a thing well done is to have done it.” Do the job well, whether serving fast food to hungry customers, driving a cab, cleaning a hotel room, pouring concrete for road building, organizing an off-site miniconference for the office, or anything else. The work may be for pay, but in this view, honest work done well offers compensation beyond money. Indeed, an alternative philosophical tradition about the relationship between economic life and moral virtue, with roots in the work of John Locke and explicitly opposed to the Aristotelian tradition, views work and economic activity not as the grim and amoral drudgery of wage slavery and money making, but as a way individual humans relate to the world around them and shape themselves. Andrzej Rapaczynski (2013) described this perspective: “[W]hat labor produces is not just goods or commodities, but the very autonomous human beings who now live the lives they themselves design and determine. Thus, labor, which is at the basis of economic life, far from enslaving those who engage in it, is the prime expression of human creativity, a true production of new reality governed by human intellect and imagination, in which we can recognize and shape ourselves in accordance with our own will.” While art, literature, and music, because of their “particularly sophisticated nature . . . may be more clearly recognizable as the primary artifacts of human culture . . . their place in human life is not in principle different from the other objects we produce both to consume and to define the fundamental conditions of our own existence,” the professor of law and philosophy wrote. In a similar spirit, modern economist-philosophers have compiled a list of virtues that can be intrinsic within market behavior. Deirdre McCloskey (2006) wrote of seven virtues of middle-class economic life: love (benevolence and friendship), faith (integrity), hope (entrepreneurship), courage (endurance and perseverance), temperance (restraint and humility), prudence (know-how and foresight), and justice (social balance and honesty). Similarly, Luigino Bruni and Robert Sugden (2013) have suggested that participation in work and commerce is congruent with such virtues as self-help, enterprise and alertness, trust and trustworthiness, respect for the wishes of others, and perceiving others as potential partners in a mutually beneficial transaction. The “dismal science” is the most prominent verbal hand grenade lobbed at economics. But economists who know the history of the wisecrack wear it as a badge of honor. In an 1849 essay, the historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote that the subject of political economy was “a dreary, desolate, and indeed quite abject and distressing one; what we might call, by way of eminence, the dismal science.” But Carlyle’s essay, titled “Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question,” is an argument that poor black laborers in the West Indies suffer from “the vices of indolence and insolence.” For them to achieve virtue, he argued, the “idle Black man in the West Indies” should “be compelled to work as he was fit.” Carlyle wasn’t only a racist. He believed that poor people around the world of all races “the whitest alike and the blackest” should experience “the divine right of being compelled (if ‘permitted’ will not answer) to do what work they are appointed for. In short, Carlyle called economics a dismal science because it was built on ideas like “letting men alone” and “ballot-boxes,” or what we would call personal freedom and democracy. John Stuart Mill, the economist and political philosopher, published a scathing critique of Carlyle’s essay in 1850. Mill pointed out that the rich often oppressed the poor and that when the actions and attitudes of the poor seemed uncooperative or dysfunctional, it stemmed from the negative incentives caused by oppression rather than any defect of character. Mill ended with this thought: “Though we cannot extirpate all pain, we can, if we are sufficiently determined upon it, abolish all tyranny.” In the actual historical debate over the dismal science, the enlightened economist is the clear-cut winner. Rather than focusing on philosophical abstractions about the moral content of work, consider a prototypical family: parents working, raising some children, friendly with coworkers and neighbors, interacting with extended family, involved with personal interests and their community. It seems haughty and elitist, or perhaps betraying unworldly detachment, to assert that people who work are condemned to live without virtue—unless they can squeeze in a bit of virtuous activity in their spare time. On the other hand, it seems bizarrely and unrealistically high minded to assert that daily work surrounds people every day with transformational opportunities for virtue. A middle ground might be to accept that while moments of grace and opportunities for virtue can occur in all aspects of life, including economic life, the range and variety of opportunities for virtue may vary depending on the characteristics of one’s economic life. Mission creep for economics Even if economic life is not necessarily antithetical to morality and virtue, a related concern is whether the values of economic life may creep outside their appropriate zone. For example, economic values may be useful when growing wheat, making smartphones, shopping for a refrigerator, or saving for retirement. But applying those values in other contexts may seem more dubious—at least to noneconomists who read about a type of “ecotourism” that charges hunters large sums to shoot elderly elephants and lions, ostensibly to elevate local incomes and discourage poaching; companies that buy permits that allow them to emit certain quantities of pollution; or some doctors and economists who advocate paid kidney and blood donors rather than volunteers. At some level, the concern that economics may overstep its bounds is well founded. Even economists agree that it would be immoral to sell a child or enslave a human being. You can’t purchase a true friend. And, as the Beatles sang, “Can’t buy me love.” Most economists don’t act as if monetary value is all that matters: even economists give gifts on special occasions, not just cash. Harvard philosopher Michael Sandel (2013) has been at the forefront of a movement to raise difficult questions about the expansion of economics into other areas. He wrote: “[P]utting a price on every human activity erodes certain moral and civic goods worth caring about. . . . Should sex be up for sale? What about surrogate motherhood, or pregnancy for pay? Is there anything wrong with mercenary armies, and if so, how should military service be allocated? Should universities sell some seats in the freshman class in order to raise money for worthy purposes, such as a new library or scholarships for well-qualified students from poor families? Should the United States sell the right to immigrate? What about allowing existing U.S. citizens to sell their citizenship to foreigners and swap places with them? Should we allow a free market in babies up for adoption? Should people be allowed to sell their votes?” Sandel is a model of philosophical caution. He asks questions, rather than asserting that he has answers, and leaves open the possibility that even if certain moral and civic goals are eroded, in some cases an expanded use of monetary prices may be acceptable. In a similar spirit of inquiry, it’s worth remembering that our sense of what kinds of market transactions are repugnant has shifted over time. Here are some examples from the U.S. context, but other countries have certainly seen similar changes. In 19th century America, buying life insurance was considered a morally unacceptable practice of gambling against God, until it was transformed—by a promotional campaign directed at churches—to become viewed as a prudent way of showing love for family. In early 20th century America, the sale of alcohol was morally unacceptable for 14 years, until the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Until the 1960s, state lotteries were considered immoral in the United States; selling contraceptive products across state lines and even their use at home was illegal in many states. Paying ordinary soldiers a living wage was considered morally unacceptable in the United States until the end of the military draft and the beginning of the all-volunteer force in the 1970s. Allowing in vitro fertilization to be provided as a service in the health care market was highly controversial. Until the 1980s, it was morally unacceptable to allow professional athletes to participate in “amateur” events like the Olympic Games. Paid blood donation is still unacceptable to many Americans. But blood plasma and sperm donors are commonly paid. A woman cannot receive money for donating a kidney, but she can be paid for her eggs or for bearing a child as a surrogate mother. Differences in where the price mechanism is allowed vary considerably across countries: for example, some have legalized prostitution and certain recreational drugs, while others forbid payment of interest on loans. If a price incentive “erodes certain moral and civic goods worth caring about,” as Sandel suggests, then more radical proposals may be worth considering. Perhaps there should be little or no pay for workers in health care, education, social work, or government, because we would not wish to erode the moral virtue of such jobs. Perhaps we shouldn’t pay for recycling or installing energy insulation, because such activities should be undertaken for their environmental virtues rather than monetary reward. Charitable giving should be its own reward, because it would erode civic virtue to publicize donors’ names or reduce their tax bill. These suggestions are meant to provoke discussion, not to be serious proposals. But they do illustrate that economic incentives need not always be viewed as inconsistent with civic and moral virtue. And when we observe society’s shifting attitudes about the morality of certain economic transactions, it is wise to refrain from assuming that today’s boundaries will be the same tomorrow. Indeed, when economic thinking has been expanded to areas outside its traditional scope, the results have often proven fruitful. For example, economists have built on the work of the late Nobel laureate Gary Becker and others to show how economic thinking can explain the dynamics of subjects previously not considered to be economic topics, such as marriage, child rearing, crime, and discrimination against particular groups of people. The idea that the armed forces should attract employees with pay, benefits, and career options, rather than compel service with a draft, is now a mainstream view. So is the notion that environmental problems can be fruitfully addressed by putting a price on pollution—for example, through deposits on cans and bottles, taxes on goods such as gasoline that contribute to pollution, and company purchases and sales of permits for certain pollutants, which provide an incentive to reduce pollution at a lower social cost. It is tempting to seek to build a fence around moral and civic virtues to prevent the encroachment of economic values. But as the United States learned with its attempt to ban alcohol during the early 20th century, economic forces are not easily blocked, and a well-regulated marketplace often proves to be a more pragmatic way of balancing moral and civic values than laws that ban behavior based on moral arguments. A standard complaint about studying economics is that the subject is “all about getting money and being rich.” But this is a straw man argument that misrepresents what economics is about. Even basic introductory economics courses are focused on thinking about how to deal with the trade-offs that are inevitable in a world of scarcity. Such introductory courses discuss supply and demand and markets, of course, but also anticompetitive behavior, pollution, poverty, unemployment, and the pros and cons of globalization and trade. Those with a little more background in economics know that great economists—starting with Adam Smith, in his 1776 classic, The Wealth of Nations—have struggled for more than two centuries with the issues of inequality, fairness, the rule of law, and social welfare. A sophisticated complaint about the study of economics maintains that because the basic economic model posits that people seek their own satisfaction (“maximize utility” is the term of art) and firms seek profits, those who study economics are more likely to morph into people who also believe that selfishness is virtuous. Just to be clear, economists themselves do not argue that greater selfishness is desirable. As Smith wrote in 1759, in his first monumental work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, “[H]ow disagreeable does he appear to be, whose hard and obdurate heart feels for himself only, but is altogether insensible to the happiness or misery of others! . . . and hence it is that to feel much for others and little for ourselves, that to restrain our selfish, and to indulge our benevolent affections, constitutes the perfection of human nature; and can alone produce among mankind that harmony of sentiments and passions in which consists their whole grace and propriety.” Economists can feel unfairly singled out by this complaint. After all, many academic subjects study unsavory aspects of human behavior. Political science, history, psychology, sociology, and literature are often concerned with aggression, obsessiveness, selfishness, and cruelty, not to mention lust, sloth, greed, envy, pride, wrath, and gluttony. But no one seems to fear that students in these other disciplines are on the fast track to becoming sociopaths. Why is economics supposed to be so uniquely corrupting? After all, professional economists run the ideological gamut from far left to far right, which suggests that training in economics is not an ideological straitjacket. Some evidence suggests a link between the study of economics and less cooperative or empathetic behavior, although overall, the research that attempts to link an area of academic study to altered personality traits has not been especially rigorous. For example, a U.S. survey in the early 1990s found that academic economists were more likely to donate nothing to charity than were academics in other fields, although the same study found that the median gift from economists was slightly larger (Frank, Gilovich, and Regan, 1993). A number of studies compare students who have taken economics with those who haven’t. One study surveyed students at Cornell University about how they would react, and how they would expect others to react, if they benefited from a billing error and wound up with 10 computers but had paid for only 9. After taking a class in economic game theory, students were less likely to say that they would report the error and less likely to believe that others would report it (Frank, Gilovich, and Regan, 1993). But another study used a “dropped letter” experiment in which stamped, addressed, unsealed envelopes containing $10 and a brief note were left on the floor before classes in economics and other classes at The George Washington University. More than half the letters left in economics classrooms were sealed and dropped in the mail with the money included; less than a third of those on the floor in other classes were mailed back (Yezer, Goldfarb, and Poppen, 1996). Of course, such comparisons may mean only that economics attracts people who are more likely to react in certain ways, not that the study of economics causes people to act in this way. Indeed, a wave of social science research in the past few decades has confirmed the importance of “framing” or “priming” effects: how a researcher phrases a question or sets up a situation strongly influences the subjects’ reaction. In yet another study, business executives were first given a task of unscrambling 30 sentences, some of which had economics words—like continues, economy, growing, our—while others had words like green, tree, was, a that were unrelated to economics. Next, the executives did role-playing exercises in which they wrote letters to an employee being transferred to another city or being disciplined for lateness. The researchers found that executives who had unscrambled the economics words expressed less compassion in these letters, both because they felt less empathy and because it felt more “unprofessional” to express it (Molinsky, Grant, and Margolis, 2012). What this kind of study illustrates to me is not “beware of studying economics,” but rather “beware of being overly influenced by how questions are framed and by the broader context of decision-making situations.” I have become wary over the years of questions framed in a way that seeks to pit economics against moral virtue in a winner-takes-all brawl. No economist would recommend consulting an economics textbook as a practical source of transcendent moral wisdom. As the recent global economic crisis reminded anyone who needed reminding, economics doesn’t have answers for all of the world’s economic problems. But to be fair, moral philosophers don’t have answers for all the world’s spiritual and ethical problems. In his famous 1890 Principles of Economics textbook, the great economist Alfred Marshall wrote that “economics is the study of people in the everyday business of life.” Economists cannot banish the importance of moral issues in their field of study and should not seek to do so. But when moral philosophers consider topics that touch on the ordinary business of life, they cannot wish away or banish the importance of economics either. ■ Timothy Taylor is Managing Editor of the American Economic Association’s Journal of Economic Perspectives, based at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota. He blogs at http://conversableeconomist.blogspot.com. Bruni, Luigino, and Robert Sugden, 2013, “Reclaiming Virtue Ethics for Economics,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 141–64. Frank, Robert H., Thomas Gilovich, and Dennis T. Regan, 1993, “Does Studying Economics Inhibit Cooperation?” Journal of Economic Perspectives Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 159–71. McCloskey, Deirdre, 2006, The Bourgeois Virtues: Ethics for an Age of Commerce (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). Molinsky, Andrew L., Adam M. Grant, and Joshua D. Margolis, 2012, “The Bedside Manner of Homo Economicus: How and Why Priming an Economic Schema Reduces Compassion,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 119, No. 1, pp. 27–37. Persky, Joseph, 1990, “Retrospectives: A Dismal Romantic,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 165–72. Rapaczynski, Andrzej, 2013, “The Moral Significance of Economic Life,” Capitalism and Society, Vol. 8, No. 2, Article 1. Sandel, Michael J., 2013, “Market Reasoning as Moral Reasoning: Why Economists Should Re-engage with Political Philosophy,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 121–40. Yezer, Anthony M., Robert S. Goldfarb, and Paul J. Poppen, 1996, “Does Studying Economics Discourage Cooperation? Watch What We Do, Not What We Say or How We Play,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 171–86.	<urn:uuid:16d20ffe-54f1-47c4-8f31-c32c74cd1759>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2014/06/taylor.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.951141	4,542	2.90625	3
Myopic children and adults are known to have reduced accommodative responses, nearpoint esophoria, and high AC/A ratios compared with emmetropes (for a review, see reference1). One possible outcome of these abnormal oculomotor factors may be that when these individuals are engaged in near activities, they may experience prolonged periods of hyperopic retinal defocus, which then may produce axial elongation, as has been demonstrated in animal models.2, 3 Although the association of these factors with progressing myopia is well established, less is known about their link, if any, to the onset of myopia. Most of the relevant human data have been obtained at or after myopia onset, with limited premyopic findings, especially from prospective studies. If defocus, or the inability to use defocus cues appropriately, combined with extensive near work, initiates eye growth and myopia in susceptible children, then the abnormal factors should be evident not only during myopia progression, but also some time before its onset. A longitudinal study that tracks both refraction and oculomotor factors such as the one ongoing in our laboratory can address this issue. Results of such a study also may show whether one abnormal factor triggers the cascade of related oculomotor findings or whether they present simultaneously, suggesting an inherent synkinesis. Myopic children have been found to have reduced accommodation (large accommodative lags), whether measured in the laboratory4, 5 or clinically.6, 7 The magnitude of the effect varies with the method used to stimulate accommodation, with larger lags found with accommodation induced with negative lenses than when the target was moved closer.4, 8 The magnitude of the difference in accommodation between myopes and emmetropes also depends on how the data from myopes are grouped. For example, Abbott et al.8 reported that when myopic adults were separated into progressing vs. stable, the progressing myopes had reduced accommodative responses to negative lenses, whereas the stable myopes accommodated as well as emmetropes. However, there were no differences in accommodation when the myopes were grouped by age of onset of myopia (early vs. late). Clinically, reduced accommodation frequently is associated with exophoria at near, and excessive accommodation with near-point esophoria, such as in uncorrected hyperopes. However, two studies of myopic and emmetropic children found that reduced accommodation was associated with near-point esophoria.6, 9 This finding suggests that an esophoric child must relax accommodation to reduce accommodative convergence and thus maintain single binocular vision.6, 9 The reduction in accommodation may produce hyperopic defocus during near work, which could lead to the onset of myopia or progression of extant myopia. The rationale for a recent clinical trial, the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial (COMET), was based in part on the hypothesis that hyperopic retinal defocus resulting from inaccurate accommodation when children are engaged in near work is a stimulus to myopia progression, and that progressive addition lenses may slow progression by providing clear retinal images at distance and near.10 Results showed an overall slowing of 3-year progression of myopia of 0.20 D in 469 children randomized to progressive addition vs. single-vision lenses.10 A follow-up analysis of the COMET data by magnitude of accommodative lag showed that the largest 3-year treatment effect (0.64 D) was found for myopic children with larger accommodative lags in combination with near esophoria.11 In part because near esophoria has been identified as a risk factor for progression of myopia, Fulk and colleagues conducted a clinical trial of 84 myopic children with near esophoria randomized to either bifocals or single-vision lenses.12 Overall, a 0.25-D treatment effect was found, similar in magnitude to other studies that did not limit enrollment by phoria status. The results of these clinical trials suggest that myopic children with both reduced accommodation and near esophoria may benefit more than children with either factor alone from a spectacle lens intervention. Reduced accommodation is associated with elevated AC/A ratios. Children with progressing myopia have been found to have reduced accommodation and slightly enhanced synkinetic convergence responses, the combination of which is manifested in significantly elevated response AC/A ratios compared with emmetropes.9 Elevated response AC/A ratios have been found to be a significant risk factor for the onset of myopia in both adults and children. In a study with a limited number of subjects, AC/A ratios were found to be high in emmetropic young adults before the onset of myopia and during the period when myopia was progressing.13 An elevated response AC/A ratio was reported to be a significant risk factor for the onset of myopia in children,14 although large accommodative lags have not been found to occur before myopia onset in a similar group of children.15 To explain the abnormal oculomotor factors in myopic children, an alternative to the blur hypothesis described here is a model proposed by Mutti et al.14 As the vitreous chamber grows, its equatorial expansion pulls the ciliary body away from the lens, tightening the zonules and flattening the lens. The tension on the lens as it reaches its stretching limit then induces a “pseudocycloplegia” in the myopic eye that results in the underaccommodation and high AC/A ratios of young myopes. In this model, the changes in refraction and accommodation/convergence either occur concomitantly or the abnormal oculomotor factors precede the myopia by only a short time. The purpose of the present study was to investigate accommodation, accommodative convergence, and AC/A ratios before, at, and after the onset of myopia in children to determine whether abnormal oculomotor factors are associated with the development of myopia. A total of 80 subjects ranging in age from 6 to 18 years (mean age at first test session = 11.1 years) participated in the experiment. They were tested at approximately annual intervals over a period of at least 3 years and were part of a longitudinal study of refraction and visual function ongoing in our laboratory for 30 years. All of the subjects were refracted with noncycloplegic distance retinoscopy before each test session. No subject had astigmatism or anisometropia >1.0 D. Mean spherical equivalent refractions for two groups of subjects, one that became myopic by at least -0.50 D in both eyes and one that remained emmetropic (-0.25 to +0.75 D), are shown in Figure 1. All were emmetropic (-0.25 D to +0.75 D) on the first visit, and the mean for each group of subjects was +0.30 D. Over the next 3 years, 26 acquired myopia and 54 remained emmetropic. Refractions were significantly lower in the group that became myopic at all test sessions after the first (p < 0.01). The research followed the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the New England College of Optometry. Informed consent was obtained from the parents and assent from the children after the study was explained to them. The apparatus consisted of a Canon R-1 infrared open field-of-view autorefractor (Canon Europa NV, Amstelveen, The Netherlands) with a motorized Risley prism clamped on the R-1 headrest. The prism was moved laterally to line up with the subject’s eye. Vertical alignment of the subject’s eye with the center of the prism aperture was achieved by adjusting the chinrest on the R-1. The prism was controlled by the child with a bidirectional joystick. Trial frames and lenses were used to correct for the distance refraction taken from the Canon R-1 autorefractor. A Maddox rod was placed in the trial frame before the child’s left eye. An isolated line of five rear-illuminated 20/100 letters was positioned 4.0 m from the subject’s eye as a distant accommodative stimulus. The near accommodative stimulus consisted of another line of five rear-illuminated 20/100 letters mounted on the Canon R-1 at a distance of 0.33 m from the subject’s eye. For phorias measured with the Maddox rod, a point source of light from a penlight was illuminated directly above the letters. The child was positioned in the Canon R-1 wearing a trial frame containing a lens at a forward tilt of 15° (for the autorefractor to take a reading) to correct the refractive error of the right eye. The power of the correcting lens was taken from Canon R-1 autorefractor readings on the right eye viewing the distant target just before accommodation was measured. Because at every visit the best correction was determined before testing, this means that the lens power used for these measurements changed as the refractive error developed. A Maddox rod was placed in the trial frame in front of the left eye. The distant letter target was illuminated first. The child was instructed to keep the letters clear, and when clear, to move the joystick to align the center letter with the vertical red line created by the penlight. When the child indicated that this had occurred, concomitant measurements of phoria and accommodation were taken. The distant target was then extinguished, and the near target, a rear-illuminated array of 20/100 letters, was presented at 0.33 m. Again, the child was instructed to keep the letters clear and to move the joystick to align the vertical red line created by the penlight with the center letter. When this occurred, concomitant measurements of phoria and accommodation were taken. At least three phoria readings and nine accommodation measures were taken for each condition. For accommodation, the spherical equivalent values were summarized using means and standard errors. For phorias, measurements in volts were converted to prism diopters by fitting the data to a third-order polynomial function relating volts to prism diopters. The equation was obtained by calibrating the motorized Risley prism with a laser. Phorias in prism diopters (PD) then were summarized using means and standard errors. For all children, the mean standard deviation of the three phoria measurements was 0.62 PD at far and 0.95 PD at near. Response AC/A ratios were calculated from the accommodation and phoria measurements for each child at every visit using the following formula: Response AC/A ratio = \[(IPD \x NAS) \- (FP \- NP) / NAR \- FAR) where: IPD = interpupillary distance in centimeters = 6.0 NAS = near accommodative stimulus in diopters = 3.0 FP = far phoria in prism diopters NP = near phoria in prism diopters NAR = near accommodative response in diopters FAR = far accommodative response in diopters To calculate stimulus AC/A ratios, the near accommodative stimulus (3.0 D) was used as the denominator in place of measured accommodation. Negative AC/A ratios and extremely large values are most likely produced by a combination of small accommodative responses and noise in the measurements.16 Therefore, negative AC/A ratios and those >20 were eliminated from the statistical analysis, as reported previously.9 T-tests were used to test for differences between refractive groups. Figure 2 shows that accommodation (defined as the difference between far and near like in the denominator of the response AC/A ratio) is less in the group that became myopic at all four times. It is significantly less for this group 2 years before myopia onset (t = 2.69, p = 0.01), when both groups had the same mean refractive error. Accommodation is slightly less in the group that became myopic 1 year before onset (t = 1.87, p = 0.07) and is significantly less in that group at onset (t = 3.68, p < 0.01) and 1 year later (t = 2.22, p < 0.05). Figure 3 shows that accommodative convergence (the numerator of the response AC/A ratio) is slightly greater for children who became myopic at all times, but the difference between refractive groups is statistically significant only at onset (t = -3.14, p < 0.01). Accommodative convergence increased over time in children who became myopic and remained constant in the emmetropic children. Mean near phorias were -0.4 PD (range = -11.8 to 15.3 PD) for myopes and -2.9 PD (range = -14.6 to 8.5 PD) for emmetropes. Mean distance phorias were 3.2 PD (range = -5.5 to 15.0 PD) for myopes and 1.8 (range = -6.0 to 11.5 PD) for emmetropes. The data in Figure 2 (denominator) and Figure 3 (numerator) were used to calculate the distance-induced response AC/A ratios shown in Figure 4. The response AC/A ratios are significantly higher in the group that became myopic at all times: at each of the 2 years before myopia onset, at onset, and 1 year after onset (t’s = -2.97 to -4.04, p < 0.01 at all times). The significantly higher AC/A ratios in the children who became myopic are a result of their reduced accommodation, because accommodative convergence was only significantly greater in myopes at onset. Additional analyses of the data separately from younger and older subjects showed that the results did not differ by age. The distance-induced stimulus AC/A ratios in Figure 5 show the same pattern as accommodative convergence in Figure 3. This is not surprising, because in calculating the stimulus AC/A ratio, the convergence values are divided by a constant (3.0), the stimulus to accommodation. In contrast to the response AC/A ratios in Figure 4, which are significantly higher in the group that became myopic at all points in time, the stimulus AC/A ratios are significantly higher in this group only at onset (t = -3.14, p < 0.01). Although there have been many reports of abnormal oculomotor factors at or after myopia onset, including some from this laboratory,4, 5, 9 the current data are new in showing that higher AC/A ratios and reduced accommodation precede myopia onset by at least 2 years. The significantly decreased accommodation is manifested in significantly elevated response AC/A ratios in myopes 2 years before, at, and after the onset of myopia. Two previously proposed hypotheses, summarized as the blur hypothesis and the ocular growth hypothesis, may account for the observed findings. These two are not mutually exclusive; it is possible that either or both mechanisms could operate in the same eye. In the first hypothesis, blur or the inability to use blur cues appropriately, combined with extensive near work, can initiate myopia in susceptible children.4, 17 In the second, poor accommodation and high AC/A ratios are simply an offshoot of the hypothesized structural growth of the eye slightly before and during myopia progression. The first hypothesis has emerged from consideration of animal experiments (for reviews, see references 2, 3). Emmetropization in early childhood appears to depend on a feedback control mechanism that primarily controls vitreous chamber elongation so as to match axial length with the optical power of the anterior segment to place a relatively clear image on the retina. If this process is disrupted through retinal image degradation, it may lead by default to excessive axial elongation (analogous to mild form-deprivation in animal experiments). If the process is biased by extended periods of hyperopic defocus, like when children underaccommodate for near distances, excessive axial elongation may be guided by the feedback control mechanism. Mutti et al.14 suggested that elevated AC/A ratios found in premyopic children are a transient occurrence reflecting mechanical abnormalities in the lens and choroid that induce a state of “pseudocycloplegia.” Support for this was provided by data showing elevated AC/A ratios in 13 children who became myopic within 1 year.14 However, data were only collected on two occasions 1 year apart, so it is not possible to know when the high AC/A ratios first occurred. The 2-year premyopic period in the present study cannot be considered transient, and it may be that these children had elevated AC/A ratios even earlier. We know from previous work that it is unlikely for the AC/A ratio to be maintained at a high level once a child’s myopia has stabilized,9 consistent with our finding of improved accommodation with stability of myopia.5 If the AC/A ratio is not maintained at a fixed level in school-aged children as their myopia progresses and then stabilizes, it is also unlikely to be static in preschool (and premyopic) children. More research is needed to determine the association of abnormal oculomotor factors and emmetropization in very young children. Two years before the onset of myopia, the subjects in the current study, both those who later became myopic and those who remained emmetropic, had the same mean spherical equivalent refraction (+0.30 D). This is an important control because emmetropia in a young child is a risk factor for myopia.18, 19 The fact that the mean spherical equivalent refractions were the same in the two groups of children 2 years before myopia onset is also important because it means that the same range of low-power lenses was used for testing all subjects at their initial visit. One year before the onset of myopia, the two groups had refractions that were significantly different, which is not surprising. At that time, the myopization process most likely had begun in those children whose refractions later crossed the commonly used but arbitrary cutoff for myopia of -0.50 D.20 In the current study, accommodative convergence increased with time in the children who became myopic. This finding is similar to earlier reports showing that the onset and progression of myopia in children was accompanied by a shift toward more esophoria at near.6, 21 In the present study, the vergence change from far to near most likely includes both accommodative and proximal convergence. The contribution of proximal vergence to the overall vergence output has been shown to be large under open-loop conditions when disparity and defocus are not effective and much smaller under closed loop conditions, which are closer to normal viewing and to the experimental setup of the present study.22 The current data differ slightly (within 0.25 D) from what was published previously by this laboratory with respect to the magnitude of accommodative responses in myopes. Previously, we reported that accommodation for a target at 3.0 D was 1.75 D for myopes and 1.89 D for emmetropes.9 In the current report, mean accommodation in emmetropes is very close to 2.0 D for the 3.0-D demand, similar to the earlier value, whereas for myopes, it is slightly more than 1.5 D, but not quite at 1.75 D. A possible reason for finding less accommodation in myopes in the current analyses is the fact that our previous report likely included some myopes further along in progression and nearing stabilization, whereas the current report only includes progressing myopes around onset. Because it is known that accommodation is poorer in progressing compared with stable myopes, mean accommodation in a group of purely progressing myopes like in the current study would be less than in a group of children at various stages of progression. With respect to premyopic children, an earlier report from this laboratory5 found that of six subjects with refractive errors that changed from emmetropic to myopic, one had a large accommodative lag and five of six showed normal accommodation. As stated in the discussion of that paper, “further tracking studies are needed to clarify this issue.” The current report with a larger number of subjects helps to clarify this issue. It is not surprising that the stimulus AC/A ratio shows the same pattern as accommodative convergence because the stimulus to accommodation, which is the same for all subjects, and not the measured accommodative response, which differs by refractive group, was used in the denominator. Because the stimulus AC/A ratio, which is common in clinical practice, uses only the accommodative convergence response, it will not reveal future myopes. In summary, the current results show that before the onset of myopia, before the need for optical correction, emmetropic children who later became myopic had elevated AC/A ratios and poorer accommodation compared with those who remained emmetropic. The finding of some abnormal oculomotor factors before the development of myopia suggests that they may contribute to myopigenesis by producing hyperopic retinal defocus when a child is engaged in near-viewing tasks. Continued testing of premyopic children is needed to more precisely determine the chronologic coupling of these abnormal oculomotor factors and the development of myopia. This work was supported by NEI/NIH EY01191. The authors thank Alexandra Beale and Jeremy Gwiazda for their help. The New England College of Optometry 424 Beacon Street Boston, Massachusetts 02115 1.Gwiazda J, Marran L. The many facets of the myopic eye: a review of genetic and environmental factors. In: Trends in Optics and Photonics, vol 35. Washington, DC: Optical Society of America, 2000:393–406. 2.Norton TT. Animal models of myopia: learning how vision controls the size of the eye. ILAR J 1999;40:59–77. 3.Wildsoet CF. Active emmetropization—evidence for its existence and ramifications for clinical practice. Ophthal Physiol Opt 1997;17:279–90. 4.Gwiazda J, Thorn F, Bauer J, Held R. Myopic children show insufficient accommodative response to blur. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1993;34:690–4. 5.Gwiazda J, Bauer J, Thorn F, Held R. A dynamic relationship between myopia and blur-driven accommodation in school-aged children. Vision Res 1995;35:1299–304. 6.Goss DA. Clinical accommodation and heterophoria findings preceding juvenile onset of myopia. Optom Vis Sci 1991;68:110–6. 7.Drobe B, de Saint-Andre R. The pre-myopic syndrome. Ophthal Physiol Opt 1995;15:375–8. 8.Abbott ML, Schmid KL, Strang NC. Differences in the accommodation stimulus response curves of adult myopes and emmetropes. Ophthal Physiol Opt 1998;18:13–20. 9.Gwiazda J, Grice K, Thorn F. Response AC/A ratios are elevated in myopic children. Ophthal Physiol Opt 1999;19:173–9. 10.Gwiazda J, Hyman L, Hussein M, Everett D, Norton TT, Kurtz D, Leske MC, Manny R, Marsh-Tootle W, Scheiman M. A randomized clinical trial of progressive addition lenses versus single vision lenses on the progression of myopia in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003;44:1492–500. 11.Gwiazda JE, Hyman L, Norton TT, Hussein ME, Marsh-Tootle W, Manny R, Wang Y, Everett D. Accommodation and related risk factors associated with myopia progression and their interaction with treatment in COMET children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004;45:2143–51. 12.Fulk GW, Cyert LA, Parker DE. A randomized trial of the effect of single-vision vs. bifocal lenses on myopia progression in children with esophoria. Optom Vis Sci 2000;77:395–401. 13.Jiang BC. Parameters of accommodative and vergence systems and the development of late-onset myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1995;36:1737–42. 14.Mutti DO, Jones LA, Moeschberger ML, Zadnik K. AC/A ratio, age, and refractive error in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000;41:2469–78. 15.Mutti DO, Mitchell GL, Jones LA, Hayes JR, Moeschberger ML, Zadnik K. Accommodative lag at the onset of myopia in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004;45:ARVO E-abstract 3514. 16.Ciuffreda KJ, Rosenfield M, Chen HW. The AC/A ratio, age and presbyopia. Ophthal Physiol Opt 1997;17:307–15. 17.Flitcroft DI. A model of the contribution of oculomotor and optical factors to emmetropization and myopia. Vision Res 1998;38:2869–79. 18.Hirsch MJ. Predictability of refraction at age 14 on the basis of testing at age 6—interim report from the Ojai Longitudinal Study of Refraction. Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom 1964;41:567–73. 19.Zadnik K, Mutti DO, Friedman NE, Qualley PA, Jones LA, Qui P, Kim HS, Hsu JC, Moeschberger ML. Ocular predictors of the onset of juvenile myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999;40:1936–43. 20.Thorn F, Gwiazda J, Held R. Myopia progression is specified by a double exponential growth function. Optom Vis Sci 2005;81:286–97. 21.Goss DA, Jackson TW. Clinical findings before the onset of myopia in youth: 3. Heterophoria. Optom Vis Sci 1996;73:269–78. 22.Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ, Rosenfield M. Proximal contribution to a linear static model of accommodation and vergence. Ophthal Physiol Opt 1996;16:31–41.	<urn:uuid:060a5823-a4bf-4fee-ad23-f2009a22563e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://journals.lww.com/optvissci/Fulltext/2005/04000/Accommodation,_Accommodative_Convergence,_and.12.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95034	5,596	2.546875	3
When dogs give us kisses, they aren’t being romantic. Let’s be honest, dogs will lick faces, hands, feet – almost anything they’re allowed access to! So why do canines display this behavior? It’s deeply ingrained in their instincts. It all starts in puppy hood when mother dogs lick their puppies during and immediately after birth to clean them and instinctively stimulate them to take their first breaths. As the puppies grow, their mother continues to lick them to keep them clean and stimulate urination and defecation. As the puppies become more social and mobile, they begin socially grooming each other. This serves as a bonding process between littermates and begins to establish social structure. The pups also lick at their mother’s mouth during the weaning process. This behavior traces back to their wolf ancestors. A female wolf would regurgitate semi-digested meat to feed her hungry brood and this licking would stimulate the meal. Dogs will also lick their lips when they are nervous. Young dogs are more prone to this habit, but will often outgrow it as they gain confidence. Many dogs are often prone to excessive “kissing” of their owner’s face, as it is a submissive behavior. When your dog licks your face, they’re trying to communicate that they see you as “top dog”. So while the roots of doggie kisses may not be very romantic, those licks do show that your dog thinks you’re the leader of his pack! This article was written for Brainz by the dog experts at The Dog Guide.	<urn:uuid:6fd0015b-1848-48ee-a210-12d087b35fb0>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://brainz.org/why-do-dogs-kiss/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.979553	339	2.640625	3
Ancient Inca Mummy had Lung Infection at Time of Sacrificial Death New studies of the 500-year-old mummy of an Incan girl known as "The Maiden" show that the 15-year-old suffered from a lung infection, most likely tuberculosis, at the time of her death. She was discovered in 1999 near the summit of the Argentinian volcano Llullaiaco. According to the Los Angeles Times, past research found that she and two other young children were sacrificed to Pachamama, the earth goddess, in the ritual of Capacocha after being fattened up, their bodies preserved by the freezing temperatures. Like Us on Facebook Now, a study published in PLoS ONE describes a new technique for detecting diseases in mummified remains that helped researchers uncover the health of The Maiden at the time of her death. Testing ancient remains for diseases can be a tricky task due to the possibility of environmental contamination. Techniques based on microbe DNA can tell a researcher if a disease was present, but not necessarily determine whether the person was infected. "Pathogen detection in ancient tissues isn't new, but until now it's been impossible to say whether the infectious agent was latent or active," said Angelique Corthals of the John Jay College of Criminal Justice at City University of New York. "Our study is the first of its kind since rather than looking for the pathogen, which is notoriously difficult to do in historical samples, we are looking at the immune system protein profile of the "patient", which more accurately tells us that there was indeed an infection at the time of death," she said. Corthals and her colleagues at SUNY Stony Brooks swabbed the lips of The Maiden and the 7-year-old boy who died with her and looked not at their DNA, but at the proteins in the samples. This method, called proteomics, allowed them to compare the mummies' protein profiles to a large database of the human genome, where they found that The Maiden showed a similar protein makeup as that of chronic respiratory infection patients. The analysis of the DNA showed the presence of probably pathogenic bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium, responsible for upper respiratory tract infections and tuberculosis. The team also X-rayed the lungs of the mummy and found signs of lung infection. The young boy showed no signs of infection. "What I really wanted to do originally was see where the blood I found on the mummies' clothing and lips came from," Corthals told The Huffington Post. "But we found a whole lot more than we were expecting." © 2012 iScience Times All rights reserved. Do not reproduce without permission.	<urn:uuid:0a8f9a76-33cb-4aef-b8f2-3f78893233b0>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.isciencetimes.com/articles/3529/20120727/ancient-inca-mummy-lung-infection-time-sacrificial.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.97217	552	2.8125	3
Exegesis - What is it? The word "exegesis" is a Greek word that can be literally rendered "to lead out," "to explain," or "to interpret." Not surprisingly, not all biblical scholars agree on the overall purpose of exegesis or what it might look like in practice. Since my hermeneutical framework is predominantly that of a historian, I am most interested in determining authorial intention (what was the writer trying to say) and audience reception (how would the author's intended audience understand what she or he was writing). This is complicated in biblical studies (and many other writings) by the temporal and cultural distance between the modern reader and the ancient text, not to mention the fact that the texts are written in languages in which many of us are not fluent (biblical Hebrew and Koine Greek). In addition, all readers, past and present, have preconceived notions about the meaning of words or texts (especially biblical texts with which they may or may not have some familiarity) and these notions can bias our reading of a particular ancient text. Unfortunately, we cannot fully escape our own personal, cultural, and historic predispositions. Fortunately, we can be attempt to be aware of the influence they have on our readings of a text. The process of "exegesis" helps us read texts by providing tools for working through the text and by raising awareness of the biases that are influencing the way we are reading the text. With this in mind we can offer the following working definition of "exegesis": a systematic process by which a person arrives at a reasonable and coherent sense of the meaning and message of a biblical text. - for all readers: to explain what the text meant for its original writer and audience in its original literary and socio-historical setting. - for readers for whom the text is sacred scripture: to determine what the text means for faith and action in the modern period. - Observation & Interpretation: construct the original meaning of the text in its context - Communication: construct a means to convey this meaning to others (e.g., essay) Theological Outputs (not appropriate in the Religious Studies setting) - Application: determine how the text applies to faith and practice for the believing community today - Proclamation: construct a means to convey this message (e.g., sermon) Academic Output - Observation & Interpretation Observation: "What does the author say?" Begin by reading the text, perhaps a few times - use a good translation; it may help to read a few different types of translations - be sure to take account of the translation methodology - read the larger context of the passage; i.e., the chapter or letter or even the entire book Determine the limits of the passage - where does the writer begin/end the thought / story? Note your specific observations concerning the passage - what key words, images, symbols are used? - where else are key words used by the same writer? By other biblical writers? Outside the Bible? - what characters appear and what are their relationships? - what issues are addressed in the passage? - are there any variant readings noted in the footnotes? - is there a particular literary form (genre) to take note of (e.g., letter; healing; parable)? (=form criticism) - are there any structuring devices used in the text (e.g., parallelism; proofs)? (=rhetorical criticism) - did the passage have a source? do we have access to that source? (=source criticism) - what unique views or emphases does the writer place on the text? (=redaction criticism) - how has the writer used the sources? - what is the writer's life situation or theological outlook? - are there any parallel texts inside or outside of the Bible - what are the socio-cultural codes embedded in the text (e.g., honour/shame)? (=social-scientific criticism) - is there any independent confirmation of the events recorded? (=historical veracity) Ask yourself what cultural assumptions you might be making; e.g., economic, health, family Use exegetical tools (commentaries, dictionaries, atlas, etc.) only when necessary Interpretation: "What did the author mean?" Socio-historical context: What is the author's and audience's situation? - politics; geography; topography; demographics; customs - use a good Bible dictionary, atlas, encyclopedia - for whom was it written? - what issue(s) does the passage address? - interpretation goes along with genre - is the passage narrative, poetic, parable, etc.? - should it be interpreted literally or figuratively? - focus on significant words, phrases, statements - what is its meaning (definitions; contextualize)? - what is its significance in the passage? - why would the author choose this way of expression? - does it have a special grammatical role? - does it make a difference if it were left out? - what is implied by the use of this term or phrase or grammatical structure? Rhetorical context: what is the significance of the progression in the thought pattern? - what was the author trying to convey to the audience - e.g., theological truths, practical advice? - what types of responses did the author expect on the basis of writing this passage? Theological context: what do you know about the author's theological perspective? - what are the challenges in moving from one social context (the ancient world) to another - what blinders might have prevented me from seeing things in the text - what can modern contextal approaches tell me (e.g., liberationist; feminist; post-colonial)? Investigate the secondary literature; compare and adjust your own observations Concisely summarize the primary ideas of the text; what is the author trying to convey? \| Academic Output - Communication: Writing An Academic Exegetical Paper The goal of the academic exegesis paper paper is the commuication of the first outcome of exegesis: to explain what the text meant for its original writer and audience in its original literary and socio-historical setting. An academic exegetical paper is not to be a sermon/homily. The emphasis should be on communicating your interpretation of the text, not on preaching the passage. The paper should concentrate on findings from the observation and interpretation steps and should only include an application if the instructor has requested it explicitly. In writing the paper ask yourself the following questions: - Do I understand the text or texts I intend to discuss? - Are my notes clear and complete, allowing me to describe and respond to key features in the text(s)? - Does my opening paragraph lead to a specific and precisely formulated thesis that anticipates the main points of the argument of the essay? - Do my topic sentences reflect a logical development of that thesis? - Are there smooth transitions between paragraphs and sentences? - Do paragraphs cohere, usually around a single idea? - Is the meaning of each sentence clear, and are the structures of sentences varied? - Are general or abstract observations supported with concrete examples? - Have I carefully proof-read and revised for grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors? - Have footnotes and quotations been double-checked for accuracy and proper placement? - Has proper footnote and bibliographical form been followed? The structure of the paper depends on the passage. Some texts unfold an argument in a step-by-step manner. They can be discussed in a verse-by-verse format. Others, especially narrations, work best if handled in a theme-oriented structure. Always allow some time between your research and your writing for this analysis stage to gell (summarized from Hayes and Holiday 2007:184-189). See further Research and Writing Research Papers for the process and Assignment Assessment Criteria for the grading rubric for written work. \|Theological Output - Application and Proclamation This process involves the move from text to sermon or Bible study and should only be employed if it is speficially requested by an instructor or if you are undertaking the study of the Bible withing the framework of a faith community. You can begin by asking whether the passage contain "universal truths" (applicable in all ages) or "contextual truths" (applicable for a certain period of history)? Know how and why you make the distinction between these two "truths." You also need to determin how the passage fits with the whole message of the Bible. Next, ask yourself the following questions around the issue of "what does it mean for me?": - what am I to believe? - what am I to do (actions, attitudes, sin)? - what do I learn about relationships? - what is the good news for me? Now ask "how would that be initiated in my life?" Beware of reading modern cultural norms into a passage. However, do use your imagination to apply the passage to contemporary society. This helps identify what some of the issues in the text might be. Ask how you can address your particular audience - how can you best explain the original meaning of the text? - how can you help them connect with the truths of the text? Be sure to understand your ownaudience as best you can. Use a format appropriate for your audience (e.g., sermon/homily; Bible study; case study; drama) Guides for Biblical Exegesis Danker, Frederick W. 1993. Multipurpose Tools for Bible Study. 4th edition. Minneapolis: Fortress. Fee, Gordon D. 1993. New Testament Exegesis: A Handbook for Students and Pastors. Revised edition. Louisville: Westminister John Knox. Fee, Gordon D. and Douglas Stuart. 1993. How to Read the Bible for all its Worth. Second edition. Grand Rapids. Zondervan. Hayes, John H. and Carl R. Holladay. 2007. Biblical Exegesis: A Beginner's Handbook. 3rd edition. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. McKenzie, Steven L. and Stephen R. Haynes. 1999. To Each Its Own Meaning: An Introduction to Biblical Criticisms and Their Applications. Revised and Expanded. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. Rohrbaugh, Richard, ed. 1996. The Social Sciences and New Testament Interpretation. Peabody: Hendrickson. Schneiders, Sandra M. 1999. The Revelatory Text: Interpreting the New Testament as Sacred Scripture. Collegeville: Liturgical Press. Soulen, Richard N. 1981. Handbook of Biblical Criticism. 2nd edition. Atlanta: John Knox.	<urn:uuid:a9e0b2e2-c016-4690-9d16-4832a3e32d64>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://post.queensu.ca/%7Ersa/Exegesis_Guide.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.915427	2,284	2.984375	3
Work continues on antimicrobial solutions Antimicrobial solutions are used to reduce contaminants on raw foods such as meats, vegetables and fruits. This is analogous to washing food prior to using it in one’s own kitchen, although these compounds enhance the washing action, says Martha Ewing, director of technical services at Sanderson Farms Inc., Laurel, Miss. Antimicrobial solutions have proven to be very good at treating certain contaminants on animal carcasses and on primal and subprimal cuts, says Jim Dickson, a professor in the Department of Animal Science, Inter-Departmental Program in Microbiology, at Iowa State University in Ames. “It’s one of the more significant introductions … in meat and poultry in the last 25 years,” he says. The statistics support that fact as well: Antimicrobial solutions are working. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture data for poultry, the Salmonella incidence rate has been reduced 26 percent from the beginning of 2013 and 55 percent compared to five years ago. Further, data indicates that the number expressed as a Most Probable Number of Salmonella is very low, less than 10 microorganisms when a positive result is enumerated, Ewing says. One of the biggest challenges for processors of ready-to-eat (RTE) products that are exposed to the environment at packaging is the potential for Listeria monocytogenes contamination, explains Lynn Knipe, extension processed meats specialist and associate professor in Food Science and Technology, and Animal Sciences at Ohio State University in Columbus. “For intact fresh cuts and for ready-to-eat products, surface contamination has been the greatest concern for processors, and I don’t see that changing in the near future,” says Knipe. “Since this is a surface contamination, sprays and dips can have the greatest impact on the surface contamination.” Newer compounds and application strategies are being developed for antimicrobial solutions. Lauric arginate, for example, was introduced in the United States a few years ago as an effective antimicrobial spray against Listeria. “Lauric arginate may be sprayed directly on to RTE meat products prior to packaging, or sprayed inside the pouch before the meat product is inserted into the package,” Knipe says. “The latter option relies on the vacuum to distribute the lauric arginate uniformly around the packaged product. More recently, it has been shown to be effective as a surface treatment to eliminate Salmonella on chicken.” Peroxyacetic acid is a new chemical that’s been widely used, especially in the beef industry, Dickson says. In the poultry industry, carcass washers apply sprays to both the inside and outside of the body cavity, as well as to the external surfaces, he says. One of the newest advancements in some poultry plants has been the use of a wash after the carcasses come out of the chiller. “If you spray an organic acid on a poultry carcass and then you put it into a chiller, then it pretty much washes all of that off,” Dickson says. “There have been some that are using a wash or spray cabinet after carcasses come out of the chiller, and that seems to be pretty effective.” The compounds commonly used today are considered processing aides and do not have a residual effect. If a residual effect was present, the compound would be considered an ingredient and would have to be included on the label. Nevertheless, some clean-label products, which involve vinegar and lime juice, have been developed that are effective in eliminating surface contamination of both Listeria monocytogenes and C. perfringens on RTE meat products, Knipe says. “With the consumer pressure for clean labels, these products provide the product safety needed [for processors and consumers], without chemical names that concern consumers,” he says. Additionally, much work is being done in spices, botanicals, phyto-antimicrobials and phyto-chemicals to see if compounds can be isolated from various plants and/or seeds to have great antimicrobial effects, says Robert Gravani, a professor of food science in the Department of Food Science at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. “Certainly one of the areas that is being actively researched is the synergies that may develop between antimicrobials that are used in concert with each other,” he says. Research also needs to continue on antimicrobials to make sure they are still effective against the organisms to which they are targeted, he adds. “Clearly one of the things in people’s minds is, ‘will there be new compounds coming in the future that will be even more efficacious than what we have now?’” Gravani says. “We’ve got to be constantly prospecting toward new compounds that will work that are as effective or more effective than the ones we have today.” In addition, Ewing says, multiple points in each process are being evaluated for application effectiveness. “The majority of these revolve around a water-based application, but other technologies are also being evaluated, such as UV light and high-pressure pasteurization,” she says. Antimicrobial solutions are being applied in more points during processing as well. For example, when organic acids first came out for beef carcass washes, they were only applied at the end of the process after the final carcass wash, Dickson says. Then some companies started applying them pre-evisceration, which is now pretty standard in the industry, he says. Now, companies are spraying carcasses when they come out of the coolers. “In some cases, they are getting treated as many as three times with some of these antimicrobial solutions,” Dickson says. “It’s all with the idea of reducing the potential of contamination on the surface of the animal.” The cost of some of these antimicrobial products may be keeping some processors from using them on their products though, Knipe adds. Still, the industry continues to look for new compounds and methods of antimicrobial wash application. As technology improves so will the ability of these compounds to reduce microbial contamination. However, Ewing reminds that, while antimicrobial compounds can help reduce the level of microbes to almost undetectable levels, the product is not sterile. Safe food-handling techniques must be employed at all times when handling raw food.	<urn:uuid:ab799f1d-e2d8-46aa-ac20-609db8b496bd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.refrigeratedfrozenfood.com/articles/87549-work-continues-on-antimicrobial-solutions	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95867	1,373	2.796875	3
The Oregon Public Health Division is actively monitoring air in Portland and Corvallis and sand and water on the northern, central and southern Oregon coast for any higher than normal levels of radiation due to Japan tsunami marine debris. At this time, health officials have not received any reports indicating higher than normal levels of radiation in Oregon. Radioactive debris highly unlikely There is consensus among scientists that it is highly unlikely that debris from Japan is radioactive: - The debris from the tsunami was created in several areas along Japan’s coast; the leak from the nuclear reactor happened only in one spot. The majority of the debris is coming from several different points and likely did not come from the nuclear reactor area. - The nuclear reactor leak into the sea started several days after the debris moved out into the ocean. Exposure to the contaminated sea water, which also moves by currents, was unlikely to occur. - Vessels coming into the United States from Japan were monitored for radiation, and readings were below the level of concern. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has deemed that based on current information, there is no risk to the U.S. food supply. General safety tips for beachcombing Debris washes up on Oregon coasts every year, and public health officials urge people to use caution when walking on the beach. In general, if you don’t know what it is, don’t touch it. Keep an eye out for sharp objects to avoid cutting your feet and hands. Wear sturdy shoes and gloves to protect your feet and hands from cuts and scrapes. If you do cut yourself, administer basic first aid (cleaning and covering the wound) and then visit your local healthcare provider. Beach debris frequently asked questions Live at the coast? Just visiting? You can help keep the beach clean by removing human-made debris that washes up. Everyone is talking about debris from the tsunami that struck Japan in 2011, and we will see some of those objects here (derelict dock info), but the truth is debris lands on our shores all year long. No matter where it came from, you have a chance to protect Oregon’s beaches. What can you do to help? Depends on what you find: Litter and other typical marine debris. Examples: Plastic bottles, aluminum cans, buoys, Styrofoam. If practical, we encourage you to remove small debris and recycle as much of it as possible. You can get an official beach cleanup bag from any coastal state park office. Don’t break up styrofoam if you can help it, and tie your bag shut when full. If you can’t remove the debris from the beach by hand, please move it far enough away from the water so it doesn’t wash back out at high tide. If you see a significant amount of debris, or has living organisms on it, or is too large to move by hand, report it by email with the date, location and photos to firstname.lastname@example.org. If the debris has organisms growing on it, throw it away in a garbage can or landfill, or move it above the high tide line and report it. Derelict vessel or other large debris item. Examples: Adrift fishing boat, shipping containers. Call 911 in an emergency. If the debris is a hazard to navigation, call 211 (or 1-800-SAFENET) and you will be connected with the US Coast Guard. Do not attempt to move or remove vessels. Mementos or possessions. Examples: Items with unique identifiers, names, or markings. If an item can 1) be traced back to an individual or group and 2) has personal or monetary value, call 211 (1-800-SAFENET) to report it or send an email at email@example.com so we can make appropriate arrangements for return of items to Japan. Potential hazardous materials. Examples: Oil or chemical drums, gas cans, propane tanks. Call 211 (1-800-SAFENET) and you will be connected to the US Coast Guard’s National Response Center. Report as much information as possible. Do not touch the item or attempt to move it. There are dozens of disposal stations on the coast ready to accept your bagged tsunami debris. If you see debris larger than what you can put in a bag—tires, refrigerators, and so on—don’t bring it to the disposal station. Report its location by calling 211 (1-800-SAFENET). Ready to go? Carry it in your pocket!	<urn:uuid:5d6cd582-d353-4bea-bd51-13785cbe69a6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://public.health.oregon.gov/Preparedness/Pages/04-2012JapanDebris.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.928672	977	3.5	4
Creatine kinase also known as CPK or Creatine phosphokinase is an enzyme that is found in the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles. This enzyme encourages a particular biochemical reaction to occur. CK normally adds phosphate to creatine present in our body and turns it into molecule phosphocreatine which is high-energy. This is then used by our cells as a quick source of energy. When there is any muscle damage or degeneration the contents from the muscle cells break open and enter the bloodstream. As most of the CPK is found in the body, any increase found in the blood level during a creatine kinase blood test is indicative of muscle damage. A creatine kinase blood test is used to help diagnose the following: - It helps in the diagnosis of heart attacks. - It can be used to appraise the cause of chest pain. - It can determine how much muscle damage is there. - Early polymysositis and dermatomyositis can be detected. - The difference between hyperthermia which is malignant and postoperative infection can be told. - It can also help tell what carries Duchenne or muscular dystrophy. During this test the health care provider draws a sample of blood from your body. He or she then sends it to a laboratory to measure the levels of CPK. High levels following a blood test are found in patients who have had a heart attack, convulsions, brain injury or stroke, delirium tremens, lung tissue death, muscular dystrophies, plymositis, and dermatomyositis. Conditions such as hyperthyroidism, rhabomyolysis and pericarditis following a heart attack may also give positive test results in a creatine kinase blood test. You are generally advised to avoid any strenuous kind of physical activity at least three to four hours prior to the test as it may affect your test results. Other factors that may affect your test results include intramuscular injections and any kind of surgery wherein incisions are made through your muscle. The advantage of a creatine kinase blood test is that it is noninvasive. Once the blood sample is collected you are expected to follow standard procedures that are involved in venipuncture and can then go back home. The disadvantage of this test is that it can only indicate if there are any abnormalities and not the causes of the abnormalities. If your levels of CK are abnormally high you will not be able to diagnose any muscle disorder. It therefore has to be followed by additional tests depending on the symptoms exhibited by the patient and his or her medical history. Submitted by N on December 22, 2010 at 10:00	<urn:uuid:7fd67849-ed32-4175-9717-b888b174eae7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.medicalhealthtests.com/askquestion/607/what-is-creatine-kinase-blood-test.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947303	551	3.40625	3
Human beings have an amazing capacity to block out life’s travails during the course of a celebration. Couples get married and nations declare independence in the midst of wars. We celebrate a year’s harvest not knowing whether next year’s crop will be thin or blighted. We enjoy life, despite the inevitability of death. Jewish celebrations are no exception. We celebrate Purim even though we remained Persian subjects in the aftermath of its miraculous salvation. The miracle of Chanukah is celebrated even though it took place during a lull in the middle of a war, and even though the independence wrought was short-lived. On Yom Ha-Atzma’ut, we celebrate Israel’s independence even though it transformed a local conflict into a multinational one. Perhaps more than any other Jewish holiday, we rejoice on Sukkot even as we acknowledge the frailty of life. We move into makeshift huts as the weather turns cold, and we face uncertainty about whether the coming winter will be rainy enough to sustain us. Again and again, we call out to God: “Hosanna! Save us!” We read the Book of Kohelet (Ecclesiastes), all about the futility of human life and activity. And yet, in our liturgy it is called “z’man simchateinu” – “the season of our joy,” and is considered the most joyous of Jewish holidays. It is almost as though we acknowledge that the lightness of being, far from unbearable, is in fact liberating and comforting. For more than five years, Israelis have debated the pros and cons of working out a deal for Gilad Shalit with Hamas. Now that the deal is done, the arguments for and against will cease to be theoretical claims and will be borne out in concrete results. I certainly do not envy those who had to make this decision. Serendipitously, the news of the deal for Gilad broke just before the onset of Sukkot. In the spirit of this holiday, which teaches us that we may rejoice in the face of our own frailties and uncertainties, can we please, at least until the end of the holiday, rejoice with Noam and Aviva Shalit without considering the deal’s consequences? Perhaps the most famous passage in Kohelet tells us that there is a time and season for everything. These times and seasons turn with an astonishing rapidity, and part of our challenge is to keep them from encroaching upon one another. In that spirit, the spirit of Sukkot, let us acknowledge Gilad’s release as a time to laugh, a time to dance, a time to embrace, and a time to love.	<urn:uuid:618ad58f-e523-4a2b-85b2-5c431e4d7db6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://adderabbi.blogspot.com/2011/10/celebrate-gilad-like-theres-no-tomorrow.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953175	573	2.546875	3
Native to Oregon, gray wolves were at one time a thriving species. In 1855, expedition naturalist George Suckley noted that “wolves are exceedingly numerous in Oregon and Washington Territories, from the Cascades to the Rocky Mountain divide.” However, the wolf species was nearly wiped out in the West through a government eradication program in the 1930s that included widespread poisoning of wolves. Wolf packs virtually ceased to exist in the U.S., including Oregon. Wolves were listed as endangered in 1974, and the government has spent more than $27 million on what they consider successful recovery efforts in the Northern Rockies. “Gray wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains are thriving and no longer require the protection of the Endangered Species Act,” said Interior Deputy Secretary Lynn Scarlett. “The wolf’s recovery in the Northern Rocky Mountains is a conservation success story.” According to Ed Bangs, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Recovery coordinator, the program’s goals have been accomplished although USFW did require Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming to create wolf management plans. “The fact that we’ve restored a wolf population [means] we’ve got more wolves in more places than we ever hoped, with fewer problems than we hoped.” Bangs says. “It’s a pretty good feeling to know that this final part of this recovery project is happening, and the future conservation of wolves is secure in state hands.” The restoration effort, however, has been unpopular with ranchers and many others in Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana since it began in the mid-1990s and there are plans to allow hunters to target the animals in these states as soon as this fall. The delisting and the hunting plans have angered environmental groups. On February 27, Earthjustice, the top American ecological law firm, submitted a notice to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of its intent to challenge the delisting of the gray wolf as a violation of the Endangered Species Act. Earthjustice submitted the notice letter on behalf of Defenders of Wildlife, Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club, Center for Biological Diversity, The Humane Society of the United States, Jackson Hole Conservation Alliance, Friends of the Clearwater, Alliance for the Wild Rockies, Oregon Wild, Cascadia Wildlands Project, and Western Watersheds Project. “The enduring hostility to wolves still exists,” said Earthjustice’s attorney Doug Honnold. “We’re going to have hundreds of wolves killed under state management. It’s a sad day for our wolves.” There is also the belief that public hunting could reduce the chance of wolves spreading to neighboring states such as Oregon, Washington, Utah, and Colorado. While Oregon was not one of the states required to create a wolf plan, they did anyway. The goal of Oregon’s wolf plan, adopted in December 2005, is to ensure wolves’ long-term survival and conservation in Oregon while minimizing conflicts with humans, primary land uses and other Oregon wildlife. According to Russ Morgan with the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, the state has no plan to delist the animal until there’s proof four breeding pairs are living here in Oregon for three consecutive years. Even though the federal government delisted the wolves, they are still protected under the Oregon State Endangered Species Act. As far as the future of Oregon’s wolf population, Morgan says it’s difficult to predict. “If the population declines drastically in Idaho near the Oregon border, that could slow the growth [of the wolf population] in Oregon,” he said. “But wolves can travel tremendous distances so even if there is a decline near the border, we can expect Oregon’s population to continue to grow, just not as quickly.” Morgan is also pleased that Oregon had the foresight to collaborate with different stakeholders to create a wolf conservation and management plan even before the federal government took action. “It’s a fortunate position to be in and I feel confident that it’s a doable plan.” Morgan said.	<urn:uuid:ecdfcc03-895f-45d4-a1c1-2a2b38baf72a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.willamettelive.com/2008/news/grey-wolves-lose-their-place-on-the-endangered-species-list/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949484	861	3.359375	3
The origin of futsal can be traced back to Montevideo, Uruguay, in 1930 when Juan Carlos Ceriani created a five-a-side version of football for youth competition in YMCAs. The game was played on basketball-sized courts, both indoors and out without the use of sidewalls. The sport began to spread across South America, especially in Brazil were the sport was developed on the streets of São Paulo and its popularity ensured that a governing body was formed under the name of FIFUSA (Federación Internacional de Fútbol de Salón) in 1971. The term futsal is the international term used for the game. It is derived from the Spanish or Portuguese word for “soccer”, FUTbol or FUTebol, and the French or Spanish root word for “indoor” or “room”, SALon or Salle or SALa. Taken literally, Futbol means ‘foot and ball’ (i.e. playing outdoors) and futsal indicates ‘Futbol in room’ (i.e. playing indoors). The first FIFUSA World Championships were held in São Paulo in 1971, with hosts Brazil crowned champions ahead of Paraguay and Uruguay. Even more countries participated in the second World Championships held in Madrid in 1985. Due to a dispute between FIFA and FIFUSA over the administration of fútbol, FIFUSA coined the word fut-sal in 1985. FIFA took control of the World Championships in 1989. Under new rules made by FIFA, the technical aspects of the game for players and spectators were improved. The linesmen were replaced with a second referee and there were unlimited substitutions. It also introduced a size 4 football, which was weighted to reduce bounce by 30% compared to a conventional ball, which enabled faster play and, for the first time, scoring goals with the head. FIFA’s relationships with its member associations allowed more countries to gain knowledge and resources about futsal. FIFA soon began to administer its own indoor football games, hosting its first FIFA Indoor Soccer World Championship in 1989 in Rotterdam, Netherlands. In 1992 it was the FIFA Five-a-Side World Championship (Hong Kong) and since 1996 it has been called the FIFA Futsal World Championship. Thanks to the increase of the number of nations that participated in the FIFA Futsal World Championships held in 2000, Brazil’s dominance in the competition was ended by Spain. In 2004, members of PANAFUTSAL (La Confederación Panamericana de Futsal, The Pan-American Futsal Confederation) formed AMF (Asociación Mundial de Fútbol de Salón, World Futsal Association), an international futsal governing body independent of FIFA. Both FIFA and AMF continue to administer the game.	<urn:uuid:dbe546e3-e70b-4ced-920e-de64b381d136>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.maltafutsalschool.com/why-futsal/futsal-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956316	602	2.890625	3
Host City: Los Angeles, United States Date Started: August 12, 1932 Date Finished: August 12, 1932 Participants: 41 (41 men and 0 women) from 10 countries Youngest Participant: Gustavo Huet (19 years, 265 days) Oldest Participant: Julio Castro (52 years, 230 days) Most Medals (Athlete): 6 athletes with 1 medal Most Medals (Country): Italy (2 medals) There were no Olympic shooting events held in 1928, mainly because of controversies related to the amateur rules for shooters in 1928. These problems were resolved for 1932, but in a way that left out many top shooters. The amateur rules were interpreted so strictly that many shooters could not compete at the Olympics. After the , , and [1924 Olympic Shooting] programs, which featured numerous events, and several team events, the 1932 Olympic Shooting program was an austere one which featured only one pistol event and one rifle event. The shooting events were held at the [Los Angeles Police Rifle Range] at Elysian Fields. It was probably the worst shooting facility ever used for the Olympics. The pistol range was in reasonable condition, although one Italian coach stepped on a loose board at the range, fell and broke his hip. But the rifle range was a mess. The 50-metre firing line was not 50 metres from the targets, and it was not parallel to the line of shoot. To get close to 50-metres, the shooters were pushed back against the wall of the facility, but the distance still lacked a few feet of being 50 metres. This was solved by hanging the targets on a hinged framework set a few feet beyond the marking pit. Because of the depression, the difficulty traveling to Los Angeles, and the strict amateur rules, there were only 18 competitors in the pistol event, and 26 in the rifle event. Only 41 shooters from 11 nations competed at the 1932 Olympics.	<urn:uuid:80cb5dad-3c15-4704-afda-f88dc778ee2c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1932/SHO/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.979818	393	3.015625	3
Global Warming Glossary * Uncertainty - An expression of the degree to which a value (e.g., the future state of the climate system) is unknown. Uncertainty can result from lack of information or from disagreement about what is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources, from quantifiable errors in the data to ambiguously defined concepts or terminology, or uncertain projections of human behavior. Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative measures (e.g., a range of values calculated by various models) or by qualitative statements (e.g., reflecting the judgment of a team of experts). Undernutrition - The temporary or chronic state resulting from intake of lower than recommended daily dietary energy and/or protein requirements, through either insufficient food intake, poor absorption, and/or poor biological use of nutrients consumed. Ungulate - A hoofed, typically herbivorous, quadruped mammal (including ruminants, swine, camel, hippopotamus, horse, rhinoceros and elephant). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992 in New York and signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro by more than 150 countries and the European Community. Its ultimate objective is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." It contains commitments for all Parties. Under the Convention, Parties included in Annex I (all OECD countries and countries with economies in transition) aim to return heat-trapping gas (greenhouse gas) emissions not controlled by the Montreal Protocol to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The convention entered in force in March 1994. Upwelling region - A region of an ocean where cold, typically nutrient-rich waters from the bottom of the ocean surface. Urban heat island - The relative warmth of a city compared with surrounding rural areas, associated with changes in runoff, the concrete jungle effects on heat retention, changes in surface albedo, changes in pollution and aerosols, and so on. Urbanization - The conversion of land from a natural state or managed natural state (such as agriculture) to cities; a process driven by net rural-to-urban migration through which an increasing percentage of the population in any nation or region come to live in settlements that are defined as 'urban centers'. Glossaries of the contributions of Working Groups I, II and III to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report 2007. Nakićenović, N., J. Alcamo, G. Davis, B. de Vries, J. Fenhann, S. Gaffin, K. Gregory, A. Grübler, T.Y. Jung, T. Kram, E.L. La Rovere, L. Michaelis, S. Mori, T. Morita, W. Pepper, H. Pitcher, L. Price, K. Raihi, A. Roehrl, H.-H. Rogner, A. Sankovski, M. Schlesinger, P. Shukla, S. Smith, R. Swart, S. van Rooijen, N. Victor and Z. Dadi, 2000: Emissions Scenarios: A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, and New York, 599 pp.	<urn:uuid:88c755dd-cdc3-40b9-a71f-5c37131bcec2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-glossary/u.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.868119	719	3.546875	4
The remaining 22 million acres of native prairie in the U.S. portion of the PPR produce the majority of the fall flight from this country each year and serve as the backbone of a robust ranching industry. Unfortunately, this native prairie habitat base is being whittled away, the victim of drought-tolerant crop varieties, high commodity prices, increasing demand for food, and federal policy that encourages farming marginal cropland. The PPR has already lost 70 percent of it’s native grassland, and DU researchers have documented annual loss rates of up to 2 percent of this habitat in the heart of the “duck factory.” Two percent may not sound high, but when 1 percent of native prairie produces 25,000 ducks, it equates to 50,000 fewer ducks than the year before. A recent study by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that South Dakota counties with high rates of native grassland conversion received crop insurance and disaster assistance payments that were at least 12 times higher than in traditionally cropped counties. The GAO report concluded that federally subsidized crop insurance and disaster payments are encouraging conversion of native prairie to marginal cropland. Armed with this knowledge, DU joined concerned ranchers and other partners to develop and promote a “Sodsaver” provision for the Farm Bill. This provision would discourage plowing of native prairie by removing crop insurance, disaster payments, and other select subsidies from newly broken grassland across the country. Both the House and Senate included mandatory, nationwide versions of Sodsaver in their original bills. The conference report, however, adopted language that made the provision apply only to the PPR states (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Minnesota, and Iowa) and made participation optional at the governor’s discretion. DU scientists estimate that an additional 3.3 million acres of native prairie will be lost in the next five years if the governors of these states do not opt into Sodsaver. Considered along with other provisions that encourage cultivation, this estimate is likely conservative.	<urn:uuid:1bdc6fef-eeaf-4244-850d-0f6678d52d0c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ducks.org/conservation/habitat/americas-new-farm-bill/page2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940931	424	2.828125	3
Perseid meteor shower peaks overnight One of the brightest meteor showers of the year happens overnight. It’s called the the Perseid meteor shower and although it happens for several days, it will peak around 3 a.m. Saturday. The meteor showers happen as the Earth makes its annual trip around the sun and encounters a particular trail of comet dust. Sally Oey is an associate professor of astronomy at the University of Michigan. She says as the Earth travels through this comet dust, little particles enter our Earth’s atmosphere and appear as meteors or “shooting stars.” “People sometimes think that when you’re out there looking for a meteor shower that you will see a lot of particles raining down like a snow storm. That’s actually not how fast they come down. So you might see one every minute, or every 2-3 minutes.” But tonight’s weather might make it harder to see the shooting stars. A full moon will make the sky brighter, and partly cloudy skies might also get in the way.	<urn:uuid:011470ca-e1a6-49cf-9051-ff5565c975c2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://michiganradio.org/post/perseid-meteor-shower-peaks-overnight	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00162-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95015	225	3.125	3
In this second part, we explore the inside of the buildings of Prypiat . As in most ghost town, the oddity comes form the perception that people were still living there recently, and left suddenly, and they in fact left suddenly - they were given 72 hours to leave - but this happened 22 years ago. Prypiat (Ukrainian: При́п'ять, Pryp”jat’; Russian: При́пять, Pripjat’; or Pripyat) is an abandoned city in the Zone of alienation in northern Ukraine, Kiev Oblast, near the border with Belarus. It was home to the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant workers. The city was abandoned in 1986 following the Chernobyl disaster. Its population had been around 50,000 prior to the accident... see more of the city in Chernobyl disaster part 1 coordinates : 51°24'27.26"N 30°03'08.48E pictures sources : 1 2 text source : 1 2 Artificial Owl recommends:	<urn:uuid:e7ec55af-da05-4631-a8e8-45b35ae30685>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.artificialowl.net/2008/11/chernobyl-disaster-part-2-inside.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.928049	233	2.96875	3
Over the last few years, the humble actuator has received a small make-over. University and business exploration of new materials in actuator designs is providing solutions to a range of problems from machine chatter to airplane wing configurations Actuators are a common way to provide single- axis motion. Rack and pinion, chain, belt, cable, ball screw, and electric solenoid are a few of the more than 15 types of actuators that are available. Recently, the number of actuators increased with a new type of single-axis actuator. This type uses an expanding material to provide the linear motion. One version uses a polymer that expands under applied current. (See “Hot Polymer Expands Actuator Technology,” PTD, 8/95, p. 31). Another actuator version uses an alloy that expands when subjected to a magnetic field. How the actuator works This new version of a linear actuator has a drive rod made of Terfenol-D, a magnetostrictive metal alloy of terbium, dysprosium, and iron. An applied magnetic field causes the material to change its geometric dimensions: this is called magnetostriction. In addition to the drive rod, the actuator is composed of copper wire coil, and permanent magnets, and housed in aluminum or stainless steel, Figure 1. The copper wire is wound around the drive rod. When current of 1.4 to 3.4 A from an external power supply is applied to the coil, it creates a magnetic north-south orientation at the molecular level. This new orientation causes the drive rod to lengthen as the diameter shrinks. When current is removed, the rod returns to its original shape. The rod responds to the application or withdrawal of current almost instantaneously. The expansion is proportional and repeatable. The amount of force that the actuator supplies to linearly move an object depends on the size of the rod. A 12-mm diam rod can exert at least 200 lb of force. A 75-mm diam rod can exert at least 9,000 lb. Commercial versions of this actuator have available displacements in the thousandths of an inch. (A few research versions have displacements over 2 in. See the subhead, Actuator as linear motor). Thus, these actuators are for applications that need high speed and high force, such as machining. When operators run a machine tool, they must often compromise between the quality of the cut or finish and the productivity rate. During cutting, vibration between the tool and workpiece, particularly in the radial direction, affects the dimensional accuracy and surface quality of the part. This vibration is commonly known as machine chatter. Thus, operators frequently can’t operate the machine tool at optimum speed because of the risk of damage to the part. Various methods used to dampen chatter include hydraulic actuators, piezoelectric actuators, step motors, and manipulation of cutting speed through a control algorithm. But each method has its limits. The hydraulic actuators deliver the necessary force to manipulate the depth of cut but they tend to have low bandwidth frequency response. They are limited to machining applications where the depth of cut is done at slow speed. Piezoelectric actuators have a higher bandwidth but are limited to low force machining applications. Step motors also tend to be limited to applications where cutting is done at slow speeds. And with the solution that involves manipulation of the cutting speed during the process, the inertia of the spindle and drive system becomes the limiting factor. The vibrations from chatter are measurable, opening up the possibility of countering them and thus cancelling their effects. Professors John Sutherland, Kee Moon, D. Liu, and A. R. Kashani from Michigan Technical University, and T. J. Sturos from Caterpillar Inc., have found a way to provide active, on-line manipulation of the cutting tool in a turning process. They created a tool holder that incorporates a magnetostrictive actuator, feedback sensors, and the cutting tool, Figure 2. The flexor in the tool holder is rigid in the cutting and feed directions (tangential and longitudinal) and flexible in the radial direction. A rate-feedback control gets information from an accelerometer, which measures the actual tool vibration. The ratefeedback control then gives information to a PC, which uses these data to control the current it sends to the actuator. The current signals cause the actuator to expand and contract opposite the chatter to provide a counter vibration. Once the vibration is countered, operators can either increase machine speed and achieve higher productivitity, or run the machine at original speeds and get better surface finish. In a test, an aluminum workpiece was turned on a Cincinnati Milicron CNC chucking center using the new tool holder. The actuator in the tool holder used a 12-mm diam rod. The workpiece’s dimensions were: diam of 82.55 mm, length of 342.9 mm, with 9.52-mm lengthwise slot. Test feed rate was 0.0762 mm/sec and the depth of cut was 0.635 mm. Based on the interactive control of the actuator and control system, surface finished improved by 40%. Actuator as linear motor Engineers at Northrup Grumman Corp. are using these Terfenol-D-based actuators to develop a “smart wing” concept for airplane wings. Smart wing refers to the ability to adjust the shape of the airfoil cross-section, in flight, to reduce the effects of drag, increase the amount of payload in an aircraft, or reduce fuel consumption. If initial test results hold, projections indicate that jet fuel consumption costs, currently about $7 billion annually, can be cut by 5%. The actuators, which function as linear motors in this application, form trusstype ribs in a two-spar wing of a Gulfstream III aircraft, Figure 3. The linear motor-actuators expand and retract to vary the wing’s structural shape. A drive rod of Terfenol-D is placed in a stator tube of non-magnetic material. The stator and rod are fabricated to close tolerances so that when no magnetic field is present, the rod has an interference fit. When a field is present, the rod shrinks in diameter, resulting in a clearance fit. As shown in Figure 4, several coils are used along the length of the motor rather than one full-length coil. Each coil is turned on sequentially in a wave motion. In the beginning of the cycle, the wave causes the left end of the rod to fit loosely and extend while the remaining rod material to the right fits tightly. As each coil segment is energized, the rod shrinks near the coil, but continues to extend to the left. When the last coil is energized, the rod completes its move to the left. The whole process creates an inchworm effect. Extension speed depends on the frequency at which the coils are energized. The holding power to withstand structural loading is a function of the length and number of coil sections. This experiemental motor is 9 in. long when contracted. It has a travel of 2.5 in., a maximum velocity of over 0.2 ips, and a force of 200 lb. The actual motor can be developed to supply 7,000 lb of force. The motor has few moving parts. With power off, the system is locked. Based on initial tests of this smart wing, engineers found cruising speed could increase from Mach 0.78 to Mach 0.88 and for certain flight conditions, drag was reduced over 75%. Information for this article was provided by Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Mich., Northrop Grumman Corp., and Etrema Products Inc., Ames, Iowa. For more information on the tool holder, contact Dr. Kee S. Moon, Michigan Technological University, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, Mich., 49931-1295. For information on the actuator as linear motor, contact Northrop Grumman Corp., Advanced Technology Development Center, Bethpage, N.Y. 11714. For more information on the magnetostrictive actuator contact Etrema Products Inc.	<urn:uuid:648b7aa6-8f3d-42a4-9809-7c0ba83d8b5a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://machinedesign.com/technologies/actuator-solutions-linear-problems	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.912084	1,722	3.578125	4
tidal power plant Plant that harnesses tidal power (the motion of the rising and falling tides) to produce electric power. Movable vertical panel that controls the rate of flow of the water between the sea and the basin. The devices (such as transformers and changeover switches) that increase the voltage of the electricity and carry it to the network. Area in which water is stored at high tide; the basin empties out through the penstocks at low tide. Part of the dam made up mainly of rocky material; it is built between the plant and the operating dam to separate the basin from the sea. Part of the dam housing bulb units that are powered by the rise and fall of the sea to produce electricity. Structure with doors and gates that is built between the sea and the basin; it allows boats to pass from one level to the other. Vast body of saltwater at some distance inland; it is not as deep as an ocean. Strip of land bordering the sea. Structure with gates that control the basin level in relation to the level of the sea.	<urn:uuid:b2e3de33-f550-4c92-94fa-5ce86c8bd735>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://visual.merriam-webster.com/energy/hydroelectricity/tidal-power-plant/tidal-power-plant.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947948	230	3.609375	4
Commonly, most or all data in a case come from an input file, read with a command such as DATA LIST or GET, but data can also be generated with transformations such as COMPUTE. In the latter case the question of a datum’s “initial value” can arise. For example, the value of a piece of generated data can recursively depend on its own value: COMPUTE X = X + 1. Another situation where the initial value of a variable arises is when its value is not set at all for some cases, e.g. below, set only for the first 10 cases: DO IF #CASENUM <= 10. + COMPUTE Y = 1. END IF. By default, the initial value of a datum in either of these situations is the system-missing value for numeric values and spaces for string values. This means that, above, X would be system-missing and that Y would be 1 for the first 10 cases and system-missing for the remainder. PSPP also supports retaining the value of a variable from one case to another, using the LEAVE command (see LEAVE in PSPP Users Guide). The initial value of such a variable is 0 if it is numeric and spaces if it is a string. If the command ‘LEAVE X Y’ is appended to the above example, then X would have value 1 in the first case and increase by 1 in every succeeding case, and Y would have value 1 for the first 10 cases and 0 for later cases. The LEAVE command has no effect on data that comes from an input file or whose values do not depend on a variable’s initial value. The value of scratch variables (see Scratch Variables in PSPP Users Guide) are always left from one case to another. The following functions work with a variable’s leave status. Returns true if var’s value is to be retained from case to case, false if it is reinitialized to system-missing or spaces. If leave is true, marks var to be left from case to case; if leave is false, marks var to be reinitialized for each case. If var is a scratch variable, leave must be true. Returns true if var must be left from case to case, that is, if var is a scratch variable.	<urn:uuid:21c9276f-20d8-4496-b810-caf9d4661d18>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.gnu.org/software/pspp/pspp-dev/html_node/Variable-Leave-Status.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.88244	498	3.234375	3
vol. 16 no. 1, March, 2011 Information behaviour is defined in many ways. Wilson (1999) suggests that information behaviour is concerned with three components: information needs, information seeking, and information use. While much has been written on information needs (see for example, Taylor (1968), Ingwersen, (1994) and information seeking (see for example, Belkin et al. (1982), Kuhlthau (1993), less has been reported on the ways in which information is used. While we discuss information use, it is often interpreted as the user's situation or context when they are identifying an information need (i.e., problem) and then applying the information to the specific problem. Research in this area typically focuses on sense-making and is grounded within a cognitive perspective that focus on the role of conscious thought and feelings (Albright 2010). A cognitive perspective is useful for understanding that which lies within the user's cognition, i.e., conscious control, and that they are able to describe how they process information and make judgments. It is based on the idea 'that any processing of information, whether perceptual or symbolic, is mediated by a system of categories or concepts which, for the information-processing device, are a model of his world' (de Mey 1977: xvi-xvii). A cognitive perspective views the human mind as an information processing machine, with three primary processes: 1) sensory input, 2) the internal processing (i.e., thinking); and 3) output (i.e., verbalization). The root of much information behaviour theory centres on these three processes. Cognitive psychology historically saw these three processes as independent, but has recently considered them to be interdependent. The role of emotions has also become of greater interest, although emotion is still considered only at the level of conscious awareness. Much of our mental life, however, lies outside the realm of conscious awareness. Our mental life includes thoughts, feelings, motives, drives, wishes, and desires. These underlying thoughts and feelings mean 'that people can behave in ways or develop symptoms that are inexplicable to themselves' (Westen 1998: 334). While information behaviour research has recently recognized the role of emotion in the interaction between user and information, it has not given sufficient consideration to the role of the unconscious in that interaction. The purpose of this paper is to consider a psychodynamic perspective of underlying motivations and emotions that affect information behaviour in general, and specifically information use. Drawing heavily from the field of psychoanalysis, the role of the unconscious presents an important consideration in information behaviour research. Psychodynamic perspectives of the unconscious are presented and discussed with regard to information behaviour. There have been numerous theoretical perspectives in psychology (e.g., behavioural, cognitive, psychoanalytic, evolutionary, etc., which have contributed to a generalized disagreement in the field regarding the effectiveness of one approach versus another. In January 2010, the American Psychological Association issued a press release announcing the efficacy of psychodynamic therapeutic processes for bringing about long-term benefits, even after treatment ends (APA 2010). Despite the documented benefits brought about by psychodynamic processes, it has not been widely embraced either within the field of psychology or by other disciplines throughout much of the 20th century for a variety of reasons. Shedler explains that the attitude toward psychodynamic therapy results from several sources, including 'a lingering distaste in the mental health professions for past psychoanalytic arrogance and authority', comes from past decades when 'American psychoanalysis was dominated by a hierarchical medical establishment that denied training to non-MDs and adopted a dismissive stance toward research' (Shedler 2010: 98). This further resulted in the welcoming of non-psychodynamic approaches and overlooking psychodynamic perspectives and research. In the early days of psychology in the 20th century, there was a reluctance to even talk about the idea of non-conscious mental processing. Behaviourism came about in the mid-1900s and focused on the observable and measurable aspects of behaviour, and excluded subjective experience and emotions when investigating stimuli that punish and reward behaviour. Ivan Pavlov's early experiments with dogs that were trained to salivate upon hearing a ringing bell are classic examples of behaviourism, also known as operant conditioning. Over time, however, the gaps left by excluding subjective considerations became obvious and later theorists began to modify this theoretical position. As Westen (2007: 78) notes, 'Subsequent theorists, however, began to populate Skinner's black box with feelings'. It wasn't until the 1950s when psychology began rejecting behaviourism and began a systematic study of the mind. The rise of cognitive and social psychology gave way to more open discussions about previously rejected ideas regarding the unconscious. Wilson (2002: 4) reports, 'It became clear that people could not verbalize many of the cognitive processes that psychologists assumed were occurring inside their heads'. Social psychology was developing its own theories of how individuals develop stereotypes and judge other people's motivations and actions. It soon became clear, however, that the mental processes studied by cognitive and social psychologists were occurring outside the realm of consciousness and were becoming more evident in experimental psychology. While the behavioural and cognitive perspectives waxed and waned, psychodynamic theory was emerging from psychoanalytic theory, having its origins in Freud's ideas about the unconscious motives that underlie our actions. Freud believed that the powerful influence of instinctive drives and the significance of developmental experience are what shape personality. While Freud has been the subject of much criticism, it has been over seventy years since his death, and psychoanalytic research has continued to progress. Despite the criticism, much of Freud's work has contributed to contemporary psychoanalytic theory (Westen 1999). Freud believed that much of our mental life (i.e., thoughts, feelings, motives) is unconscious and occurs outside our awareness. He also posited that mental processes, both affective and motivational, operate in parallel, which allows us to have conflicting feelings (Westen 2007; Shedler 2010). Freud also suggested that stable personality patterns begin in childhood and the mental representations we develop of our self and others, combined with the relationships we develop, guide our interactions. Finally, Freud believed that healthy personality development results in learning to regulate sexual and aggressive feelings, leading to maturation and independence. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the 'unconscious inner conflicts as people strive to achieve their goals' (O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy 2004: 166). It views behaviour as the outcome of motives, drives, needs, and conflicts. These unconscious processes influence the things to which we attend and how we feel (Pervin and John 2001). As a result, our unconscious thoughts and feelings direct much of our emotional life and guide our decisions. Decisions are not always the result of a purely rational cost-benefit analysis. Emotions are also stronger predictors of decisions than are cognitive attitudes, although attitudes have both an emotional and cognitive component (Westen 2007). The cognitive perspective does not view unconscious thoughts and feelings as needing to be defended or influencing our behaviour. Instead, the cognitive perspective suggests that there is no difference between the conscious and unconscious; that unconscious thoughts and feelings are there because they never entered into consciousness or are simply automatic. While cognitive psychology still dominates the field, there is increasing recognition of its limited ability to explain the influence of unconscious processes. As a result, there is increasing interest in investigating the unconscious to understand the affect of the unconscious on human behaviour (i.e., wishes, desires, and motivation) (See, for example, Curtis 2009 and Westen 2007). LeDoux (1996: 267) succinctly states, 'much of what the brain does during an emotion occurs outside of conscious awareness'. In sum, there is disagreement between the cognitive and psychoanalytic perspectives regarding the nature of the unconscious (Table 1). The psychoanalytic perspective stresses the irrational nature of the unconscious, particularly regarding sexual and aggressive feelings and motives. The cognitive perspective suggests that there is no fundamental difference between the conscious and unconscious; that unconscious thoughts and feelings are there because they never entered into consciousness or are simply automatic (e.g., driving a car). The cognitive perspective does not view unconscious thoughts and feelings as needing to be defended or influencing our behaviour. \|Psychoanalytic perspective\|\|Cognitive perspective\| \|Irrational, unconscious processes\|\|Sees no fundamental difference between conscious and unconscious\| \|Emphasis on motives and desires\|\|Emphasis on thoughts\| \|Focuses on motivational features of the unconscious\|\|Focuses on non-motivating features of the unconscious\| The unconscious may play an important role in information behaviour, across the various components of information needs, information seeking, and, most importantly, in information use. Before investigating this question, it is useful to understand better the theoretical premises of the theory. Building upon the historical origins, Shedler (2010) identifies seven features that distinguish psychodynamic therapy from other psychological perspectives. The first feature is that there is a focus on affect and the expression of emotion. In contrast, cognitive perspectives emphasize thoughts and beliefs. Although cognitive perspectives are beginning to acknowledge the role of emotion in human behaviour, it is constrained to an intellectual insight rather than one focused on emotional insight that resonates at a deeper level and can lead to behaviour change. The second feature is that psychodynamic perspectives focus on an exploration of the individual's attempt to avoid distressing thoughts and feelings; avoidance of certain thoughts and feelings leads to a variety of actions, some of which are very subtle and difficult to recognize (e.g., a shift in topics during conversation when certain ideas arise). In psychodynamic theory, this avoidance is termed defense and resistance. The third feature of psychodynamic therapy focuses on identifying recurring themes and patterns. Some individuals are aware of their recurring patterns that may not be constructive but may not feel that they are able to change them. Other individuals may not be aware of the patterns and are thus, unable to recognize or understand them. The fourth feature of psychodynamic therapy is the recognition of how past experiences relate to present experiences. Psychodynamic therapy is often erroneously faulted for focusing on the past for its own sake, when in reality its focus is to understand how past experiences affect present psychological difficulties. People sometimes behave in the present on the basis of how they experienced a relationship in the past. A fifth feature of psychodynamic theory is the focus on interpersonal relations. How people adapt to new situations is often based on past experiences with other relationships. People develop recurring patterns in relationships in childhood that allow them to adapt to their situations. This typically occurs with attachment relationships. These patterns then repeat themselves as they find themselves in situations where similar problems arise. A sixth feature on psychodynamic therapy has to do with the therapeutic relationship. Although not directly pertinent to this discussion, there may be practical advances we can learn for information professionals from the interaction between people and their therapists. The relationship between the individual and the therapist is deeply important because it creates a situation where the emotionally charged themes of the individual's life can emerge, providing the opportunity to explore, understand, and rework them. Although information professionals rarely work this closely with a user, it is useful to be aware of possible reactions from users that give clues to the nature of the information needs of the individual. For example, the confidential nature of the information exchange between user and information professional may create situations where users reveal more than necessarily intended, whether through words, body language (e.g., avoiding eye contact), or actions (e.g., crying). Finally, psychodynamic therapy encourages individuals to speak freely and without constraint in order to understand their self-perception and views of their relationships and experience. This process is often created over time and facilitation from the therapist before full disclosure and the ability to discuss private matters takes place. It is unlikely that this process will be emulated within the limited time frame of information professional and user, although it shares similar professional ethics with librarianship and information science in the area of user confidentiality. Despite recent shifts in the field of psychology, information science has retained a particularly cognitive perspective when it comes to matters of the mind. Historically, the majority of the research literature of the field has been and continues to be cognitively based. With little exception, most of the research in the field presupposes an information processing model of mental life, with no mention of unconscious processes. Information behaviour theories can be mapped onto psychological theories at a general level (Figure 1). The dates presented are not absolute and vary according to source. A brief history of psychology theories has been previously described above, but is repeated in graphic format to demonstrate the relationship and development of related theory in library and information science, which, by the problematic nature of information as a theoretical object, relies on a range of disciplines to help explain the interaction of human behaviour with information. In information science, the system-oriented, physical paradigm was predominant in the early days of the Cranfield experiments. It was not until the role of the user became of greater interest that the user-centred, cognitive paradigm arose (Raber 2003). The cognitive paradigm raised questions regarding the meaning of information, which was dependent upon the user's context; it was situationally-derived. Early studies in information behaviour focused on the mental processing of information as evidence in Figure 2 and exemplified by researchers including Kuhlthau, Dervin and Wilson, discussed in detail below. Further research has continued to explore the user's perspective across within specific contexts, refining much of what has been based on Dervin's sense-making theory. Fisher et al. (2005) report seventy-two perspectives on information behaviour. Most of these theories are grounded in the cognitive perspective; most focus on the information processing of users in their sense-making tasks. Many of these theories examine the user's situation or context in which they are identifying a problem, seeking information, and then assimilating the information in order to make decisions. But as Westen (2007) suggested, decisions have both an emotional and cognitive component. In fact, he claims that emotions are stronger predictors of decisions than are cognitive attitudes and that in general, the greater the emotional importance, the more likely a decision will be based on emotion. Despite the shift in psychology that was occurring in the period 1990 to 2010 to reconsider the existence and importance of the unconscious, information behaviour research continued to refine its understanding of the cognitive processes involved in the interaction between information and human behaviour. More recently there has been an interest in the role of affect and the role of emotion in information behaviour. While human emotions are likely grounded in developmental processes that occur during childhood, much of which dwell in the unconscious, information science research has not given full consideration of the role of the unconscious. In sum, despite recent shifts in the field of psychology to include the unconscious, information science retains a particularly cognitive perspective when it comes to matters of the mind. Historically, the majority of the research literature of the field has been and continues to be cognitively based. With few exceptions, most of the research in the field presupposes an information processing model of mental life, with very little mention of unconscious processes. Although the unconscious is rarely mentioned in information behaviour research, its presence have been observed and described in some studies. Specifically, several information seeking theories hint at some of the characteristics of the unconscious. Several studies report the observation of users becoming aware of an information need, or an information gap. For example, as early as 1960, Mackay reports that a user has 'a certain incompleteness in his picture of the world - an inadequacy in what we might call his "state of readiness" to interact purposefully with the world around him' (Mackay 1960: 11). Taylor reports a similar observation. He describes the users' quest for information, saying, 'They develop their own search strategy, neither very sure of what it is they want nor fully cognizant of the alternatives open to them' (1968: 179), hinting at unconscious processes underlying their information needs. This becomes more fully developed in his model of question-negotiation, where he identifies four levels of question formation. The first, termed Q1, Taylor describes as 'the actual, but unexpressed need for information (the visceral need)' (1968: 182). This is where the individual recognizes: the conscious or even unconscious need for information not existing in the remembered experience of the inquirer. It may be only a vague sort of dissatisfaction. It is probably inexpressible in linguistic terms. This need (it really is not a question yet) will change in form, quality, concreteness, and criteria as information is added, as it is influenced by analogy, or as its importance grows with the investigation (1968: 182). Belkin also describes similar observations, stating that the anomalous states of knowledge representation of an information need: arises from a recognized anomaly in the user's state of knowledge concerning some topic or situation and that, in general, the user is unable to specify precisely what is needed to resolve that anomaly. Thus, for the purposes of IR [information retrieval], it is more suitable to attempt to describe that ASK [anomalous state] than to ask the user to specify her/his need as a request to the system (1982: 62). This suggests that the user may not always be able to describe the information need in the terms that will result in successful retrieval of information. Psychodynamic theory builds on this hypothesis by suggesting that the user may have underlying emotions and experiences that may (or may not) be in conflict, resulting in an inability to precisely articulate the information need. Cognitive theory stops short of this, because it 'suggests that interactions of humans with one another, with the physical world and with themselves are always mediated by their states of knowledge about themselves and about that with which or whom they interact' (1982: 65). The cognitive viewpoint does not adequately take into account the underlying thoughts and feelings to which the individuals themselves may not have access. This is an area where psychodynamic theory can contribute to our understanding of information behaviour. Belkin hints at this when he states: The expression of an information need, on the other hand, is in general a statement of what the user does not know. Thus, the document is a representation of a coherent state of knowledge, while a query or other text related to an information need will be a representation of an anomalous, or somehow inadequate or incoherent state of knowledge (1982: 64). Ingwersen reports similar concerns regarding users' inability to express their information needs. He states: The point here has always been that the user is only capable of describing what he knows at a given point in time according to his current cognitive state, but not what he does not know yet and is actually searching for. Hence, the user may consequently only vaguely formulate a request for information by formulating fragments of his current cognitive state. However, what he might be able to do, in theory, is to state his underlying problem or motive (Ingwersen 1994: 104). Kuhlthau's (1993) information seeking process model also hints at the unconscious thoughts and feelings that underlie information seeking behaviour. While she clearly acknowledges the affective experience of users' anxiety and uncertainty in information-seeking behaviour, she maintains a clearly cognitive approach to her study of users. Drawing upon the work of Dewey (reflective thinking), Kelly (personal construct theory), and Bruner ('constructivist view of the nature of human thinking and learning' (Kuhlthau 1993: 24)), she weaves together an important model of human information seeking. She recognizes the importance of experience and past behaviour, but does not consider the effects of the unconscious on information seeking behaviour. Dervin comes closer to considering the thoughts and feelings that lie outside of our own awareness in her theory of sense-making. sense-making refers to an individual's awareness of their own situation and the ability to understand situations of high complexity or uncertainty in order to make decisions. Dervin proposes three information worlds in which Information1 is objective; describing reality of that which is external to the self. Information2 is more subjective and refers to ideas and is internal to the self, focusing on an individual's own reality. Information3 includes the process involved in making a decision and the process of becoming informed, i.e., the relationship between Information1and Information2 (Dervin 2003). While Information2 and Information3 may (or may not) include underlying thoughts and feelings, it is not explicitly stated or recognized that these may be of primary importance in our understanding of human behaviour in its interaction with information. Returning to Taylor, his observations come close to recognizing users' unconscious influences when he identifies 'five filters through which a question passes' (Taylor 1968: 183). Included in this list are 2) objective and motivation and 3) the personal characteristics of inquirer. While not explicitly stated, Taylor suggests that the motivations and personal characteristics of the user may affect their ability to negotiate their information query with a librarian. Motivation, he continues, was identified by the librarians he interviewed, as 'critical to the success of any negotiation and consequent search', as it 'qualifies the subject, or may even alter the entire inquiry' (Taylor 1968: 185). One librarian concluded: 'We can't help him unless we understand his needs as well as he does' (Taylor 1968: 185). Therein lies the rub: psychodynamic theory suggests that underlying thoughts and feelings may exist outside of our awareness. If a user cannot identify their own needs, how can an information professional or system design help satisfy those needs? Harmon and Ballesteros raised similar questions regarding the effectiveness of information queries if we are unable to fully elicit accuracy in the user's need. Their hypothesis was that 'unconscious cognition plays a key role in the framing of inquiry, (and for that matter, of discovery in the communication chain), and it persists throughout the entire inquiry cycle, whether it be formal reasoning of casual day-to-day problem solving' (Harmon and Ballesteros 1997: 423). They provide additional historical evidence of concerns about the hidden meaning embedded within user queries. They quote Wyer (1930): 'The art of mind-reading, then is to know how to give people what they do not know they want' (Harmon and Ballesteros 1997: 101). The also suggest that: If only consciously expressed needs for information are dealt with, the underlying information need or problem may either be ignored or only partially solved. Further, attempts to address only those queries that are expressed in a conscious mode may treat the symptoms of the problem rather than the true problem itself. Such attempts can even give the illusion of problem resolution, and can hence be misleading, counter-productive, or even dangerous (Harmon and Ballesteros 1997: 424). The points presented by Harmon and Ballesteros underscore the main points in this paper. They differ, however, in their view of the nature of the unconscious. They also consider the role of the unconscious but from a cognitive perspective, focusing on how the 'unconscious mental processes can potentially affect the course of inquiry' (Harmon and Ballesteros 1997: 424), rather than focusing on how the underlying motivations, emotions, desires, thoughts, and wishes can affect all interactions involving information and human behaviour. The emphasis suggested here presents a more holistic picture of an individual, not just their cognitive processes and not just those at the conscious level. Cole also recognizes a similar observation when comparing similar awareness of information gaps between theories posited by Belkin (problem situation), Dervin (situation gap), and Kuhlthau. He states, 'In the three theories, the "situation" leads to a cognitive "gap"' (1997: 58) While the awareness of the gap may occur at a cognitive level, its underlying cause cannot be assumed to originate there. To fully understand what effects the unconscious has upon the ways in which users interact with information, research in the field can draw upon many disciplines. Brain research of the past fifteen to twenty years is revealing how people think, including the relationship between the conscious and unconscious mind (see, for example, Damasio 2003). This research can point us to a new understanding of how people's use of information is influenced by the complex relationship between conscious, unconscious, body, and society. By focusing on the limited assumptions of a cognitive paradigm, information behaviour research prevents itself from advancing our knowledge of the true understanding of our users. Drawing from research in the business literature on consumer behaviour, Zaltman (2003) identifies six fallacies of assumptions that are useful to identify the limitations of the cognitive perspective of information behaviour. The fallacies are listed below: As a result of these fallacies, the cognitive perspective is limited in several ways. First, the limitations presented by the cognitive perspective may lead researchers to draw conclusions based upon incomplete findings. The inclusion of a psychodynamic perspective provides additional opportunities for developing real insight into the interaction of information and human behaviour. A second limitation is that of emphasizing the wrong aspects of human behaviour. There are estimates that up to 85-95% of thought takes place in the unconscious outside of our awareness (Zaltman 2003; Westen 2007; Lindstrom 2010). If that is the case, information behaviour research may be investigating the other 5%. While cognitive processes (i.e., the ways in which we think about things) are vital to our understanding of the user's mental processes, they only provide us with a partial understanding of the ways in which people interact with information. With the recent addition of including affect in our understanding of the interaction between human behaviour and information, it would be useful to consider the full realm of emotion, not just those at the conscious level. While information behaviour theories have recently recognized the importance of affect in the interaction between user and information, and the fact that information behaviour is not necessarily rational, they have not considered the role of the unconscious in that interaction. The of the features of psychodynamic theory can provide information science with ways to investigate the unconscious in information behaviour research. For example, psychodynamic theory focuses on affect and the expression of emotion. Information behaviour research is already pushing the boundaries of cognitive explanations by questioning the role of emotions (see, for example, Julien et al. 2005; Giarlo 2006; Nahl and Bilal 2007). The title of Fulton's (2009) paper, The pleasure princple: the power of positive affect in information seeking, utilizes a phrase coined by Freud, although no mention is made of its origin or its meaning as referring to the motivation of Freud's id to seek pleasure. Psychodynamic theory also suggests that people avoid thoughts and feelings which are distressing and may develop defense mechanisms. The defense mechanisms can manifest themselves in a number of ways which have implications for information work. For example, users may avoid the discussion of certain topics which may have particular meaning to them, of which neither the user nor an information practitioner may have knowledge. This shift could provide clues to the information practitioner regarding selection of materials or specific ways of eliciting information from the user during a reference interview. Further, since language is considered to be a metaphorical representation of a user's unconscious, it is possible to understand how those feelings, thoughts, and behaviours are organized, allowing us to evaluate and apply information to a user's needs. For example, priming experiments from psychology may provide areas for fertile research in libray and information science, investigating ways in which we can prime our users to better articulate their information needs or identify barriers to information use. Psychodynamic theory also focuses on interpersonal relations. It supports the contention that information can be used to facilitate and enhance a user's experience and richness of life (e.g., bibliotherapy, information therapy). Targeting tailored information to specific users at critical times (e.g., health crises) can help users make specific decisions or change their behaviour. Trust is an important component of both psychodynamic theory and information practice as it provides reassurance of confidentiality and non-judgment. Westen (1998) reports that the history of psychoanalytic perspectives which began with Freud, have slowly become adopted by and integrated into cognitive perspectives from the behavioural side of the house. If information behaviour research is experiencing a shift from a person-centred approach to a person-in-context (or situational) approach as Vakkari (2008) notes, it seems reasonable to take notice of changes in psychological theories and consider their application for our own research. In other words, we should be pursuing a similar agenda, most notably by compounding our knowledge regarding affect and motivation into contemporary information behaviour models. It raises the question, should there be a shift from considering information behaviour as linear and conscious to behaviour that operates at many levels, including an unconscious level that particularly concerns motivation and emotion? The primary criticism that appears to be aimed at psychodynamic theories in psychology is that it is not measurable, although this is a point of disagreement among psychological researchers. Like information science, psychology faces similar arguments over how to approach the study of the human mind. The cognitive approach takes more of a black box approach, seeing the mind as an information processing unit that can be quantitatively measured. The psychodynamic approach promotes alternative approaches that are more qualitatively based (e.g., projective tests such as the thematic apperception test and Rorschach ink blot tests). The problems that arise from these perspectives are not unlike our own disagreements over approaches associated with the physical and cognitive paradigms. The field of psychology has struggled with these issues far longer than information science and has much to contribute to our understanding of the role of the unconscious in human behaviour. In our case, we are interested in how the underlying thoughts and feelings affect the interaction between information and human behaviour. This is not meant to imply that previous research from a cognitive perspective is not valuable; rather, the purpose of this paper is to bring attention to what appears to be an important oversight in our investigation of the interaction between information and human behaviour. The addition of this theoretical perspective will provide substantial clues that can contribute to many aspects of information science; everything from the reference interview to system design. Psychotherapy relies upon the words exchanged between two people to effect changes in behaviour. The underlying psychodynamic theories offer fertile ground for understanding the interaction between information and human behaviour. If library and information science is to advance its understanding of information behaviour, it needs to move beyond merely applying existing theory and method to include other theories and methodological tools available to us; in this case, particularly from the field of psychology, whose aim it is to investigate human behaviour and behaviour change. The use of projective tests in psychology, although controversial, are becoming more widely accepted in psychological research as they have improved in their validity and reliability scores (L. Handler, personal communication, June 10, 2010). These tests allow participants to assign their own interpretation of a particular stimuli, usually an image, revealing their unconscious emotions in the process. Common projective tests include the Rorschach inkblot test, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), free association, and sentence completion. These tests allow individuals to reveal their underlying motivations, defenses, and conflicts when they may not themselves be aware of them. These tests can be used in conjunction with the presentation of information materials and experiences, the results of which can be used to enhance the delivery of information services and products. As Heinstrom (2003) aptly suggests, 'search systems and information services must be further developed to better account for individual differences'. While Heinstrom was investigating personality types, the relationship between unconscious processes and personality types is closely tied and contextually dependent. Both present considerations for future research in our understanding of the relationship between information and human behaviour. Kendra Albright is Associate Professor in the School of Library and Information Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina. She received her Ph.D.degree in Communications and Master of Library and Information Science from the University of Tennessee. She can be contacted at firstname.lastname@example.org. \|Find other papers on this subject\| © the author, 2011. Last updated: 31 December, 2010	<urn:uuid:2fa4bd20-3ed4-4f23-8955-1c4f0ab24f32>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.informationr.net/ir/16-1/paper457.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.942021	6,595	3.296875	3
Do You Know How Effective Your Instructional Materials Are? You've created—or purchased—curriculum materials for your district, school or classroom. How much do you know about their effectiveness? Researchers from the Brookings Institution argue in a new white paper that instructional materials affect student achievement as much as any key factor, including effective teaching, and yet the research base is weak or nonexistent for most of the materials used in classrooms. That, they argue, must be remedied by changes in policy. The paper, "Choosing Blindly: Instructional Materials, Teacher Effectiveness, and the Common Core," comes to you from the same think tank that recently produced a report projecting that the common standards will have little effect on student achievement. One of the co-authors of this week's paper, Grover J. "Russ" Whitehurst, the U.S. Department of Education's former research chief, has done earlier work for Brookings that found it's curriculum, not standards, that can make an impact on student achievement. With co-author Matthew Chingos, he's mining than same vein of work here. Whitehurst and Chingos argue that our relative ignorance about curricula's effectiveness is "scandalous," especially as the Common Core State Standards drive creation of new instructional materials. But it's something that can be remedied if states, the federal government, philanthropies and nonprofits team up to focus on it, they write. To start with, states should survey their districts to see what materials are being used in classrooms, the two researchers argue. The federal government's National Center for Education Statistics can help this effort by creating data-collection templates and offering guidance. They envision organizations like the Data Quality Campaign playing a role by urging states to collect the information and helping them make sense of it once it's collected. Foundations that are big into education could help with monetary support.	<urn:uuid:58f97b1b-b905-4fc3-9a3a-8e91d19bed8a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/curriculum/2012/04/a_call_for_research_on_effecti.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962962	387	3.09375	3
Introducing a new pet into your home can be a bit of a challenge. This is especially true if there are current resident pets already in your household. Resident pets often times are very territorial and may become jealous of the new family member causing unwanted reactions from both sides. To help assure that both new and resident pets are properly socialized, and that they are able to cohabitate with each other, there are some techniques that you should follow. With a bit of caution and patience you will ease the transition and develop a safe happy household for both pets. \|When first introducing a new dog to a resident dog, pick a location that is not familiar to either animal. This will prevent your resident dog from viewing the newcomer as an intruder invading their territory. Leash both dogs and have a separate person handle each. Having another person handle the other makes it easier to restrain the dogs should you need to separate them. \| Before bringing them close enough for physical contact, allow your pets to know of each other's presence. Enforce good feelings by offering your pets a treat as well as petting them. This will associate and establish each other's presence with positive feelings. \|Leash both dogs and have a separate person handle them each.\| \|Associate good feelings with the presence of another pet using treats.\| Eventually you'll want to get your pets close enough so they can greet each other. Your dogs will sniff each other (this is normal canine greeting behavior). While they are sniffing each other, speak to them in a friendly tone and reward them with positive reinforcement. Don't let them sniff each other for too long though as one can take it as an annoyance and respond with aggression. \|Use a toy such as the Bettie as a diversion should aggression escalate between the two pets.\| Your pets might not take to liking each other right away. If you notice that either dog is getting too aggressive immediately interrupt their interaction and get each dog interested in something else. Toys or treats will provide a great distraction, allowing you to separate the two dogs. \|After the aggression has regressed, you can try to introduce them again in short intervals. If you have more than one resident dog, introduce them to your new dog one at a time. This will prevent them from ganging up on the newcomer.\| \|If you are introducing a puppy to an adult resident dog, it is important to never leave them alone until you are certain that they are not in any danger. Younger puppies may not recognize the cues adult dogs signal when they are annoyed. Most well socialized adult dogs will give puppies a warning snarl or growl- this is perfectly normal. Those that are not well socialized will respond to a puppy with more aggressive behavior such as biting which can harm the puppy.\| There is a lot of prep work you should do before letting your new cat free to roam around along with your other cats. Cats are very territorial and some are more social than others. Initially, the best way to introduce cats to each other is to keep them apart. \|Keep your new cat separated from the other cats in a medium sized room with their litter box, food, water, and a bed. You can slowly introduce your cats to each other's presence by feeding them close to the door that separates them. This will allow your cats to investigate each other's unique scents and smells without direct contact or seeing each other. Eventually you will want to open the door just enough so that they can see each other without being able to get too close for physical contact.\| \|Place food bowls such as our favorite Lucy food bowl on opposite sides of the door that seperates your cats to feed them.\| After a few days you will want to switch the cat's environments so that they can further investigate each other's scents before finally letting them roam freely. When your new cat is exploring their new environment, it will make them less susceptible to being frightened. The use of Feliway will bring out the best behavior in both cats. Feliway is a natural treatment that mimics a cat's pheromones so that they are prevented from spraying or clawing. Feliway will also calm your cats in stressfully situations. Once you are certain that your cats can at least tolerate each other you can engage a less social cat with the use of a catnip such as Krazy Kitty Katnip. One of the keys to successfully socializing your cat and dog is to introduce them to each other while they are young. Puppies and kittens that play nice at a younger age are more than likely to grow up to be adult dogs and cats that get along. It is important that you do not leave your pets alone together until you are certain they are properly socialized. Always keep your new pets supervised. Start off by having your pets be familiar with their new environment. Besides physical space, this also includes having your pets get familiar with each others sounds and scents. You can introduce your new pet to your other pet's items such as their beds and blankets. Slowly introduce your new puppy to your cat by letting them be aware of each other's presence without any physical contact. This will entail restraining your puppy and allowing the cat to explore their new friend. It's important to keep your cat safe. Though cat's can attack and fend for themself, dogs, even puppies, are more likely to deal the most physical harm. Should your puppy get overly excited by your cat's presence, give a prompt "no" command and give them a chew toy to play with. This will teach your puppy that it is not okay to go after your cat and that biting and chewing with their own toys is acceptable. \|The use of TranQuil-Tabs for dogs may calm puppies and dogs that get overly excited when introduced to your pet cat.\| \|Familiarize your new pet with your other pet's scents by introducing them to your other pet's beds. This Otis and Claude Sleep Bed is ideal for cats and small dogs.\| \|Teach your pet puppy that chewing on their toys is acceptable and attempting to chew on the cat is not. Premier offers a variety of durable chew toys like the Squeez Meeze Lady Bug above.\| \|Always keep an eye out for both pets and never leave them alone with each other unless you are certain that they will not cause each other physical harm.\|	<urn:uuid:7bb03513-6710-4fa2-9577-85703e0a21e7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.entirelypets.com/catdogfriends.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961403	1,321	2.546875	3
Select a Chapter Introduction to BOOK 2 Having completed his exposition of things, the author now proceeds to discuss the subject of signs. He first defines what a sign is, and shows that there are two classes of signs, the natural and the conventional. Of conventional signs (which are the only class here noticed), words are the most numerous and important, and are those with which the interpreter of Scripture is chiefly concerned. The difficulties and obscurities of Scripture spring chiefly from two sources, unknown and ambiguous signs. The present book deals only with unknown signs, the ambiguities of language being reserved for treatment in the next book. The difficulty arising from ignorance of signs is to be removed by learning the Greek and Hebrew languages, in which Scripture is written, by comparing the various translations, and by attending to the context. In the interpretation of figurative expressions, knowledge of things is as necessary as knowledge of words; and the various sciences and arts of the heathen, so far as they are true and useful, may be turned to account in removing our ignorance of signs, whether these be direct or figurative. Whilst exposing the folly and futility of many heathen superstitions and practices, the author points out how all that is sound and useful in their science and philosophy may be turned to a Christian use. And in conclusion, he shows the spirit in which it behoves us to address ourselves to the study and interpretation of the sacred books.	<urn:uuid:645ab4ad-53c1-46af-8f7a-16c758cdc8c5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.leaderu.com/cyber/books/augocd/ocdtocb2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958262	290	3.234375	3
Remember to use compostable bags or reusable containers for yard waste this fall As fall arrives and leaves start to fall, Minneapolis Solid Waste & Recycling customers should remember that all bagged yard waste put out for collection must now be in compostable bags – either Kraft (paper) bags or compostable plastic bags – or reusable containers. This change is required by state law, and in Minneapolis it began with this year’s yard waste collection season. Yard waste in non-compostable plastic bags will be left and tagged for residents to re-package. Using Kraft (paper) and compostable plastic bags rather than conventional lawn and garden plastic bags will reduce the amount of plastic being sent to local composting facilities. Screening out less plastic from the finished compost means lower processing costs and better quality finished compost. Compostable plastic bags are distinct from conventional lawn and garden plastic bags because they are usually clear or a translucent shade of green, pink or white. Most home improvement, grocery, and hardware stores now carry them. Anyone who prefers not to purchase compostable bags may place unbagged yard waste in a reusable container with sturdy handles. Other options include dropping off yard waste at a compost facility and taking the bag back home, or composting yard waste at home and using the nutrient-rich compost for gardens and lawns. Minneapolis Solid Waste & Recycling customers can set compostable bags of yard waste, bundles of brush and reusable yard waste containers next to their garbage cart by 6 a.m. on their garbage collection day through their pickup day in the week of Nov. 12. Branches and leaves must be tied with string or twine, bagged in a compostable bag or placed loose in a reusable container. Branches must be less than three inches each in diameter and less than three feet long. Bundles must weigh less than 40 pounds. All compostable bags and reusable containers must be 33 gallons or less and weigh less than 40 pounds. For questions about leaf and brush pickup, call 612-673-2917 from 8 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. or visit the City's website. Published Sep 12, 2012	<urn:uuid:040a2aaf-57eb-43fb-a9c4-8c9d244a419c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.minneapolismn.gov/news/WCMS1P-098372	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.927413	447	2.59375	3
Search our database of handpicked sites Looking for a great physics site? We've tracked down the very best and checked them for accuracy. Just fill out the fields below and we'll do the rest. You searched for We found 16 results on physics.org and 85 results in our database of sites 85 are Websites, 0 are Videos, and 0 are Experiments) Search results on physics.org Search results from our links database Take a virtual tour of a martian base and discover the technology that might be used to set up camp on the red planet A catalogue of satellite images of our home planet detailing everything from atmospheric data to city lights or natural disasters. NASA information on Toutatis, an asteroid which passed very close to our planet in 2000. Why the South Pole is a great place to study our planet's climate. Straightforward, easy to understand answers to 13 frequently asked questions about the planet Earth. The ESA's GOCE satellite is on a mission to map our planet's gravity field. Fantastic interactive site answering questions about our planet e.g. Where does the the sunlight that hits Earth go? Where does the Sky become space? A site about exoplanets from hyperphysics. Computer generated images of the earth from satellites showing various data such as the location of icebergs and natural disasters. Explanations and figures for the physical facts concerning our planet earth. This forms part of the Views of the Solar System site. Showing 21 - 30 of 85	<urn:uuid:c1365467-e9f5-46d4-9f14-89428cdb33a0>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.physics.org/explore-results-all.asp?currentpage=3&age=0&knowledge=0&q=planet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.883567	319	2.796875	3
The exploding stars known as Type Ia supernovae serve an important role in measuring the universe, and were used to discover the existence of dark energy. They’re bright enough to see across large distances, and similar enough to act as a “standard candle” – an object of known luminosity. The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for the discovery of the accelerating universe using Type Ia supernovae. However, an embarrassing fact is that astronomers still don’t know what star systems make Type Ia supernovae. Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/Rutgers/K.Eriksen et al.; Optical: DSS Two very different models explain the possible origin of Type Ia supernovae, and different studies support each model. New evidence shows that both models are correct – some of these supernovae are created one way and some the other. “Previous studies have produced conflicting results. The conflict disappears if both types of explosion are happening,” explained Smithsonian astronomer and Clay Fellow Ryan Foley (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics). Type Ia supernovae are known to originate from white dwarfs – the dense cores of dead stars. White dwarfs are also called degenerate stars because they’re supported by quantum degeneracy pressure. In the single-degenerate model for a supernova, a white dwarf gathers material from a companion star until it reaches a tipping point where a runaway nuclear reaction begins and the star explodes. In the double-degenerate model, two white dwarfs merge and explode. Single-degenerate systems should have gas from the companion star around the supernova, while the double-degenerate systems will lack that gas. “Just like mineral water can be with or without gas, so can supernovae,” said Robert Kirshner, Clowes Professor of Astronomy at Harvard University and a co-author on the study. Foley and his colleagues studied 23 Type Ia supernovae to look for signatures of gas around the supernovae, which should be present only in single-degenerate systems. They found that the more powerful explosions tended to come from “gassy” systems, or systems with outflows of gas. However, only a fraction of supernovae show evidence for outflows. The remainder seem to come from double-degenerate systems. “There are definitely two kinds of environments – with and without outflows of gas. Both are found around Type Ia supernovae,” Foley said. This finding has important implications for measurements of dark energy and the expanding universe. If two different mechanisms are at work in Type Ia supernovae, then the two types must be considered separately when calculating cosmic distances and expansion rates. “It’s like measuring the universe with a mix of yardsticks and meter sticks – you’ll get about the same answer, but not quite. To get an accurate answer, you need to separate the yardsticks from the meter sticks,” Foley explained. This study raises an interesting question – if two different mechanisms create Type Ia supernovae, why are they homogeneous enough to serve as standard candles? “How can supernovae coming from different systems look so similar? I don’t have the answer for that,” said Foley. The paper describing this research will appear in the Astrophysical Journal and is available online. Source: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA)	<urn:uuid:fa425b4d-2463-4d27-ba02-fc5810c67f87>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://annesastronomynews.com/supernovae-come-from-two-different-systems/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.927218	745	3.859375	4
The Department for Education (DfE) is consulting on the content of the national curriculum until April 16th and is asking the public and 'stakeholders' for their input. British Cycling is responding to the consultation and urging its 70,000 members to do the same – calling for children to be given the chance to learn how to ride a bike confidently on the road. Likewise the CTC is encouraging its members and other cyclists to respond to the consultation (see below). According to British Cycling, despite the good work of Bikeability in schools, only around half of all children currently have access to some form of cycle training. The training takes young people out on the road to teach them vital life skills about awareness, traffic riding and to get them used to the experience of cycling to school. Non-compulsory Bikeability training replaced ‘cycle proficiency’ tests in 2007 when the initiative was rolled out by the Department for Transport. This isn't the first time the call has been made to include cycling on the curriculum. Mountain biking has been on the curriculum in Scotland since 2010 and some English local authorities are teaching school children cycling as part of the curriculum – including in Derby since 2007. “Cycling is a vital life-skill that all children should have – especially if we want to normalise cycling as an everyday activity that all people can do," said British Cycling director for Policy and Legal Affairs Martin Gibbs.Article continues below He added: “Cycling is a vital life-skill that all children should have – especially if we want to normalise cycling as an everyday activity that all people can do. "Like the ability to swim, cycling is a skill that young people carry with them throughout their adult lives – be that cycling as a sport, a form of transport and a way to keep fit and healthy. “Bikeability training shouldn’t just be the preserve of children whose schools or local authorities happen to promote cycling - it should be for everyone. "We’ve taught thousands of young people how to ride bikes and we’ve introduced almost 400,000 young people to competitive cycling since 2009 but there are still millions of children who are missing out on cycling and we want to change that.” British Cycling has delivered Bikeability training to thousands of adults and children since 2009 through schools and summer holiday courses. Over 2,000 young people have participated in Bikeability training with British Cycling since 2009. British Cycling has also trained over 600 Bikeability instructors. Go-Ride – British Cycling’s youth cycling initiative – has provided 359,000 opportunities for young people to experience coaching and competitive cycling since 2009. British Cycling has come up with some suggested wording that can be pasted in to the relevant section, which can be found in the link at the foot of this article. Alternatively the CTC's system allows you to amend and/or submit automatically, via this link.	<urn:uuid:aefaab1d-ec48-496d-b03b-883dbbec1dd5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bikebiz.com/news/read/cycling-to-be-put-on-the-national-curriculum/014653	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.967659	601	2.71875	3
A chord and a scale are two different ways of looking at the same thing: a group of pitches that sound good together. If you organize the pitches sequentially and play them one at a time, you get a scale. If you stack them up and play them simultaneously, you get chords. Here’s a guide to the most commonly-used scales in Western music and their moods. To make a chord, you start on the first note of a scale and then move up it in thirds, meaning that you skip every alternating note. To get more notes for your chord, just keep adding thirds on top. - If you start on the first scale degree, add the third scale degree, and then add the fifth scale degree, you get a simple three-note chord called a triad. - If you add the seventh scale degree on top, you get a seventh chord. - Next you come to the ninth note of the scale, which is really just the second note an octave up. Adding it gives you a ninth chord. - Then you come to the eleventh note of the scale, which is the fourth note an octave up. Adding it gives you an eleventh chord. - Finally, you arrive at the thirteenth note of the scale, which is the sixth note an octave up. Adding it gives you a thirteenth chord. - The next third after the thirteenth is just the root of the scale. You’ve now used every possible note in your chord. There’s a broad diversity of harmonic practices being used out there in the world of blues-based popular music, rock in particular. While a given song may not use a lot of scales and chords, the relationships between those scales and chords is rarely simple or obvious. You really just need to learn all of them. It takes a lot of practice. Fortunately, there is a single scale that works in every situation, which I’ll get to at the end of this post. My fellow NYU adjunct Rebecca Feynberg recently hipped me to Vasily Kalinnikov. If you listen to this piece at 6:16, there’s a particularly lovely and tragic chord progression. It’s in the key of E-flat, but I transposed it into C for ease of understanding: \|\|: Am \| D7 \| Fm \| C :\|\| I mentally refer to this progression as the Willie Nelson turnaround, because I first heard it in his classic tune “I’d Have To Be Crazy” (written not by Willie, but by Steven Fromholz.) I had the pleasure of performing this many times back in my country music days, and it makes a great lullaby for Milo. The version of the progression in “I’d Have To Be Crazy” uses a different harmonic rhythm, and starts on the I chord instead of vi, but the emotional effect is the same. Willie’s tune is in E, but again, I transposed into C for easier comparison. \|\| C \| % \| % \| % \| D7 \| Fm \| C \| % \|\| At the top of the tune and in various other spots, he also uses this variant: \|\| C \| % \| G7 \| % \| D7 \| Fm \| C \| % \|\| When I was a kid, I’d listen to music and wonder, why is this chord progression so much more satisfying than that one? Now I know the answer: secondary dominants, chords that temporarily change the key in a logical-sounding way. If you want to take your songwriting in a more sophisticated direction, you definitely want to get hip to secondary dominants. I studied music theory for a good long time before it dawned on me that you can read the major scale right off the circle of fifths. Here’s the C major scale on the circle. The white notes are the ones in the scale and the black ones are the ones outside the scale. The white notes correspond to the white keys on the piano, and the black notes to the black keys. The circle of fifths trick works for all the major scales, not just C. Pick any note on the circle and think of it as the root. The note immediately counterclockwise from the root will be the fourth of the key. The five notes going clockwise from the root are the fifth, second, sixth, third and seventh of the key respectively. The other five notes will be the ones you omit — the “black keys.” The blues is a good entry path for beginner guitarists. If you learn the standard fifteen chords and the blues scale, you’ll be well on your way. However, there’s one crucial piece of additional music vocabulary you need to fully inhabit blues tonality, and that’s diminished chords. To make a diminished chord, you start on any note, go up a minor third, then another, then another. Here are the notes in C diminished — the scale tones are in red. Here are some good guitar fingerings for diminished chords. Diminished chords are highly symmetrical, which gives them a peculiar property. The circle above shows C diminished, but the same notes also make Eb, F# and A diminished. The only difference between these four chords is their respective bass notes. This symmetry means that there are only four diminished chords total. The diagrams below show what I mean. On the left is the circle of fifths; on the right is the circle of half-steps. Each square is a diminished chord. Minor keys are way more complicated than major keys. But the effort is worth it; all that complexity gives a richer array of expressive possibility. The best place to start with minor keys, paradoxically, is with the major scale modes. The pitches in E-flat major are the same as the ones in C natural minor. If you think of C as home base rather than E-flat, you get a bunch of useful chords and scales. The C major scale is the foundation that the rest of western music theory sits on. If you master it, you get a bunch of cool chords and scales for free, along with a window into a huge swath of our musical culture. How to form the scale Imagine an ice cube tray with twelve slots, one for each note in the western tuning system, labeled like so: To make the C major scale, you just remove all the ice cubes with # in their names, like so: [C][ ][D][ ][E][F][ ][G][ ][A][ ][B] Expanding on a post about blues basics. When you’re first learning to improvise, it’s daunting to be confronted with all the scales. Fortunately, there’s one scale that sounds good in any situation: the blues scale. It’s a universal harmonic solvent. I haven’t encountered a chord progression yet that didn’t fit with the blues scale. It works in blues, of course, but it also sounds terrific in rock, country, jazz, reggae, funk and much else. How to play the blues scale The blues scale is the minor pentatonic with a note added, the sharp fourth/flat fifth. The C blues scale is C, Eb, F, F#, G, Bb. Here it is in standard music notation: And here it is on the chromatic circle (left) and the circle of fifths (right): The blues scale is easy to play on guitar. Your index finger plays the root on the E string, so to play C blues, put your index on the eighth fret. The Eb blues scale is exceptionally easy to play on piano — just play the black keys and add the note A. Since I’m teaching the twelve-bar blues to some guitar students, I figured I’d put the lessons in the form of a blog post. Blues is a big topic and this isn’t going to be anything like a definitive guide. Think of it more as a tasting menu. Blues is a confusing term. You probably have some idea of what blues is, but it’s surprisingly hard to define it specifically. There are many songs with the word “blues” in the title that aren’t technically blues at all, like “Lovesick Blues” by Hank Williams. John Lee Hooker was the living embodiment of blues, but a lot of his best-known songs aren’t technically blues either. Meanwhile, there are quite a few songs using the blues form that you might not think to identify as blues. Two examples: “Shuckin’ The Corn” by Flatt and Scruggs, and the theme from the sixties Batman TV show. So what exactly is blues?	<urn:uuid:0ba550a4-3e73-47a6-8738-318315167491>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ethanhein.com/wp/tag/chords/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.928525	1,853	3.515625	4
Reasons to study King Alfred’s English Back when I was in college, history was not my strong suit and I found it only mildly interesting. But that all changed when I took a course on the history of the English language for my English degree at Auburn University. The history suddenly popped. It came alive. And from that point on I had a framework, a reference, a sequence of pivotal English history events which I never forgot. Not only that, but I had a whole new appreciation for language itself, beyond just English, and the miracle of God that it truly is. It struck me as a real shame that I had not been taught this historical framework and at least some of these fascinating concepts about language in middle school or high school. Such a study would have certainly sparked a keener understanding and interest in all my future courses in both history and English, and also in the study of a foreign language. Here are a few more details of what your student will get from reading King Alfred’s English: - English political history can be dense and confusing, and I think that’s an understatement. King Alfred’s English makes it lean and understandable (and humorous) as it presents events through the lens of 4 language “invasions” and how they changed the course of the way we speak. Most of these language-altering tsunami’s were brought on by the actual invasion of an army, and that’s where much of the history comes in. Students will get a useful mind-map of major events to which they can easily pushpin finer facts and details when they reach them in later high school or college. - The story of English incorporates the study of language itself, and as such, becomes a springboard for understanding the curious and often quirky functions of grammar and syntax in a way no other study can do. Words–those fascinating little critters we use everyday and take for granted–deserve so much more! They are truly a separate species with a life of their own. - The publishing of the English Bible had an unprecedented affect on the development of English. King Alfred’s English fleshes out this story along with the Reformation and the men such as Wycliffe and Tyndale who risked or gave their lives to get the Bible to the common English man and woman. Tyndale’s work, especially, is examined in some depth including the influence he had not only on the later King James Bible, but also on the popular phrases and vocabulary of all those who speak English. - King Alfred’s English can be a brief read-through in two or three weeks, or it can be extended to a full semester if the supplemental writing and research is assigned. (Suggested assignments are on the Teacher’s Page along with chapter worksheets and tests). My goal was to make this mini-course a broadening, faith building, and entertaining trek for any student or homeschooling family.	<urn:uuid:e7e5af82-e333-42cb-adfc-4ccb5ff08372>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.theshorterword.com/kae/reasons-to-study	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.966505	614	2.8125	3
Dawn Journal \| September 3, 2007 NASA is preparing (again) to bring Dawn to the Florida skies as all systems are gearing up for a September 26 launch. This new date is later than had been planned just a few months ago; nevertheless, as we shall see, in the most important sense, this genuinely is not a delay for Dawn's mission of adventure, discovery, and the search for answers to exciting and important scientific questions. Earth's next interplanetary ambassador remains on schedule for its engagements. Following the decision in July to reschedule the launch, a complex story described in the previous log and occasionally told with other scary stories around campfires or microscopic black holes in elliptical galaxies, the first priority was to move Dawn from Cape Canaveral's Space Launch Complex 17B to a safe location so NASA's bold new Mars explorer, Phoenix, could launch from nearby 17A. After the protective payload fairing (the nose cone) was removed from the Delta II rocket, the spacecraft and mated third stage were detached from the second stage on July 22. They were transported back to the Hazardous Processing Facility clean room at Astrotech Space Operations for safe storage. Since then, the spacecraft has had a very leisurely summer vacation, with little to do but allow technicians and engineers to maintain its readiness while it enthusiastically anticipates the autumnal beginning of its interplanetary voyage. Meanwhile, the first and second stages of the rocket remained on the launch pad, where they had a delightfully close view of the launch of Phoenix on August 4. Soon Dawn and the third stage will be reunited with the rest of the launch vehicle. One of the keys to success in space exploration (and in some other challenging and complex endeavors of the human species) is careful planning and preparation for contingencies. In one example of that, as soon as the crane used to erect Dawn's launch vehicle malfunctioned on May 30, engineers at JPL, Kennedy Space Center, and United Launch Alliance began detailed preparations for the possibility of a launch in September or October. Had the work not begun as early and as intensively as it did, it is quite likely that it would not have been possible to complete it in time for launching after Phoenix. Even with its uniquely capable ion propulsion system, Dawn cannot conduct its exploration of both Vesta and Ceres if it does not launch before late October 2007. In working out the complex strategies for planning launches, engineers use a great deal of jargon, such as "C3 = 11.4 km2/s2" (C3 equals 11.4 kilometers squared per second squared), "-2σ RLA dispersion for a 95% PCS" (negative two sigma right ascension of the launch asymptote dispersion for a 95% probability of command shutdown), or "This project is so cool, I can hardly believe we get paid to do this" (OK, perhaps this last isn't really jargon, but it is part of the Dawn parlance). Terms that are particularly pertinent to our discussion here are the "launch period," the interval of days on which a launch may occur, and the "launch window," the range of time on any one day in the launch period during which a launch may take place. Most interplanetary missions have brief launch periods during which they must take off or pay the price of a significant change in their itineraries. As explained in previous logs, Dawn's travels are unusual because of the extraordinary capability of the ion propulsion system, which provides a thrust of susurrant gentleness that is more than compensated for by its virtually tireless persistence. With so much maneuvering capability, even though its launch was deferred by months, Dawn's scheduled arrivals at asteroid Vesta and dwarf planet Ceres are effectively unchanged. The delay in launch does not necessitate a delay in accomplishment of Dawn's goals, so in many important ways, from an overall mission perspective, the postponement of the launch is inconsequential. Indeed, a complex combination of myriad factors, including the positions of Earth in its orbit on candidate launch dates in 2007, of Mars in its orbit in the first few months of 2009, and of Vesta in its orbit late in 2011, makes the new launch more favorable for the mission. Although still a challenge of astronomical proportion, this will make it slightly easier for Dawn to complete its assignment. This may be translated to slightly greater resilience in keeping its alien appointments should it encounter difficulties on its voyage through the unforgiving and remote depths of space. Now Dawn will follow a completely different launch trajectory and take a different path to Mars. Had it launched in July, the spacecraft would have used Mars early in April 2009 to boost it along its way to Vesta. In the new plan, it will swing by the red planet in February 2009. Mars is one of the easiest destinations in the solar system to reach, and Dawn could travel there more quickly if that were its sole objective. Much of the ion thrusting prior to Mars however is designed to aim the craft so that when it reaches Earth's neighbor, the planet's gravity slings it in the most effective way to help it in its long flight to distant Vesta. Leaving Earth in September or October lets Dawn gain greater benefit from its brief visit to Mars. Despite remaining with Earth throughout the summer of 2007, Dawn's new flight profile will allow it to catch up with the old one. The spacecraft will be in the same place in the solar system in the summer of 2009 as it would have been had it launched in June or July. The mission after that will be quite similar to what it would have been with the earlier launch. The principal difference is that to accomplish the mission with the later launch, Dawn will consume a little less of its xenon propellant, so more will be available in case the probe needs to perform unplanned thrusting. To account for the new launch date and path to Mars, Dawn's departure from Earth will be very different from what it would have been in June or July. Instead of launch windows in the middle of the afternoon, now Dawn will launch closer to dawn. On September 26, the launch window is 7:25 am EDT to 7:54 am EDT. (To simplify coordination among the many organizations around the world participating in the launch, liftoff is scheduled on the whole minute. The capability to round off the time this way is another benefit of the ion propulsion system's flexibility, and it should be particularly appreciated by all Dawn enthusiasts on planets whose clocks don't have second hands, including our newest readers, members of the Honorable Minority of Antipunctualists in the Horologium supercluster of galaxies.) If unfavorable weather or other fortuities prevent launch (possibilities with which all loyal readers are exceptionally familiar) on September 26, launch windows during the rest of the launch period are: Sept. 27: 7:20 - 7:49 am EDT Sept. 28: 7:14 - 7:43 Sept. 29: 7:09 - 7:38 Sept. 30: 7:03 - 7:32 Oct. 1: 7:12 - 7:31 Oct. 2: 6:55 - 7:24 Oct. 3: 6:49 - 7:17 Oct. 4: 6:44 - 7:13 Oct. 5: 6:41 - 7:10 Oct. 6: 6:38 - 7:07 Oct. 7: 6:35 - 7:12 Oct. 8: 6:34 - 7:12 Oct. 9: 6:33 - 7:11 Oct. 10: 5:43 - 6:23 Oct. 11: 5:42 - 6:22 Oct. 12: 5:13 - 5:54 Oct. 13: 5:13 - 5:57 Oct. 14: 5:16 - 5:58 Oct. 15: 5:18 - 6:00 Mortal readers are encouraged not to waste time trying to discern a pattern in either the time of the opening of the launch windows or the window durations. The underlying reasons for these values are manifold and complicated, and to avoid violating statutes in some spiral galaxies on publishing dangerously boring text, the explanations will be omitted. Let's look briefly at just one relatively simple observation: the 19-minute window on October 1 is shorter than all the others. Under certain circumstances that are unlikely but possible, an earlier launch window opening on that day would make Dawn pass close enough to the moon less than 28 hours later that the gravitational deflection of the spacecraft could only be compensated by significantly more ion thrusting than planned. Rather than take the small risk of incurring this minor complication in the mission, the window was shortened. On all other days in the launch period, as the spacecraft departs Earth in roughly the same direction, the moon will be elsewhere in its orbit so it will not cause as much interference in the trajectory. Still, the moon's gravity is included in all analyses. Demanding as it is, there is more to replanning the mission than designing new trajectories for the rocket and the spacecraft. Because the geometry for the departure from Earth has changed so much, the Dawn operations team has had to redesign many of the activities scheduled during the early part of the mission. The location of the spacecraft relative to Earth and the Sun will be quite different from what had been planned, so onboard instructions for how to orient in order to achieve certain objectives must be modified. While Dawn itself has spent an unusually quiet and leisurely time at Astrotech waiting to be reunited with its rocket, mission controllers have been very busy indeed developing new plans and the corresponding sets of commands for the first few months of the mission. To maintain proficiency for launch, the team also completed another set of simulations of the final 16 hours of countdown, launch, and the first day or so of flight. Most of the week of August 27 was devoted to a slightly shortened version of the ORTathon that was conducted early in June. Differences from the first ORTathon included not only the launch time and trajectory, but also a new set of fiendish surprises injected by the simulation supervisor and a modified (and, in this participant's careful analysis, a superior) selection of snack food in mission control. One regrettable consequence of the changed launch conditions is that the timelines presented in the June 23 and July 5 logs will not apply for the new launch period. This threatens a lucrative deal negotiated with importers of the stone-engraved versions of these logs on icy asteroids in most irregular galaxies. Therefore, in the coming weeks, when the relevant analyses are completed and the new data are available, those logs will be reposted with the only changes being those that are essential to bring them up to date for the new launch plan. Dr. Marc D. Rayman September 3, 2007 \|<< Previous entry\|\|All entries\|\|Next entry >>\|	<urn:uuid:85f10173-ce54-4517-b512-42eb958480ba>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/journal_9_03_07.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963526	2,239	2.609375	3
New Technology Transforms Research in Viral Biology By Revealing How Real Viruses Infect Real Cells, the Technology Promises to Provide Insights that Will Improve Viral Therapy Researchers at The Mount Sinai Medical Center have developed an innovative system to test how a virus interacts with cells in the body — to see, for example, what happens in lung cells when a deadly respiratory virus attacks them. In the journal Cell Host & Microbe, investigators say such a technique will not only speed basic research into viral biology, it will also help scientists improve vaccine production, generate novel antiviral compounds, and advance the development of viruses that attack cancer cells. “We have a powerful system in place today to investigate ways in which viruses interact with cells, which has yielded fundamental insights. But has significant limitations such as cost, difficulty of use, and the problem that the cells we have to use are not in any way physiologically relevant to the virus we want to study,” said the senior investigator, Benjamin tenOever, PhD, Fishberg Professor in the Department of Medicine and Department of Microbiology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. “The new system that we developed is much less costly, can be transferrable from the study of one virus to another, and, best of all, allows us to use the real virus in the real environment it infects,” Dr. tenOever said. Both the old and new systems essentially do the same thing—they test the effect of the virus on every one of the “host factors” in a cell. Given that genomes encode about 25,000 different genes, each of which produces a different protein or molecule, researchers test what happens to viral growth and replication when each of those 25,000 factors are silenced. “By systematically silencing every one of those host cell factors, we can theoretically pinpoint a single protein that allows a virus to grow quickly, or another one that stops viral infection,” Dr. tenOever said. The technique in use today employs small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules to silence the expression of genes in the host cell — a robotic arm introduces a distinctive siRNA to small populations of human or animal cells. But the system requires cells that are easy to grow as a substitute for natural cells. Immortal cancer cells or fibroblasts (connective cells) are often used, “which are not relevant in any way to the cells that most viruses attack. In order to study viruses this way, researchers have to modify them so that they can grow in these cells. This doesn’t represent an accurate disease model,” Dr. tenOever said. “If you want to know how flu viruses cause disease, you really want to look in the lungs or lung tissue of mammals — which has not been possible in this kind of screen.” To make that possible, the researchers gave viruses the capacity to make those siRNAs — eliminating the need for robots to administer individual siRNAs to individual host cells. “We created a virus family identical in all respects, except that each member of the family carries a different siRNA,” Dr. tenOever says. “So in this swarm of viral soldiers, each one has a very small trick up its sleeve—it can silence one thing in the host cell. And because of this, we can use the cells that viruses actually infect—such as lung cells.” The researchers modified an alphavirus — a class of viruses that includes a microbe that produces encephalitisso that 10,000 family “members” each carried a distinct siRNA — which acts as a barcode of sorts. Then they allowed the virus to infect mice by mimicking the natural route of infection, such as a mosquito bite, and “let nature do its work,” Dr. tenOever said. “We let evolution select for those viruses whose individual capacity to eliminate one thing gives them the growth advantage to outgrow their brothers and sisters.” A week after the modified virus infection, researchers were able to “see” which virus grew faster than others, and could read the barcode that indicated which gene was silenced. They could also pinpoint the viruses that quickly died in cells. Such findings not only help researchers understand how the virus operates within the cell it infects, but also reveal excellent host targets for which to design antiviral drugs. Once the virus family is generated for study, it can be amplified, so there is no need to re-engineer the virus library again, he added. This screening system will likely have many clinical care applications, Dr. tenOever said. “It could be used to generate cell cultures that allow enhanced vaccine production. You could improve the capacity of a therapeutic virus to get into a particular tissue, to kill tumor cells, or to chase after metastatic cancer cells,” he said. “There is potentially no end to uses of this technology.” The research was supported in part by the US Army Research Laboratory and the US Army Research Office under grant numbers W911NF-12-R-0012 and W911NF-08-1-0413. Researchers from Columbia University also contributed to the study. About The Mount Sinai Medical Center The Mount Sinai Medical Center encompasses both The Mount Sinai Hospital and Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Established in 1968, the Icahn School of Medicine is one of the leading medical schools in the United States, with more than 3,400 faculty in 32 departments and 14 research institutes. It ranks among the top 20 medical schools both in National Institutes of Health (NIH) funding and by U.S. News & World Report. The Mount Sinai Hospital, founded in 1852, is a 1,171-bed tertiary- and quaternary-care teaching facility and one of the nation’s oldest, largest and most-respected voluntary hospitals. The Mount Sinai Hospital is nationally ranked by U.S. News & World Report as one of the top 25 hospitals in 7 specialties based on reputation, safety, and other patient-care factors. For more information, visit http://www.mountsinai.org/. Find Mount Sinai on: # # #	<urn:uuid:962817ef-fe1b-411b-a80e-49ded1d4765d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mountsinai.org/about-us/newsroom/press-releases/new-technology-transforms-research-in-viral-biology	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.941936	1,303	3.84375	4
Civil War Overview Civil War 1861 Civil War 1862 Civil War 1863 Civil War 1864 Civil War 1865 Civil War Battles Robert E. Lee Civil War Medicine Civil War Links Civil War Art Republic of Texas Civil War Gifts Robert E. Lee Portrait THE INDIANA BRIGADE. TWELVE thousand stanch, undaunted men, Twelve thousand Hoosiers we The rifles on our shoulders, The sabres at our knee. From Indiana we are come, Trav'ling mountains o'er; And the song we sing is, Carry me back To Old Virginia shore ! Our harvest fields of golden Are left with those we love ; We're fighting to maintain for aye The flag that floats above. There's many a rebel soldier knows, When welt'ring in his gore, The reason why we've tramped so far To Old Virginia shore. The gray-haired man his blessing pours, With tears, as we pass by ; The red-checked girl her welcome speaks, With a brightly-sparkling eye. They're glad we've come ; for rebels fly, Their cannon cease to roar, Their flag to scent the mountain air That wraps Virginia's shore. Twelve thousand stanch, undaunted men—Twelve thousand more to come ; And many eyes shall never see The smiles that welcome home. But hands are firm, and hearts will dare Brave deeds ne'er heard before stars and stripes shall float again O'er all Virginia's shore. NEW ALBANY, July 20. THE WOUNDED AT THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN. page 502 we illustrate CARRYING IN THE WOUNDED AT THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN, from sketches by our special artist. The fate of many of the wounded was terrible; they were bayoneted where they lay by the rebel troops. The following, from the New York Tribune, is one of many pieces or evidence which have been laid before the public : Surgeon Barnes, of the New York Twenty-eighth Volunteers, was in the fight all through, and came out of it in his shirt sleeves, having lost coat, sash, watch, and all his surgical instruments, having been charged on by the Black Horse Cavalry and compelled to leave the field, being driven from under a tree where he had established his temporary quarters, and where he was attending to the wounds of about twenty-five injured men, part of whom were secessionists. Surgeon Barnes went up to the battle-field in the rear of the attacking column, and, as soon as our men began to fall, he took a position with his assistants under a tree, in a little ravine. The wounded men were brought to him, and he took off his green sash and hung it on the tree to signify that the place was under the charge of a surgeon. The injured men were brought in rapidly, and in fifteen minutes he had under his charge nearly thirty. As fast as possible he attended to their hurts, and in a short time had been compelled to perform a number of capital operations. He amputated four legs, three arms, a hand, and a foot, and attended to a number of minor injuries. By this time the enemy had discovered the place, and the nature of the men in charge, and began to pour in musket-balls, and projectiles from rifled cannon. The place became unsafe for the wounded men, and it was seen to be necessary to remove them. The Surgeon's Assistants and servant had become separated from him, and he had no one to send for ambulances, and was obliged to leave the wounded men and go himself. It was no easy matter to procure ambulances enough, and it was probably thirty minutes before the Surgeon returned with the necessary assistance. When he returned he found that every one of those wounded men had been bayoneted or sabred, and was dead. They were literally cut to pieces. THE FIRE ZOUAVES AND THE BLACK HORSE CAVALRY. WE publish on page 501 an illustration of the terrible conflict which took place at the battle of Bull Run between the Fire Zouaves and the Black Horse Cavalry. One of the lieutenants of the Zouaves thus tells the tale : The Zouaves rushed out of the woods only to find themselves the target for another body of infantry beyond, while the Black Horse Cavalry were seen charging full upon them. Things looked badly, when, fortunately, the infantry were engaged by another regiment, thus giving the Zouaves time to prepare for the charge from the horsemen. They formed hastily in line, kneeling, semi-kneeling, and standing, that, Ellsworth fashion, they might receive their enemies with successive volleys. On came the Horse—a full regiment of brave men, splendidly mounted, and as ready for mischief as those on whom they hoped to fall. To an early discharge from the cavalry the Zouaves made no response, although several of the men were killed, but waited patiently until the enemy was almost upon them, when, in quick succession, the three ranks fired, each man doing his best for the good cause. The shock to the rebels was great; but they rallied, behaving splendidly, and attempted a renewal of the charge, for which, however, the excited firemen were prepared, and for which the Black Horse Cavalry paid most dearly. They were completely shattered, broken up, and swept away. Not more than a hundred of them rode off, and as they went their rebellious ears were saluted with "One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, tigah, Zouave!" and such a "tiger repeat" as one can only appreciate when he has heard it. The following account is from a New York Zouaves received the first charge of the famous Black Horse Guard, about which Governor Wise has so often spoken. It was a splendid corps of cavalry, all the horses of which were coal black. They came upon the Zouave regiment at a gallop, and were received by the brave firemen upon their poised bayonets, followed instantly by a volley, from which they broke and fled, though several of the Zouaves were cut down in the assault. They quickly returned, with their forces doubled—perhaps six or seven hundred—and again they dashed with fearful yells upon the excited Zouaves. This time they bore an American flag, and a part of the Zouaves supposed for an instant that they were fiends, whom they had originally mistaken. The flag was quickly thrown down, however, the horses dashed upon the regiment, the ruse was discovered, and the slaughter commenced. No quarter, no halting, no flinching now, marked the rapid and death-dealing blows of our men as they closed in upon the foe, in their madness and desperation. Our brave fellows fell, the ranks filled up, the sabres, bowie-knives, and bayonets glistened in the sunlight, horse after horse went down, platoon after platoon disappeared—the rattle of musketry, the screams of the rebels, the shout of " Remember from the lungs of the Zouaves, and the yells of the wounded and crushed belligerents filled the air, and a terrible carnage succeeded. The gallant Zouaves fought to the death, and were sadly cut up ; but of those hundreds of Black Horse Guards not many left that OUR special artist has supplied us with the sketch which we reproduce on page 500, representing the BULL RUN on 21st ult. It shows the stragglers and fugitives well covered by Colonel Blenker's brigade. The Tribune correspondent thus depicted the movement Stretching far across the road, long before the hoped-for refuge of Centreville was reached, was a firm, unswerving line of men, to whom the sight of the thousands who dashed by them was only a wonder or a scorn. This was the German rifle regiment; and to see the manly bearing of their General, and feel the inspiration which his presence gave at that moment, was like relief to those who perish in a desert. At least, then, all was not lost ; and we knew that, let our destiny turn that night as it should, there was one man who would hold and keep the false of the nation unsullied to the end. I need not speak much in praise of the action of Blenker and the officers who served him so well. The events speak for them. Steady and watchful, he held his line throughout the evening, advancing his skirmishers at every token of attack, and spreading a sure protection over the multitudes who fled disordered through the columns. With three regiments he stood to fight against an outnumbering enemy already flushed with victory, and eager to complete its triumph. As the darkness increased his post became more perilous and more honorable. At 11 o'clock the attack came upon the advance company of Colonel Stahel's Rifles, not in force, but from a body of cavalry whose successful passage would have been followed by a full force, and the consequent destruction of our broken host. The rebel cavalry was driven back, and never returned, and at two in the morning, the great body of our troops having passed and found their road to safety, the command was given to retreat in order, and the brigade fell slowly and regularly back, with the same precision as if on parade, and as thoroughly at the will of their leader as if no danger had ever come near them. Over and over again Blenker begged permission to maintain his post, or even to advance. " Retreat !" said he to messenger; "bring me the word to go on, Sir!" but the command was peremptory, and he was left no alternative. SIEGE guns are never made of wrought iron or bronze, owing to their expensiveness and lack of durability. Field Artillery comprises the smaller guns and howitzers, including 6 and 12-pound guns and 12 and 24-pound howitzers. All of these are made of bronze, the superior tenacity of which renders it the best material for light artillery. The effective range of field artillery is as follows : 12-pounder 1000 yards. 6-pounder 800 yards. 24-pounder (howitzer) 600 12-pounder (howitzer) 500 yards. Do. do., grape and canister, 300 to 500 yards. Two guns of modern invention are worthy of particular description from the notice they have attracted from the first European nations, as well as from the peculiarities of their construction—these are the Armstrong and Whitworth guns. Mr. W. G. Armstrong, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (now Sir William Armstrong), about the year 1854 constructed a field-piece upon plans which he had long studied, and which he considered destined to change the whole system of modern ordnance. The Arm-strong gun is formed with a steel tube, rifled with thirty or forty grooves, and bound round on the outside with strips of wrought iron laid on spirally, of course materially strengthening the gun. The projectile is a pointed cylinder, similar in shape to a Minie ball, made of cast iron and coated with lead. The gun is breech-loading, in order to admit of a larger ball, to insure its tilling the grooves. The ball can be used either as shot or shell ; the latter by filling it with powder and attaching a detonating fuse at the point. The gun is mounted on a carriage with pivot-frame, recoil-slide, and screw for elevating and depressing, and for horizontal movements. The ball acts as a shot before bursting as a shell; penetrating the object and bursting immediately after. This gun has an enormous range, twice or three times that of other field guns of the same calibre, and with remarkable accuracy. It is stated, however, that, owing to various reasons, it has been condemned by the Horse Guards. Mr. Armstrong has an immense manufactory, and for the past five years has had the name of having produced the most effective gun ever invented. Various objections have been urged against it ; the fact of its being breech-loading and complicated, and the use of lead on the ball, which was liable to stripping, being the most The Whitworth rifled cannon obtains its remarkable power and accuracy by the adoption of a polygonal spiral bore of uniform pitch, more rapid than could be obtained by grooves. The 12-pounder-one of which was a few days since exhibited in this city—with a bore of 3.2 inches, has one turn in sixty inches; it is eight feet long and breech-loading. The projectile is oblong, made of cast iron, and formed to fit the grooves of the barrel. The breech of the gun is covered with a cap which screws on, and on being removed swings to one side upon a hinge ; the projectile is then inserted into the open breech, and followed by a tin cartridge-case containing the powder, and capped by a cake of wax or other lubricating composition; the breech-cap is then swung too and screwed on by its handles, a fuse inserted into the vent, and the gun is discharged. The lubricating matter being carried out with the ball effectually cleanses the gun, and the deposit is afterward withdrawn with the cartridge-case. As there is no exhalation of gases from the breech-cap, one of the worst features of breech-loading guns is avoided. The range of this gun is said to be greater than the Armstrong gun, and its accuracy more positive. Guns of the size herein described cost £300 in Other new guns and implements of war have been named ; as " Hotchkiss's Rifled Cannon," "Winans Steam-gun," the " Centrifugal gun," etc., but these have been fully described in the daily papers as they have made their appearance. Of course the inventive talent of the country will now be chiefly directed toward producing those articles which will become necessary in prosecuting the present war. It remains only to name and describe the missiles used in artillery warfare : these are solid shot, shells, strap-shot, case or canister shot, grape-shot, light and fireballs, carcasses, grenades, and rockets. Of the various kinds of solid shot, we have already described those prepared for rifled cannon, and the rest are too common and well known to need any careful description. They are made of cast iron, in sand or iron moulds. Hot shot is used for firing ships or forts, and other combustible matter ; they are heated in furnaces to a red or white heat. Shells, bombs, grenades, and hollow shot are made of cast iron, and usually spherical. They are filled with combustible matter, and fired by means of a fuse, regulated to explode the projectile at the desired moment. Grenades are frequently fired from howitzers on the field of battle to dislodge cavalry or infantry from some important post. Strap-shot is so called from the fact that the ball is attached or strapped by bands of tin to the cartridge. Canister is prepared by filling a tin canister with grape-shot or musket-balls and attaching it to a cartridge. Light-balls and fire-balls are composed of combustible material, which lights up very brilliantly, and are fired at night for the purpose of exposing an enemy's actions or illuminating a camp. Carcasses, smoke-balls, and suffocating-balls are shells with several fuse holes, from which horrible fumes, vapors, or flames rush forth, blinding and suffocating all around. They are used to drive an enemy from mines or galleries, or to clear a breach in a fortress. Grape-shot are larger than musket-balls, and are fastened together between plates in the form of a bunch of grapes. Shrapnel are spherical shells filled with bullets and powder, and fired by a common fuse. HUMORS OF THE DAY. EXTRAVAGANCE IN CUPID'S GARDEN. As down in Cupid's Garden For pastime I did go, Considering Fashion's flowers Which in that garden grow; Which in that garden grow. I see a fine young lady, And unto her did say, "Beest thee engaged to e'er a young Swell? Come tell me now, I pray; Come tell me now, I pray?" "I ben't engaged to ne'er a young Swell, I'm sorry to declare : For I cost so much in Crinoline, And the other things I wear; And the other things I wear." ADVICE TO OPERA-GOERS.—Never volunteer to take any lady to a performance which you are particularly desirous of hearing, for fear she should be taken ill soon after it has begun, and want to go home. The observance of this rule will by no means be necessarily mere selfishness. If you wish to be kind to her, and treat her to an opera, do so, only wait till you are asked. Then you will find that she will not fall ill at the theatre, or if she does, so much the better, as far as your entertainment is concerned; for you will have taken her to hear music which you don't care about, and from which you will be glad to get away. Mr. Merryman Lathrop says when he went on the steamer to California, they kept the chickens in the hatchway, the beef in the bullworks, near the steerage, and when they ran out of eggs the ship OLD FOGY'S GLEE. OH, the girls that we have seen All in their time so fair! Now some are fat, and some are lean, So much the worse for wear. To think I see my early flame In yonder Mrs. Grundy! Once I was mad for that old dame! Sic transit gloria mundi! THE DEAR CREATURES.—When a certain Oriental potentate wants to ruin one of his principal subjects he makes him a present of a white elephant, which the poor man is obliged to keep, and by which, therefore, he is soon financially eaten up. In this country the fashionable mamma, who contrives to inveigle a soft young man into marriage with her expensive daughter, saddles him with an incumbrance corresponding exactly to the white elephant, in very speedily reducing him to ruin, and, as it were, eating him out of house and home. A SECRET OUT OF THE PRISON-HOUSE.—Women, when they get together, talk about themselves, or their children, their servants, their dresses, their rivals, their conquests, their pleasures; men, when they get together, talk of nothing but their dear wives ! CENSUS CURIOSITIES.—As one of the enumerators for the burgh of Brechin was transferring the census papers he had distributed and collected into his book, he came upon one that had termed himself "a ten-feet weaver," meaning by this, we suppose, that he "tramped ten treddles." An Irishman, in Maxwelltown, Dundee, under the column "Deaf, dumb, or blind," entered opposite his own name, "Not deaf—I wish I was;" while opposite his spouse he had inserted, "Not dumb—I wish she were." Under the heading, "Rank, profession, or occupation," for his wife he wrote, " God help her, for she can do nothing." In one of the numerous streets that branch off from the Hawkhill, Dundee, resides an old woman and her daughter. Both being, like Jeanie Deans, "but indifferent pen-women," they requested a neighboring young man to fill up their census paper. He got on quite satisfactorily until the column "Age" came to be filled up, when, with the elderly woman. there seemed to be is shortness of memory. The young man, after waiting a short time, asked what he should put down. "Oh," said she, "ye may pit doon sixty." The daughter's line was then commenced to be filled up, but the age again seemed to puzzle the mother. The young man had once more to ask what he would put down, and the mother, after a moment's consideration, said, " Ye may ca' her fifty." An eccentric genius, we believe in Inverness, who lives in a house which he calls a " castle," gave the following answers to the queries in the census paper. Under the heading "Domestic servants, lodgers, and visitors," he wrote " Plenty of mice, and lots of A nice young dog, and two young cats." Under the head "Age" was written "I will not swear that I am Though growing wise, and also His "castle" he describes as consisting of one room, one window, one door, and thirty air-holes." Happy man! he is evidently a philosopher as well as a wit. Sheridan's neglect of letters was a standing joke against him. He never took the trouble to open any that he did not expect, and often left sealed many that he was most anxious to read. He once appeared with his begging face at the bank, humbly asking an advance of twenty pounds. "Certainly, Sir; would you like any more—fifty or a hundred? said the smiling clerk. Sherry was overpowered. He would like a hundred. "Two or three?" asked the scribe. Sherry thought he was joking, but was ready for two, or even three—he was always ready for more. But he could not conceal his surprise. "Have you not received our letter?" the clerk asked, perceiving it. Certainly he had received the epistle, which informed him that his salary as Receiver-General of Cornwall had been paid in, but he had never opened it. "If you marry," said a Roman consul to his son, "let it be to a woman—" "Very proper advice," said Mrs. Partington, interrupting Ike, who was reading; "but I don't know how he could have given any other under the circumstance, seeing that Providence foreordained that it should be so, previously beforehand, though in one sense all the girls that marry are not women either, because they toil not, neither do they spin, and know no more about housekeeping than the fifth wheel of a coach." "But," said Ike, putting in, "you didn't hear it all. ' If you marry,' said a Roman consul to his son, 'let it be a woman who has judgement and industry enough to get a meal of victuals, taste enough to dress neat, pride enough to wash before breakfast, and sense enough to hold her tongue.'" " Very good," said the old lady, and she nodded her head as though the idea were adjusting itself to a satisfactory place in her mind. Those who take no account of their own sins in life may expect to be brought one day to a " dead reckoning." THREE MONTHS' VOLUNTEER. "What! don't you know me—your own husband ?" DAUGHTER OF COLUMBIA. " Get away! No husband of mine would be here while the country needs his help."	<urn:uuid:8c0a0148-3891-483b-b969-7780d6f1a4ce>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1861/august/news-bull-run.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972078	5,240	2.734375	3
The Sierra Leone Civil War began in 1991 and lasted until 2002 (officially declared end: 18 January). Tens of thousands died and over one-third of the population (more than 2 million people) were displaced. Neighbour countries needed to host significant numbers of refugees. The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) is based on an UN Security Council resolution of 2000. The resolution mandated the UN Secretary-General to negotiate about the SCSL creation as it was requested by the president of Sierra Leone at that time. The SCSL was set up jointly with the Government of Sierra Leone in 2002. Its mandate is to try those who bear the greatest responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law and Sierra Leonean law committed after 30 November 1996 during the Sierra Leone Civil War. The court is located in the capital of Sierra Leone, Freetown. Several accused have been indicted so far for war crimes, crimes against humanity and other violations of international humanitarian law. The most prominent case, against the former Liberian president Charles Taylor, has been transferred to the seat of the ICC in The Hague for security reasons, but it remains under the auspices of the SCSL. In addition, there has been the Sierra Leone truth commission with the mandate to establish a record of human rights abuses from 1991 to 1999, to address impunity, to promote reconciliation, and to prevent a repetition of such events. It operated between 2002 and 2004 and was composed of seven commissioners, four from Sierra Leone and three from abroad. The commission has presented a 5000-page report contains testimonies, history, facts and recommendations. The process of implementation however was not straight-forward, with several criticisms of delays of implementation of the recommendations. More information: http://www.sc-sl.org	<urn:uuid:cf358d11-49c3-4cb0-9d16-ec5f85100c62>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.claiminghumanrights.org/transitional_justice_sierraleone.html?L=0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968985	356	3.3125	3
In honor of President’s Day, Jewish Treats presents an overview of the interesting viewpoint on Jews held by the second President of the United States, John Adams. In 1808, after his retirement from office (1797-1801), President Adams corresponded with François Adriaan Van der Kemp, an acclaimed scholar. In refuting the viewpoints of prominent philosophers Bolingbroke and Voltaire, Adams wrote: “I will insist that the Hebrews have done more to civilize men than any other nation. If I were an atheist and believed in blind eternal fate, I should still believe that fate had ordained the Jews to be the most essential instrument for civilizing the nations. If I were an atheist of the other sect, who believe or pretend to believe that all is ordained by chance, I should believe that chance had ordered the Jews to preserve and propagate to all mankind the doctrine of a Supreme, Intelligent, Wise, Almighty Sovereign of the universe, which I believe to be the great essential principle of all morality, and consequently of all civilization.” Knowing that President Adams had a favorable viewpoint on Jewish civilization in general, Mordechai Manuel Noah, a Jewish activist and journalist, decided to send Adams the “Discourse” that Noah had delivered at the consecration of New York’s Congregation Shearith Israel, the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue. This “Discourse” advocated for a Jewish Homeland. A year later, in a separate correspondence, President Adams responded that he wished Noah could be “at the head of a hundred thousand Israelites . . . and restoring your nation to the dominion of it. For I really wish the Jews again in Judea an independent nation." Unfortunately, Adams’ ultimate goal, as stated in the same letter, was that once independent and free of persecution, the Jews would eventually assimilate their national characteristics and become “liberal Unitarian Christians...” Copyright © 2010 National Jewish Outreach Program. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:c9d03194-90ba-4513-8d51-cda65f5d63a3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.jewishtreats.org/2011/02/mr-adams-attitude.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949474	414	2.921875	3
The News @ Western Libraries ---> Resources Posted on: Tuesday, May 31, 2016 - 11:41am Backwards by Design 2016 - A Working Retreat for Faculty - Day 1 - Design: disciplinary concepts, course syllabus, evaluation schemes - Day 2 - Enactment: responding to writing, creating assignments, engaging practices - Day 3 - Results: Learning activities, show & tell demos Posted on: Tuesday, March 29, 2016 - 12:57pm Using Archives to Enhance Teaching & Learning How can media history inform our understanding of our current moment? What is the role of media in the construction of identity, social hierarchies, and our understanding of power? Recognizing that archival and primary source materials provide evidence that can help answer these kinds of questions, Professor Helen Morgan Parmett decided to experiment by integrating an upper-class research and writing assignment with resources at the Center for Pacific Northwest Studies (CPNWS), a division of Western Libraries Heritage Resources. Last quarter students from Professor Morgan Parmett’s Communications Studies 416 class, “Cultural History of Media and Identity,” spent several hours at the CPNWS to review a variety of primary source archival materials in their consideration of the intersections between cultural history, media, and identity formation. This was the first time many of these students had ever worked directly with archival materials, and CPNWS staff sought to provide contrasting examples of locally-produced media by also including materials that spoke to the experiences, interests, and voices of traditionally under-represented individuals and groups. For example, in addition to exploring historic issues of more mainstream publications such as the Bellingham Herald, students also examined the Northwest Passage, an alternative newspaper produced from 1969-1986, as well as a range of newsletters and educational materials produced by women’s organizations and LGBTA+ advocacy groups. Heritage Resources Assistant Archivist for Outreach and Instruction Roz Koester helped facilitate the inquiry process by asking students to consider not just the materials in front of them, but to also think about what was not kept. "Since we so often rely on written documentation to provide evidence of our shared cultural heritage, it's important to be aware that there are stories and experiences that remain untold,” explained Koester. “A lot of records don't get preserved, so, as researchers, you need to not only be thinking about the information that's available in the resources you're using, but also what might be missing. And we should all be thinking about how we can engage those hidden voices in order to preserve a more complete picture of our history." As a required component of their research and writing assignment, students were expected to contribute to the scholarship of media history and identity found in secondary literature by constructing an original argument based on archival evidence of media influence on the construction Pacific Northwest identities. Professor Morgan Parmett hopes that through this assignment, her students will develop a greater understanding not only of media history, but also of where we are now and how we are currently using media. She emphasized how we can learn much about today by considering the media histories of the past: “For one, they disillusion us from the idea that things have always been a certain way by demonstrating the conflicts, debates, and struggles out of which our current moment emerged,” explained Professor Morgan Parmett. “These histories illuminate the fact that many of the debates we currently have about media and its societal effects are, in fact, not new. Seeing how these debates were resolved in earlier periods may provide insights for how we might move forward into our media futures in more socially just ways.” Heritage Resources is a division of Western Libraries which includes Special Collections, the University Archives & Records Management, and the Center for Pacific Northwest Studies. Together these units provide for the responsible stewardship of unique and archival materials in support of teaching, learning, and research. For more information about how Heritage Resources supports the research needs of students and educators, contact Heritage.Resources@wwu.edu. Posted on: Tuesday, March 29, 2016 - 12:43pm Spring Quarter TLA Dialogue Sessions begin April 6th “How do we move beyond conversation to achieve self-sustaining equity and inclusivity at Western?” is the Teaching-Learning Academy’s (TLA) BIG question for 2015-2016. Faculty, staff, community members, and over 70 students worked collectively throughout fall quarter to create a shared question that addresses how we can better enhance the teaching and learning environment at Western. More than 90 TLA participants spent winter 2016 exploring and gathering data to address this question, and spring quarter will be spent finalizing action proposals that address the BIG question for this academic year. The spring TLA sessions begin Apr. 6 and 7, and meet every other week for a total of four meetings for the quarter. There are four dialogue group options: · Wednesdays noon-1:20 pm (Apr. 6, 20, May 4, & 18) · Wednesdays 2-3:20 pm (Apr. 6, 20, May 4, & 18) · Thursdays noon-1:20 pm (Apr. 7, 21, May 5, & 19) · Thursdays 2-3:20 pm (Apr. 7, 21, May 5, & 19) While the sessions run for approximately 80 minutes, attendees are welcome to stop by based on their availability. All dialogue groups meet in the Learning Commons in Wilson 2 West. The Teaching-Learning Academy (TLA) is the central forum for the scholarship of teaching and learning at Western Washington University and brings together a broad spectrum of perspectives from across campus. Engaged in studying the intersections between teaching and learning, TLA members include faculty, students, administrators, and staff from across the University, as well as community members. Posted on: Tuesday, March 15, 2016 - 10:55am Western Libraries Undergraduate Research Award Submissions Request - Applications Due April 15th The Western Libraries Undergraduate Research Award is given annually to three students who demonstrate outstanding library research in the writing of papers for Western Washington University college credit courses that were taught during either fall or winter quarters of the current academic year. The Award gives students the opportunity to showcase to their research skills and the valuable work they are doing here at Western! Each award winner will receive $500.00 and publication in Western CEDAR, Western’s institutional repository. Western Libraries invites all undergraduate students enrolled at Western to submit their research papers for consideration by April 15, 2016. Submissions can be representative of any discipline, as long as they include an original thesis supported by ample research, and demonstrate exceptional ability in identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing sources. At Western, undergraduate students have unparalleled access to research opportunities that are supported by faculty mentors. Western Libraries views the research work of undergraduate students as being tremendously valuable, both in terms of the teaching and learning experience the research process creates, and also because of the research outputs students themselves generate. Publishing the winning research papers in Western CEDAR makes them available to anyone in the world, enabling students to contribute to the scholarship of their chosen fields while also participating in the growing global movement to provide open access to scholarship and creative works. In order to apply, students must include with their research paper a 500-700 word reflective essay which explains their research strategies, and details how they used the collections and resources of Western Libraries. Submissions should also include a letter of support from the instructor of the class for which the research paper was completed. If you are a faculty member who wants to recognize the work of your best students, or if you are a student with an exceptional research paper that you would love to showcase and share, we hope you will consider the Libraries Undergraduate Research Award. Winners will be announced by May 15, 2016 and invited to attend a special reception with their faculty mentors hosted by Western Libraries. For more information and submission guidelines, please see: http://libguides.wwu.edu/undergradaward or contact Elizabeth.Stephan@wwu.edu. Posted on: Wednesday, January 6, 2016 - 3:55pm Increased Use & Future Growth of the Research-Writing Studio The Research-Writing Studio at Western Libraries experienced record-breaking usage throughout fall quarter 2015, recording at least 7,500 visits, over 10 times higher than the number of visits received by the Writing Center at its former site. These numbers are all the more impressive given early concerns that students would not be able to find the new Research-Writing Studio after the Writing Center and Research Consultation merged services and re-located to Haggard Hall last spring. “After nearly 30 years with the Writing Center, I thought I would get misty-eyed about leaving my Writing Center identity behind. But no such thing. At no time in my history here have I seen students this engaged, forming community, taking charge of the space and their learning,” explained Roberta Kjesrud, the studio’s director of writing. Fully staffed by a mix of both professional and student staff members who offer expertise to support the student research and writing experience, there are typically between one and four research and writing Studio Assistants available at any given time during the hours the Studio is open. Involving student studio staff in the teaching and learning process also has its own benefits. “One of the great things about having student staff as Studio Assistants is the unique perspective they bring. They know what it’s like to take the courses and complete the types of assignments that we often see represented in the Studio, and they’ve struggled with the same academic and personal challenges that students using the Studio face,” explained Kelly Helms, the Studio’s assistant director of writing. “They also know what strategies and feedback are most helpful to students, and this peer-based teaching and learning environment builds a community of scholars that would not possible without our dedicated student staff.” Centrally located on the second floor of Haggard Hall in a very bright and open space, the inviting atmosphere of the Studio offers students a dedicated place for writing and for obtaining research and writing assistance. Students are encouraged to collaborate with each other, with Studio staff, or to work on their own. The studio is designed to support students at all levels and across all disciplines. “The research and writing process is almost always intertwined,” said Gabe Gossett, Head of Research Consultation and part of the studio leadership team. "Where at one moment a researcher is trying to make sense of the ideas they are trying to explore in writing, at another moment a writer is looking for sources that speak to the topic they want to write about. [The studio approach] offers as-needed support to build towards learning outcomes that will ultimately leave students better able to take charge of their own inquiry process, with on-hand support to make it possible.” The Studio’s immediate and extraordinary reception by students, faculty, and university administrators, makes abundantly clear the importance and value of this project, and Western Libraries is pleased to share the exciting news that the final phase of the Research-Writing Studio project has been fully funded thanks to the tremendous generosity of donors Cindy, Don, and Adam Hacherl. Cindy Hacherl is an alumna of Western and a graduate of the English Department with long-standing connections to Western. Together, the Hacherls are passionately committed to making the vision of the Research-Writing Studio a reality, and they recognize the benefit of this project for both current and future students. Not only did the Hacherls make possible the creation of a collaborative workshop space in Haggard Hall 222 and the Studio’s current transformation, but their ongoing generosity mean that the full vision of the Studio project can be completed. This last phase will expand the Studio toward the building’s entryway, increasing both its visibility and capacity. New furniture, access to electricity and technology, glass and acoustical accents, and clear signage will also contribute to the completion of this expanded area. Additionally, just as the Libraries face unprecedented demand for collaborative and individual work spaces, so too have they received increased requests for class workshops. Students using the Studio on their own regularly request that their professor schedule a formal workshop, and professors who do, routinely encourage new students to connect with the Studio staff for follow-up work. Since individual work and workshops are mutually reinforcing, there is a clear need for a second workshop and group instruction space. Plans call for creating an inviting, glass-enclosed teaching space with moveable tables and chairs and an instructor’s station with A/V equipment. Having this additional space will better equip the Studio staff to help meet the needs of students engaging in research and writing work. University faculty have repeatedly identified the development of student research and writing skills as an important role of the Libraries. Integrating the practices of research and writing is one way Western Libraries and the Learning Commons are working together to address this identified need, and it is through the generosity of the Hacherl family that the Research-Writing Studio will continue to grow in strength and ability to positively impact students engaged in research and writing here at Western.	<urn:uuid:f17c492e-8b38-420d-8acf-0366f9a78857>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.library.wwu.edu/category/topics/resources	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953285	2,744	2.6875	3
By Barbara Fahs, Garden Guides Contributor Introduction to Sweet Potato Weevils If you grow sweet potatoes, you might encounter this destructive insect having lunch on your plants. The sweet potato weevil lives in warm climates, such as the Gulf Coast, Hawai'i and Puerto Rico. The larva is the most destructive phase: it is white, legless and about 1/3 inch long. Adults are colorful, with blue wing covers and orange or red bodies. Less than 1/3 inch long, they have a long, thin head and body, resembling an ant. Prevention and Control Buy only certified weevil-free slips or seed potatoes. Mound soil around stems, which deters larvae from entering the roots. Clean up the garden area at the end of the season, and then rotate where you plant them the following year. Besides sweet potatoes, this weevil also eats members of the morning glory family in the wild but no other vegetable crops. Sweet potato weevils are the most serious pest of the plant after which it is named. If your vines are infested, you'll begin seeing yellowing of the plant. They're easy to overlook, so pay attention to any changes in your plants, because the tuber, once harvested, will be spongy looking and ruined with holes due to the larvae tunneling into the edible roots. Ants and several species of parasitic wasps show promise as natural enemies of the sweet potato weevil. Studies have shown that a type of nematode penetrates the soil and underground tubers and kill larvae. Pheromones have been used to decrease adult populations of the weevil, as this type of control disrupts mating. Other Methods of Control After harvest, crops can be treated with chemical fumigants or irradiation to prevent damage in storage. When potatoes are stored in atmospheres with low oxygen and high carbon dioxide, the weevils will perish.	<urn:uuid:d0338d7e-450f-43b4-89da-4dce33402447>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.gardenguides.com/819-sweet-potato-weevil-information.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.917522	400	3.796875	4
Common Questions About Depression, Grief, & Loss - How do I know if I am “depressed” or just “down”? - Can medication cure depression? - People tell me I can “snap out of it”, but I can’t. What’s wrong with me? What the experts say: Depression, Grief & Loss Everyone feels sad at some point – it’s only natural. But what doctors call “clinical depression” is very different from just being “down in the dumps”. During periods of depression a person may experience a change in appetite, sleep, energy level, concentration, and low self-esteem. There are several categories of clinical depression. - A “Major Depressive Episode” is a period of at least two weeks, during which there is either depressed mood or the loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities. In children and adolescents, the mood may be irritable rather than sad. - A “Minor Depressive Episode” occurs when some people, with milder symptoms function fairly normally, but doing so requires a markedly increased effort. - A “Dysthymic Disorder” is defined by a chronically depressed mood that has been occurring most of the time for at least two years. “Grief and Loss” is a specific type of depression that occurs in response to a significant separation, loss, death or ending. It is normal to feel “depressed” at this time, and experts often feel that if symptoms do not begin to diminish by 9-12 months following the loss, treatment may be helpful. What Else You Should Know About Depression, Grief, & Loss Everyone feels sad from time to time. That is natural and healthy. However, to many, the term “depression” suggests a person who is suicidal or “crazy.” This is far from the truth. Depression actually is a wide range of symptoms and feelings and most people fall within the “mild to moderate” end of the scale. Therefore they mistakenly believe they don’t need help. At Birmingham Maple Clinic and most similar outpatient therapy clinics, treatment for some form of depression is the most common reason people seek therapy. People often ask if they have a “chemical imbalance.” This term can be misleading because it suggests that depression is only a biological or chemical problem. It is usually difficult to determine which came first: a stressful event or a chemical change in the brain. What’s certain is that depression can become a vicious cycle in which stressful life events continue to affect body chemistry, and body chemistry changes continue to impact our ability to handle stressful life events. Overall, it is very important to realize that both chemical and interpersonal factors play a role in creating and maintaining depression. That’s why medication alone does not always cure depression and why, for some, medication may be little help. That is also why many mental health professionals recommend that depression be treated with both medication and therapy. A therapist will work with you to help you decide which approach is best for you. For more information visit HelpGuide.org.	<urn:uuid:2925dc53-67df-4cf6-a6bf-64d0b51a4420>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.birminghammaple.com/specialties/depression-grief-loss/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947227	666	2.9375	3
Laser engraving was the biggest revolution over traditional methods of engraving. The difference in laser engraving is that the machine used for engraving will not be direct contact with the surface which is to be engraved. Laser is just the tool which will be having direct contact with the surface which is to be etched or engraved. Use of lasers for engraving has made this process really simple, which was earlier considered as complex process. This new technique has proved it is the best and cheap form considered to older methods which was easier and user friendly but needs lot of care. The laser beam is so powerful that needs to be controlled while it's used in industrial use, otherwise it may cut the surface which was to be engraved actually. These laser engraving machines were introduced in earlier 90's and all the working of this machine controlled by the computer hardware and the software installed in that. All these types of automation systems are actually having a well designed hardware and software to control all the operations of the machine. Now the machines are really developed that the picture or design which needs to be engraved can be stored to the computer which controls the operations and the software will simply engrave or mark those designs to the surface. These laser machines were actually designed to engrave so many different types' materials like plastic, glass, wood etc. Due to the success of laser engraving machine the companies began to implement laser on so many areas like laser marking system, automation systems, hot stamping etc. Only disadvantage of laser engraving machine over other types is the initial cost is bit higher but it is so many advantages over the traditional form of engraving. There is lot of advantages for laser engraving systems compared to traditional methods of engraving. 1. In this method no toxic chemicals are used and it will not be having any chemical residue after engraving. This is the major advantage of laser engraving over other types of older methods where a lot of toxic chemicals and was having lot of residue after the use. 2. It doesn't produce any dust while the machine works, the machine works clean if its properly used, only thing is it should be used perfectly and correctly 3. It doesn't produce any sound; the machine just works with a minimal sound considered to older methods. 4. Since the laser engraving machine does'nt have any direct contact with the surface so really easy to do engraving on uneven surfaces. The tips of the machine was to replaced earlier according to the surface which is to be engraved, now all these jobs are controlled by the software just by pressing a button. 5. The machine is having only very less service cost and it doesn't need any tip replacement. 6. The operational cost is really less and the implementation of the new technology will definitely increase the productivity and reduce the operational cost of small industries. There is so many other automation systems like hot stamping which is used for hot stamping machines, pad printing used for pad printing services, laser marking used for laser marking system and ultrasonic welding machines which is also commonly used in industries.	<urn:uuid:7b40ae47-836e-4ffb-a47b-6b59caa9bc93>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.sooperarticles.com/technology-articles/advantages-laser-engraving-system-159254.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.969282	635	2.78125	3
Wow! Did you see that? Catch the spring bird migration at Point Pelee National Park, one of the... Which animal's tongue is larger than an entire elephant? This and other mysteries are what motivate the folks at Nature Canada to celebrate and protect nature every day. Why protect nature? - Because Canada has a whopping 70,000 plant and animal species, and we think every one of them is special, from the mighty Polar Bear to the lowly Ord's Kangaroo Rat (we even think black flies are pretty important!). - Because a healthy natural environment is something we all need. Our ecosystems give us drinkable water, clean air, and fertile soils to grow food. Nature provides medicines, building materials and jobs for thousands of people. - Because nature is fun! Take your pick of hiking, canoeing, camping, skiing, climbing trees or diving in lakes. There are countless ways experiencing nature can be exciting, healthy and memorable. Nature Canada believes that when you connect with nature, it can lead to a lifelong appreciation of the living world around you. That's why we've created the Nature Explorers program, where you can get great ideas for things to do in nature such as planting your own butterfly garden, making your backyard bird friendly or watching for different frog species. Upload photos and stories to share your experiences with others, and share your opinions through surveys and polls. We want to hear from you! Start exploring at NatureExplorers.ca. Nature Canada works with more than 100,000 youth, parents, volunteers, community groups and others who care about nature in every province and territory. If you'd like more information about how you can celebrate and protect nature, visit our web site at NatureCanada.ca. And if you knew that a Blue Whale's tongue is larger than an entire elephant, congratulations! You're already well on your way to becoming a nature explorer.	<urn:uuid:394af663-cc93-4459-a010-8bcaf7eacd27>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.myparkspass.ca/nature-canada	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934674	387	2.734375	3
When people think of harvesting energy from the oceans, it's typically in the form of wave or tidal power, in which the motion of the water drives the production of electricity. A paper in Nano Letters suggests an alternate way to turn the ocean into power: using the fact that it's salty. There have been a few ideas about how to extract energy from the salinity difference between salt and fresh water, but the paper suggests a rather intriguing approach: treat the entire ocean a bit like a battery medium. The battery charge cycle generally involves the exchange of electrons with ions that shuffle between a storage medium and electrodes; normally, the ions themselves remain encased within the battery. The new device takes a very different approach, allowing the ions to exchange freely with water that flows through it. The device has electrodes that specifically react with some of the salt ions normally found in sea water. One is made of manganese dioxide, which can react with a sodium ion to form Na2Mn5O10. The material also happens to be cheap, environmentally benign, and has a high energy density. The authors weren't so careful when they chose the other electrode, as they used silver, which can react with chlorine. Thus, the two electrodes in the device can sequester the ions that form when sodium chloride—common salt—dissolves in water. This allows for a simple cycle. When salt water flows over the electrodes, they capture the ions, producing a charged battery. When the salt water is replaced by freshwater, the cycle can be reversed, but in order to do so, electrons have to flow between the two electrodes, creating a usable current. The authors call their device a "mixing entropy battery," and show some examples that perform at about 75 percent of the theoretical efficiency, with no decline over 100 cycles. They also show that it works perfectly well with environmental samples. There's not a huge amount of energy available per device, but the authors calculate that a freshwater flow of 40 cubic meters a second could generate up to 100MW. For context, Niagara Falls sees over 1,800 m3/s. Globally, about 2TW of energy could be harvested. That's not a lot compared to our energy needs, but the approach could be part of a renewable portfolio, since it could run around the clock provided that the fresh water stream is kept separate from the salt. But the authors also offer a less grand but possibly more compelling application: a simple system for storing solar power. A closed solar still could evaporate fresh water from a salt stock, allowing a source of material to discharge the battery. The authors also demonstrate one of these devices, and show it can run for over 100 cycles with no loss of efficiency. For all their devices, the authors say that it should be possible to improve the geometry of the electrodes to boost efficiencies even further. This doesn't seem like the sort of thing that's going to set the world on fire—the energy involved is simply too small—but an improved version may provide a simple, flexible way of storing renewable power in some specific contexts.	<urn:uuid:8b780d1e-687d-4a35-a4d8-03aa3c03b677>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://arstechnica.com/science/2011/04/researchers-use-the-ocean-to-recharge-their-batteries/?comments=1&post=21562483	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955583	630	3.921875	4
For a while now, the security industry has known that WEP encryption is terribly insecure. This information has more or less seeped into the general knowledge of society. What may not be known is that WPA and WPA2-PSK are also quite vulnerable. In the past it was deemed impractical to try and brute force the password of a network. Processors just weren’t fast enough to get the job done within someone’s lifetime. This belief is now being overturned as powerful GPU’s are hitting the market, featuring many processing cores just waiting to be utilized. So what is it about the WPA and WPA2 standard that make them now insecure? I’m glad you asked. What Makes WPA And WPA2-PSK Now Insecure: It’s all about the Pre Shared Key, or PSK for short. According to Pyrit’s website: WPA/WPA2-PSK is a subset of WPA/WPA2 that skips the complex task of key distribution and client authentication by assigning every participating party the same Pre Shared Key. This master key is derived from a password which the administrating user has to pre-configure e.g. on his laptop and the Access Point. When the laptop creates a connection to the Access Point, a new session key is derived from the master key to encrypt and authenticate following traffic. This “shortcut” eases deployment of WPA/WPA2-protected networks for home- and small-office-use at the cost of making the protocol vulnerable to brute-force-attacks against it’s key negotiation phase; it allows attackers to ultimately reveal the password that protects the network. This vulnerability has to be considered exceptionally disastrous as the protocol allows much of the key derivation to be pre-computed, making simple brute-force-attacks even more alluring to the attacker. Now that we know why the system is vulnerable, we need to get a few things together.	<urn:uuid:62746917-60cf-4905-834c-44bb2dc05055>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.techwarelabs.com/how-to-hack-your-neighbors-wifiwireless-with-your-graphics-card/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949793	419	2.765625	3
MADELINE Heilman at New York University once conducted an experiment in which she told volunteers about a manager. Some were told, "Subordinates have often described Andrea as someone who is tough yet outgoing and personable. She is known to reward individual contributions and has worked hard to maximise employees' creativity." Other volunteers were told, "Subordinates have often described James as someone who is tough yet outgoing and personable. He is known to reward individual contributions and has worked hard to maximise employees' creativity." The only difference between what the groups were told was that some people thought they were hearing about a leader named Andrea while others thought they were hearing about a leader named James. Heilman asked her volunteers to estimate how likeable Andrea and James were as people. Three-quarters thought James was more likeable than Andrea. Using a clever experimental design, Heilman also determined that four in five volunteers preferred to have James as their boss. Andrea seemed less likeable merely because she was a woman who happened to be a leader. The existence of unconscious sexism can be scientifically proved in laboratory experiments. We know that unconscious sexism caused the laboratory volunteers in Heilman's experiment to find Andrea the manager less likeable than James the manager, because two groups of volunteers, divided at random, reached different conclusions about the likeability of the managers. Since the only thing that varied between the groups was whether they were told the manager was named Andrea or James, we can confidently say the outcome was produced by that single difference. Bias is much harder to demonstrate scientifically in real life, which may be why large numbers of people do not believe that sexism and other forms of prejudice still exist. Many people think we live in a "post-racial" and "post-sexist" world where egalitarian notions are the norm. Indeed, if you go by what people report, we do live in a bias-free world, because most people report feeling no prejudice whatsoever. What would be remarkably instructive in real life would be if women in various professions could experience life as men, and vice versa. If the same person got treated differently, we would be sure sexism was at work, because the only thing that changed was the sex of the individual and not his or her skills, talent, knowledge, experience, or interests. Joan Roughgarden and Ben Barres are biologists at Stanford University. Both are researchers at one of the premier academic institutions in the country; both are tenured professors. Both are transgendered people. Stanford has been a welcoming home for these scientists; if you are going to be a transgendered person anywhere in the United States, it would be difficult to imagine a place more tolerant than Palo Alto and the San Francisco Bay Area. Ben Barres did not transition to being a man until he was 50. For much of her early life, Barbara Barres was oblivious to questions of sexism. She would hear Gloria Steinem and other feminists talk about discrimination and wonder, "What's their problem?" She was no activist; all she wanted was to be a scientist. She was an excellent student. When a school guidance counsellor advised her to set her sights lower than MIT, Barbara ignored him, applied to MIT, and got admitted in 1972. During a particularly difficult maths seminar at MIT, a professor handed out a quiz with five problems. He gave out the test at 9am, and students had to hand in their answers by midnight. The first four problems were easy, and Barbara knocked them off in short order. But the fifth one was a beauty; it involved writing a computer program where the solution required the program to generate a partial answer, and then loop around to the start in a recursive fashion. "I remember when the professor handed back the exams, he made this announcement that there were five problems but no one had solved the fifth problem and therefore he only scored the class on the four problems," Ben recalled. "I got an A. I went to the professor and I said, 'I solved it.' He looked at me and he had a look of disdain in his eyes, and he said, 'You must have had your boyfriend solve it.' To me, the most amazing thing is that I was indignant. I walked away. I didn't know what to say. He was in essence accusing me of cheating. I was incensed by that. It did not occur to me for years and years that that was sexism." By the time she was done with MIT, Barbara had more or less decided she wanted to be a neuroscientist. She decided to go to medical school at Dartmouth in New Hampshire. Gender issues at med school were like the issues at MIT on steroids; one professor referred Barbara to his wife when she wanted to talk about her professional interests. An anatomy professor showed a slide of a nude female pin-up during a lecture. During the first year of Barbara's residency, when she was an intern, she found herself clashing with the chief resident. "When you have to learn to do a spinal tap or do a line, at some point only one person can do the procedure. What I noticed is that every time a male resident would do the picking, he would pick a guy to do the procedure. I had to often say, 'He did it last time. It is my turn this time.' " But things changed in large and subtle ways after Barbara became Ben. Ben once gave a presentation at the prestigious Whitehead Institute in Cambridge, Massachusetts. A friend relayed a comment made by someone in the audience who didn't know Ben Barres and Barbara Barres were the same person: "Ben Barres gave a great seminar today, but, then, his work is much better than his sister's." Ben also noticed he was treated differently in the everyday world. "When I go into stores, I notice I am much more likely to be attended to. They come up to me and say, 'Yes, sir? Can I help you, sir?' I have had the thought a million times, I am taken more seriously." When former Harvard president Larry Summers (who went on to become a senior economic adviser to President Barack Obama) set off a firestorm a few years ago after musing about whether there were fewer women professors in the top ranks of science because of innate differences between men and women, Ben wrote an anguished essay in the journal Nature. He asked whether innate differences or subtle biases - from grade school to graduate school - explained the large disparities between men and women in the highest reaches of science. "When it comes to bias, it seems that the desire to believe in a meritocracy is so powerful that until a person has experienced sufficient career-harming bias themselves they simply do not believe it exists … By far, the main difference that I have noticed is that people who don't know I am transgendered treat me with much more respect: I can even complete a whole sentence without being interrupted by a man." Joan Roughgarden came to Stanford in 1972, more than a quarter century before she made her male-to-female transition in 1998. When the young biologist arrived at Stanford, it felt as though tracks had been laid down; all Roughgarden had to do was stick to the tracks, and the high expectations that others had of the young biologist would do the rest. "It was clear when I got the job at Stanford that it was like being on a conveyer belt," Roughgarden told me in an interview. "The career track is set up for young men. You are assumed to be competent unless revealed otherwise. You can speak, and people will pause and people will listen. You can enunciate in definitive terms and get away with it. You are taken as a player. You can use male diction, male tones of voice. … You can assert. You have the authority to frame issues." At the Hopkins Marine Station in Pacific Grove, an outpost of the university about 150 kilometres from campus, Roughgarden ruffled feathers in the scientific establishment by arguing that a prominent theory that described the life cycle of marine animals was wrong. Where previous research had suggested that tide pools were involved in the transportation of certain larvae, Roughgarden reframed the issue and showed that the larger ocean played a significant role. The new theory got harsh reviews, but Roughgarden's ideas were taken seriously. In short order, Roughgarden became a tenured professor, and a widely respected scientist and author. Like Ben Barres, Roughgarden made her transition to Joan relatively late in life. Stanford proved tolerant, but very soon Joan started to feel that people were taking her ideas less seriously. In 2006, for example, Joan suggested another famous scientific theory was wrong - Charles Darwin's theory of sexual selection. Among other things, the theory suggests that men and women are perpetually locked in a reproductive conflict. Men are supposed to be sexually promiscuous because they stand to gain from spreading their genes as widely as possible, whereas women are supposed to value monogamy because they can have relatively few biological children. Even when women and men escape from this "battle of the sexes", it is only because a temporary truce has been declared. A monogamous husband, for example, "forgoes" his natural inclination to infidelity because his partner offers him something of exceptional value - such as beauty or youth. The theory essentially suggests that conflicting goals are basic to all male-female human relationships - and even purports to "explain" why men rape women. Using ideas from game theory, Joan published a review article in the prestigious journal Science, where she explained why she thought the theory was wrong. Thinking about sex purely in terms of reproduction was flawed, Joan argued. Sex was also about building alliances, trading, co-operation, social regulation and play. Joan used the example of the Eurasian oystercatcher, a wading bird, in her 2006 paper. In particular, she looked at nests involving three birds, a male and two females. In some of these families, the females fought viciously with each other, whereas in others, the females mated with each other almost as often as they mated with the male. Nests where females bonded sexually were much more likely to have offspring that survived, compared with nests where the females fought each other, since the co-operative nest could call on the resources of three birds to defend offspring against predators. Sex between the females may not have produced offspring, but it had a powerful effect on the survival rate of offspring. Where Darwin's theory of sexual selection would argue that the competing interests of males and females are what produce a range of sexual behaviours, Joan's theory of "social selection" offered a different viewpoint: conflict between Eurasian oystercatchers, as perhaps with conflict between human mates, was not the starting point of relationships but an unfortunate outcome. Co-operation, not conflict, Joan argued, was basic to nature. "Reproductive social behaviour and sexual reproduction are co-operative. Sexual conflict derives from negotiation breakdown.'' THE scientific establishment, Joan said, was livid. But in contrast to the response to her earlier theory about tide pools and marine animals, few scientists engaged with her. At a workshop at Loyola University, a scientist "lost it" and started screaming at her for being irresponsible. "I had never had experiences of anyone trying to coerce me in this physically intimidating way," she said, as she compared the reactions to her work before and after she became a woman. "You really think this guy is really going to come over and hit you." At a meeting of the Ecological Society of America in Minneapolis, Joan said, a prominent expert jumped up on the stage after her talk and started shouting at her. Once every month or two, she said, ''I will have some man shout at me, try to physically coerce me into stopping …When I was doing the marine ecology work, they did not try to physically intimidate me and say, 'You have not read all the literature.' "They would not assume they were smarter. The current crop of objectors assumes they are smarter." Joan is willing to acknowledge her theory might be wrong; that, after all, is the nature of science. But what she wants is to be proven wrong, rather than dismissed. Making bold and counter-intuitive assertions is precisely the way science progresses. Many bold ideas are wrong, but if there isn't a regular supply of them and if they are not debated seriously, there is no progress. After her transition, Joan said she no longer feels she has "the right to be wrong". Where she used to be a member of Stanford University's senate, Joan is no longer on any university or departmental committee. Where she was once able to access internal university funds for research, she said she finds it all but impossible to do so now. Before her transition, she enjoyed an above-average salary at Stanford. But since her transition, "My own salary has drifted down to the bottom 10 per cent of full professors in the School of Humanities and Sciences, even though my research and students are among the best of my career and are having international impact, albeit often controversial." I asked her about interpersonal dynamics before and after her transition. "You get interrupted when you are talking, you can't command attention, but above all you can't frame the issues," she said. With a touch of wistfulness, she compared herself to Ben Barres. "Ben has migrated into the centre whereas I have had to migrate into the periphery." Shankar Vedantam is a 2009-10 Nieman fellow at Harvard University and a national science writer at The Washington Post. This is an edited extract from The Hidden Brain, published in Australia by Scribe. RRP $35	<urn:uuid:51953ec1-1f56-41b9-b12b-ea1dcf02b964>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.theage.com.au/national/how-the-sex-bias-prevails-20100514-v4mv.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.985684	2,839	3.03125	3
Murray Gell-Mann is an American physicist who is credited with the introduction of the concept of quarks. He won the 1969 Nobel Prize for physics for his groundbreaking work on the description and classification of subatomic particles. Gell-Mann is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of the 20th century. Early Life and Education: Born in 1929 in Manhattan, New York City, Murray Gell-Mann was a very gifted student who entered Yale University when he was only 15. He acquired a B.S. degree in physics in 1948, and earned his Ph.D. at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1951. His doctoral thesis on subatomic particles greatly inspired the works of Hungarian American theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate Eugene Wigner. Contributions and Achievements: Murray Gell-Mann started working at the Institute for Nuclear Studies, University of Chicago in 1952, where he introduced the concept of “strangeness”, a quantum property and the force that holds the components of the atomic nucleus, in 1953. He became a member of the faculty of the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena in 1955, and the Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Theoretical Physics in 1967. While working with fellow physicist Yuval Ne’eman, in 1961, Gell-Mann suggested a scheme for the classification of previously discovered strongly interacting particles into a basic and proper arrangement of families. He hypothesized that it should be achievable to elaborate on the specific properties of known particles in terms of even more fundamental particles. He later termed these basic particles of matter as “quarks”, which later led to the 1964 discovery of the omega-minus particle. Murray Gell-Mann served as a director of the MacArthur Foundation for 23 years, from 1979 to 2002. He was also a member of the President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology from 1994 to 2001.	<urn:uuid:5ca389f3-cf3b-43a2-9346-731ef8449bf5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.famousscientists.org/murray-gell-mann/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954752	397	3.5625	4
This information is for reference purposes only. It was current when produced and may now be outdated. Archive material is no longer maintained, and some links may not work. Persons with disabilities having difficulty accessing this information should contact us at: https://info.ahrq.gov. Let us know the nature of the problem, the Web address of what you want, and your contact information. Please go to www.ahrq.gov for current information. Almost 70 percent of children visiting a physician for a sore throat are prescribed antibiotics Data from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality's Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) show that 14 percent of U.S. children visit a health professional at least once a year for serious sore throat, and over two-thirds of these children are prescribed antibiotics. MEPS data also show that about 1 of every 5 children prescribed an antibiotic did not receive a throat swab to confirm a bacterial infection. Sore throats caused by bacteria can be cured by antibiotics; those caused by viruses cannot. The Michigan Quality Improvement Consortium recommends that children with a high probability for streptococcus pharyngitis (a bacterial infection known as "strep throat") be started immediately on antibiotics. The treatment should stop if a swab is obtained and the results are negative. Children with an intermediate probability should not be prescribed antibiotics until swabbing confirms infection. MEPS data also indicate that: - About 30 percent of children under age 5 were prescribed antibiotics without having their throats swabbed, as were 18 percent of those ages 5 to 12 and 24 percent of children ages 13 to 17. - Hispanic children who were prescribed antibiotics were less likely to have their throats swabbed than white non-Hispanic children 72 percent vs. 81 percent, respectively. - Privately insured children prescribed antibiotics were more likely to get a throat swab (81 percent) than children covered by Medicaid or other public insurance only (71 percent). For more information, go to MEPS Statistical Brief #137: Treatment of Sore Throats: Antibiotic Prescriptions and Throat Cultures for Children under 18 Years of Age, 2002-2004 (Annual Average) on the MEPS Web site at http://www.meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_files/publications/st137/stat137.pdf (PDF Help). Return to Contents Proceed to Next Article	<urn:uuid:c5d63505-0f1c-45da-bba6-47c7a7502a55>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://archive.ahrq.gov/research/sep06/0906RA18.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949819	499	2.96875	3
nna at leicester.ac.uk Mon Oct 13 11:34:06 EST 1997 In article <61qtpp$3a7 at net.bio.net>, Leonard Pattenden <ddlpatte at mailbox.uq.edu.au> wrote: > There is an idea which has been put to me, and I thought I >might post it to see what other peoples views might be. It is as follows:- >The surface of a cell has a net charge which is of the same type as a >viral surface. So for a virus to find a receptor or protein which it can >form an attachment with, it must scan the surface of the cell. This is >achieved by Brownian motion - ie the virus oscillates in a localised area. >First of all - are their any feelings for or against this view? >Secondly - How exactly does the virus find the target? Is there slightly >less repulsion in one area for migration? Does electrostatic forces >dictate the attachment? Is the range being described here close enough for Yes! (Enveloped) virus particles & eukaryotic cells both tend to have a net negative electrical charge - not surprising since the envelope is derived from the surface of the host cell. It is quite common practice for virologists to use multivalent cations such as polybrene when infecting cells to decrease the repulsion between virus & cells, thus promoting attachment & increasing the efficiency of plating. Dr Alan J. Cann PhD, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Leicester, UK. More information about the Virology	<urn:uuid:27420d55-9a1d-4b89-9b6c-2abe03cb594c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bio.net/bionet/mm/virology/1997-October/006945.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935088	358	3.046875	3
Inspiration for Coral Morphologic begins with the radially-symmetric coral polyp; a life-form that intelligently amalgamates animal, plant, and mineral into a collective unit, and whose life-cycle is controlled by the cosmic synchronicity of the Sun and Moon. Besides humans, corals are the only other animals that have created urban environments on Earth on a scale visible from space. Coral reefs are successful ecosystems where symbiosis, opportunism, and complex interdependence create a harmonic foundation for the evolution and diversity of life. Corals have survived multiple global extinctions over millions of years, and yet man has only been building cities for several thousand, the lifespan of a typical reef. It is the corals' innate ability to morph, adapt, clone, evolve, symbios, and reproduce that inspires us to create our works and share with the world. Coral Morphologic proposes that unlocking the secrets of coral reproduction and aquaculture is a culminating achievement in humankind's quest for colonization of planet Earth, and is a gateway through which we must pass before expanding our knowledge of unknown worlds. Furthermore and henceforth, symbiosis between corals and humans will be essential for our collective survival in the (accelerating) decades to come. When, and if, Homo sapiens leaves Earth in search of other aquatic planets, corals will be hitchhiking with them.	<urn:uuid:b0abf13f-6536-441c-a138-dd40ff325cc0>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://coralmorphologic.com/index.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.914107	285	3.109375	3
Crash of the Century!The Tenerife airport disaster occurred on March 27, 1977, when two Boeing 747 passenger aircraft collided on the runway of Los Rodeos Airport (now known as Tenerife North Airport) on the Spanish island of Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands. With a total of 583 fatalities, the crash is the deadliest accident in aviation history. The aircraft involved, KLM Flight 4805 and Pan Am Flight 1736, were, along with many other aircraft, diverted to Tenerife from Gran Canaria Airport after a bomb exploded there. The threat of a second bomb forced the authorities to close the airport while a search was conducted. So many airplanes were diverted to the smaller Tenerife airport that controllers were forced to park many of them on the taxiway, thereby blocking it. Further complicating the situation, while waiting for authorities to reopen Gran Canaria, a dense fog developed at Tenerife, greatly reducing visibility. When Gran Canaria reopened, the parked aircraft blocking the taxiway at Tenerife required both 747s to taxi on the only runway in order to get in position for takeoff. Due to the fog, neither aircraft could see the other, nor could the controller in the tower see the runway or the two 747s on it. As the airport did not have ground radar, the only means for the controller to identify the location of each airplane was via voice reports over the radio. As a result of several misunderstandings in the ensuing communication, the KLM flight attempted to take off while the Pan Am flight was still on the runway. The resulting collision destroyed both aircraft, killing all 248 aboard the KLM flight and 335 out of 396 aboard the Pan Am flight. 61 people aboard the Pan Am flight, including the pilots and flight engineer, survived the disasterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife_airport_disaster In: Other Entertainment Tags: Crash of the century, Tenerife Airport disaster, KLM flight 4805, Pan Flight 1737, Strike, crash on takeoff, taxi, Fog, KLM take off, disaster, impact, crash, Fatal, fire, death, destruction, diversion, Collision, Aircraft collision, Canary Islands Location: Canarias, Spain (load item map) Views: 7071 \| Comments: 0 \| Votes: 0 \| Favorites: 2 \| Shared: 0 \| Updates: 0 \| Times used in channels: 3 \|Liveleak on Facebook\|	<urn:uuid:3de29511-4713-46de-a679-045be8d6f87f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=a67_1311225887	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937582	511	2.578125	3
Interior view showing the architectural detail of the cusped arched recess in the Great Hall of Harewood Castle. This feature is one of the most important in the castle, which dates from c1365 and is a Scheduled Ancient Monument and Grade 1 listed. It is thought to have been used as a 'sideboard' or 'buffet' to display treasured items of plate and designed especially for this purpose. A crocketed ogee gable (ogee is an architectural term for an arch which is partly convex and partly concave) is constructed over the ornate cusped arch which frames the recess. The plate would have been arranged on the stone 'shelves' on the back wall and the whole area would have been back lit by the tall, narrow window. Detail is still evident in the carved stone frieze of vine leaves which twine around the feature, highlighting the shape. Across the top there are various small decorative carvings, including what appears to be a game bird, left. In medieval times the Great Hall would have been a symbol of prosperity with stained glass and opulent furnishings. Many items of plate are known to have been engraved with the arms of Aldburgh (Sir William de Aldburgh rebuilt the castle c1365) and also of Baliol, (Edward Baliol, King of Scotland) to whom William was a high ranking and loyal messenger. Photograph couresty of Paul Baker.	<urn:uuid:4bb022fc-8914-4961-a992-c828c401a85f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.leodis.net/display.aspx?resourceIdentifier=20071016_164965&DISPLAY=FULL&COMMENT=YES	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.966341	297	2.875	3
"Complex systems" is an emerging field of science which generalises certain aspects of sociology, biology, physics and other traditional disciplines of science, as well as engineering, management, and medicine. It deals with systems composed of number of smaller units (complex particles) and studies their mutual interaction and their interaction with the system environment. "Complex systems" concerns the nature and consequences of interactions and non-linearities in systems of many objects. It includes topics such as artificial life, cellular automata, chaos, criticality, evolutionary computation, fractals, parallel computation, self-organization." Classical organisms made of cells, is a special case of a more general concept. Generalized or abstract organism can be made of the other organisms; for example an 'ant hill' can be viewed as a single organism, made of mostly of individual ants or society as an organism made of individuals. The individual units may be anorganic (robots) or exist only in a computer (artificial life). Such complex systems, which like classical organisms exhibit goal-oriented behaviour are called abstract organisms. Superorganism: Gaia, Global brain and systems of artificial life models and systems of interacting intelligent agents Conferences, courses, meetings, seminars,workshops and other events in the Mathematics of Complex Systems. Evolution of Complexity and Evolution to Equilibrium both exhibit the Arrow of Time (see category 'Time and Timelessness'). Here we list Generalised Dynamical Systems, which can describe, model and explain such behavior. Includes traditional dynamical systems, starting with classical dynamics of point particles, irreversible statistical mechanics, Lotka-Volterra population dynamics and dynamics of complex particles, deterministic, chaotic and stochastic. papers and articles available on the web as well as hard copy journals for Complex Systems. Open and subscription journals are listed. Symbol $ may be added to description when subscription Complex Systems use Computer models and simulation as their principal tools. Models in this category will be classified according to their area of application: evolution, global or planetary models (Gaia studies), societal models (swarm) .. This subcategory is intended for methodology of the simulation and model building, general issues which apply to all models, testing, reduction, validation.. Research groups devoted to study of Complex Systems Kindly provide contact e-mail address	<urn:uuid:498e6c76-3bc3-4b81-ba88-2b3e4150773a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dmoz.org/desc/Science/Math/Applications/Complex_Systems	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.906665	495	2.59375	3
This is an excerpt from EERE Network News, a weekly electronic newsletter. AWEA: Wind Power Leads New U.S. Generating Capacity in 2012 The U.S. wind energy industry had its strongest year ever in 2012, the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) announced on January 30. The industry installed a record 13,124 megawatts (MW) of U.S. electric generating capacity last year, achieving over 60,000 MW of cumulative wind capacity, enough to power almost 15 million homes. The annual total far surpasses the previous record of 10,000 MW installed in 2010. For the first time, wind energy became the number one source of new U.S. electric generating capacity, providing 42% of all new generating capacity. In last year's fourth quarter alone, 8,380 MW were installed, making it the strongest quarter in U.S. wind power history. AWEA noted that this was due in large part to impending expiration of the federal Production Tax Credit. It was slated to end on December 31, 2012, but was extended by Congress as part of the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012. The top 10 states for new capacity installations in 2012, in order, were Texas (1,826 MW), California (1,656 MW), Kansas (1,440 MW), Oklahoma (1,127 MW), Illinois (823 MW), Iowa (814 MW), Oregon (640 MW), Michigan (611 MW), Pennsylvania (550 MW), and Colorado (496 MW). The Golden State regained its position as the second largest state in installed wind capacity, surpassing Iowa, which had been number two since 2008. California achieved the 5,000-MW milestone in wind capacity, following Texas, and alongside Iowa. See the AWEA press release.	<urn:uuid:39a48e89-9928-4590-9217-838d6725c4a8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=18994	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950897	372	2.625	3
Fenugreek is one of those plants that people like to consume in its entirety. No throwing out the seeds in favor of the leaves, or vice versa. Instead, the seeds are kept to be used as a spice to help flavor foods, while the leaves can be used either as an herb or a vegetable. The Health Benefits of Antioxidants Regardless of which part of the vegetable you add to your diet, you’re likely to see health benefits. All plant parts tend to come loaded with antioxidants, which are good for lowering inflammation as well as our risk of cancer. Eating plenty of leafy greens has also been associated with improved immune health, not to mention gut health and just all around feeling better. The Nutrients in Fenugreek Leaves The leaves in particular contain a moderate amount of carbs and a significant amount of protein, calcium, phosphorous, and iron, all of which are necessary for maintaining a strong mind and body. Even drinking fenugreek tea can have significant health benefits.	<urn:uuid:a950f754-d2f0-40b8-af34-4ef1d520c6ba>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://paleoporn.net/q/is-fenugreek-paleo/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963796	208	2.578125	3
Vasculitis is an inflammation of the blood vessels. Inflammation is a condition in which tissue is damaged by blood cells entering the tissues. These are mostly white blood cells which circulate and serve as our major defense against infection. Ordinarily, white blood cells destroy bacteria and viruses. However, they can also damage normal tissue if they invade it. Vasculitis can affect very small blood vessels (capillaries), medium-size blood vessels (arterioles or venules), or large blood vessels (arteries and veins). Several things can happen to an inflamed blood vessel. If it is a small vessel, it may bread and produce tiny areas of bleeding in the tissue. These areas will appear as small red or purple dots on the skin. If a larger vessel is inflamed, it may swell and produce a nodule which may be felt if the blood vessel is close to the skin surface. The inside of the vessel tube may become narrowed so that blood flow is reduced, or the inside may become totally closed (usually by a blood clot which forms at the site of inflammation). If blood flow is reduced or stopped, the tissues which receive blood from that vessel begin to die. For example, a person with vasculitis of a medium-sized artery in the hand may develop a cold finger which hurts whenever it is used; occasionally this can progress to gangrene. Vasculitis can be caused by The first cause is rare. When it occurs, bacteria, viruses or fungi infect the blood vessel. White blood cells move in to destroy the infectious agents and damage the blood vessel in the process. This is a serious condition and requires prompt antibiotic treatment. The second cause of vasculitis, an immune reaction, is more common. Substances which cause allergic relations are called "antigens." They cause the body to make proteins called "antibodies" which bind to the antigen for the purpose of getting rid of it. Antigen and antibody bound together are called "immune complexes." Two primary ways in which immune complexes destroy antigens are: Unfortunately, some immune complexes do not serve their purpose of destroying antigens. Instead, they remain too long in the body and circulate in the blood and deposit in tissues. They commonly accumulate in blood vessel walls, where they cause inflammation. It is likely that some white blood cells which kill infectious agents ("cytotoxic" cells) can also accidentally damage blood vessels and cause vasculitis. In the vasculitis caused by lupus, the antigens causing the immune complexes are often not known. In some cases, the complexes contain DNA and anti-DNA antigens, or Ro (also called SS-A) and anti-Ro antigens. A recently discovered antibody, ANCA (anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody), can cause vasculitis in some individuals. Vasculitis can occur in many different illnesses. Some of the illnesses that can cause vasculitis are Vasculitis can also occur by itself without any obvious associated infection (fungal included) or other illness. Vasculitis can cause many different symptoms, depending upon what tissues are involved and the severity of the tissue damage. Some patients are not ill and notice occasional spots on their skin. Others are very ill with systemic symptoms and major organ damage. A list of symptoms based on the tissues in which vasculitis occurs include: If you suspect that you or a friend or relative has vasculitis, you should consult a physician as soon as possible. Remember, vasculitis can be very mild and of little importance, or very severe and life-threatening -- or any degree in between. Therefore, an expert should help you decide: (a) if you have vasculitis, (b) how serious it is, and (c) if and how it should be treated. Doctors trained in several different specialties are taught to recognize and treat vasculitis. These include rheumatologists, general internists, dermatologists, hematologists, nephrologists, gastroenterologists, infectious disease experts, pulmonologists, cardiologists, geriatricians, neurologists, and ophthalmologists. The diagnosis of vasculitis is based on a person's medical history, exposure to toxic chemicals and fungi, current symptoms, a complete physical examination, and the results of specialized laboratory tests. Blood abnormalities which often occur when vasculitis is present include an elevated sedimentation rate, anemia, a high white blood count and a high platelet count. Blood tests can also be used to identify immune complexes or antibodies that cause vasculitis in the circulation and measure whether complement levels are abnormal. These tests take several days to complete. The physician may also order a urine analysis. If there are any symptoms that suggest heart involvement, tests that may be ordered include: IKG, ECHO cardiogram and hear scans. For lung symptoms, the physician may order a chest x-ray, obtain blood from an artery to measure the oxygen content, and schedule a pulmonary function test. A pulmonary function test uses a specialized machine to measure how well the lungs handle air and oxygen as you breathe into it. If there are abdominal symptoms, the physician may order ultrasound or CAT scans of the organs in the abdomen, or other special x-rays to see the intestines. For brain symptoms, CAT scans and magnetic resonance images are frequently useful. Sometimes, inflammation in medium and large-size arteries or veins can be seen by injecting dye into them and viewing the outlines of the blood vessels on x-ray. This procedure is called an "angiography." It can be done in any area of the body. The diagnosis is most firmly made y seeing vasculitis in involved tissue. This is done by taking a biopsy of the involved tissue and examining that tissue under a microscope. Your physician may suggest this procedure. Finally, it may be important for your physician to consult with other medical specialists about your case. For example, if your physician is a rheumatologist and you have visual complaints which could be indicative of vasculitis, you may be referred to an ophthalmologist. It is very important that one physician be in charge of your case, coordinating your care and helping you with decisions.	<urn:uuid:67bbc89e-6da5-48af-be89-057228ea0977>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.mold-survivor.com/vasculitis.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945614	1,298	3.890625	4
Waco, Texas (PRWEB) March 18, 2014 World Water Day is Saturday, March 22, and Rainbow International has tips to conserve and prevent unnecessary water usage in the home and outside. Water conservation is an important part of World Water Day and these tips from Rainbow International will help contribute to smarter daily water usage. Save water in the kitchen - Consider loading the dishwasher rather than hand washing. Fully-loaded dishwashers use less water than hand washing. - Avoid continuously running hot water over pots. It will use less water if you soak pots in hot, soapy water. - When you rinse vegetables in a pot, save the excess water for plants. Plus, washing vegetables in a pot saves more water than placing them under a running faucet. Save water in the bathroom - Wait to adjust water temperature in the tub until after you have put the plug in the drain. - Take a timed shower. Five minutes in the shower uses less water than taking a bath. - Don’t let the water run when you are brushing your teeth or shaving. If you are not using the water, turn off the faucet. Save water in the yard - When cleaning off the walkway or patio, use a broom instead of a water hose. - When using the sprinkler system, make sure it is on a timer and used during the early morning or evening hours. - Use plants that require little watering when planting your flowerbed or other landscaping. You still get foliage and save on water consumption. Follow these tips from Rainbow International and get ready to contribute to World Water Day March 22.	<urn:uuid:f6a74d35-dc04-4358-9801-db8b1c40c048>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.prweb.com/releases/2014/03/prweb11680063.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.901529	340	2.890625	3
Foundations of Reading As a result of the Wisconsin Read to Lead Task Force recommendations, a new statutory provision was created in ACT 166. The specific statute 118.19 (14) puts into place a required content test in Foundations of Reading for all Grade K-5 teachers, special education teachers, reading teachers, and reading specialists seeking initial licensure. Foundations of Reading Test – Updated 7/16/2014 This Wisconsin Foundations of Reading Study Guide was created by Dr. Jennifer Arenson Yaeger. Jennifer has over 20 years of experience in the field of education. For the past 10 years, she has offered regional workshops to prepare teachers for the Foundations of Reading MTEL. This document was developed specifically to prepare Wisconsin Test Takers. Her website, referenced on the front cover of the Study Guide, contains documents with practice tests, tips, videos, etc. that may also find helpful. UW-Madison’s School of Education Outreach and Partnerships has developed web-based modules to help prepare students for the test. These materials are a good accompaniment to the resources developed by Jennifer Yaeger.	<urn:uuid:e44cc2db-2e84-4680-b260-4cb4182db8d9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.uwgb.edu/education/program/reading.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937777	232	3.046875	3
In the mid 70, the Fania record label created the term of salsa. In order to differentiate from the traditional Latin dance rhythms, they created the exclusive dance rhythms. Therefore, you shall expect that the Salsa Dancing draws from many Latin American musical styles. In addition, the dancing mixes with some Cuban styles. Such distinct dancing immediately becomes popular in New York between 1950s to 1970s. The Salsa dancing is associated with the salsa music, as well as some tropical music. There are eight beats in the music. Dancers are required to move on three beats, following a pause for one beat, which is regarded as one cycle. Normally, Salsa dancing involves two cycles; one is left-right-left-pause, while the other is right-left-right-pause. The dancing is special to utilize some types of flourish, including casting out the hand, stomp of the foot, etc. Since the dancing is not strong, it is particularly suitable for elderly to dance and practice. With the subtle movement of the upper bodies and legs, elderly can exercise. Traditional dancing usually involves partnered movements. In addition to the partnered movements, the Salsa dancing might involve solo movements, which they called shines. Shines are a way to show off your talent in front of people. Therefore, shines include ornate movements, and body demonstrations. Since the shines are solo dancing, they are improvisational in theory. However, before you perform the shines, you still need to learn some basic and standard steps. Nowadays, Salsa dancing is popular in the Carribean, South America, Central America, Europe, and even some Asian countries. As a popular social dance in the world, the Salsa dancing shall be promoted in school. From the dancing, students shall understand the strong influence and development in the 1970. All the things we encounter in our life leaves something to be learned and car racing games are not excluded. 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Most of the limousines provided have additional perks like fiber optics, laser lights, stereo system, and karaoke and bar service inside. These limousine companies also provide you with buses and stretched SUVs if you want them on hire. The rental rates are well inside your budget and therefore you don’t need to worry about your budget. For all you travel freaks out there, here is one website that can help you organize yourself a better vacation. The website travelAdriatic.net offers an exhaustive list of hotels to choose from in various holiday destinations round the globe. You can go through a gallery of available hotels in the listed towns and cities. TravelAdriatic lets you book your hotel room online, after you have read about the tariff and other features of the hotel. The website also provides you with information on the availability of apartments or villas on rent in the concerned cities. For instance, if you plan to visit see cool American soap operas and the latest news on soaps on tv, this page helps you find the information you need. You also get to read some facts about the Croatian town that might interest you. Maps of the place and how to reach are also provided on the portal. Get a list of stuff from TheDVX.com If travelling to Togir is on your agenda and you are confused about where to stay, here is some help. The link takes you to the Trogir page of travelAdriatic.com where you can find all the possible accommodation in the city, including hotels, apartments and holiday villas. To further assist you are some maps and tour guide of the city. Your windshield is a major part of your vehicle’s Safety Restraint System (SRS) which is found in all vehicles to provide protection from serious injury and death in the event of an accident. The windshield of all vehicles provides a substantial portion of the structural integrity of the passenger compartment. Over the years, proper installation (as well as replacement) has become an extremely important aspect of the manufacturing of vehicles. It has become a precise science, as windshield safety and structural engineering has seen dramatic increases in expectations among manufacturers. You can also find free web templates. These are great templates for your websites, 2.0 sites and they are free. Are you a fan of bicycles? This may come as somewhat of a surprise to some consumers. While windshield integrity has come under intense analysis and study by vehicle manufacturers, most car consumers really never even address this fact.… Continue reading At times, repairing your windshield is good enough, but if the break done is very serious, then simple repair is out of question. In such cases, a full windshield replacement will be the best bet. Whether you will admit it or not, windshield replacement is necessary if there is a break which is lesser than three inches. At times, these cracks begin as little as the tip of a needle which can be caused by mechanical stress, temperature deviation and rocks. But regardless of the reasons behind the scratch or crack, it is very important to act on windshield replacements before it will be too late. As mentioned earlier, windshields are there to shelter you from any object flying on the air. Here are more resources at bloomsburyrescue.com. Therefore, waiting for too long to replace faulty windshields might actually become a troublesome element of the automobile. More than 12,000 fatalities every year come from individuals who are being thrown away from their cars. Last year a two good friends of mine needed to get their windshield replaced in framingham and in waltham so i began searching around for prices for them. I searched for wind screen repair and found a company that gave me 3 quotes. I searched again for it went with a company that did mobile windshield repair and was satisfied with their services. For more information: See ScaredYet.org Your windshield is what protects you and your passengers from any debris from the road that could come into your vehicle and harm you. Also, free shed plans are a great way to start your shed building or woodworking project. For example some things that may hit your windshield are rocks, trash, cigarette butts, and other things that hit your windshield. It is important to keep your windshield in good condition so it can do its job and protect you. If you windshield is cracked, chipped or broken in any other such way it will not be able to do its job. Also it can actually significantly decrease your safety. Having a broken, chipped or cracked windshield can make it easier for debris to come through your windshield and actually send the glass flying your way as well. If you have a broken windshield in Worcester, Ma., you can search for autoglass for all your windshield replacement needs.	<urn:uuid:319bc92a-b2d9-4dfa-878a-fd68ae73f680>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ambafranbakou.com/category/uncategorized/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953413	4,127	2.625	3
Memories of very apparent, highly visible pollution occur in scientists’ accounts of their childhood: blackened buildings in northern cities and dense smogs in London. With the Clean Air Act (1956) many looked forward to a less polluted future, but through the second half of the twentieth century scientists have detected and measured the effects of a large number of less visible pollutants. Detection has taken many forms: an impression that summer air in the countryside was becoming hazy (CFCs), strange flecks on tobacco leaves (ozone), silent springs (pesticides), crumbling cathedrals (acid rain), yellowing ryegrass (SO2), measurements of lead in Antarctic snow, a hole in the ozone layer (CFCs), fishless lakes in Scandinavia and Scotland (acid rain), algal blooms (eutrophication). Of all the invisible pollutants, perhaps the most unsettling has beenradioactivity – as clouds of fallout from accidents such as Windscale (1957) and Chernobyl (1986) and as containers of waste to be disposed of. In defending measurements, advising governments and speaking to the media about pollution, scientists have often found themselves out of alignment with the interests of industry and commerce on the one hand, and a growing ‘environmental movement’ on the other.	<urn:uuid:5307c420-4509-46e3-bf5d-a46d26dce679>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bl.uk/voices-of-science/themes/pollution	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945624	267	3.046875	3
CD DVD duplication process video Labels: CD DVD duplication video We are going to talk about various topics around CD DVD duplication and replication. From the design, mastering, duplication and pacakging. Labels: CD DVD duplication video There is a difference between DVD-9 and double layer DVDR - DVD-9 is the dual-layer DVDs that are replicated (pressed). Double layer DVDR are actually a blank DVD media that contains 2 layers. Audio files come in many formats today, there is the most common mp3, mp4, and also the AIFF and WAV. Which one is the best format for CD duplication and CD replication? Let's start with talking about the different file formats that can be used to create an audio CD: MP3 and MP4 are compressed formats that are most popular with online downloads, however not the best choice and quality for duplication and replication. AIFF is commonly used on Macs and is an uncompressed audio file format that provides excellent sound quality. WAV is a comparable format that is mostly used on PCs, still an uncompressed audio file format and tends to be large in size. Therefore, making an audio CD master from AIFF and WAV will preserve the best sound quality. When making a CD master we should always burn as an audio CD, not data CD. Most CD burning softwares today will convert the mp3, AIFF or WAV into an audio CD format when it is set up as an 'audio' CD. An 'audio' CD will play in any home, car stereo and computer, while a 'data' CD containing MP3, AIFF or WAV files will only play in computers and stereos that are equipped to play audio files. The safest way to send CD audio or CD-Rom content electronically for CD replication is by disc image. A disc image is a copy of a CD all wrapped in one file. Instead of sending the individual songs or tracks all you'll be sending is one file. Once the image file is created, it is best to zip it using Winzip or Stuffit before it is transferred electronically to a FTP. Here's the step by step on how to do that in Toast (the version we have in this example is Toast 7) 1. First burn a CD and verify the contents are correct. 2. If all is correct insert the CD into the CD-Rom, open Toast 3. Click on Copy tab, Click on File menu and select Save as Disc Image 4. For audio CDs the file extension will be .sd2f, data content CD file extension will be .toast 5. Zip the file using Stuffit or other utility tools for upload A replication check disc is "pressed" with the actual DVD replication press, and it is created with the same glass master that will be use to press the rest of the project. It is the only safe way to proof a replicated CD/DVD, because all the CD-R or DVD-R that we can create from computer & recorder are "burned", which is a different process than replication, in which the discs are pressed. A check disc is especially important to check the layer break of a DVD-9 project A replication DVD check disc is "pressed" with the actual DVD replication press, and it is created with the same glass master that will be use to press the rest of the project. It is the only safe way to proof a replicated CD/DVD, because all the CD-R or DVD-R that we can create from computer & recorder are "burned", especially if you are concern with the layer break of a DVD-9 project. It will however delay the overall production time for a few days. Before you hand off your DVD for DVD replication, an important step is to sign off on the DVD master, these are just some of the essentials to look for: PAL and NTSC are television standards that are used in different parts of the world. United States is a NTSC country while most of Europe and Asia are in PAL. What does that really mean? Well if you bring a DVD or tape from overseas, chances are it will not play in the US. The reason is NTSC DVD players are not compatible with PAL discs. You will need to convert the footage from PAL to NTSC in order to view it. On a contrary, most PAL DVD players in Europe or Asia play NTSC discs, so if you need to send someone overseas a DVD there is usually no need to convert to PAL. If your DVD was authored overseas, there is a possibility that it is in PAL format. One important note is that all computer-based (PC and MAC) DVD players will play both PAL and NTSC discs. If you are QC'ing a disc on a computer, you won't know whether it is NTSC or PAL because it will play both! ALWAYS QC your work on both computer and set-top DVD player. The ISRC is a unique international identifier for sound and/or music video recordings. An ISRC is required to sell music through a digital retailer – iTunes, Napster, eMusic, and the like. The code is encoded at the mastering stage of the recording. In the case of music videos, the ISRC appears in the time clock for all analog formats and on the label outside of the box. The code is also included in the metadata when a song or video is delivered to a digital retailer. This serves as a “fingerprint” for the song and plays a crucial role in tracking song sales and royalty collection. Membership is free, and a log of outgoing codes must be kept in case of request from the RIAA. Membership form: Click here to know about other online music tips such as UPC barcode, gracenote. Silkscreen and offset printing are the method of printing for large run CD/DVD replication. Is one better than the other? That depends on the artwork. See the 2 examples here: The one on the top is offset and the bottom one is silkscreen. Offset printing is best used on photographic images and any artwork that does not have areas of solid colors. Offset printing gives photos a detailed and realistic look. On the other hand, silkscreen is best for solid colors such as the example here. The colors are vibrant and consistent throughout. For setting up artwork for silkscreening you need to use Pantone colors (or sometimes called PMS colors) and vector art is preferred. Many customers ask for the dimension of the CD or DVD disc and the dimension of the cover so they can work on the CD or DVD design. An artwork template simply provides with you all the information you need. It shows the actual dimension of the printed piece, with trim line as well as bleed. Labels: cd dvd You might have been there before: you're getting the DVD master today and you need to duplication a couple hundred of them in a day. How to duplicate them without paying a huge rush fee? The short answer is: get the project started as soon as either the DVD master or artwork ready There are 2 basic steps in dvd duplication - the actual duplication of DVDs and the printing of the disc face. There is no particular order which step that should happen first. This means that we can be working on DVD burning while waiting for the disc face artwork to be designed, or we can pre-print the disc face while waiting for the DVD to be authored. There is no need to wait till both components to start the job. This will save you significant time and everyone will be a happy camper. For DVD replication - the steps are more complicated, but the principals are essentially the same. There is no need to wait for both the artwork and DVD master to 'officially' begin dvd replication. If the artwork is ready, submit it first and get the proofs underway; more importantly if the CD/DVD master is ready, the stamper can be made while the artwork is still being finalized. This way will save you valuable time and money. With so many replication / duplication companies out there right now, almost everyone shops around before making a final decision. When comparing quotes from different companies, there are several things to look out for to make sure you are comparing apples with apples. All too often customers are receiving quotes that are in reality completely different things. In order to make an informative decision, read the quotes carefully: As I have reported a couple weeks ago on the new format 'DVD album' by Warner Music. According to Medialine, DualDisc is quickly losing heat among consumers, and has failed to gather interest in packaged media purchase. According to a report on the Wall Street Journal, Warner music, the 4th largest music company, is in the final stage of developing a new audio format on DVD. This new format, 'DVD album', contains a bundle of music, video footage and other extra features. DVD-audio quality tracks and video will be played on DVD players, while other extra DVD-Rom features can be played on computers. Most people might think that all DVDs are created equal, so why not find the cheapest place you can find? The truth is, not all DVDs are created equal. Never ever just go for the company with the lowest price quote. It cannot be more wrong. The list below serves as a guide on how to find professional duplication / replication services at a reasonable price. So here let me give you an insight of the sometimes long process of getting a DVD made. Many of our clients are first-timers and often do not have a clear understanding of what's involved in the DVD authoring/replication process. This is a typical and realistic timeline of what goes on: Everyone in the industry, from the RIAA, record labels to individual filmmakers are trying to put a stop to illegal downloads and pirating of movies and music. It is no surprise that copy protection technologies are such hot topics among them. We are asked all the time, does it really work? Let's first talk about how to apply it. This is probably the no. 1 most frequently asked question that I get. Many people think that they are the same and use these 2 words interchangeably. Some people say one but actually mean the other. It creates a lot of confusion because each method has its pros and cons. If you are trying to get a price and time estimate even at the same quantity you might get wildly different answers. Here's the burning question, how do you ensure the disc you made will not skip or freeze on playback? While there are no guarantees that a duplicated DVD-R will play on EVERY DVD player, here are a few pointers to ensure the highest percentage of compatibility: 1. Keep maximum bit rate under 7. Some older DVD players have troubles playing back DVDs with bit rates that are too high (>8). The average of 6 to 7 is optimal. 2. Do not use uncompressed audio files. Use compression format such as Dolby Digital Audio (AC3). 3. Burn your master at the lowest speed possible. Some DVD authoring program such as DVD Studio Pro does not allow lowering burn speeds. In that case build your project to a video TS folder, and burn it with Toast. The latest version of Toast 6 allows burning of video TS folder to DVD. 4. Use high quality DVD-R media. Taiyo Yuden, Ritek, Mitsui etc. Keep it well protected. 5. Do not use paper labels. If they are not applied properly it causes unbalance while spinning in the DVD player. The heat that is generated from playback might also melt the label, causing problem in the DVD player as well. Final - most important step All and all, if you have followed the above steps to create a master DVD, the most important step is to watch it, from start to finish. You will not believe how many clients of mine have missed this step. Do not depend on your replicator or duplicator to do the quality checking for you. After all, you are the creator of the project and no one knows the details better than you. The checks that are performed before duplicating or replicating is for unreadable sectors, incomplete data and physical damage of the disc. It has nothing to do with the quality of the video, audio levels and menu navigation. That is an important concept to keep in mind. Just as we are starting to be comfortable with the current DVD formats, there are more on the way! Here is a brief look at what we can expect next in the realm of DVD formats. HD DVD (High Density Digital Versatile Disc) is supported by NEC, Toshiba, Sanyo and Microsoft. It is one of the front runners of the race for high-definition DVD. The disc has a single layer capacity of 15 GB and a double layer capacity of 30 GB. One thing to note is the layer of a HD DVD has the same thickness as a conventional DVD, which is 0.6mm. What is the significance you might ask? It allows replication facilities to use some of the existing equipment to manufacture the new discs. HD DVD players will also be able handle both conventional and HD DVD. HD DVD players will also use some of the same technology as existing DVD layers. All of these give HD DVD an edge over competitor Blu-Ray with its significant cost advantage. Microsoft has announced that XBOX 360 will support HD DVD, but not for the launch for later this year. It will ship with a conventional DVD drive, and when HD DVD format is ready, it will be incorporated in the game console. Backed by Sony and Philips, a Blue-ray DVD will fit 25 GB on a single layer, 50 GB on a double layer. It will also include support for multi-layer discs, which allows up to 200 GB of storage in the future. A 25 GB disc will store approximately about 2 hours of high definition video footage. Blu-ray DVD is so called because it uses a "blue" laser operating at a shorter wavelength than a conventional and a HD DVD. The result is a disc of higher density and thinner layers. The thinner layers pose both pros and cons to the new format. It requires brand new manufacturing equipment but it allows for its higher capacity of data. The anticipated Sony Playstation 3 will ship with a read-only Blu-ray disc drive. Both new formats are backed by major film studios. Sony Pictures, MGM, 20th Century Fox and Disney have so announced support for Blu-ray, while HD-DVD has New Line Cinema, Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios and Warner Brothers as backers. Universal Media Disc (UMD) is a proprietary format developed by Sony for the Sony Playstation Portable (PSP). It is 65 mm in diameter and holds up to 1.8 GB of data. It can store up to 2 hours of DVD quality video. As of this time blank media of this format is not available for piracy reasons. The UMD comes in a protective cartridge and is able to store games, videos and music. "DualDisc" is a two sided disc which is a DVD on one side of the disc and non-DVD (which is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a CD side) on the other side of the disc. Sounds like a great concept doesn't it? It however has its own shares of troubles. Officials at Philips Intellectual Property & Standards (IP&S) which licenses the Compact Disc or CD format, have refused to license the CD logo to companies making or releasing Dual Disc products on the grounds that they do not meet the Compact specifications. The non-DVD side of the dual disc will hold up to 60 minutes of audio, and the DVD side is a single layer DVD. Offset vs Silkscreen Printing Offset printing is the industry standard for "full-color" printing. The technique or process prints all 4 colors as miniature dots in precise closeness to each other. The size of each dot and its relation to the other dots is what provides the finished look of colors and tones. Offset printing is usually at 175-200 line per inch, producing detailed "true-to-life" images. Back in the days all CDs and DVDs were printed with silkscreen technique. The artwork is converted to screens and ink is pressed through the screens onto the CDs and DVDs. The usual resolution of silkscreen printing is at 100 lines per inch. Spot vs CMYK (process) Printing In CMYK (Process) printing, colors on a printing press are created using a combination of four ink colors - Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black (called CMYK). These four inks are called process colors because they are the standard inks used in the four-color printing process. CMYK colors look best on offset printing while on silkscreen it will look grainy. However if preciseness of colors is important to you finished products, spot color printing is recommended. Spot color is one that is printed in its own ink. It is most commonly specified by the Pantone Matching System (PMS). In this case the cost of producing such films will depend on the number of spot colors used. Therefore, spot color printing is most economical for a small number of colors. Spot colors look balanced and is true to its color throughout the disc face for artwork with mostly solid patterns. What is white flood? Also called white base or white mask. A White Flood is the coat of ink that is applied first to a disc face print. This flood-coat is often used with 4-color process printing. A CD/DVD is originally reflective silver in color. The White flood-coat acts as a base-coat or primer for the colors printed on it, recreating the effect of printing on White paper. Without the flood-coat background, colors may not be as bright or vibrant as they would print with the darker Silver background. If the design calls for silver background to show through some part of the design, the white flood can be omitted. What is Bleed? A bleed is the area that will be cut off from the print to prevent the final artwork from having white edges. When scanning images, keep the bleed in mind so you do not have to force a bleed by resizing an image. This will inevitably cause a loss of sharpness and make the pixels more apparent. Also called white base or white mask. A White Flood is the coat of ink that is applied first to a CD face print. This flood-coat is often used with 4-color process printing on CDs. A CD is reflective Silver in color. The White flood-coat acts as a base-coat or primer for the colors printed on it, recreating the effect of printing on White paper. Without the flood-coat background, colors may not be as bright or vibrant as they would print with the darker Silver background. Colors on a printing press are created using a combination of four ink colors - Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black (called CMYK). These four inks are called process colors because they are the standard inks used in the four-color printing process. Your artwork must be in CMYK format (as opposed to RGB) before submitting. Offset / process printing, sometimes referred to as 4-color process or CMYK printing is the technique of printing with 4 standard colors; CMYK: Cyan, Yellow, Magenta and Black. This industry standard for "full-color" printing allows for near "true-to-life" color printing. The technique or process prints all 4 colors as miniature dots in precise closeness to each other. The size of each dot and its relation to the other dots is what provides the finished look of colors and tones. Most full-color brochures, magazines, newspapers, and yes, CD packaging and CDs are process printed. When process printing is not required, Pantone colors are specified. Silkscreen printing is a process whereby the artwork is converted to screens and ink is pressed through the screens onto the CD or DVD. The average resolution of silkscreen printing is 85-135 lines per inch (lpi). If you are using Photoshop, just keep in mind that it cannot invent detail that isn't there. Example, increasing an image of 5"x5" @ 72 dpi to 300 dpi does not enhance its quality and detail. Photoshop merely scales up the image to 300 dpi, it samples the dots around it and adds the additional pixels as a mix of the colors next to it. The best way is to create or scan the images @ 300dpi or greater, so you are not depending on Photoshop to re-invent. Artworks files that are being submit must include all fonts used, including any that are embedded in placed EPS files. Or have all text outlined in the EPS files. It might be trivial to write about this. However a master that is poorly prepared and kept is indeed a waste of time and effort! So, we have to at least talk about it once. Use a high quality media. A reputable brand DVD goes a long way. Maxell, TDK, Ritek, Taiyo Yuden and Mitsui, to name a few, are trusted brands that we recommend. Handle your media carefully, even blank ones. The disc has to be lint, fingerprint free before recorded on. When burning the master it is best to keep it at low speeds. Even if you are capable of burning 8x, keeping it slow on the master will ensure data accuracy. There are 2 forms of acceptable master, DVD-R and DLT (Digital Linear Tape). Back in the days DLT was the only acceptable format of master. Nowadays most replicators will take DVD-R as well. There are pros and cons to both formats. DLT tapes are more durable, reliable and therefore considered a low-risk format. DVD-R in general is more fragile, easy to scratch and not capable of storing CSS, region code, Macrovision and other copy protection data. A common problem with DVD-R is the existence of unreadable sectors. They can be caused by bad media, burner problems and mishandling. DVD-R is increasingly popular because it is widely available, cheaper and can be tested on DVD players. The DVD has been testing in simulation mode, and a master has been carefully burned. The replicator will do the rest right? Well, before you send it off, it is crucial that you do final testing on the master. Play it on your home/office DVD player, from start to finish. Try all menus and buttons. Make sure navigation, video and sound are what you expect. Play it on your computer DVD player as well if you have one. Replicators do not assume any responsibility if the master sent has defects that are unrelated to mastering and replication process. If you are unsure how your master will turn out as replicated, ask for a check disc from the replicator. Check discs are usually free. The extra couple of days it takes to create the check disc will give you peace of mind and reduce the risk of spending thousands of dollars on a faulty master. Finally you are near the end of the tunnel, the master has been carefully created and tested. Make sure when it is sent out, it is securely protected. Use a paper sleeve, jewel case or amaray box to hold the DVD. A physically damaged or scratched DVD can cause unreadable sectors and you will end up sending in duplicate masters. If there is more than one master, store them in separate boxes. NEVER send your only copy of the master! Always save a copy for yourself. If the master disc does get damaged during transit, you will not be left with re-creating the master all over again! How much can you fit on a DVD? If you are somewhat familiar with the different DVD formats, you should have heard about mini DVDs. So why are we taking about it as the new standard? It is because you will (or already have) see them more than ever from now on. In the world of DVDs, there are many coexistent formats and standards. Here we highlight a few of the most frequently asked questions: What is a DVD-R and DVD+R? They are two main formats in DVD recordable technology. DVD-R came out first so it would appear that it has a greater compatibility among DVD players. DVD+R is quickly catching up and it has a similar compatibility. There is no main difference between the two formats, and most computer DVD burners are capable of burning both formats. Is it true that a recordable DVD must be all region? Yes. A DVD made with a computer DVD burner or a home recording device will be played in all DVD players all over the world. If region code is a must for your project, DLT tapes should be submitted as replication masters. NTSC vs PAL The video on DVD discs is formatted for one of the two mutually incompatible television systems, NTSC or PAL. NTSC is primarily used in United States, Mexico, Canada and Japan. PAL format is used in Europe and the rest of Asia. Most NTSC players do not play PAL discs. However, almost all DVD players in PAL countries will play both formats. If you have a project that will be distributed globally, make sure to consider these different formats. One thing to note is that a computer DVD player will both NTSC and PAL formats. If the budget allows, the optimal solution of course is to produce both NTSC and PAL versions. However, if one has to choose between the two formats, NTSC is probably the winning choice because of its wider acceptance among DVD players globally. For those who prefer to have both NTSC and PAL versions of the video, there are two options: create 2 single layered discs or create 1 dual-sided disc. It is not possible to have both NTSC and PAL on the same disc because the DVD-Video specification disallow it. DVD recordables vs Replicated DVD The main difference between the two types of DVDs is the methods behind. DVD recordables are copied with lasers on DVD burners. Replicated discs are made with glass master and molded. For more information see our previous article on replication. DVD recordables work best for projects that require lower quantity, i.e., below 1000 pieces. It takes less time to finish however the cost per disc is significantly higher than replication. Replication is cost effective for a larger quantity, i.e., 1000 and up. The process is more reliable and controlled for higher quantity. Production time takes longer but cost per disc is much lower and printing quality surpasses DVD recordables. So now that you have received the free barcode from Hellman Production, how does it translate into tracking your CD or DVD sales? Many now consider copy protecting their DVDs a crucial part of the project. It is equally important to understand how it works and the different options for the money to be well spent. So what is copy protection? How does it avoid piracy? Replication is the process that transfers the data from the source master to CD or DVD discs. It's often talked about with 'Duplication', and it is a common misconception that they are the same. Here we'll try to reveal the mystery behind replication.	<urn:uuid:f4ee3b3d-e448-4e63-875c-8054af588fc7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://dvdduplicationhelp.blogspot.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00190-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943369	5,651	2.625	3
War history and architecture enthusiasts should never miss the Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum and Memorial in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is United States? biggest memorial created with a single purpose of paying tribute to every department of military service cadets and veterans. It is included in the National Register of Historic Places. The Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum and Memorial was established by the Grand Army of the Republic back in the 1890s and was intended for the Allegheny County and Pittsburgh to uplift the declining ranks of the veterans who hail from the city and fought in the American Civil War. Currently, the monument stands for all military service branches and pays homage to citizen as well as career soldiers who served and fought for the country since the inception of the forces. It was architect Henry Hombostel who created the blueprint of the Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum and Memorial in 1907. The memorial was officially dedicated in 1910. While its official address is registered on Fifth Avenue, the signage at its main entryway reads ?Matthew Ridgway Blvd. in honor of the World War II and Korean War hero who called Pittsburgh home.? It is just a stone?s throw away from the University of Pittsburgh where the Cathedral of Learning is found, another famous Pittsburgh landmark. Aside from the enormous memorial fashioned in Beaux-Arts style, the historic landmark also features a sprawling, beautifully-landscaped lawn ornamented with huge cannons and other war devices. Unique displays and exhibits which cannot be seen anywhere else can be found within the Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum. These exhibits cover the events which took during the Civil War and extending up to current military conflicts and battles. The memorial also features what is called the ?Hall of Valor? which was created in 1963. The ?Hall of Valor? commemorates military veterans who hail from the county and went beyond the call of duty. Currently, the ?Hall of Valor? more than six hundred honorees which include Distinguished Flying Cross, Silver Star, Air Force Cross, Navy Cross, Distinguished Service Cross, Kearny Cross and Medal of Honor recipients. The Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum and Memorial also boasts of an auditorium which can accommodate up to 2,500. There are also functional meeting rooms plus a banquet hall. For visitors who are planning to bring their own car, parking won?t be a problem since there is sufficient parking space underneath the memorial?s vast front lawn operated under the University of Pittsburgh. \|Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum and Memorial Pictures\|\| Add Picture\| \|Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum and Memorial Videos\|\| Add Video\|	<urn:uuid:161e220e-9635-4f14-8a7b-98b0553ff508>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.cityprofile.com/pennsylvania/soldiers-and-sailors-national-military-museum-and-memorial.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959715	538	2.796875	3
Obesity in children can lead to adult weight problems and chronic disease. But unwanted pounds can be taken off overweight kids wisely and without too much fuss – or kept off those otherwise likely to gain. After the 8-year-old left his doctor’s appointment, his mother read his prescription to him. It simply stated: “Play outside twice a week for 20 minutes.” The prescription, it turned out, could be satisfied by walking, bicycling, in-line skating, or undertaking any number of other active childhood pastimes. At the beginning, it was tough for the boy to huff and puff through those 20 minutes. After all, he was 50 pounds overweight. Still, as the months went on, the doctor’s orders for outside play increased to an hour, five times a week. The youth above is not rare. Experts agree that the number of children in the United States who weigh too much is too high – and growing. According to the latest National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 11 percent of American kids aged 6 to 17 are overweight – up from 5.4 percent in 1980. By a more inclusive definition, as many as one in four children is too heavy: Sandra Hassink, director of the Weight Management Program at the duPont Hospital for Children in Wilmington, Del., cites figures that put childhood obesity at about 25 percent of American kids. New research from a Tufts University Schools of Nutrition and Medicine study found that in the third grade, 28 percent of boys and 30 percent of girls are overweight; by fifth grade, overweight boys have increased to 34 percent while the percentage for girls remains unchanged. And a recent article in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) found that the number of obese children grew by seven percentage points from the 1980s to the early 1990s. But obesity and overweight don’t have to be problems for most children. As with adults, extra weight on youngsters often results from a combination of poor eating patterns and a lack of physical exercise. With help from mom, dad, and other concerned adults, and some attention from health professionals, unwanted pounds can be taken off overweight children wisely and without too much fuss – or kept off those otherwise likely to gain. Turning into ‘couch potatoes’ For a child, getting exercise doesn’t appear to be as easy as it used to be. “Today’s children just don’t play outside like they did in years past,” says William Klish, M.D., head of pediatric nutrition at both Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children’s Hospital in Houston. Becky Gorham, a registered dietitian and research nutritionist at the USDA Children’s Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Tex., says: “Overweight children need to get out of the house and exercise. Usually, obesity is not solely defined by calories consumed, but instead by inactivity.” The Centers for Disease Control found that daily participation in P.E. by high school students – which could help improve this situation – dropped from 42 percent in 1991 to just 24 percent in 1995. The organization also found that half of American young people aged 12 to 21 do not participate in any vigorous physical activity. Moreover, lots of kids have become “couch potatoes” by routinely watching television, playing video games, or surfing the Internet for hours daily. Illustrating this, the JAMA article found that 26 percent of kids watch four or more hours of TV per day and that this same 26 percent have 20 percent more body fat than those who watch less than two hours of TV in a day. What are some possible solutions? Encourage kids to walk to school (if it’s safe) and to swim, bike, and play sports – which are fun and good forms of exercise; keep exercise equipment in the house and not in the garage; and look for churches or other organizations that offer after-school activities. The lead author of the JAMA article suggested families should look for more ways to be physically active every day. (One idea might be taking a walk after dinner.) But all the experts agree: If you can do only one thing for an overweight youngster, encourage him to trade television for sports and other outside activities. Importance of family dinner Changes in two areas involving eating – snacking and the family dinner – can also make a difference in weight control. Youngsters, especially those who are home alone after school, can snack too much – and on the wrong kinds of foods. And, unfortunately, many families do not share a regular evening meal together. “One of the primary causes of childhood obesity among our patients is that families no longer sit down together for dinner at a fixed time,” says Klish. “Instead, children eat in front of the TV after ‘grazing’ all afternoon. But when everybody in a family sits down for dinner at a fixed time every night, fewer and healthier calories are consumed.” Families eat less when they dine together because they talk, and that slows the speed of eating, giving the stomach’s fullness signals a chance to work. Even small amounts of food start sending satiety signals to the brain in 20 minutes. Overweight puts kids at risk Overweight children can be plagued with depression, anxiety, and a lack of self-confidence. Additionally, scientists know that obesity puts children at increased risk later in life for more serious health woes like diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and skeletal problems in hips and legs. It’s not surprising that overweight children can have low self-esteem. Research shows that, as early as kindergarten, children tend to disapprove of obesity and view overweight classmates as less likable, capable, and able to control themselves. Family involvement helps Experts say a child loses weight best when the entire family is involved in the process; that way, the child is part of a family focus on healthier eating rather than made to feel like “the one with the problem.” If cookies or other fatty treats are forbidden to an overweight child, the entire family must forego them. At the same time, everybody in the family is better off when consumption of high-fat foods like butter, meats, chicken with the skin on, chocolate, and ice cream is kept in check. Ideal loss for a too-plump child is no more than one-half to one pound per week. Gradual dietary changes When a health professional guides the eating habits of an overweight youngster, he will often limit the child’s daily fat intake to 30 percent or less. At that healthy rate, one cheeseburger with fries could consume the child’s fat allotment for two days. Fat puts more weight on the human frame because the substance is energy-dense. A gram of fat has nine calories while a gram of carbohydrate has only four. So parents of excessively overweight youngsters are generally advised to encourage their children to cut back on high-fat dairy products, beef, pork, lamb, and highly sugared treats. (A notable exception is that before age 2, a child’s fat intake should not be restricted.) Sometimes, dietary changes are barely noticeable to kids. According to Marilyn Day, a nutritionist at Children’s Hospital in Denver, Colo., in about 20 percent of obese youngsters, weight loss can be achieved simply by cutting down on sodas, juices, and whole milk. Experts say children can learn to like healthy alternatives like fresh fruit, rice cakes, low-fat yogurt, bagels, and light popcorn. One researcher found 4-year-olds would accept vegetables and low-fat foods and snacks after trying them six or seven times. (Frozen grapes are popular because they are crunchy and sweet.) When an overweight or obese child learns to reduce and maintain his weight through good nutrition and exercise, the loss is more likely to be permanent as he grows into young adulthood. And as the excess weight is lost, improvements often occur in his social life, grades, and self-esteem. Left untreated, fat children are much more likely to grow into fat teens and then fat adults. And in most cases, that just doesn’t have to be. Freelance writer Charles Downey lives in Big Bear City, Calif. Just what is obesity, and why are more children tending toward it? Obesity is an excess in body fat. Except for heavily muscled persons, a body weight 20 percent above that in standard height-weight charts is generally considered obesity, says Dr. Sandra Hassink, director of the Weight Management Program at the duPont Hospital for Children in Wilmington, Del. (Some experts define obesity at 30 percent above ideal weight.)Since children have different frame sizes and are still growing, the determination that a child is “overweight” or obese can be better assessed by a calculation known as the “body mass index,” or BMI. (To calculate the BMI – a height-weight ratio: Multiply weight in pounds by 703; determine height in inches and square that number of inches; then divide the first number by the second.)A child’s BMI can be compared to the revised National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) growth charts, which include a BMI curve. Kids over the 95th percentile on the new charts are classified as overweight, although some doctors and researchers use a more inclusive definition based on the 85th percentile. Healthy Snacks for Kids Because the seeds for heart disease begin to sprout as early as age 3, The Arizona Heart Institute in Phoenix developed some snacks which are kid-, waist-, and heart-friendly. A few of their favorites include the following: Spoon the yogurt into a plastic cup. Pour milk over the yogurt and stir until smooth. Add the sliced strawberries and mix gently. Note: Any soft fruit may be used. Crunchy Apple Dippers Core the apple and cut into eight slices. Spread peanut butter on each apple slice. Dip each slice into the rice cereal. Peanut Butter Face Spread peanut butter on the bread. Use the raisins to make eyes, nose, and mouth. An apple slice can be used for the mouth instead of raisins. Finding Support for the Obese Child For more information on weight-loss programs for youth, contact these organizations which help children lose weight and show them how to keep it off: Program offered: A nutrition and exercise program for kids 8-13. The program, The Body Shop, includes tips on how to handle eating at parties and in restaurants.	<urn:uuid:97786f6f-8ad5-474d-b9f7-7225d57757ba>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://scoutingmagazine.org/1999/01/parenting-solutions-helping-your-child-avoid-obesity/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953243	2,211	3.046875	3
Apollo moon launch, landing 40th anniversary: Lunar X Prize robots, NASA Constellation will return As NASA celebrates the 40th anniversary of the first moon launch and landing with videos, audio podcasts, photos, articles, and history on the Apollo mission page, Control Engineering looks at current and future robotic, instrumentation and automation technologies applied to lunar exploration. Links, images follow. As NASA celebrates the 40th anniversary of the first moon launch and landing with videos, audio podcasts, photos, articles, and history on the Apollo 11 mission page, Control Engineering looks at current and future robotic, instrumentation and automation technologies applied to lunar exploration. Links, images follow. Below are links and descriptions offered to help celebrate use of automation, controls, instrumentation, and robotics for lunar exploration, and terrestrial engineering advancement. Also see NASA's links to the next U.S. moon mission, Constellation , which also plans to send humans to Mars. Also below is a sampling of Control Engineering technologies, such as motion control, sensors, robotics, processors, and motors, used and targeting lunar and space exploration. NASA Apollo 40th anniversary page includes: › Restored Videos From Apollo 11 Moonwalk › Real-Time Replay of Mission Audio (July 16-July 24) › Newly Released Apollo 11 Spacecraft Audio › Explore the Apollo 11 Landing Site and Eagle › Interactive: One Small Step › Gallery -- Apollo: Through The Eyes of the Astronauts › Statement From Apollo 11 Astronaut Michael Collins › Apollo 11 Feature Story › 40th Anniversary Page › Anniversary Events › Google Moon → -- Explore the Apollo landing sites, and more. Date: Feb 18, 2009 \| Author: Paul Grayson, FredNet... BACK TO THE MOON... According to Richard D. Core - Team...the first privately funded rover on the moon is making progress. A question on everyone... Date: Jan 12, 2009 \| Author: Paul Grayson, ... current plan of first a base on the Moon, then a colony on Mars is going to...some other valuable commodity) on the Moon first? Will that create a California Gold Rush style ... Date: Jul 14, 2009 \| Author: Peter Welander, NASA LCROSS mission takes a Ocean Optics spectrometer named Alice to the moon to analyze lunar makeup and look for water. The Centaur rocket carrying LCROSS will remain in orbit with the satellite until October 9. At that point the units will separate, sending the rocket, at more than twice the speed of a bullet. Date: May 12, 2009 \| Author: Paul Grayson, Google Lunar X-Prize race to the moon; Control Classic picture. The videos...and the missions spurred by the prize as Moon 2.0. The Moon 2.0 theme refers to... Rockets and moon buggies Date: Jan 18, 2008 \| Author: Peter Welander; Rockets and moon buggies January 18, 2008 There is a close association between space related projects, engineering, and engineers. We... Also click here and scroll down to see other moon exploration automation coverage from Control Engineering , including: Google Lunar X PRIZE brings the moon to the masses, announces ten new teams, Date: Apr 01, 2008 \| Author: CTL Staff, ...Here Google Lunar X PRIZE brings the moon to the masses, announces ten new teams...inspirational aspects of the original race to the Moon with the familiar and powerful technologies...safely land a robot on the surface of the Moon, enable that robot to travel 500 meters... BACK TO THE MOON, Date: Jan 14, 2008 \| Author: Paul Grayson, hi rez pix of moon BACK TO THE MOON Want to get away from it all? Tired of everyday earth problems? Have a use for... The Race to the Moon; Green Greens mower, Date: May 26, 2009 \| Author: Paul Grayson Donald Monell of NASA to give a "back to the moon" keynote at ISA Expo 2007, Oct. 4, Date: Sep 13, 2007 \| Author: CTL Staff MORE MOON, Date: Jan 18, 2008 \| Author: Paul Grayson - Edited by Mark T. Hoske, editor in chief, Control Engineering www.controleng.com	<urn:uuid:ab96d55d-c26c-4c07-984d-4b47649691c8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.controleng.com/single-article/apollo-moon-launch-landing-40th-anniversary-lunar-x-prize-robots-nasa-constellation-will-return/684597f3d760c4a3ce1b320021d59069.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.841063	891	2.515625	3
Google-owned artificial intelligence (AI) startup DeepMind has unveiled a computer prototype capable of mimicking properties of the human brain's short-term memory. The Neural Turing Machine learns and stores algorithms and data as "memories", which it is then able to retrieve later to perform tasks it has not been previously programmed to do. "We have introduced the Neural Turing Machine, a neural network architecture that takes inspiration from both models of biological working memory and the design of digital computers," Alex Graves, Greg Wayne and Ivo Danihelka from DeepMind wrote in a recent research paper. "Our experiments demonstrate that it is capable of learning simple algorithms from example data and of using these algorithms to generalise well outside its training regime." This new form of AI builds on the work of American cognitive psychologist George Miller, who first began research into the capacity and function of the short-term memory in the 1950s. Computer scientists have since attempted to design algorithms and neural networks to replicate a process known as variable binding, which describes the ability to store data of different lengths and return to it when required. "Our architecture draws on and potentiates this work," the paper states. "For example, we were curious to see if a network that had been trained to copy sequences of length up to 20 could copy a sequence of length 100 with no further training." Further DeepMind research into AI technologies received a boost last month when Google announced a partnership with leading research teams from Oxford University. As part of the deal, Dark Blue Labs and Vision Factory at the university will work with DeepMind to accelerate research efforts.	<urn:uuid:49423ed5-c78d-4edf-9f73-a8f308a4af5c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/googles-deepmind-builds-artificial-intelligence-computer-that-mimics-human-brain-1473488	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95775	328	3.640625	4
On the top floor of the Maputo Central Hospital is the most modern laboratory of any public health service in Africa. This is the molecular biology laboratory that analyses samples of blood from HIV-positive patients in order to determine when they should begin treatment with the life-saving anti- retroviral drugs. The laboratory has been funded by an Italian Roman Catholic NGO, the Sant'Egidio Community, and is part of the community's DREAM programme - DREAM standing for Drug Resource Enhancement against AIDS and Malnutrition. A second DREAM laboratory is now installed in the central port city of Beira, and within a month a third should begin operations in the northern city of Nampula. The Italian laboratory coordinator, Dr Mario Calgaro, told AIM "This type of laboratory is new to Africa". The Mozambican public health system is the first on the continent to be equipped with this machinery - although Calgaro suspected that some private clinics in South Africa might have similar labs. Some 15-20 health centres send samples to this laboratory for testing. Calgaro says the lab handles 1,700 patients a month, with more than one sample from some patients. The equipment allows the staff to count CD4 cells - the cells in the human immune system that are attacked by HIV. The normal guideline from the World Health Organisation is that when the CD4 count drops to 200 cells per microlitre of blood, it is time to start anti-retroviral treatment. The equipment at this laboratory, Calgaro says, is the most sophisticated currently available for doing the CD4 count. It can also detect if there is anything else wrong with the blood. It does a haemoglobin count, which can detect if a patient is in urgent need of a blood transfusion - in such cases the originating health centre is informed at once. But the laboratory can look below the cell level: its equipment can also count the patients' viral load - that is, how much HIV they have in their blood. The anti-retroviral drugs work by reducing the viral load, sometimes to vanishingly small levels - though no drug has yet been found that can destroy HIV altogether. Once treatment has begun, follow-up samples are sent to the laboratory, which can determine the effectiveness of the drug through increased CD4 cell counts, and reduced viral loads. In principle, these tests can also detect whether there is any viral resistance to the drugs. It is the tests at this laboratory that give the DREAM programme its confidence that drug treatment for HIV-positive pregnant women is preventing their babies from being born with the disease. The children's blood is tested at birth, and at three months, and six months old. The negative results from these tests allow the programme to state that 97 per cent of the babies born to the women it is treating are free of HIV. When AIM visited, Calgaro was the only Italian in sight. He stressed that "Sant'Egidio does not want to stay here forever". Instead, it wanted to train up Mozambicans to handle the equipment: and those Mozambicans would then be in charge of further training. Currently the laboratory team consists of two biologists and five laboratory technicians, all of them Mozambicans, and two Malawian biologists undergoing training. The cost of setting up this laboratory was about $350,000, provided by Sant'Egidio, which raised money in Europe, notably from an Italian bank, Unicredito. The reagents used are now supplied by the Health Ministry. Calgaro says that funding for the laboratory is guaranteed for at least five years. The greatest advertisement for the programme is its success. DREAM has been treating AIDS patients since March 2002 - and claims that 95 per cent of its patients are not only alive, but now enjoy a decent quality of life. Without the anti-retroviral therapy, most of them would be dead or dying. Mozambique is facing a grain deficit of about 430,000 tonnes for the period 2004-2005, despite an 11 per cent growth in overall grain production in the 2004 harvest, according to a report from the country's agricultural authorities. The report says that there is a maize surplus estimated at 85,000 tonnes, and a millet surplus of 30,000 tonnes. The country produced 1.4 million tonnes of maize, a 14 per cent increase on the 2003 figure. Maize accounts for 70 per cent of all grain grown in the country. But the rice harvest was disappointing. At 118,000 tonnes, it declined by seven per cent from the 2003 figure. Mozambique's total rice needs are estimated at 449,000 tonnes a year. As for wheat, although this crop is not grown in Mozambique, some 315,000 tonnes of it are consumed every year, thanks to urban residents' taste for bread and pasta. Stocks at the start of the 2004/2005 agricultural year are 40,000 tonnes of rice and 60,000 tonnes of wheat. So import needs are 291,000 tonnes of rice and 255,000 tonnes of wheat. In much of the country, the main staple is not maize, but cassava. Though statistics are not yet available, the harvest report claims there was satisfactory growth in cassava production, despite the outbreak of brown streak virus in some of the cassava producing areas. Mozambique's main opposition party, Renamo, has lodged a formal appeal against the decision of the National Elections Commission (CNE) to register Mozambicans living abroad as voters. According to a report "Noticias" on 6 August, Renamo has requested that the Constitutional Council annul the CNE decision. The seven member Constitutional Council is the body that validates election results and has the final say in electoral complaints. The Renamo complaint claims that the CNE has given no grounds for its decision to register the Mozambican emigrants, and that the decision is not valid because it has not been published in the official gazette, the "Boletim da Republica". Furthermore, Renamo adds, the CNE's executive body, the Electoral Administration Technical Secretariat (STAE), published the dates for registering the emigrants before this timetable had been approved by the government. A CNE source told "Noticias" that he was surprised by the Renamo appeal, since it seemed to contradict statements made by Renamo leader Afonso Dhlakama, who earlier said he was "unequivocally" in favour of emigrants having the right to vote. Commentators suggest that the grounds for annulment are weak. The CNE is not one of those bodies obliged to publish all its decisions in the official gazette. As for the reasons behind the decision, these were explained by CNE spokesman Filipe Mandlate the day the CNE voted to register the emigrants - namely that all citizens, regardless of where they are living, "have a right and a duty to participate in the nation's political life", and registration is a necessary condition before anyone, inside or outside the country, can vote. The emigrants are to be registered, at Mozambican embassies and consulates, from 6-25 September. This registration will cover the nine countries with the largest numbers of Mozambicans emigrants - seven in Africa (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia. Malawi, Tanzania and Kenya), and two in Europe (Portugal and Germany). Renamo leader Afonso Dhlakama has demanded that the voter registration, which took place between 28 June and 15 July, be repeated. At a Maputo press conference on 2 August Dhlakama claimed that the updating of the electoral registers had been marred by a series of problems ranging from the late arrival of material in rural areas, to computerised registers that are "completely adulterated", and citizens prevented from registering. Dhlakama claimed that the registration was "a surgical operation with the sole objective of depriving large numbers of Mozambican citizens of the elementary right of choosing their government through their votes". He claimed that this was a way of creating "large percentages of artificial abstention" in the presidential and parliamentary elections scheduled for 1-2 December. The right to vote would be held "almost exclusively by the comrades and their party political clientele", he alleged (a reference to the ruling Frelimo Party and its supporters). The elections were starting "in the worst possible way", he alleged, and "all of us, politicians, civil society and the international community have the obligation to unite our efforts to help correct it". However, official figures contradict these claims: the target for the voter registration was that 700,000 people should register (including first time voters, people who have changed address, and people who had lost their voter card and were applying for a new one). This number looks certain to be surpassed, since every province that has so far reported says it has exceeded its targets. The larger than expected turnout is as true of Renamo strongholds such as Beira as of Frelimo ones such as Maputo. Reacting to Dhlakama's demands, the spokesperson for the National Elections Commission (CNE), Filipe Mandlate, said that repeating the registration was completely out of the question. "I don't see any legal basis for this", he said. Mandlate categorically denied that there had been any shortage of registration materials. There had been slight management problems, which resulted in this or that area running out of stocks briefly - but the brigades were quickly resupplied. Renamo leader Afonso Dhlakama on 3 August swore into office the members of the election office of the Renamo-Electoral Union coalition, an alliance between Renamo and ten minor parties. To the surprise of the journalists attending the event, the director of the election office is someone they have known for many years in quite a different capacity - he is Eduardo Namburete, whose full-time job is that of press officer for the country's largest higher education establishment, the Eduardo Mondlane University. The Renamo national election agent is a prominent parliamentarian, Francisco Machambisse, while a leader of the Renamo Women's League, Gania Mussagy, heads the political department in the election office. The Renamo national spokesperson, Fernando Mazanga, is in charge of the office's communications and press relations. Lutero Simango, leader of the National Convention Party (PCN), becomes head of electoral logistics. Although he is not a member of Renamo, and heads a different organisation, Simango, like the other members of the office swore to "serve faithfully", not the coalition, but the Renamo Party. When AIM asked if he was happy with this oath, Simango described it as "part of our integration with Renamo". Dhlakama told the ceremony that, in reality, the electoral office had been in existence for some time, and had organised Renamo's monitoring of the June-July updating of the electoral registers. The ceremony thus merely made official a body that was already in operation. Dhlakama argued that 2004 would be "the year of change". He claimed "even if Frelimo were governing well, the people would want change. 30 years in power is a long time - all the more so in Mozambique's current situation, with a public administration that doesn't work". Namburete told the ceremony that a long and difficult path lay ahead, "but we are sure that the result of our work will be victory". The Renamo-Electoral Union, he said, would "fight for the moralisation of Mozambican politics", and "restore hope to our people". President Joaquim Chissano on 5 August inaugurated an electricity sub-station in the town of Cuamba, which brings power from the Cahora Bassa dam on the Zambezi to the northernmost province of Niassa. The sub-station has been functioning for the past month, and is part of a project to extend the Cahora Bassa power lines to the far north, budgeted at $45 million, and funded by the Norwegian and Swedish development agencies, NORAD and SIDA. So far 100 kilometres of transmission line has been built from Gurue, in the neighbouring province of Zambezia, to Cuamba. By 2005, the line will have been extended a further 225 kilometres to the Niassa provincial capital, Lichinga, and electrifying a number of smaller towns and localities. During the inauguration ceremony, the chairperson of the publicly owned Mozambican electricity company, EDM, Vicente Veloso, said that, prior to the new line, the power supply to towns such as Cuamba was assured through diesel-fired generators, which was extremely expensive. Veloso said that by 2005, both Lichinga and Pemba (in Cabo Delgado province), the only two provincial capitals still relying on generators, will receive Cahora Bassa power. "If there are no setbacks, one of the two towns will be connected before the end of this year", he said. "While EDM is extending the national power grid, it is also electrifying the rural areas, thus benefiting the localities along the line. In this project, localities and towns in the provinces of Nampula, Zambezia, and Niassa will be covered", he said. However, it is not all good news. Veloso has warned that without investment in new energy projects, Mozambique is heading for electricity shortages as from 2007. Interviewed in the Beira daily paper "Diario de Mocambique" on 5 August, Veloso sounded the alert: future industrial projects could be endangered unless more electricity was generated. Veloso pointed out that 2007 was not distant - in planning terms, "it's the day after tomorrow, for sources of energy we have to plan eight, nine, ten years in advance and not on the spur of the moment. What we are warning people of is that in the region, in South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, we don't have electricity for new projects". Veloso noted that there is a project for an aluminium smelter in Beira, which will need 600 megawatts of power. "Right now EDM doesn't have a spare 600 megawatts in Mozambique", he said. "And I'm going to have difficulties acquiring 600 megawatts from South Africa. Zimbabwe doesn't have it either". "Then there's Corridor Sands (the project to mine titanium-bearing heavy sands in Gaza province) which will need between 150 and 300 megawatts. I haven't got it!", exclaimed Veloso. "MOZAL (the aluminium smelter on the outskirts of Maputo) wants to expand again with a third phase. That needs between 300 and 500 megawatts". "If building work on these projects starts tomorrow, I don't have the electricity for them to operate in two or three years time". Veloso thought it was time for the governments of southern Africa to look urgently for additional sources of power - natural gas (in Namibia, Zambia and Angola, as well as in Mozambique itself) could be one such source. But far and away the greatest potential source of power lies in the Congo river basin. The projected dams in the Democratic Republic of Congo could solve the region's energy problems for decades to come: they could generate 100,000 megawatts. But that would require billions of dollars of investment, and "it is not easy to mobilise such sums", Veloso remarked. However, inter-ministerial committees and technical teams, involved the DRC, Angola, Namibia, South Africa and Botswana, were working on the "Western Corridor". This could take Congolese power all the way to Cape Town, running through Angola and Namibia, and with a branch into Botswana and thence to northern South Africa. This would cost somewhere between two and five billion dollars. But even if it started tomorrow, the power would not be available for another seven or eight years. The Mozambican government hopes to build a new dam on the Zambezi, at Mepanda Ncua, some 70 kilometres downstream from the existing dam at Cahora Bassa - but again, even if a start was made on Mepanda Ncua at once, it would take another eight years before the power would be available. And Mepanda Ncua, despite favourable initial studies, is currently stalled. The government is looking for funding, but this has been complicated by uncertainty over the future of Cahora Bassa. Currently Cahora Bassa is effectively owned by Portugal, which has an 82 per cent stake in the dam operating company, HCB. The Mozambican state is a minority shareholder, with only 18 per cent. The government wants to take full control of Cahora Bassa, but negotiations with Lisbon have been slow. The Portuguese government claims that HCB owes the Portuguese treasury a debt of about two billion dollars. Cahora Bassa can generate 2,075 megawatts - but most of this power is currently being sold to South Africa and Zimbabwe. Under the current arrangements, if Mozambique wants to increase the amount of HCB power purchased by EDM, it must negotiate both with Portugal, and with the South African electricity company, Eskom. Representatives of the four companies bidding for the lease on the Moatize coal mines in the western province of Tete met with the Mozambican government on 6 August. Pre-qualification of potential investors began in May, when a total of ten companies or consortia presented proposals. These have been whittled down to four, who must present detailed proposals by November. These four are all mining and mineral giants - the Companhia de Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) of Brazil, Anglo American of South Africa, the Australia-based company BHP-Billiton (which is the majority shareholder in the MOZAL aluminium smelter on the outskirts of Maputo), and Rio Tinto of Britain. The meeting also included representatives of the Indian consortium Rites and Ircon, which has won the contract to rebuild and operate the Sena railway line which connects the Moatize mines to the port of Beira. The estimated coal reserves in the Moatize basin are between two and three billion tonnes. Coal could become a major Mozambican export: coal exports of five million, or even ten million tonnes a year are being mentioned. The Moatize project also includes the possibility of building a new coal-fired power station. The Mozambican Ministry of Public Works on 2 August announced the creation of a Zambezi Bridge Project Office, within the National Road Administration (ANE), to take control of the building of a new bridge over the river linking Sofala and Zambezia provinces. The bridge is a key part of the country's north-south highway. Currently overland traffic between the north and south depends on an unreliable ferry service to cross the Zambezi. The bridge, between Caia, on the south bank, and Chimuara, on the north bank, has been on the drawing board for some 30 years. A start was made on the access roads to the bridge in the late 1970s, but the project was aborted because of ambushes by the apartheid-backed Renamo rebels. Now that the funding for the bridge (about $80 million) has been secured, the government is pushing ahead with preparatory work on the ground. The Project Office will be run by a director based in Caia, who will represent the Ministry and the ANE. The man chosen for this job is Elias Paulo, a civil engineer, who was previously director of public works in the northern province of Nampula. The Zambezi Bridge Project Office will be responsible not only for building the bridge, but for managing support services and undertaking projects related to the bridge that will have an impact on the local communities. The total rehabilitation of the 3.8 kilometre bridge linking Mozambique Island, the former colonial capital, to the mainland of the northern province of Nampula is estimated at $9 million. This figure was revealed by Public Works Minister Roberto White during a ceremony to launch emergency rehabilitation of the bridge. The emergency rehabilitation is budgeted at $1.7 million, granted by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), and will consist of replacing 115 pillars identified as being in an advanced state of decay. White said that the government is currently striving to raise the necessary funds for a total rehabilitation of the bridge, which was inaugurated 35 years ago. During those three and a half decades, no significant repairs to the bridge have been undertaken, and users have warned that it is becoming increasingly dangerous. "The government has never dodged its responsibilities to the bridge that gives access to Mozambique Island because, besides being an important social and economic infrastructure, it is also, like so many other parts of the island, a mirror of our culture", he said. The Mozambican government has sold off the derelict textile company Textil do Pungue, in the central province of Sofala, to a group of Mauritian investors. The factory has been paralysed for 29 years, and the existing machinery is obsolete. The Mauritians have renamed the company "Palmar Mocambique", announcing that they will invest $3 million in an initial phase to rehabilitate the premises and install new machinery. Palmar Mocambique plans to employ 600 workers, and produce 7,000 pairs of jeans a day. If all goes well, the workforce will later rise to 900. Taking advantage of the opening of the American market through AGOA (African Growth and Opportunity Act), Palmar Mocambique plans to export much of its production to the United States, though some will be sold on the domestic market. The Nacala Corridor Development Company (SDCN) and the Malawian government on 30 July signed a memorandum of understanding in Maputo, under which Malawian public and private interests will have a 16.75 per cent stake in the SDCN. The Malawian demand for shares had held up the leasing out of the Nacala port and rail system to SDCN for more than four years. An agreement in principle handing over management of the Nacala Corridor to SDCN was signed in January 2000 by the chairman of Mozambique's publicly-owned ports and rail company, CFM, Rui Fonseca, and SDCN chairman, Alberto Chipande. SDCN is a consortium, which is 67 per cent owned by four foreign concerns, Rennies of South Africa, Tertir of Portugal, and Edlows Resources and the Railroad Development Corporation, both of the United States. The remaining 33 per cent is held by several Mozambican companies, mostly based in the northern provinces of Nampula, Niassa and Cabo Delgado. But the lease on the Malawian system did not take effect, because the Malawians, as the main users of the system, demanded a share. The financial arrangements for the lease were to include American funding - $32 million from OPIC (Overseas Private Investment Corporation). But OPIC made this sum conditional on the Malawian government signing a contract on the use of the Nacala Corridor. The Malawians, however, refused to sign until they were given shares in SDCN. Tough negotiations culminated in the agreement, signed by Smart Katawala, representing the SDCN shareholders, and by the Malawian Minister of Public Works and Transport. Under this agreement, the Malawians obtain 16.75 per cent of the shares, and can appoint a member of the SDCN board. Nacala, reputedly the best deep water port on the east African coast, is the natural outlet to the sea for Malawi. It should handle the bulk of Malawi's foreign trade, although in the past it has faced unfair competition from heavily subsidised road haulage companies, carrying Malawian exports and imports to the South African ports. The European Union (EU) has pledged to grant €48 million (about $54 million) to support the Mozambican agricultural sector in the period 2004-2006, according to the head of the delegation of the European Commission in Mozambique, Pinto Teixeira. Teixeira and Agriculture Minister Helder Muteia on 9 August signed an agreement covering €9.5 million of this sum. Two million euros is to be spent on the institutional strengthening of the National Cashew Institute (INCAJU), the Mozambique Cotton Institute (IAM), and the Commercial Agriculture Promotion Office. The other €7.5 million will be spent on food security projects in the provinces of Niassa, Nampula, Zambezia, and Inhambane. The German government on 10 August pledged to channel aid of €7.5 million (about $9 million) in direct support to the Mozambican state budget, and an agreement was signed in Maputo between the German Development Bank (KFW) and the Bank of Mozambique. According to the German ambassador, Ulf-Dieter Klemm, this is the first time Germany has agreed to make funds directly available to the budget of any of the countries that receive German aid. He said this was a sign of the trust of the German government in the Mozambican authorities, and promised that Germany will continue to help implement the government's Action Plan for the Reduction of Absolute Poverty. This is a condensed version of the AIM daily news service - for details contact firstname.lastname@example.org Mozambique News Agency c/o 114 Stanford Avenue Brighton BN1 6FE UK. Tel: +44 (0) 7941 890630, email: Mozambique News Agency Return to index	<urn:uuid:273ebd7c-f4f1-467d-baaf-d305ba851d32>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.poptel.org.uk/mozambique-news/newsletter/aim281.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95929	5,411	2.9375	3
On a starry night in April 1912, halfway through its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York, RMS Titanic sideswiped an iceberg in the North Atlantic and sank with a tremendous loss of life. The sleek, fast passenger liner, the largest in the world and deemed unsinkable by virtue of its size and modern construction, carried only enough lifeboats for half of those on board. In all, 1,500 souls perished. The tragedy shocked the world at a time that, in retrospect, seems an Indian summer before the horrors of the Great War. Despite the passage of time since 1912, which has witnessed far greater calamities, the sinking of the Titanic retains its power to fascinate and appall. The event naturally generated enormous press coverage and drove newspapers to badger the 712 survivors for eyewitness accounts. One of them was a twenty-eight-year-old Virginia banker, Robert W. Daniel. A few scraps of paper in the VHS's collections give a glimpse into Daniel's ordeal. The earliest, a telegram sent by Daniel when the ship stopped at Cherbourg, cryptically told his family he was "On Board Titanic." Within a week, half a dozen other cables followed to let them know he had survived, having been picked up more dead than alive by RMS Carpathia. An accomplished swimmer, he had jumped overboard after the lifeboats were lowered and was apparently pulled, unconscious, into one of the four small canvas-sided collapsible boats from the Titanic. On the way to New York, he befriended another survivor, Eloise Smith, who had been widowed by the sinking. They married within a year. In contrast to his willingness to speak to reporters in 1912, in later years Daniel refused to talk about the experience because of the stigma attached to male survivors. The telegraphic mementoes of Robert Daniel's Titanic experience are in the Hallie Wise Williams Daniel collection in the VHS library.	<urn:uuid:1dc942c4-eda7-45b0-93c1-cf3f0234d657>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/surviving-titanic	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00071-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972204	397	3.03125	3
Subject: A8) What is storm surge and how is it different from storm tide ? Contributed by NHC Storm Surge Unit Storm Surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tide. Storm Tide is the water level rise during a storm due to the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide. Storm surge inundation refers to the storm surge as height above ground level. For the SLOSH model, this is done by subtracting the average elevation of each grid cell from the water level computed by the model referenced to a vertical datum. This helps alleviate confusion inherent in past use of surge above an abstract geophysical reference level. Last Updated : May 14, 2010 Links of Interest AOML Tools & Resources	<urn:uuid:5c907bee-7332-4e50-85b6-69d2a991177b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A8.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.898053	159	3.375	3
Figure 1. (left) Normal anatomy of the cerebellum. Figure 2. (right) In a Chiari I malformation, the posterior fossa is too small causing the cerebellar tonsils to herniate through the skull into the spinal canal. The tonsils block the flow of CSF (blue) and may cause fluid buildup inside the spinal cord, called a syrinx. Chiari (pronounced key-AR-ee) malformation is a condition in which the lower part of the brain, called the cerebellum, herniates through the skull and down into the spinal canal (Fig. 1 and 2). The herniated tissue compresses the brainstem and blocks the normal flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The blockage can then cause a buildup of fluid in the spinal cord (syringomyelia) or in the brain (hydrocephalus). Chiari is often misdiagnosed because of the wide variety of bony and soft tissue abnormalities that compress the cervical spinal cord, brainstem, or cranial nerves, resulting in a wide array of possible symptoms. Symptoms include headache, neck pain, dizziness, arm numbness or weakness, sleep problems, fatigue, etc. Headache in the back of the head that worsens with coughing, sneezing, or straining is a hallmark symptom. Chiari affects children and adults. Treatment options depend on the type of malformation and severity of symptoms. If symptoms are mild, regular monitoring and medications can be effective. However, symptoms typically progress and worsen over time. Surgery may be recommended to remove a part of the skull bone and create space for the cerebellum and brainstem. An accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment are important to prevent permanent injury to the nervous system. A neurosurgeon with expertise in Chiari can use imaging studies to confirm the diagnosis and recommmend a treatment for each unique Chiari case. Types of Chiari malformations Chiari type I, the most common, affects both children and adults (Fig. 2). Because the back of the skull is too small or deformed, a crowding of the brainstem, cerebellum, and tonsils occurs. As the tonsils push out of the skull opening (foramen magnum), they press onto the spinal cord and block CSF flow. Chiari I sometimes is found with a fluid-filled cyst (syrinx) in the spinal cord. Symptoms, which may not appear until late childhood or adulthood, include severe headache, neck pain, imbalance, dizziness, swallowing problems, numbness in the hands, depression, fatigue, and sleep problems. Chiari type 0, a newly identified form of Chiari, describes the absence (or a “zero” herniation) of the tonsils below the foramen magnum. Yet Chiari 0 includes the presence of both symptoms and a syrinx in the spinal cord. This new type is under study and controversial. Chiari type II is present at birth and affects infants. It occurs with the birth defect myelomeningocele, a form of spina bifida. When the spinal canal does not close before birth, some of the spinal cord protrudes like a sac from the baby’s back. Both the brainstem and tonsils are pulled down into the spinal canal to block CSF flow in the brain and causing hydrocephalus. Symptoms can include trouble swallowing and gagging, high-pitched breathing, weak cry, arm weakness, and developmental delays. This type is correctly called Arnold-Chiari malformation. Chiari type III affects infants and is a rare but severe herniation that involves the cerebellum. It can develop with the birth defect encephalocele, a fluid-filled sac at the back of the baby’s neck. Chiari type IV affects infants. This rare and often fatal malformation occurs when the cerebellum does not develop properly. reviewed by: Andrew Ringer, MD, John M. Tew, MD, and Nancy McMahon, RN University of Cincinnati Department of Neurosurgery	<urn:uuid:63c2e7a9-7f05-4efc-b44f-fe4d53c2b01b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mayfieldchiaricenter.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.880606	862	3.40625	3
Upload GPS tracks \|A good way to get involved in the OpenStreetMap project is to upload GNSS (GPS, Galileo or GLONASS) trace. Recorded by your satellite receiver or mobile phone, the typical trace is a record of your location every second, or every meter ("tracelog"). Convert it to GPX format if it wasn't done for you automatically. The collected data can be displayed as a background of thin lines or little dots within the map editor. These lines and dots can then be used to help you add map features (such as roads and footpaths), similar to tracing from aerial imagery.\| \|Record\|\|Convert\|\|Modify tracelog\|\|Upload\|\|Accuracy\|\|GPS Reviews\| Upload GPS trace (also called "GPS tracks") is used to support editing OSM and means to upload a own GPS traces (collected by using your GPS device) to the OSM server. Uploading GPS tracks is a different process than editing the map (see below for more info on the difference), and is also different from bulk imports. Instead of uploading there is also another possibility to use your GPS trance only for your own editing: All of our main editor programs support displaying GPX files from your local storage without uploading them. How to upload a GPS trace I have uploaded a GPS trace but nothing has happened on the map When you upload a GPX file the points are extracted and inserted into the database. We do not however automatically create streets, paths or other map features based on your uploaded files. To add map features you (or somebody else) can use an editor to draw them using the GPS traces as a guide by viewing them as a background layer. (For more information see: Q:Why aren't my GPS traces shown on the maps? or Q:How are uploaded traces (GPX files) from my GPS device used in the OpenStreetMap editing process?) How can I view my uploaded traces? Once your GPX file has been uploaded to the database, you will be able to... Note: Your have to upload your gpx trace as a public trace to be able to see it directly in the iD editor. Otherwise, You have to download it and check "Local GPX file" checkbox in Map Data section. When uploading GPX files, tags provide a simple way to describe your GPS traces. They make your GPX file findable with a single word and allow you to group the trace alongside other similar traces. For example, all the traces tagged 'Melbourne' are listed at www.openstreetmap.org/traces/tag/Melbourne. Please note that tags are case-sensitive - so Melbourne and melbourne may supply different results. Each file can have many tags, and you can enter as many as you like with commas (",") between them. Usually the tags are the names of countries, cities and other places your trace concerns. My uploaded trace has "PENDING" next to it. Why? The trace is waiting for processing and insertion into the gps trace database. This usually takes less than 15 Minutes. At busy times (especially weekends), there can indeed be a wait before your trace is added to the database. You don't need to wait for this to start mapping, however: Why do I get bad signal / traces in city centres / near big metal buildings? For a GPS to work and achieve some accuracy it needs to receive at least four satellite signals. Often when in city centres there are many tall buildings that can block these signals and stop the GPS from being able to work out where it is. There may also be multi-path effects from the material making up the buildings around you, whereby signals bounce off them so the receiver actually thinks it is somewhere in the buildings around. Another factor that can affect this is the number and position of satellites that can be seen at the time of logging; trying the route on another day or a different time of day may give better results. See also: Accuracy of GPS data. Applications supporting direct upload of GPS traces Software developers may be interested in the documentation for the GPX upload API. The following applications support direct upload to OpenStreetMap:	<urn:uuid:43389688-5558-44d6-989e-9c1a7b02383d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Upload_GPS_tracks	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943956	874	2.6875	3
BUFFALO, N.Y., Oct. 5 (UPI) -- Environmentalists say the worst algae bloom ever in Lake Erie is evidence efforts to clean up the lake could be undone by agricultural runoff. The bloom in the western waters of the lake could eventually reduce populations of walleye, a favorite of fishermen, and increase the number of invasive zebra and quagga mussels, they said. While the eastern end of Lake Erie may look clean and clear, "it's an optical illusion," Tom Marks, New York director of the Great Lakes Sport Fishing Council, told the Buffalo (N.Y.) News Tuesday. From the lake's Michigan shore, the bloom extends eastward to the area north of Cleveland, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration reported last month. Two feet thick in places, the bloom resulted in beach advisories throughout the lake's western basin, and toxins in the algae tested at 1,000 times the World Health Organization's standards for drinking water, the newspaper said. Environmentalists say the algae bloom is larger than any the lake experienced in the 1960s, when algae was so widespread experts declared the lake "dead."	<urn:uuid:57bec3eb-e6c8-4953-bd4e-f6a8bc570f79>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2011/10/05/Algae-bloom-threatens-Lake-Erie/UPI-16261317832184/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940558	239	2.984375	3
MIT uses sound to search for gas, oil CAMBRIDGE, Mass. -- Just as doctors use ultrasound to image internal organs and unborn babies, MIT Earth Resources Laboratory researchers listen to the echoing language of rocks to map what's going on tens of thousands of feet below the Earth's surface. With the help of a new $580,000 US Department of Energy (DOE) grant, the earth scientists will use their skills at interpreting underground sound to seek out "sweet spots"--pockets of natural gas and oil contained in fractured porous rocks--in a Wyoming oil field. If the method proves effective at determining where to drill wells, it could eventually be used at oil and gas fields across the country. A major domestic source of natural gas is low-permeability or "tight" gas formations. Oil and gas come from organic materials that have been cooked for eons under the pressure and high heat of the Earth's crust. Some underground reservoirs contain large volumes of oil and gas that flow easily through permeable rocks, but sometimes the fluids are trapped in rocks with small, difficult-to-access pores, forming separate scattered pockets. Until recently, there was no technology available to get at tight gas. Tight gas is now the largest of three unconventional gas resources, which also include coal beds and shale. Production of unconventional gas in the United States represented around 40 percent of the nation's total gas output in 2004, according to the DOE, but could grow to 50 percent by 2030 if advanced technologies are developed and implemented. One such advanced technology is the brainchild of Mark E. Willis and Daniel R. Burns, research scientists in the Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS), and M. Nafi Toksoz, professor of EAPS. Their method involves combining data from two established, yet previously unrelated, means of seeking out hidden oil and gas reserves. To free up the hydrocarbons scattered in small pockets from one to three miles below ground, oil companies use a process called hydraulic fracturing, or hydrofrac, which forces water into the bedrock through deep wells to create fractures and increase the size and extent of existing fractures. The fractures open up avenues for the oil and gas to flow to wells. To monitor the effectiveness of fracturing and to detect natural fractures that may be sweet spots of natural gas, engineers gather acoustic data from the surface and from deep within wells. "Surface seismic methods are like medical ultrasound. They give us images of the subsurface geology," Burns said. Three-dimensional seismic surveys involve creating vibrations on the surface and monitoring the resulting underground echoes. "When the echoes change, fractures are there," Willis said. A method called time-lapse vertical seismic profiling (VSP) tends to be more accurate because it collects acoustic data directly underground through bore holes. "Putting the receivers down into a well is like making images with sensors inside the body in the medical world," Burns said. "The result is the ability to see finer details and avoid all the clutter that comes from sending sound waves through the skin and muscle tissue to get at the thing we are most interested in seeing." Time-lapse VSP is expensive and not routinely used in oil and gas exploration. The EAPS research team, working with time-lapse VSP data collected by industry partner EnCana Corp., came up with unique ways to look at the data together with microseismic data from the tiny earthquakes that are produced when the rock is fractured. "If we record and locate these events just as the US Geological Survey does with large earthquakes around the world, we get an idea of where the hydrofrac is located. Then we look at the time-lapse VSP data at those spots and try to get a more detailed image of the fracture," Burns said. The MIT team hopes to show that this new approach is the most effective way to find sweet spots. "If we can demonstrate the value of time-lapse VSP, this tool could be used in a wider fashion across the United States on many fields," Willis said. Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:ffe37200-d588-4638-81f2-54940cb7e6e9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2006-09/miot-mus090806.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938216	865	3.46875	3
Wellbeing refers to healthy, sustainable personality characteristics that are associated with health, happiness, and flourishing. However, health is not a prerequisite for wellbeing, nor are external circumstances. This article describes evidence-based practices that can be adopted in order to cultivate wellbeing. The practices recommended herein mimic the behavior of people who naturally seem to live with a high level of wellbeing. By living the way people with wellbeing live, it is possible to increase wellbeing. Pleasant thoughts create pleasant emotional states and unpleasant thoughts create unpleasant emotional states. The reverse is also true, in that, when we experience unpleasant emotional states, the brain is more likely to generate unpleasant thoughts. The reason this is important is because unpleasant thoughts and feelings have harmful physiological effects. Here is how the process works: Unpleasant thoughts create emotional distress, and emotional distress creates physiological stress. Chronic physiological stress contributes to disease. When these unpleasant mind states are fleeting, we fully recover from them without any long-term adverse effects. However, chronic anger, frustration, feelings of helplessness or hopelessness, and most other chronically experienced unpleasant states of mind contribute to illness. Therefore, unpleasant thoughts are unhealthy thoughts. One of the most effective methods to increase wellbeing is to learn to think in healthier ways. This does not necessarily mean replacing unpleasant thoughts with pleasant ones (thought replacement). There are actually several methods for working with unhealthy thoughts. The most common one is referred to as cognitive restructuring, involves coming up with evidence to dispute unhealthy thoughts. Mindfulness practice is now becoming the most evidence-based method for working with unhealthy thoughts. Mindfulness practice sidesteps the problems that are sometimes encountered in trying to use thought substitution or even thought disputation. In mindfulness practice, instead of denying, resisting, trying to replace or dispute our inner experience, we make peace with all our thoughts and feelings. Examples of unhealthy thoughts include holding grudges, resentment, animosity, bitterness, hatred, and ill will. These states of mind create emotional distress, which causes physiological stress. For that reason, and the fact that those mind states create interpersonal hostility, it is important to find a way to disentangle from such negative thinking. By learning to view our thoughts as just insubstantial brain secretions, we can avoid the emotional distress before it eventuates to physiological stress, or to hostile or other unhealthy behavior. We act on our thoughts when we lack the awareness that our thoughts are nothing but insubstantial mental constructs. Mindfulness training provides a path out of cognitive fusion or entanglement. Senior mindfulness teacher Jack Kornfield has said: The mind secretes thoughts the way the salivary glands secrete saliva. Another way to increase wellbeing involves the imagination. It’s easy to imagine how strong, recurrent feelings of guilt, shame, and self-denigration cause emotional distress and physiological stress. For this reason, it is important to learn how to use that same imagination to practice self-forgiveness, self-compassion, and self-acceptance. Another contributor to wellbeing is the level of connection and belonging we share with others. Closely related to this is a sense that we are contributing to the welfare of not just our family, but to strangers as well. Throughout the day, ask: Does my behavior contribute in any way to the suffering of others or of myself? This question serves as a mind-training practice to help us to live in full contact with the present moment, to be fully awake to our impact on those around us, and to live in a healthy, open-hearted state of mind. By: Larry M. Berkelhammer, PhD	<urn:uuid:39535a46-f7f9-4a8d-b890-19271850d449>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.fitbuff.com/how-to-improve-wellbeing/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.932594	740	3.875	4
Guenter Schabowski's Press Conference in the GDR International Press Center Günther Schabowski, the spokesman for the East German Communist Party Politburo, played a vital role in the toppling of the East German Communist government in the fall of 1989. During a press conference on November 9, 1989, a reporter asked him about new travel regulations issued by the government that seemed to indicate the possibility of easier travel into West Berlin through the Berlin Wall. Schabowski had only recently received a copy of the new regulations and had not yet read them carefully. The reporter asked when, exactly, East German citizens could begin to take advantage of these new travel rules. Schabowski shrugged and responded, "from now.” The result of this mis-statement was the ensuing flood of East Germans into West Berlin. That evening Reuters reported (incorrectly) that East German citizens could cross into West Germany by any border crossing and West German television news programs reported that the Berlin Wall was opening. Within minutes, thousands, then tens of thousands, then hundreds of thousands of Berliners, both East and West, began converging on the Berlin Wall. Without orders for how to handle the surging crowds, the East German border guards simply opened the gates. Crowds poured through in both directions and within minutes began tearing down the wall that had for so long symbolized the division of Europe into a Communist East and a non-Communist West. To view the video coverage of the press conference, click here. Guenter Schabowski, Press Conference in the GDR International Press Center, 9 November 1989, trans. Howard Sargeant, Cold War International History Project, Documents and Papers, CWIHP (accessed May 14, 2008). Schabowski: ... So, we want... through a number of changes, including the travel law, to [create] the chance, the sovereign decision of the citizens to travel wherever they want. (um) We are naturally (um) concerned that the possibilities of this travel regulation—it is still not in effect, it's only a draft. A decision was made today, as far as I know (looking toward Labs and Banaschak in hope of confirmation). A recommendation from the Politburo was taken up that we take a passage from the [draft of] travel regulation and put it into effect, that, (um)—as it is called, for better or worse—that regulates permanent exit, leaving the Republic. Since we find it (um) unacceptable that this movement is taking place (um) across the territory of an allied state, (um) which is not an easy burden for that country to bear. Therefore (um), we have decided today (um) to implement a regulation that allows every citizen of the German Democratic Republic (um) to (um) leave the GDR through any of the border crossings. Question: At once? When... Schabowski: (... scratches his head) You see, comrades, I was informed today (puts on his glasses as he speaks further), that such an announcement had been (um) distributed earlier today. You should actually have it already. So, (reading very quickly from the paper): 1) "Applications for travel abroad by private individuals can now be made without the previously existing requirements (of demonstrating a need to travel or proving familial relationships). The travel authorizations will be issued within a short time. Grounds for denial will only be applied in particular exceptional cases. The responsible departments of passport and registration control in the People's Police district offices in the GDR are instructed to issue visas for permanent exit without delays and without presentation of the existing requirements for permanent exit." Question: When does it come into effect? Schabowski: (Looks through his papers...) That comes into effect, according to my information, immediately, without delay (looking through his papers further). Labs: (quietly) ...without delay. Beil: (quietly) That has to be decided by the Council of Ministers. Question: Does this also apply for West Berlin? You only mentioned the FRG. Schabowski: (shrugs his shoulders, frowns, looks at his papers) So ... (pause), um hmmm (reads aloud): "Permanent exit can take place via all border crossings from theGDR to the FRG and West Berlin, respectively."	<urn:uuid:82c5c4d6-be8c-4ed6-875e-afb1a0fb8047>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://chnm.gmu.edu/1989/items/show/449	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.957629	902	2.8125	3
After doing a little research I found out that I can change voltage by either using a voltage regulator chip or resistors. I have a couple different scenarios in which I'll have to drop the voltage for my motors and I was wondering which method to use for each application. I'm using an H-Bridge to drive a bipolar stepper motor rated at 3.1V. I need the stepper motor's speed to change. Does the H-Bridge in this circuit drop the voltages as necessary to change the motors speed or is it simply able to rotate in either direction at a constant speed? http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StepperBipolarCircuit Driving a 7.2V DC motor with a PWM output ( http://www.vexrobotics.com/276-1668.html). I believe I'm supposed to wire up the power and ground of the PWM to the motor's 7.2V power supply and wire the signal wire to one of the Arduino's ports. This motor would also have to change speed. Running a 12V air compressor. Although I'd like to use resistors for all of my voltage drops/increases I believe I read somewhere that it cant be used if the appliance its connected to has to change voltages (ex. a motor that needs to change speeds.) **All of these will be powered by one or more 9v batteries. Thanks! So to summarize what I should do... Stepper Motor - Wire the inputs to an H bridge with a 3v power supply. (2 AA cells in series) Although I'm planning on giving the stepper motor a seperate power supply to simply things, if I were to run it off the same power source (6 AA cells) as the Arduino, can I use a resistor to drop 9v to 7.2v and than supply that power to an H-bridge? Which would than be connected to the stepper motor. 7.2V DC Motor - Use an h-bridge to pulse 7.2V to the power and ground of the PWM and pulse the signal wire to control the motors speed? Or can I use resistors to drop 9v to 7.2v and than simply pulse the signal wire to control the speed? I'm not sure if the problem with the resistors dropping varying amounts of voltage depending on the motor's load would persist in this scenario. (Kind of similar to the stepper motor scenario except I'm pulsing the motor through a PWM motor controller instead of an H-bridge.) 12V Air Compressor - Wire several cells in series to hit 12V and than turn it on/off by using an H-bridge. I actually have several 12v golf cart? batteries which can be found here http://www.andymark.com/product-p/am-0844.htm. If I were to use this, it would be with the 7.2V DC Motor and 12V Air Compressor. (The Stepper Motor is going on a moving vehicle which is way too weak to carry the battery.) I was thinking about using these batteries but I thought the amperes it gives out would far exceed what any of my appliances can handle. It'd be awesome if I can use this though! I'm constantly going through AA/9v batteries and its been getting quite expensive. This is the diagram for the stepper motor circuit. It's set up pretty much the way I'm planning on running it. This is the diagram for the 7.2V motors and 12V air compressor. The batteries shown there is actually a ~12V car battery. I'm still trying to figure out how I'm supposed to drop the voltage to 7.2. I looked at the LM317 adjustable voltage regulator but it can only handle current up to 1.5A and the motor I'm planning on using has a stall torque of 3.6A. The motor I'm using is NOT a servo but it's connected to a 3-wire motor controller (http://www.vexrobotics.com/276-2193.html) which uses a standard PWM signal to drive the motor. My plan is to connect the 7.2V power supply to the power and ground of the motor controller and to connect the motor controller's signal wire to one of the Arduino's ports. The air compressor isn't shown but I'm assuming I can power it directly through the battery (with an H-bridge in between as a switch).	<urn:uuid:b8f85d91-d916-4030-a183-27e9b3883770>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/27445/voltage-regulator-or-resistors-to-change-voltages-for-motors	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950534	939	2.71875	3
The news accounts of the Greek budget crisis have been filled with stories about the country's bloated civil service and generous Social Security program. While these areas of spending probably need reform, the other side of the equation has been largely overlooked. Greece is the Olympic champion of tax evasion. The OECD estimated that Greece has an underground economy equal to 30 percent of GDP, by far the largest of any OECD country. Some of this is involves small-time tax evaders, but many of the country's richest people also take advantage of the opportunity to avoid paying their taxes. If Greece had anywhere near normal tax compliance, its deficit problems would be far more manageable. While Greece has pledged to crack down on tax cheats as part of its bailout commitments, these pledges are less concrete than the cuts scheduled for its civil service and retirement systems. There is a simple way to put the commitment to tax enforcement on an equal footing. The Greek government can announce a special tax amnesty. During a set period (e.g. 6 months), people will have the opportunity to pay their back taxes from the prior three years with little or no penalty. After the end of this period, the government will pursue new efforts aimed at tracking down tax cheats. This time, it will impose larger fines and/or criminal penalties on those who did not take advantage of the amnesty period. This amnesty route accomplishes two important goals. First, it can raise an enormous amount of money. If Greece can collect just 20 percent of the unpaid taxes from the last three years it would be a huge step in reducing its deficits. (If taxes are equal to 30 percent of GDP and 30 percent of GDP escaped taxation each year, then the unpaid taxes over the last three years are equal to 27 percent of GDP. If the government can recovery 20 percent of this money, it would be equal to 5.4 percent of GDP - the equivalent of more than $750 billion in the United States.) Also, once a person has paid taxes on a large income, it will be easier to track their income in the future, thereby ensuring greater future compliance with the tax code. The other important outcome from an amnesty program is that it would indicate whether the country is serious about enforcing the tax code on the wealthy. If rich people believe that the government is genuinely committed to enforcing its tax code, then they will take advantage of the amnesty in large numbers, seeking to avoid more serious penalties in the future. However, if they believe that the government threats are an empty gesture then they will ignore the amnesty, just as they ignored the law originally. This will tell the Greek people whether they are being taken for a ride by a government anxious to impose austerity on ordinary workers, but unwilling to touch the income of the wealthy. There may be no easy way out for the Greek people from this situation, but they will at least know exactly where they stand.	<urn:uuid:f78c4228-f984-48f9-a240-36f8be86b25e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dean-baker/greek-austerity-should-in_b_561509.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962843	588	3	3
class pipe :A ?conv:Netbuffer.t -> bool -> Netbuffer.t -> unit -> unit -> pipehas two internal buffers (realized by Netbuffer). The output methods of the class write to the incoming buffer. When new data are appended to the incoming buffer, the conversion function convis called; the arguments are the incoming buffer and the outgoing buffer. The conversion function must convert the data available in the incoming buffer and append the result to the outgoing buffer. Finally, the input methods of the class return the data found in the outgoing buffer. The conversion function is called as follows: conv incoming_buffer at_eof outgoing_buffer The conversion function is allowed to do nothing if the incoming data are not complete enough to be converted. It is also allowed to convert only the beginning of the incoming buffer. If the outgoing buffer is empty, the input methods will raise close_out is invoked, the end of the data stream will be recorded. In this case, the conversion function is called with at_eof = true, and it is expected that this function converts the whole data found in the incoming buffer. The conversion function may raise exceptions. The exceptions will fall through to the caller of the input methods. (The output methods close_out never fail because of such exceptions.) The default conversion function copies everything from the incoming buffer to the outgoing buffer without modification.	<urn:uuid:6007b97c-d8e3-4a23-b9f6-173d4616408f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://projects.camlcity.org/projects/dl/ocamlnet-2.2.9/doc/html-main/Netchannels.pipe.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.80138	297	3.125	3
Dynamic soil properties (DSPs) are soil properties that change with natural and anthropogenic disturbances and stressors including agricultural and wildland management. DSPs are indicators of soil function and soil change over the human time scale (decades to centuries). Soil function describes what soil does, including ecosystem and agricultural services. Since soils typically develop on a geologic time scale, we generally infer soil change by comparing different conditions or management systems in a single type of soil. Information about how soils change due to management and how those changes impact soil functions are crucial to sustainable soil management on all kinds of lands. Current NCSS efforts are focused on gaining information about ecological state phases (including reference conditions) and common land uses and management systems; including soil health management systems. DSPs are collected along with vegetation, management system and disturbance information. Future work will include models and procedures that predict soil responses to management changes in order to help policy makers, land managers, producers, and others who make decisions that protect soil function.	<urn:uuid:6662f432-45fb-439e-896b-59d60dc6cdb6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/home/?cid=stelprdb1256067	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937451	206	3.328125	3
Description is a blessing and a curse. Setting the scene is vital to help readers immerse themselves in your story world, but too much of it becomes boring and causes the reader to skim. But find the proper balance between words and word pictures, and your reader will feel like they've stepped into the book and live in that world. So how much do you need to describe your setting? The pat answer is, "enough to make it feel real without bogging the reader down in too many details," but that isn't very helpful. How do you know how much detail is too much? Where is that fine line between immersive and oppressive?Let's look at a few guidelines. Five Tips on Describing Setting 1. Describe what's unique to the world or situation When you introduce your setting, pick details that are unique to that setting. Everyone knows what a town looks like, or a spaceship, or a medieval village, but what makes your town, spaceship, or village different? What are the three or four key elements that readers need to know when they enter this setting? (More tips on description here) 2. Describe what will be assumed incorrectly Readers make assumptions based on what they read. Sometimes those assumptions are wrong because the writer has done the "typical" differently. If your setting is a forest and you say "forest," readers will imagine tall, green, trees, birds singing, and sunlight filtering in between the leaves of the canopy. But if your forest is comprised of white crystalline trees that resonate with musical chimes when the wind blows, that's an entirely different forest than the default "forest" setting. Get those details in there right away so readers won't get the wrong image in their heads. 3. Describe what's relevant to the scene If your protagonist is trying to escape a madman by running into a maze of crumbling buildings, it's not a good time to describe the overlay of the entire city. Keep your descriptions to what's nearby and what matters. What elements are important to the setting at that moment? (And one more on description here) 4. Describe what's relevant to the character Tunnel vision occurs when emotions run high and everything else drops away. Even if your protagonist isn't emotional, they'll only remark on things that matter to them. If they couldn't tell you the difference between a palm tree and a maple tree, they won't be describing the local landscape in meticulous detail. But if they're an architecture fanatic, they might describe the buildings in more detail (if this is an important thing for readers to know of course). This will also help you show instead of tell, as you'll see the world through your POV's eyes. (More on how setting can affect your story here) 5. Describe by showing it in action versus explaining it Setting details work best when they're backgrounded into the scene and flow seamlessly with the rest of the text. If it's raining in a city, show people stepping over puddles on the sidewalk, pulling on raincoats as they leave cafes, the squeak-thunk of windshield wipers. Pick details that make it clear it's raining without having to say "it was raining." Tips on Not Doing Too Much It's easy to go overboard with description, especially setting description, so here are some things to think about to keep your details in check: - What does the POV character care about at that moment in that scene? - What does the POV interact with in that scene? - What is critical in the scene to understand where this is going on? - What details are critical to understand the overall world? Personally, I like to use the rule of three here. Three is an easily manageable number and gives enough information without overloading the reader. Try sticking to three details and/or three sentences about something at one time. Palm trees swayed in the breeze blowing in from the beach.One note of caution here: Don't use three things every time you describe something. It'll feel repetitious and clunky if every noun has multiple descriptive tags on it. The League had never looked so mean. Like an arched cat, hissing and spitting. A bold crab, claws at the ready. A mama croc, guarding a nest full of eggs. If you're still unsure if you have too much or too little, try printing your pages out (or reducing the page size so it's all grey lines) and looking for large sections of solid text. Odds are those passages are description heavy and could be places to trim. No large blocks of text at all? Then perhaps those are areas that could use a little more description, especially if they're at the start of a new scene or chapter when it's important to ground the reader in where they are. Are you an over-describer or an under-describer? Do you set the scene first or do you weave in the details as the scene unfolds?	<urn:uuid:0a292e03-cd9a-42e1-8e1c-3d838f97aa58>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blog.janicehardy.com/2012/03/literary-tour-guide-how-much-do-you.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961347	1,036	2.96875	3
Cancer research — the big breakthrough THE year 2012 will be marked in scientific circles as the year that we made the most progress in cancer research as the first glimmer of hope for a cure is on the horizon. The old paradigm of how we think about cancer will have to be dramatically reexamined. Cancer is really a disease of the genes. A gene is just a collection of chemicals. It is a thing, a purely material substance without a will, a soul, or purpose. It mechanically replicates itself with chance variations occurring in the copying process In the 1960's, Watson and Crick discovered the DNA and the RNA molecule. We know that it takes about 40 years between discovery of a scientific act and its application to the market. In the old paradigm, we think of benign and cancerous or malignant growths. The malignant growths can, of course, spread all over the body -- the so called secondary growth. And there are many ways we think this can be achieved, for example spread by the blood stream, by the lymphatic's, etc. However, about 10 years ago it was discovered that by analysing the DNA and the RNA in a tumour, there were distinct markers that would show you if the lesion was malignant and would form secondary. To put it another way, once you saw those genetic markers you knew that this cancer had spread. The genetic fingerprinting of cancers leads us to a better understanding of how these cancers would spread. We all remember Bob Marley and the cancer which killed him was a malignant melanoma. Well, about 10 years ago at a lecture at the American Academy of Dermatology, the new research on melanoma came out. They had discovered that a certain cell, the lymphocyte found in our blood, was important in controlling the cancer, and that there was a sub group of these lymphocytes called Killer Lymphocytes which were absolutely critical. Essentially, what they did was to take some blood from a patient with a malignant melanoma and spin off the white blood cells. They would further separate off the killer lymphocytes and then put these in a dish with some artificial medium to grow and multiply them. Vastly increased in numbers, they were then injected back into the veins of the patient with cancer, and the malignant melanoma lesions disappeared overnight. In fact they could show you pictures of the tumors disappearing by the hour and the measurements to prove it. The patients were cancer-free and remained so for about three to four months and then the cancers came back bigger and more aggressive than before. So it was back to the drawing board and some bright spark realised that there was some other factor which was necessary for the Killer Lymphocytes to work effectively. He decided that this must be Interlukin — a substance which is produced when tissues are damaged. So the experiments began to inject cultured killer lymphocytes and Interleukin 2 into the blood stream of patients with cancer. Now in a twist, the killer lymphocytes were infected by a weakened strain of the HIV virus. Well, last week we had the first public announcement of the results. A girl with leukaemia was free of all disease after seven years. Prostate and breast cancers are next and the world of cancer treatments will never be the same again. In fact, it would seem that the new killer lymphocytes are now going to protect the body from ever getting a cancer Novartis, the drug firm, has already pledged US$2 million for further research, because the company realises that although these are early days yet, if they do come up with a way to cure the cancers with this technology and a cancer vaccine that works, they will be in the money forever. We are at the start of a new and glorious world which just may be cancer-free. For further information please google Cancer research and killer lymphocytes. Dr Persadsingh is a skin specialist. He is the author of Acne in Black Women, the Hair in Black Women and Eczema in kids of colour.	<urn:uuid:9ccc732a-f0fc-4846-b273-a851fe6700b3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/Cancer-research---the-big-breakthrough_13261025	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.976847	841	2.671875	3
Richard Cobden and the Crimean War Anthony Howe looks at the anti-war stance of the great Victorian reformer; his fall from grace and subsequent revival. In the early 1840s the struggle for the repeal of the Corn Laws had seen the rapid rise to national prominence of the Manchester calico printer, Richard Cobden (1804-65). Previously known for his pamphlets on foreign policy and his leading part in the incorporation of Manchester in 1838, Cobden, ably assisted by his friend the Quaker cotton spinner John Bright (1811-89), led the Anti-Corn Law League’s assault on the Corn Laws. The Corn Laws, or as Cobden preferred the ‘bread taxes’, had become for many Radicals and Liberals the symbol of aristocratic power and popular oppression in early Victorian Britain. Their Repeal, although carried out by the Conservative leader Sir Robert Peel in 1846, foreshadowed for many a new age of middle-class dominance in British politics – the novelist Thackeray predicted ‘Dicky’ Cobden’s becoming prime minister. Subsequently Cobden achieved the reputation of ‘the International Man’, influential in Europe and the United States, while as a leading ‘Independent Radical’ in British politics his ideas on the state, economic policy and foreign affairs were vitally important to the Liberal Party.	<urn:uuid:ba18acc3-f733-4376-9de1-580150a4a1a3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.historytoday.com/anthony-howe/richard-cobden-and-crimean-war	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.965626	284	2.765625	3
The English translation for the German Formgeschichte. This technique was developed by a group of German biblical scholars shortly after the First World War. It assumed the widely agreed conclusion of source criticism of the priority of Mark and the view that the Gospel of John was later than the other three but the aim was to penetrate into the period of Church life before even the earliest sources had been written. ‘Form Criticism’ had been used in Germany since about 1900 to explore some of the OT narratives and Jewish and Hellenistic literature. The literary classifications of prose and poetry were subdivided into (prose) history, legends, and myths; and (poetry) hymns, psalms, and prophetic oracles. Hermann Gunkel (1862–1932) classified the psalms according to type (1925) and explained how they might have been composed for singing in worship and later written up by poets. In the course of oral transmission the types developed according to a regular process. In Britain and America Form Criticism is better known as a NT discipline since being introduced in the 1930s by the NT scholars H. J. Cadbury (in America) and R. H. Lightfoot and Vincent Taylor (in Britain). It was claimed that in the course of oral transmission these types had developed according to a regular process. Form Critics generally accepted the theory of W. Wrede that Mark's gospel was not a reproduction of the reminiscences of Peter but was permeated with a strong apologetic interest: why had Jesus' Messiahship not been recognized by his contemporaries? Because Jesus made efforts to keep it a secret. So, according to Wrede, the gospels, beginning with Mark, were constructed as supporting evidence for the early Church. But what was happening to the memories about Jesus in the thirty years or so before anything was committed to writing? There was preaching and teaching and controversies with the Jews, and Christian leaders had a fund of stories to draw on as need arose and inevitably their stories developed into characteristic shapes. The audiences needed advice and reassurance, information and answers to problems just as much as the readers for whom Mark was shortly to write his gospel. Indeed Mark's gospel consisted, according to the Form Critics, of precisely all those fragments and isolated units that were used by Christian evangelists to get their message across in a persuasive form. Mark's gospel is not so much a connected, chronological narrative (think of the geography of Jesus' journeys rapidly made from one place to another, from the hills of Galilee to the Lake, from somewhere to Capernaum, from Galilee to the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, and eventually to Jerusalem) as a series of incidents, miracles, parables, and injunctions strung together with a minimum of linkage. These units circulated in isolation during the ‘oral’ period; Form Critics called them pericopae, and scrutinized them independently and classified them into ‘forms’. Their original historical situation in the ministry of Jesus has been for ever lost: what is discernible is the way the pericopae reveal the influence of the needs and outlook of the Church. A particular example would be the interpretation and explanation of the parable of the Sower (Mark 4: 10–20) which related more to the life of the Church than to the ministry of Jesus. After assigning a pericope to the appropriate category or type (e.g. apophthegm, chria, paradigm), the Form Critic next relates it to its social setting or circumstances (in German Sitz im Leben, life situation) which explains how a story has been adapted to fit changes in the development of the Church, such as the expanding Gentile mission. Or there may be additions to a parable (e.g. Luke 19: 27) which reflect growing hostility to the Jews. Several Form Critics eliminated genuine history from some of the pericopae altogether, especially that group of events, such as the Transfiguration, which have a strong supernatural element, and regarded them as creations of the Church in the light of its belief in the Resurrection. Rudolf Bultmann, a leading Form Critic, was held by other scholars to be excessively sceptical and did not allow for factors which controlled any extravagant growth of legendary embroidery. It is for example noticeable that some sayings are accurately preserved (e.g. Matt. 11: 12) which clearly the Church did not understand. But some had remembered! In due course the detailed concerns of Form Criticism were succeeded by those of Redaction Criticism, which recognized the theological interests of the evangelists but gave them greater credit as authors. They did more than string together isolated units of tradition. The Form Critics had in a way anticipated Redaction Criticism by recognizing that there is one section—the Passion Narrative—which is a unity, with reliable topographical and chronological details, but with variations (e.g. in the words of Jesus from the cross) which illustrate the special theological interest of each author. Thus Form Criticism has a place as a lively and influential stage in the history of biblical scholarship, emphasizing the evidence existing in the gospels for the life of the Church. But the view that the gospels are a unique form of literature is undermined by comparisons with the Lives of teachers and leaders published in the Graeco‐Roman world. Like them, the gospels are centred on a person—Jesus of Nazareth—to whom there is eye‐witness testimony which even lends credibility to the ancient tradition of Mark's indebtedness to the memories of Peter.	<urn:uuid:23d77a09-6bb4-4d7d-9126-bcaddd0fa36f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/print/opr/t94/e693	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974941	1,157	3.5625	4
(USATODAY) — SALEM, Ore. — Very low levels of radiation from the Fukushima nuclear disaster likely will reach ocean waters along the U.S. West Coast next month, scientists are reporting. Current models predict that the radiation will be at extremely low levels that won’t harm humans or the environment, said Ken Buesseler, a chemical oceanographer at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution who presented research on the issue last week. But Buesseler and other scientists are calling for more monitoring. No federal agency currently samples Pacific Coast seawater for radiation, he said. “I’m not trying to be alarmist,” Buesseler said. “We can make predictions, we can do models. But unless you have results, how will we know it’s safe?”	<urn:uuid:fed8e362-cc1d-413f-a39e-73dca8a57756>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wnd.com/2014/03/fukushima-radiation-to-hit-u-s-west-coast/?cat_orig=world	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.880315	176	2.53125	3
Distribution and Habitat Country distribution from AmphibiaWeb's database: Australia South-east coast of Australia from south-east Queensland south along the coast of New South Wales, throughout Victoria and into the south-west corner of South Australia. Also found along the northern and eastern coasts of Tasmania. Five sub-species are recognised.The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 708300 km2.Common and widespread. Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors Frequents all habitats except alpine areas, rainforest and extremely arid zones. Found commonly in suburban gardens, dams and swamps. Burrows in loamy soils and forages on the surface after rain. Breeds in dams, small lakes, marshes and slow-flowing streams.From August to April males may travel up to 1km to breeding sites. Males call in concealed positions, usually in floating vegetation. Up to 3 900 - 4 000 eggs are laid in a floating foam nest. In warm weather they complete development in 4 - 5 months in cold weather development may take 12 - 15 months. Trends and Threats No known declines and large extent of occurrence. Expanding development along the east coast of Australia may pose a threat in the future. Barker, J., Grigg, G. C., and Tyler, M. J. (1995). A Field Guide to Australian Frogs. Surrey Beatty and Sons, New South Wales. Hero, J.-M., Littlejohn, M., and Marantelli, G. (1991). Frogwatch Field Guide to Victorian Frogs. Department of Conservation and Environment, Victoria. Martin, A.A. (1972). ''Studies in Australian amphibia III. The Limnodynastes dorsalis complex (Anura: Leptodactylidae).'' Australian Journal of Zoology, 20, 165-211. Written by J-M Hero et al. (Griffith University), email@example.com First submitted 2002-06-02 Edited by Kellie Whittaker (2008-09-18) Feedback or comments about this page. Citation: AmphibiaWeb: Information on amphibian biology and conservation. [web application]. 2016. Berkeley, California: (Accessed: Jun 30, 2016). AmphibiaWeb's policy on data use.	<urn:uuid:26a5fe1b-b352-49a7-9f52-be45967690e6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_lists_alpha_&where-genus=Limnodynastes&where-species=dumerilii	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.836131	504	3.046875	3
33 Ways to Start the First Year Off Right A Little Planning Pays Big Dividends A little planning before school begins can pay big dividends throughout the school year. Starting off on the right foot can make all the difference. Here are some things to consider as you plan for the months ahead. Check them off as you go. ____1. Get yourself ready. Give yourself enough time to set up your new home (if you are moving), report to school, make calls to insurance companies, register or service your car before beginning your new job. Then plan time for enough sleep. You're beginning an exciting journey, but a very demanding one. ____2. Build relationships. Be nice to the school secretary and the custodian. They know the school, the students, and the neighborhood, and they can help you. Get involved in school activities and school staff functions. ____3. Give your classroom some class. Dcorate your classroom in a manner that will catch the eyes of your students and give them something to think about at the same time. ____4. Introduce yourself. Post a biographical sketch of yourself outside your classroom and encourage others to follow suit. You never know when a student may find he or she has something in common with a teacher and is able to strike up a relationship that could be a positive learning experience. ____5. Establish the rules. If you want discipline to work during the year, start off by establishing class rules (no more than five) right at the beginning. Let the students help develop and establish the rules. They will be more likely to follow them. The rules should be posted in the classroom. ____6. Check school policy. If you intend to be teaching subject matter that borders on controversy, be sure you are within board policy. Keep your personal views on religion and politics to yourself. ____7. Get organized. Organize your personal papers. You never know when you may have to produce a document related to your job. ____8. Keep records. Set aside a place for keeping receipts of expenditures that could be deductions on your income tax -- classroom materials, professional books, and so on. ____9. Improve yourself. Select one area in which you'd like to improve your professional ability during the coming year. Then decide how best to go about it. ____10. Set a class goal. Working together toward a goal -- such as a holiday project to help a needy family, a class trip, or a class party at the end of the year -- can help develop class spirit. Start your planning early in the fall to build enthusiasm. ____11. Build team spirit. If you teach elementary students, you might give your class a name, such as "The Bumblebees from Room Three." ____12. Play "The Name Game." One way to get everyone, including you, to know everyone else in the room quickly is to play "The Name Game." The first person in row one says, "I'm John." The second person says, "That's John and I'm Mary." The third person says, "That's John and Mary and I'm Susan." Continue around the room. ____13. Develop resources. Develop your own sources of information and your resource list. Know where to get help when you need it. For example: How might you deal with a lack of instructional materials offered by the district? One way is to keep your eyes open for free and inexpensive materials such as those published in the education publications you receive. ____14. Do your best. Determine what factors are likely to keep you from doing your job during the school year. Then figure out a way to work around them. For example: How will you work with too many students in your class? How will you deal with the wide range of student abilities? How will you deal with disruptive students? ____15. Appreciate the small things. Give yourself a lift by focusing on the positive -- the student who tells you that he or she learned something that first week of school or the child who speaks to you in the parking lot and uses your correct name. ____16. Be realistic. You will not win the battle with every student. Don't let your sincere concern for each child turn into a depressing experience through a fear of failure. ____17. Be prepared for special students. You may have students with special learning problems or physical handicaps. Don't expect those problems to work themselves out. Plan from the beginning how you will deal with them in the best interests of the student, yourself, and the rest of the class. ____18. Think about health. Make an early determination about how you will handle students with special health problems. Do you know what to do if you have a student subject to epileptic seizures? What about administering medicine to students? ____19. Remember gifted students. As soon as you have identified students who could be considered gifted, make arrangements to address their specific abilities. ____20. Find a shoulder. Look for a colleague to turn to for special advice or simply to unburden yourself about a specific classroom challenge. ____21. Get parents involved. Determine how you will involve parents in your students' education during the coming year. Is there any special way to approach parent-teacher conferences? Are there any particular messages you want to send home to parents? How will you deal with parents who want to help their students learn? ____22. Communicate with parents. Send a note home early in the year to introduce yourself. If you teach primary grades, explain to parents that you need time to get to know pupils before you can comment on them. Let parents know that you are available, and list the process and times for getting in touch with you. If you teach upper grades, include your policy on homework. ____23. Know your rights. Read or re-read your contract so that you will know your rights. ____24. Plan lessons. Develop your lessons on the basis of what you think your students need to know and then determine the best way of teaching them. ____25. Support your association. Join your local education association for the moral support of people who understand the difficulty of your job. ____26. Make a good first impression. Whatever else you do, give the class the impression from the beginning that you are well organized. Your students must feel that you are prepared and know what you are doing. ____27. Build an attitude. From the first day forward, you can help your students decide whether school is drudgery or a serious undertaking that can be both rewarding and enjoyable. If you give the impression that being in class is a chore for you, that attitude will be reflected in your students. ____28. Foster curiosity. If you want your students to be curious, you have to set an atmosphere that encourages curiosity and doesn't stifle it. ____29. Start off slowly. During the first grading period, while the material is not too difficult, go over the course content slowly enough that most students can find some success. ____30. Set a positive tone. Send a positive note home with every student at some time during the year. Catch the kids being good. ____31. Keep the principal informed. If you plan to do anything new or unusual this year, make certain you mention it to your principal in advance. ____32. Brief your students. Let your students know early exactly what you expect of them in each class. Most students will rise to the teacher's expectations. ____33. Remember three qualities of good teaching. Be flexible, be patient, and keep your sense of humor. Source: Adapted from 33 Ways to Start the First Year Off Right, Virginia Education Association, 2002.	<urn:uuid:9bfa516c-c446-4382-a61a-ce6f6a93a8a4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nea.org/tools/33-ways-to-start-the-first-year-off-right.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956173	1,592	2.984375	3
Biological & Geological Sciences 3047 Biological & Geological Sciences 3057 (519) 661-2111 x 88647 The long-term research goal of the Thorn lab is to explore the relationships between phylogeny and function - evolution and ecology - in the fungi. Fungi are critically important in most terrestrial ecosystems, providing mineral nutrients to vascular plants through mycorrhizal symbioses and decomposing plant remains to recycle both organic and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem. Fungi form networks of microscopic filamentous cells, and interact with all of the organisms - ranging from bacteria to mammals and plants - that share their physical environment. Although processes, such as nutrient cycling, that are driven by fungi are well recognized, almost nothing is known about which specific organisms are doing the job or how their interactions with other organisms affect the outcome of the process. A hypothesis underlying this work is that species are unique, multiplex organisms which can only be thought of as functionally redundant in terms of their ability to carry out a single biochemical reaction under laboratory conditions. Different species of fungi may indeed share this biochemical capacity, but each has a unique suite of other biochemical capacities and inter-organismal interactions that makes it unique in the natural environment. Major research areas in Thorn’s lab include phylogeny of fungi inhabiting soil, litter and wood, discovery and description of fungal diversity, and determining the effects of disturbance, including agriculture, climate change and forestry, on fungal diversity and ecosystem function.	<urn:uuid:392fc027-a14c-4f04-a5ab-67330dc8f4cd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://uwo.ca/biology/directory/faculty/thorn.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.907827	306	2.90625	3
Posted by: Loren Coleman on August 7th, 2012 A colorful, fruit-eating bird with a black mask, pale belly and scarlet breast – never before described by science – has been discovered and named by Cornell University graduates following an expedition to the remote Peruvian Andes. The Sira Barbet, Capito fitzpatricki, is described in a paper published in the July 2012 issue of The Auk, the official publication of the American Ornithologists’ Union. (Download the paper, here.) The new species was discovered during a 2008 expedition led by Michael G. Harvey, Glenn Seeholzer and Ben Winger, young ornithologists who had recently graduated from Cornell at the time. They were accompanied by co-author Daniel Cáceres, a graduate of the Universidad Nacional de San Agustín in Arequipa, Peru, and local Ashéninka guides. The team discovered the barbet on a ridge of montane cloud forest in the Cerros del Sira range in the eastern Andes. Steep ridges and deep river gorges in the Andes produce many isolated habitats and microclimates that give rise to uniquely evolved species. Though clearly a sister species of the Scarlet-banded Barbet, the Sira Barbet is readily distinguished by differences in color on the bird’s flanks, lower back and thighs, and a wider, darker scarlet breast band. By comparing mitochondrial DNA sequences of the new barbet to DNA sequences of its close relatives in the genus Capito, the team secured genetic evidence that this is a new species in the barbet family. The genetic work was done by co-author Jason Weckstein at The Field Museum in Chicago. The team chose the scientific name of the new species Capito fitzpatricki in honor of Cornell Lab of Ornithology executive director John W. Fitzpatrick, who discovered and named seven new bird species in Peru during the 1970s and 1980s. “Fitz has inspired generations of young ornithologists in scientific discovery and conservation,” said Winger. “He was behind us all the way when we presented our plan for this expedition.” The 2008 expedition was made possible by funding from a special gift to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology and donations to the Lab’s student World Series of Birding team, Rawlings Cornell Presidential Research Scholars, National Geographic Young Explorers’ Grant, and the Explorers Club. I must say, Ben Winger has a great name for a recent grad of the ornithology program at Cornell University! Loren Coleman is one of the world’s leading cryptozoologists, some say “the” leading living cryptozoologist. Certainly, he is acknowledged as the current living American researcher and writer who has most popularized cryptozoology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Starting his fieldwork and investigations in 1960, after traveling and trekking extensively in pursuit of cryptozoological mysteries, Coleman began writing to share his experiences in 1969. An honorary member of Ivan T. Sanderson’s Society for the Investigation of the Unexplained in the 1970s, Coleman has been bestowed with similar honorary memberships of the North Idaho College Cryptozoology Club in 1983, and in subsequent years, that of the British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club, CryptoSafari International, and other international organizations. He was also a Life Member and Benefactor of the International Society of Cryptozoology (now-defunct). Loren Coleman’s daily blog, as a member of the Cryptomundo Team, served as an ongoing avenue of communication for the ever-growing body of cryptozoo news from 2005 through 2013. He returned as an infrequent contributor beginning Halloween week of 2015. Coleman is the founder in 2003, and current director of the International Cryptozoology Museum in Portland, Maine.	<urn:uuid:4e91c52c-1be5-4be8-889b-f58d0e3dcb3b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://cryptomundo.com/cryptozoo-news/capito-fitzpatricki/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943611	808	2.890625	3
Lifetime Supporting Member + Moderator Join Date: Jan 2005 Location: West Ssx From the Help in MicroWin Interrupts are event driven. Before an interrupt routine can be invoked, an association must be established between the interrupt event and the program segment that you want to execute when the event occurs. Use the Attach Interrupt instruction (ATCH) to associate an interrupt event (specified by the interrupt event number ) and the program segment (specified by an interrupt routine number). When you attach an interrupt event to an interrupt routine, that interrupt is automatically enabled. If you disable all interrupts using the global disable interrupt instruction, each occurrence of the interrupt event is queued until interrupts are re-enabled, using the global enable interrupt instruction. You can disable individual interrupt events by breaking the association between the interrupt event and interrupt routine with the Detach Interrupt instruction (DTCH). The Detach instruction returns the interrupt to an inactive or ignored state. Understanding How the S7-200 Processes Interrupt Routines The interrupt routine is executed in response to an associated internal or external event. Once the last instruction of the interrupt routine has been executed, control is returned to the main program. You can exit the routine by executing a Conditional Return from Interrupt instruction (CRETI). Guidelines and Restrictions for Using Interrupt Routines Interrupt processing provides quick reaction to special internal or external events. You should optimize interrupt routines to perform a specific task, and then return control to the main program. By keeping the interrupt routines short and to the point, execution is quick and other processes are not deferred for long periods of time. If this is not done, unexpected conditions can cause abnormal operation of equipment controlled by the main program. You cannot use the DISI, ENI, HDEF, LSCR, and END instructions in an interrupt routine. System Support for Interrupts Because contact, coil, and accumulator logic may be affected by interrupts, the system saves and reloads the logic stack, accumulator registers, and the special memory bits (SM) that indicate the status of accumulator and instruction operations. This avoids disruption to the main user program caused by branching to and from an interrupt routine. Sharing Data Between the Main Program and Interrupt Routines You can share data between the main program and one or more interrupt routines. Because it is not possible to predict when the S7-200 might generate an interrupt, it is desirable to limit the number of variables that are used by both the interrupt routine and elsewhere in the program. Problems with the consistency of shared data can result due to the actions of interrupt routines when the execution of instructions in your main program is interrupted by interrupt events. Use the local variable table of the interrupt routine to ensure that your interrupt routine uses only the temporary memory and does not overwrite data used somewhere else in your program. There are a number of programming techniques you can use to ensure that data is correctly shared between your main program and interrupt routines. These techniques either restrict the way access is made to shared memory locations or prevent interruption of instruction sequences using shared memory locations. · For an STL program that is sharing a single variable: If the shared data is a single byte, word, or double word variable and your program is written in STL, then correct shared access can be ensured by storing the intermediate values from operations on shared data only in non-shared memory locations or accumulators. · For a LAD program that is sharing a single variable: If the shared data is a single byte, word, or double word variable and your program is written in LAD, then correct shared access can be ensured by establishing the convention that access to shared memory locations be made using only Move instructions (MOVB, MOVW, MOVD, MOVR). While many LAD instructions are composed of interruptible sequences of STL instructions, these Move instructions are composed of a single STL instruction whose execution cannot be affected by interrupt events. · For an STL or LAD program that is sharing multiple variables: If the shared data is composed of a number of related bytes, words, or double words, then the interrupt disable/enable instructions (DISI and ENI) can be used to control interrupt routine execution. At the point in your main program where operations on shared memory locations are to begin, disable the interrupts. Once all actions affecting the shared locations are complete, re-enable the interrupts. During the time that interrupts are disabled, interrupt routines cannot be executed and therefore cannot access shared memory locations; however, this approach can result in delayed response to interrupt events. Calling Subroutines from Interrupt Routines You can call one nesting level of subroutines from an interrupt routine. The accumulators and the logic stack are shared between an interrupt routine and a subroutine that is called. Types of Interrupts Supported by the S7-200 The S7-200 supports the following types of interrupt routines: · Communication port interrupts: The S7-200 generates events that allow your program to control the communications port. · I/O interrupts: The S7-200 generates events for different changes of state for various I/O. These events allow your program to respond to the high-speed counters, the pulse outputs, or to rising or falling states of the inputs. · Time-based interrupts: The S7-200 generates events that allow your program to react at specific intervals. Communication Port Interrupts The serial communications port of the S7-200 can be controlled by your program. This mode of operating the communications port is called Freeport mode. In Freeport mode, your program defines the baud rate, bits per character, parity, and protocol. The Receive and Transmit interrupts are available to facilitate your program-controlled communications. Refer to the Transmit and Receive instructions for more information. I/O interrupts include rising/falling edge interrupts, high-speed counter interrupts, and pulse train output interrupts. The S7-200 can generate an interrupt on rising and/or falling edges of an input (either I0.0, I0.1, I0.2, or I0.3). The rising edge and the falling edge events can be captured for each of these input points. These rising/falling edge events can be used to signify a condition that must receive immediate attention when the event happens. The high-speed counter interrupts allow you to respond to conditions such as the current value reaching the preset value, a change in counting direction that might correspond to a reversal in the direction in which a shaft is turning, or an external reset of the counter. Each of these high-speed counter events allows action to be taken in real time in response to high-speed events that cannot be controlled at programmable logic controller scan speeds. The pulse train output interrupts provide immediate notification of completion of outputting the prescribed number of pulses. A typical use of pulse train outputs is stepper motor control. You can enable each of the above interrupts by attaching an interrupt routine to the related I/O event. Time-based interrupts include timed interrupts and the timer T32/T96 interrupts. You can specify actions to be taken on a cyclic basis using a timed interrupt. The cycle time is set in 1-ms increments from 1 ms to 255 ms. You must write the cycle time in SMB34 for timed interrupt 0, and in SMB35 for timed interrupt 1. The timed interrupt event transfers control to the appropriate interrupt routine each time the timer expires. Typically, you use timed interrupts to control the sampling of analog inputs or to execute a PID loop at regular intervals. A timed interrupt is enabled and timing begins when you attach an interrupt routine to a timed interrupt event. During the attachment, the system captures the cycle time value, so subsequent changes to SMB34 and SMB35 do not affect the cycle time. To change the cycle time, you must modify the cycle time value, and then re-attach the interrupt routine to the timed interrupt event. When the re-attachment occurs, the timed interrupt function clears any accumulated time from the previous attachment and begins timing with the new value. After being enabled, the timed interrupt runs continuously, executing the attached interrupt routine on each expiration of the specified time interval. If you exit the RUN mode or detach the timed interrupt, the timed interrupt is disabled. If the global disable interrupt instruction is executed, timed interrupts continue to occur. Each occurrence of the timed interrupt is queued (until either interrupts are enabled or the queue is full). The timer T32/T96 interrupts allow timely response to the completion of a specified time interval. These interrupts are only supported for the 1-ms resolution on-delay (TON) and off-delay (TOF) timers T32 and T96. The T32 and T96 timers otherwise behave normally. Once the interrupt is enabled, the attached interrupt routine is executed when the active timer's current value becomes equal to the preset time value during the normal 1-ms timer update performed in the S7-200. You enable these interrupts by attaching an interrupt routine to the T32/T96 interrupt events. "When you are courting a nice girl an hour seems like a second. When you sit on a red-hot cinder a second seems like an hour. That's relativity.	<urn:uuid:a5e23a40-4bc1-4507-8dcb-feea61adb7dd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.plctalk.net/qanda/showthread.php?t=6040	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.895756	1,929	2.921875	3
How can we learn about something as hot as the sun? Humans have sent spacecraft up to study our star. The SOHO spacecraft has been in operation since 1996. The craft orbits the Sun in step with Earth but closer to it. SOHO has sent back amazing images. Onboard instruments have also sent back mountains of data. The data is mostly about the sun's outer layers. Our sun is a star. It is an ordinary star that is extraordinarily important. The sun provides light and heat to our planet. This star supports almost all life on Earth. The sun is the center of the solar system. It is by far the largest part of the solar system (Figure below). Added together, all of the planets make up just 0.2 percent of the solar system's mass. The sun makes up the remaining 99.8 percent of all the mass in the solar system! The sizes of the planets relative to the sun, if the sun was the size of a basketball. - The sun is an ordinary star. It supports nearly all life on Earth. - The sun is at the center of the solar system. - The sun makes up almost all of the mass of the solar system. Use the resource below to answer the questions that follow. - The Sun Encyclopedia of Secrets - he sun? - What is found in the sun? - What type of star is it? - Explain early beliefs about the sun's production of energy. - What fuels the sun? - How hot is the core? - What is formed from nuclear fusion? - What are photons? - What are the major properties of the sun? - Where is the sun located? - Why is the Sun important to life on Earth?	<urn:uuid:8e1a1cf3-0ab4-4933-8beb-b1f2090a7b29>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ck12.org/earth-science/Sun/lesson/user:c2Fzc3ljYXNzYmx1ZUBnbWFpbC5jb20./Sun-A/r3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.922703	366	4.03125	4
Pit bulls have an unfair reputation -- in fact, some parts of the United States ban the ownership of this breed of dog. Because they are popularly, and sometimes illegally, appropriated as fighting dogs and guard dogs, this strong breed is often singled out as dangerous and unfit for domesticity. The truth, though, is that pit bulls are generally friendly, playful dogs that love the company of humans, including kids. Pit bulls are regarded by experts and organizations like the ASPCA as sociable, smart and gentle dogs when they are well-trained. Unfortunately, though, this strong breed has a reputation for being misappropriated for use in illegal dog fights, and they generally don't like other dogs as much as they like humans. Other times, pit bulls are abused by owners that want to train the dog as a guard animal. All of this gives pit bulls an inaccurate stigma as being naturally vicious. The truth is that pit bulls naturally love humans and the company of their owners. They are patient, receptive to training and instruction, playful and fun-loving animals that may not like other dogs, but love the people that care for them. Pit bulls are big and strong, so they require regular exercise and ample playtime, and in tests, have actually scored below other breeds in terms of natural aggression. Bulls and Kids Pit bulls love people, and not just adults -- their loving, playful nature makes them natural companions for children. Pit bulls are relatively gentle, amiable dogs. Generally, the only danger of leaving your child with a pit bull is that pit bulls love to play so much that they could accidentally knock over a small child. Children and dogs should always be supervised when they play together, though, no matter what the breed -- pit bulls are not unique in that regard. Background and Socialization Adopting a pit bull is as serious a commitment as adopting any other dog, if not more so -- especially when it comes to rescue dogs. Rescue pit bulls may have histories of abuse, mistreatment or even illegal fighting, and they may have trust issues with humans and other dogs that are difficult to overcome. As with any dog, if you are want to adopt a pit bull for your child, you should make sure that it has been well-socialized, trained and, if necessary, rehabilitated.	<urn:uuid:8037e8b5-b59e-4490-8cff-a3cf93485651>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://dogcare.dailypuppy.com/pitt-bull-dogs-kids-2664.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972527	475	2.53125	3
The day-night cycle is a 20 minute long lapse between two main light settings. Conversions[edit \| edit source] In Minecraft, time is exactly 72 times faster than normal time. This can be easily calculated as the proportion 1440⁄20 = 72, since there are 1440 minutes in a real day (60min × 24hr) and 20 minutes in a full Minecraft day. A collection of time unit conversions is listed below: Minecraft time to real time[edit \| edit source] \|Minecraft time\|\|Minecraft ticks\|\|Real time\| \|1 second\|\|0.27\|\|0.0138 seconds\| \|1 minute\|\|16.6\|\|0.83 seconds\| \|1 hour\|\|1,000\|\|50 seconds\| \|1 day\|\|24,000\|\|20 minutes\| \|1 week (7 days)\|\|168,000\|\|2.3 hours\| \|1 month (30 days)\|\|720,000\|\|10 hours\| \|1 year (365.25 days)\|\|8,766,000\|\|121.75 hours (5.072916 days)\| Real time to Minecraft time[edit \| edit source] The approximation of real time to Minecraft time: \|Real time\|\|Minecraft time\| \|1 tick\|\|3.6 Minecraft seconds\| \|1 second\|\|1 minute and 12 seconds.\| \|1 minute\|\|1 hour and 12 minutes.\| \|1 hour\|\|3 days.\| \|1 day\|\|2.4 months, = 72 days.\| \|1 week\|\|Approx. 1.5 years, ≈ 17 months, = 72 weeks, = 504 days.\| \|1 month\|\|Approx. 6 years, = 72 months, ≈ 308.5 weeks, = 2,160 days.\| \|1 year\|\|72 years, ≈ 876.5 months, ≈ 3,757 weeks, ≈ 26,297.5 days.\| 24-hour Minecraft day[edit \| edit source] time of day \|Beginning of the Minecraft day.\| \|0:23\|\|Sunrise ends. The horizon no longer changes color.\| \|7:00\|\|1000\|\|0:50\|\|Time when using the \|10:17\|\|4284\|\|3:34\|\|Light level reaches 15, the maximum.\| \|12:00\|\|6000\|\|5:00\|\|Noon; the sun is at its zenith.\| \|13:42\|\|7698\|\|6:25\|\|Light level begins to decrease.\| \|9:41\|\|Sunset begins. The horizon starts to darken.\| \|18:31\|\|12541\|\|10:28\|\|Beds can be used at this point.\| \|18:34\|\|12575\|\|10:29\|\|The moon appears on the horizon. Undead mobs no longer burn. \|19:00\|\|13000\|\|10:50\|\|Time when using the \|19:03\|\|13048\|\|10:52\|\|The sun completely disappears behind the horizon.\| \|11:32\|\|Sunset ends. The horizon no longer changes color.\| \|18000\|\|15:00\|\|Midnight; the moon is at its zenith.\| \|18:47\|\|Sunrise begins. The horizon starts to brighten.\| \|4:55\|\|22925\|\|19:06\|\|The sun appears on the horizon.\| \|5:27\|\|23459\|\|19:30\|\|The moon completely disappears behind the horizon. Undead mobs begin to burn, though not necessarily immediately. Daytime[edit \| edit source] Daytime is the longest section of the cycle, lasting 10 minutes. When a player first spawns in singleplayer, the day-night cycle will always start at the beginning of the daytime (0:00). Most multiplayer servers also start at the beginning of daytime, but the day-night cycle continues regardless of any new players joining. During the daytime, the Sun rises up to its zenith in a light blue sky. The exact color of the sky depends on the current biome; for example desert skies are a lighter shade of blue than plains skies. At approximately noon, all blocks that are in direct vertical view of the sky receive sunlight at light level 15, which is the maximum. Sunlight provides ample light for the growth of saplings, grass blocks and crops. Most undead mobs (including zombies and skeletons) exposed to direct sunlight (and are not in shade, in water, or wearing helmets) will be set on fire. Additionally, sunlight will render spiders neutral, unless they are currently chasing the player, and any endermen exposed to sunlight will teleport randomly when near the player and become neutral if already aggressive. During the day, daylight sensors have the highest output level. Sunset/dusk[edit \| edit source] Sunset is the period between daytime and nighttime, and always lasts 1 1⁄2 minutes. During sunset, the Sun descends on the western horizon, and the Moon rises on the eastern horizon. The sky near the setting Sun glows a vibrant orange-red. The Sun will also grow visibly larger as it sets. The light level of all blocks that are in direct vertical view of the sky, and are not lit by other light sources, decreases by 1 every 10 seconds. Between dusk and dawn, players may sleep in a bed. In singleplayer mode, doing so will advance the day-night cycle to dawn and set the weather to clear. This will also occur in multiplayer, so long as every player online is in a bed simultaneously. Time does not pass with regards to other aspects of the world, however; for example, crops will not grow faster, and furnaces will not cook food faster. The exact time hostile mobs can first spawn in exposed areas is 13187 (equivalent to 19:11:13 in real time) on clear evenings, and 12969 (18:58:08) on rainy evenings.[note 1] Nighttime[edit \| edit source] Nighttime lasts 7 minutes. During the night, the Moon rises to its zenith in a dark blue sky dotted with small white stars. The stars appear to move with the Moon, and can be first seen towards the end of the sunset. During nighttime, the world is covered in darkness; the light level falls to a minimum of 4, which hostile mobs to spawn on the surface. The exact duration for which hostile mobs are able to spawn in exposed areas is 9625 ticks. Regardless of the low light level, crops will continue to grow during the night, unless the player skips the night with the use of a bed. During the night, inverted daylight sensors have the highest output level. Sunrise/dawn[edit \| edit source] Sunset is the period between nighttime and daytime, and always lasts 1 1⁄2 minutes. During sunrise, the Moon sets on the western horizon, and the Sun rises on the eastern horizon. The sky near the rising Sun will glow a vibrant orange. The sun will also appear visibly larger as it rises, but will slowly shrink to its 8x8 pixel size while rising. All blocks that are in direct vertical view of the sky will grow 1 light level brighter every 10 seconds. Eventually, the effects of sunlight will return, dissipating the threat of most hostile mobs. Morning twilight begins after 22009 ticks, which is the equivalent of 4:00:32 in real time. The exact last time hostile mobs can spawn in exposed areas is 22812 (04:48:43) on clear mornings and 23031 (05:01:08) on rainy mornings [note 1]. Clocks[edit \| edit source] Clocks allow players to determine Minecraft time. They are useful underground where the current day/night cycle is not visible. They help the player avoid mistakenly surfacing at night and falling prey to night-spawned mobs on the surface. Commands[edit \| edit source] If commands are enabled, then it is possible to change the current time with the /time commands, as detailed below. To enable or disable the day-night cycle, use the following command: /gamerule doDaylightCycle [true/false] Set time[edit \| edit source] Specific times can be set with the /time set command. /time set <number \| day \| night> /time set 0- Sets the time to dawn. /time set day- Sets the time to 1000. /time set 6000- Sets the time to midday /time set 12000- Sets the time to dusk /time set night- Sets the time to 14000. /time set 18000- Sets the time to midnight Moon phases[edit \| edit source] Each day that progresses adds 24000 ticks to the time counter. While each day looks the same, the Moon will go through one of its 8 different phases each night. Although there is no explicit command to change the Moon's phase, using /time add 24000 will advance the Moon to its next phase. Furthermore, any of the phases can be accessed with the use of one of the following commands: /time set night- Full Moon /time set 38000- Waning Gibbous /time set 62000- Last Quarter /time set 86000- Waning Crescent /time set 110000- New Moon /time set 134000- Waxing Crescent /time set 158000- First Quarter /time set 182000- Waxing Gibbous Achievements[edit \| edit source] \|Icon\|\|Achievement\|\|In-game description\|\|Prerequisites\|\|Actual requirements (if different)\|\|Availability\|\|Xbox points earned\|\|Trophy type (PS)\| \|Passing the Time\|\|Play for 100 days.\|\|—\|\|Play for 100 Minecraft days, which is equivalent to 33 hours in real time.\|\|No\|\|Yes\|\|Yes\|\|Yes\|\|Yes\|\|20G\|\|Bronze\| Video[edit \| edit source] History[edit \| edit source] \|February 12, 2010\|\|Added day-night cycle.\| \|1.8\|\|1.8-pre1\|\|In the leaked 1.8 pre-release version, the player can manipulate the time by pressing F6 to reverse time and F7 to advance time.\| \|1.0.0\|\|Beta 1.9-pre4\|\|Notch mentioned on his Twitter that the Sun actually rose in the north in Minecraft. This was a bug and was fixed in Beta 1.9 prerelease 4, so the Sun and Moon now both rise in the east; this also changed the South-West rule to the South-East rule.\| \|Added lunar phases.\| \|1.3.1\|\|12w21a\|\|The stars that appear at night were updated to be more realistic (slightly smaller and brighter).\| \|1.5\|\|13w01a\|\|Daylight sensors determine what time of day it is by outputting a redstone signal.\| \|Pocket Edition Alpha\| \|0.2.0\|\|Added the day-night cycle.\| \|0.4.0\|\|The day is now longer.\| \|0.5.0\|\|The Nether reactor sets the time to night\| \|0.7.3\|\|Added sunrises, sunsets, the Sun, the Moon, and stars.\| \|0.10.0\|\|Added the day-night cycle to creative mode.\| \|The time of day is now more accurately synced in multiplayer.\| Trivia[edit \| edit source] - The Sun and Moon rotate around the player, not the center of the map. - They will always remain in the same position relative to the stars, and to each other. - Due to this fact, eclipses in Minecraft are currently impossible. - They will always remain in the same position relative to the stars, and to each other. - Day and night do not proceed when a singleplayer game is paused. This does not apply when a GUI window (such as the inventory) is opened. - In multiplayer, this is not the case; time proceeds normally as long as the server is on. - Standing or flying at a height above the terrain at approximately 1.4x the render distance, the sun and moon will both be visible, giving the impression that the player is in space. - The day-night cycle will continue while the player is in the Nether or the End, although the world itself will not change until the Overworld is loaded again. - Background game music is triggered at specific times of the day-night cycle (currently unknown). - The highest value of time that can be set with the /time setcommand is 2147483647. - This is equivalent to: Day = 89478 Tick = 11483 Real-time Equivalent (since the first day ever) [DD/MM/YYY (HH:MM:SS:MlMlMl)] = 24/12/244 (11:28:58:800) (8 days + 6 hours back due to leap years) Without Leap Years = 1/1/245 (17:28:58:800). Elapsed Time: 09:34 (+ 9 Seconds) Notes[edit \| edit source] - Time of day measured by the last time commands were executed before the spawn cycle. References[edit \| edit source]	<urn:uuid:29b66513-03d5-4db9-a596-98d76f810280>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://minecraft.gamepedia.com/Day-Night_Cycle	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.866835	2,829	2.84375	3
U.S. intelligence reports that an estimated 1,000 North Vietnamese troops have reoccupied Ap Bia Mountain (Hill 937), one mile east of the Laotian border. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces had fought a fierce battle with North Vietnamese troops there in May. The battle was part of a 2,800-man Allied sweep of the A Shau Valley called Operation Apache Snow. The purpose of the operation was to cut off the North Vietnamese and stop any infiltration from Laos that was menacing Hue to the northeast and Da Nang to the southeast. Paratroopers from the 101st Airborne had engaged a North Vietnamese regiment on the slopes of Hill 937, known to the Vietnamese as Ap Bia Mountain. Entrenched in prepared fighting positions, the North Vietnamese 29th Regiment repulsed the initial American assault and beat back another attempt by the 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry on May 14. An intense battle raged for 10 days as the mountain came under heavy Allied air strikes, artillery barrages, and 10 infantry assaults. On May 20, Maj. Gen. Melvin Zais, commanding general of the 101st, sent in two additional U.S. airborne battalions and a South Vietnamese battalion as reinforcements. The communist stronghold was finally captured in the 11th attack when the American and South Vietnamese soldiers fought their way to the summit of the mountain. In the face of the four-battalion attack, the North Vietnamese retreated to sanctuary areas in Laos. During the intense fighting, 597 North Vietnamese were reported killed and U.S. casualties were 56 killed and 420 wounded. Due to the bitter fighting and the high loss of life, the battle for Ap Bia Mountain received widespread unfavorable publicity in the United States and was dubbed “Hamburger Hill” in the U.S. media (a name evidently derived from the fact that the battle turned into a “meat grinder”). Since the operation was not intended to hold territory but rather to keep the North Vietnamese Army off balance, the mountain was abandoned soon after the battle. The news of the battle and subsequent U.S. withdrawal from the area resulted in public outrage over what appeared to be a senseless loss of American lives. This furor only increased when it was revealed that the North Vietnamese had reoccupied their original positions after the American soldiers left. Gen. Creighton Abrams, who had succeeded Gen. William Westmoreland as commander of U.S. Military Assistance Command Vietnam, was ordered to avoid such battles in the future.	<urn:uuid:7d25e226-cc54-44bc-bcf3-a7b720fa3f8d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/north-vietnamese-reoccupy-ap-bia-mountain	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.973999	516	2.53125	3
From Our 2009 Archives New Brain Hemorrhage Guidelines Stress Quick Action Latest Neurology News THURSDAY, Jan. 22 (HealthDay News) -- Brain hemorrhage patients have better outcomes when they're treated quickly and at hospitals that handle many brain attack emergencies, according to updated guidelines released by the American Heart Association. Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) occurs when a blood vessel bursts and bleeds into the brain's subarachnoid space -- the lining between the surface of the brain and the brain tissue. Most SAHs are caused by a ruptured aneurysm (a small, ballooned-out area of a blood vessel). Trauma to the head can also cause SAHs. SAH is one of the most deadly neurological emergencies. The death rate for SAH is about 45% in the first 30 days, and about half of survivors suffer significant disability. Since the previous guidelines were released in 1994, there have been a number of advances. Among the highlights of the new guidelines released Jan. 22: The updated guidelines were published in a recent issue of Stroke. -- Robert Preidt SOURCE: American Heart Association, news release, Jan. 22, 2009 Copyright © 2009 ScoutNews, LLC. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:bcc7353c-64a5-4124-9d8c-5c31d3b9a327>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=95971	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.918261	268	2.671875	3
Cassie's Word Quilt by Faith Ringgold is new to me and I'm delighted to have found it. It was the perfect read aloud to introduce labels, in a reading study I'm calling Reading Words with Confidence. The story is about Cassie and we learn on the first page she lives in Tar Beach. The reader continues to find out about her home, her bedroom, the park near her house, her school, and how she travels from Tar Beach to New York City. There's a four page pattern to help readers and the story to be told. The first page on the left is the text for the story and it continues with a sentence on the right page. This sentence tells the reader what the three by three grid of pictures is about. Each picture has a one word label underneath. When the reader turns the page they find a two page spread with the individual pictures from the page before placed within the big illustration. Labels accompany the pictures with in the two page illustration. I feel the staggering of seeing the pictures and labels within a grid first helps the readers apply reading the labels with more independence within a bigger illustration. My students and I reviewed the school page and then worked in partners to create a label for an object in our classroom. I think this book will make a great choice for our buddy reading box too.	<urn:uuid:47d4ef74-ef24-40d3-b58f-f9104f74d771>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://enjoy-embracelearning.blogspot.com/2011/01/cassies-word-quilt.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955714	270	2.75	3
Click the thumbnails for President Anote Tong of Kiribati Spectacular table corals that take decades to form are found throughout the shallow water coral reefs of the Phoenix Islands. President Anote Tong of Kiribati will speak at Harvard & the United Nations and receive an award from Aquarium. One of the great gifts to the world in 2008 was the preservation of a massive oceanic ecosystem in the central Pacific that surrounds some of the most pristine coral reefs on the planet. Doubled in size this past winter, the Phoenix Islands Protected Area is now the world’s largest ocean reserve and covers an area nearly as large as California. Such leadership and generosity were not exercised by a global superpower or an affluent developed country but by the tiny Pacific island nation of Kiribati (pronounced Keer -a- boss). With less than 100,000 people and with most of their land less than six meters above sea level, Kiribati is likely to have the world’s first global climate change refugees. Kiribati is located about halfway between Hawaii and Australia. This oceanic international park was nearly a decade in the making in partnership with the New England Aquarium of Boston. Dr. Greg Stone first suggested the idea of a marine protected area to the Kiribati government in the late 1990’s and has helped guide the development of the Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA) since 2000. Kiribati and the Aquarium developed PIPA over several years of joint scientific research with funding and technical assistance from Conservation International. B roll of Phoenix Islands marine life available at press conference. Additional still images are available at the Phoenix Islands website. Tony LaCasse, 617-877-6871 or firstname.lastname@example.org	<urn:uuid:7f84e73e-551c-481f-8b3b-8f212b70866f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.neaq.org/about_us/news_and_media/press_releases/president_of_kiribati.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.918554	374	2.671875	3
How to Avoid Foods that are Harmful to Your Thyroid Your thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It releases hormones that control metabolism (how your body gets energy from the food you eat), and if this process becomes interrupted it can lead to heart disease, osteoporosis, infertility and, in rare cases, even coma and death. Women over 50 are most likely to have hypothyroidism. More specifically, your thyroid produces two main hormones thyroxine (T-4) and triiodothyronine (T-3), which are responsible for: Maintaining the rate at which your body uses fats and carbohydrates Helping control your body temperature Influencing your heart rate Helping to regulate the production of protein Your thyroid also produces a hormone that regulates the amount of calcium in your blood. Hypothyroidism: The Most Common Thyroid Disease Thyroid disease, which impacts 27 million Americans according to the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, can cause your thyroid to use energy more quickly (hyperthyroidism) or more slowly (hypothyroidism) than it should. It is the latter condition, hypothyroidism, that is most common, making up perhaps 80 percent of thyroid disease cases. In hypothyroidism, your thyroid gland is not active enough, leading to: The most common cause of hypothyroidism is an autoimmune disease known as Hashimoto thyroiditis, which may be caused by a virus, bacteria, genetics, or a combination of environmental factors. Thyroid surgery, radiation therapy for cancer and certain medications (such as lithium) can also lead to hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism is generally diagnosed using a blood test that measures your levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Conventionally, hypothyroidism is treated by taking a synthetic or natural thyroid hormone daily. How Do Foods Impact My Thyroid? Naturally occurring substances known as goitrogens exist in certain foods and are known to interfere with thyroid function. Foods that contain goitrogens include: Cruciferous veggies (broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, turnips, etc.) Soybeans and soy extracts If you're healthy, there's no need to limit goitrogen-containing foods, however if you have hypothyroidism some health care practitioners recommend against excessive consumption of these foods. That said, because research studies showing a link between goitrogenic foods and thyroid hormone deficiency have yet to be conducted, you probably don't need to eliminate these foods entirely, just eat them in reasonable quantities. Generally speaking, the food that could be most problematic would be soy. This is because soy exists in many forms in most processed foods. So if you eat a lot of processed foods, you could be inadvertently consuming a lot of soy. Therefore, people with hypothyroidism may want to limit their intake of processed foods. A small amount of broccoli or other cruciferous veggie is unlikely to cause much thyroid trouble, especially if it's cooked. However, excess quantities could be problematic. Cooking is also known to help inactivate goitrogenic compounds in foods, so if you enjoy cruciferous veggies but are concerned about your thyroid, eating them cooked may be preferable. As for foods that may HELP your thyroid function, those rich in selenium, iodine and animal-based omega-3 fats may all be beneficial. The Four Most Common Hormone Disorders in Women Menopause and Memory Loss: New Research Explains Why Menopausal Women Often Feel Forgetful World's Healthiest Foods	<urn:uuid:bf8fd100-c15e-449c-b4a8-58e54e035f58>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.sixwise.com/Newsletters/2008/June/18/How-to-Avoid-Foods-that-are-Harmful-to-Your-Thyroi.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938409	757	3.25	3
Paris, France (ESA) Jan 27, 2010 There are of course many technical challenges when planning missions to the Moon and beyond, but there is another important question: what should the astronauts have for dinner? A new ESA educational video Feeding our Future - Nutrition on Earth and in Space examines food as a vital part of life on Earth and in space. It shows why we need food in the first place and what it represents in our culture and daily living. Europe has a long and rich culinary history and good food is an important part of European living. ESA is developing food for human space missions with this in mind, considering not only nutrition but also the psychological wellbeing of astronauts. Weightlessness and living for a long time in a closed environment create additional requirements when planning astronaut nutrition. Food has to be high energy and nutritionally balanced, tasty and visually appealing, and sticky and solid enough to consume in weightlessness, specially packed and easy to store for a long time. Aside from scientific and technical research, the International Space Station (ISS) is a perfect laboratory for testing food. The ISS crews already eat specially prepared, balanced and tasty food, adapted to their individual tastes. But as missions get longer the nutritional aspects become even more important. The ultimate goal is to grow food aboard spacecraft and in greenhouses on the Moon or Mars. Insights to food on Earth and in space The programme also looks at research for preserving and growing food for long flights, as well as valuable technology for future food supplies on Earth, where climate change and population growth are global challenges. New techniques developed for space missions can help to feed hungry people on our planet. Share This Article With Planet Earth Watch the video, download it to your computer or order a DVD copy on the ESA Human Spaceflight Education page. Space Tourism, Space Transport and Space Exploration News Japan's 'space beer' sparkles among drinkers Tokyo (AFP) Dec 7, 2009 A Japanese brewer has come up with a beer that's truly out of this world -- one made with barley grown from a line of seeds that once orbited the Earth aboard the International Space Station. Sapporo Breweries Ltd. said Monday orders had flooded in for the special edition of 250 six-packs of its new "Space Barley." The company says the amber brew was made from the fourth generation of ... read more \|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2009 - SpaceDaily. AFP and UPI Wire Stories are copyright Agence France-Presse and United Press International. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by SpaceDaily on any Web page published or hosted by SpaceDaily. Privacy Statement\|	<urn:uuid:90fa922e-06cc-4507-9c3a-ac0e365744b2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Feeding_Our_Future_On_Earth_And_In_Space_999.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.926899	594	3.296875	3
What Is Benign Esophageal Stricture? Benign esophageal stricture describes a narrowing or tightening of the esophagus. The esophagus is the tube that brings food and liquids from your mouth to your stomach. “Benign” means esophageal cancer isn’t causing the Benign esophageal stricture typically occurs when stomach acid and other irritants damage the lining of the esophagus over time. This leads to inflammation (esophagitis) and scar tissue, which causes the esophagus to Although benign esophageal stricture isn’t a sign of cancer, the condition can cause several problems. Narrowing of the esophagus may make it difficult to swallow. This increases the risk of choking. It can also lead to complete obstruction of the esophagus. This can prevent food and fluids from reaching What Causes Benign Esophageal Stricture? Benign esophageal stricture can happen when scar tissue forms in the esophagus. This is often the result of damage to the esophagus. The most common cause of damage is gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), also known as acid reflux. GERD occurs when the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) doesn’t close or tighten properly. The LES is the muscle between the esophagus and the stomach. It normally opens for a short amount of time when you swallow. Stomach acid can flow back up into the esophagus when it doesn’t close completely. This creates a burning sensation in the lower chest known as heartburn. Frequent exposure to harmful stomach acid can cause scar tissue to form. Eventually, the esophagus will narrow. Other causes of benign esophageal stricture include: - radiation therapy to the chest or neck - accidental swallowing an acidic or corrosive substance (such as batteries or household cleaners) - extended use of a nasogastric tube (a special tube that carries food and medicine to the stomach through the nose) - esophageal damage caused by an endoscope (a thin, flexible tube used to look inside a body cavity or organ) - treatment of esophageal varices (enlarged veins in the esophagus that can rupture and cause severe bleeding) Symptoms of Benign Esophageal Stricture Typical symptoms of benign esophageal stricture include: - difficult or painful swallowing - unintended weight loss - regurgitation of food or liquids - frequent burping or hiccups Potential Complications of Benign Esophageal Dense and solid foods can lodge in the esophagus when it narrows. This may cause choking or difficulty breathing. Problems swallowing can prevent you from getting enough food and liquid. This may lead to dehydration and malnutrition. There’s also a risk of getting pulmonary aspiration, which occurs when vomit, food, or fluids enter your lungs. This could result in aspiration pneumonia, a condition in which the lungs and the airways leading into the lungs become inflamed. Diagnosing Benign Esophageal Stricture Your doctor may use the following tests to diagnose the condition. Barium Swallow Test A barium swallow test includes a series of X-rays of the esophagus. These X-rays are taken after you drink a special liquid containing the element barium. Barium isn’t toxic or dangerous. This contrast material temporarily coats the lining of your esophagus. This allows your doctor to see your throat more clearly. Upper GI Endoscopy In an upper gastrointestinal (upper GI) endoscopy, your doctor will place an endoscope through your mouth and into your esophagus. An endoscope is a thin, flexible tube with an attached camera. It allows your doctor to examine your esophagus and upper intestinal tract. Your doctor can use forceps (tongs) and scissors attached to the endoscope to remove tissue from the esophagus. They’ll then analyze this sample of tissue to find the underlying cause of your benign esophageal stricture. Esophageal pH Monitoring This test measures the amount of stomach acid that enters your esophagus. Your doctor will insert a tube through your mouth into your esophagus. The tube is usually left in your esophagus for at least 24 hours. Treating Benign Esophageal Stricture Treatment for benign esophageal stricture will vary depending on the severity and underlying cause of the condition. Esophageal dilation, or stretching, is the preferred option in most cases. Esophageal dilation can cause some discomfort, so you’ll be under general or local anesthesia during the procedure. Your doctor will insert an endoscope through your mouth into your esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Then, they’ll inflate a small balloon on the end of the endoscope to stretch your esophagus. In some cases, your doctor may use a dilator instead of an endoscope during the procedure. A dilator is also a long, thin tube that can expand the esophagus. Your doctor may need to repeat this procedure in the future to prevent your esophagus from narrowing again. Esophageal Stent Placement The insertion of esophageal stents can provide relief from esophageal stricture. A stent is a thin tube made of plastic, expandable metal, or a flexible mesh material. Esophageal stents can help keep a blocked esophagus open so you can swallow food and liquids. During the procedure, your doctor will give you a local anesthetic to numb your throat and esophagus. They’ll use an endoscope to guide the stent into place. Diet & Lifestyle Making certain adjustments to your diet and lifestyle can effectively manage GERD, which is the primary cause of benign esophageal stricture. These changes can include: - elevating your pillow to prevent stomach acid from flowing back up into your esophagus - losing weight - eating smaller meals - not eating for three hours before bedtime - quitting smoking - avoiding alcohol You should also avoid foods that cause acid reflux, such as: - spicy foods - fatty foods - carbonated beverages - coffee and caffeinated products - tomato-based foods - citrus products Medications also can be an important part of your treatment plan. A group of acid-blocking drugs, known as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), are the most effective medications for managing the effects of GERD. These drugs act by blocking the proton pump, a special type of protein, which helps reduce the amount of acid in the stomach. Your doctor may prescribe these medications for short-term relief to allow your stricture to heal. They may also recommend them for long-term treatment to prevent recurrence. The PPIs used to control GERD include: Other medications may also be effective for treating GERD and reducing your risk of esophageal stricture. They are: - antacids: provide short-term relief by neutralizing acids in the stomach provides a barrier that lines the esophagus and stomach to protect them from acidic stomach juices - antihistamines (such as ranitidine and famotidine): decrease the secretion of acid Your doctor may recommend surgery if medication and esophageal dilation are ineffective. A surgical procedure can repair your LES and help prevent GERD symptoms. Surgical treatment can be difficult in the rare cases where a non-functioning esophagus causes the stricture. In these extreme cases, an esophageal replacement may be the only effective option. Long-Term Outlook for People with Benign Treatment can correct benign esophageal stricture and help relieve the associated symptoms, but the condition can occur again. Among the people who undergo esophageal dilation, approximately 30 percent require another dilation within one year. You may need to take medication throughout your lifetime to control GERD and reduce your risk of developing another esophageal stricture. Preventing Benign Esophageal Stricture You can help prevent benign esophageal stricture by avoiding substances that can damage your esophagus. Protect your children by keeping all corrosive household substances out of their reach. Managing symptoms of GERD can also greatly reduce your risk for esophageal stricture. Follow your doctor’s instructions regarding dietary and lifestyle choices that can minimize the backup of acid into your esophagus. It’s also important to make sure you take all medications as prescribed to control symptoms of GERD.	<urn:uuid:ad347f34-eb5a-425b-9fb8-36b162ceb110>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.aarpmedicareplans.com/health/esophageal-stricture-benign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.869393	1,965	3.515625	4
Over 300 million people are acutely or chronically infected by fungi, leading to death, long term illness, blindness, psychological problems and reduced work capacity. Many recent improvements in diagnostics and treatment have not reached treating clinicians in all countries, and access to appropriate diagnostics and simple antifungal agents is far from universal. This needs to change. LIFE is a growing organisation. It is led by Professor David Denning who has been caring for patients with fungal infection for 25 years. He leads the National Aspergillosis Centre, UK (the first national clinical centre devoted to any fungal disease) and manages a clinical and laboratory research team.>> LEARN MORE infections: See opportunities for learning Sign up for lives as possible by sharing this site! Providing medical professionals with the knowledge they need to recognise and treat fungal infections. LIFE believes knowledge about fungal infections, available diagnosis and treatments are key to improving patient outcomes. This site provides you with current knowledge about fungal infections, fungi, diagnosis and treatment. Fungal infections are particularly common in India, now increasing alarmingly. Better trained personnel and access to the best diagnostics is critical if we want to save these patients. Prof. Arunaloke Chakrabarti, MD Diagnosis of fungal infections is usually made by identification of fungi that is difficult and slow but fortunately many rapid antigen, antibody and molecular tests are now available. These tests need to be available to everyone. Dr. Juan Luis Rodriguez Tudela, MD, Ph.D. Having seen the impact that major international programs can make to a disease area (such as TB), the potential to improve the lives of millions of individuals coping with debilitating fungal infections is huge and currently neglected. Prof. David S. Perlin, Ph.D.	<urn:uuid:b6858c97-2bab-43bc-959b-26a063bacaae>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.life-worldwide.org/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93294	377	2.515625	3
Don't miss the latest stories First Human-Made Object To Leave The Solar System By Tamara Kisha Tan, 30 Jun 2013 Since men landed on the moon, space has quietly continued to spur our imaginations and influence a lot of our movie culture. Understandably, we've also been pretty interested with whether or not we are alone in this universe. In 1977, NASA launched the Voyager 1 probe into space and now, roughly 36 years later, it is still on its mission and is currently "on the cusp" of being the "first human-made object to ever leave our solar system". As NASA researcher Ed Stone describes it, “this strange, last region before interstellar space is coming into focus, thanks to Voyager 1, humankind’s most distant scout." The exact date Voyager 1 will leave the solar system is unclear—nevertheless, after 36 years of venturing out and gathering data along with enough power to keep on going till 2020, it can't be too far off now. Voyager 1 and its sister probe, Voyager 2, both carry a "gold record" that contains "images, sounds (including music from different time periods and cultures) as well as general information "about [human beings] and the Earth"—all of which can be useful if they ever come into contact with any form of extraterrestrial intelligences. You can have a look at what it looks like, below: [via Forbes, images via NASA] More news on More news on Also check out these recent news	<urn:uuid:ffe72492-fe0a-46c5-82de-eb0d2fe7e7c4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://designtaxi.com/news/358891/First-Human-Made-Object-To-Leave-The-Solar-System/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.917615	318	3.234375	3
On July 25, 1995, Hermine Dalkowitz Tobolowsky, “mother of the Texas Equal Rights Amendment,” died in Dallas. Tobolowsky was born in San Antonio on January 13, 1921. Her father, a Lithuanian immigrant, had observed some of the difficulties women experienced with businessmen and urged his daughter — who was gifted with the art of persuasion — to become a lawyer. Tobolowsky attended Incarnate Word College in 1938-39 and Trinity University in 1939-40 in San Antonio, completing her bachelor’s degree requirements in just two years. She was one of eleven women in her entering class of the University of Texas School of Law in 1943. According to Tobolowsky, a UT Law professor gave her a list of “eligible bachelors so she would not have to take up space in the law school.” She was one of only two females to graduate in 1943. Graduating in the top ten of her class, she was admitted to the Texas bar the same year. Tobolowsky refused jobs after being told her “clients would never see her and would be told her work had been done by a male attorney” or that they “did not believe any woman had sense enough to clerk in the Supreme Court.” So, instead, Tobolowsky went to work for the law firm Lang, Cross, Beard, and Ladon in San Antonio, but only on the condition that she be hired on the same terms as their male attorneys. After four years, she established her own practice. In 1951, she moved her law practice and residence to Dallas. But as early as the 1940s, Tobolowsky became active in organizations fighting sexually discriminatory Texas laws. Her first cause was working to allow women to sit on juries. Tobolowsky helped legalize female jury work in 1953. By 1959 she was president of the Texas Federation of Business and Professional Women and was legal counsel for the federation’s national organization. She began to lobby the Texas legislature to change a total of 44 laws she had researched and identified as discriminatory. Tobolowsky introduced bills to allow Texas women to control separate property owned by them at marriage or acquired by inheritance and to eliminate separate acknowledgement of property deals by women. Tobolowsky wasn’t popular with many legislators. Her response would be to champion a blanket equal rights amendment to the Texas constitution. Introduced in 1959, the amendment was presented at every subsequent legislative session until it finally passed and was ratified by the voters on November 7, 1972. It was that day in Novemeber that Tobolowsky was dubbed as “the mother of the Texas Equal Rights Amendment.” She traveled around the country lecturing, lobbying, and helping other states ratify similar amendments. She also helped civil rights causes, repealing and amending about 33 discriminatory Texas laws. In 1975, she was chosen Texas Women’s Political Caucus woman of the year in and was inducted into the Texas Women’s Hall of Fame in 1986.	<urn:uuid:f1f9b0b7-0b0d-42ff-8c58-d4bf43bda25c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blog.chron.com/txpotomac/2008/07/today-in-texas-history-mother-of-the-texas-era-dies/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.986812	632	3.046875	3
This animation shows how photovoltaic panels and their solar cells capture sunlight's energy and create electricity. Sunlight is made up of tiny energy packets called photons. Every minute enough of this energy reaches the earth to meet a year's worth of the earth's energy needs. Photovoltaic panels consist of many solar cells, made of materials like silicon, a commonly available element. Solar cells are designed to free electrons from absorbed photons with a positive and a negative layer that create an electric field, just like in a battery. Photovoltaic panels can be designed to meet specific energy needs.	<urn:uuid:e2b335b6-2107-4d66-88ae-1608ac0714c3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://knpb.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/psu06-e21.sci.paphotovoltaics/photovoltaics/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.941058	120	3.953125	4

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