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Mini-Encyclopedia of Papermaking Wet-End Part Two: Definitions and Concepts Hydrogen bonding is one of the primary mechanisms by which papermaking fibers adhere to each other in the dry state. This is possible because cellulose and hemicellulose, two of the main components of papermaking fibers, are covered with hydroxyl groups. The oxygen atoms in these groups are able to hydrogen bond to hydrogen atoms on adjacent fibers or water molecules. Drying of paper causes some fiber-to-fiber hydrogen bonds to take the place of fiber-to-water hydrogen bonds. Recycling of paper is relatively easy because addition of water reverses this process. Hydrogen bonds have only about 5% of the energy content of a covalent bond. Request from the webmaster: Our goals include brevity and accuracy. Hopefully we have succeeded with the first goal without sacrificing the second. Please let us know right away if you find an error or omition. Also, please indicate points that need a clearer description. RETURN TO INDEX PAGE OF ENCYCLOPEDIA This page is maintained by Martin hubbe, Associate Professor of Wood and Paper Science, NC State University, firstname.lastname@example.org .	<urn:uuid:ee518ae5-1d35-45e3-bb3e-819017f2c716>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www4.ncsu.edu/~hubbe/Defnitns/Hbond.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.89293	257	3.234375	3
Asian Art and Architecture: Art & Design 382/582 Heian Period Japan Lee 314-28, 345-57; R&J 247-250 AThe Japanese imperial family and court lose power to the Fujiwara clan, which takes up a position behind the throne. BAt the same time the court, and later the Fujiwara, invest in a cultural turn away from the Chinese model that has come to dominate the arts since the opening to Buddhism and the continent, toward indigenous esthetic ideals that contrast distinctly with the previous two centuries. COn the religious front a striking new presence emerges with the arrival in Japan of the Vajrayana that has been percolating through East Asia in the wake of its development in India and Nepal. Heian Period Japan 794 - 1185 Early Heian or Jogan 794 - 897 Late Heian or Fujiwara 897 - 1185 412 Kondo Muro-ji Early Heian early 9th 413 Goju no to Muro-ji Early Heian early 9th 414 Shakya (or Miroku) Todai-ji Early Heian 9th 415-6 Yakushi Buddha Jingo-ji Early Heian early 9th 419 Seated Shaka Muro-ji Early Heian 794 - 897 CP 29Nyoirin Kannon Kanshin-ji Early Heian early 9th 422 Kongo-kai mandala Kojima-dera Heian 794 - 1185 Platos CaveKongo-Kai Kanshin-ji Late Heian 897 - 1185 Platos CaveTaizo-Kai Kanshin-ji Late Heian 897 - 1185 CP 30 & 424Red Fudo Myo-o Myo-o-in Heian 794 - 1185 CP 31 & 429Parinirvana of B Kongobu-ji Heian 794 - 1185 430 Shaka Emerging from the Golden Coffin Choho-ji, Heian Late 11th 432 Amida Raigo Koyasan Heian 11th 433 Amida Kochoho Heian 1146 434-5 Ho-o-do Uji Heian 11th 436-7 Amida of Ho-o-do Jocho Heian 1053 448 Rabbit Diving, Choju Giga Toba Sojo Heian late 12th 449Monkeys Worshiping a Frog Toba Sojo Heian late 12th 454 Flying Storehouse Shigisan Engi Heian 794 - 1185 After the Emperor and the government were moved from Nara to Heian-kyo (modern Kyoto) to escape the pressure of the great monastic complexes of the old capital there was a shift in style from one modeled upon the Tang court to one much more self-consciously Japanese. Lee calls this the "first original contribution of the Japanese to the art of the post-Bronze age." Little by little the court was losing power to the Fujiwara Clan, which eventually grew to dominate from behind the throne. The court, meanwhile was left free to develop its esthetic taste, which Lee calls "primarily delicate, fine, decorative, and highly and aesthetic." This was the period in which, what Lee calls Esoteric [Secret] and the Japanese call Mikkyo Buddhism emerges in Japan: what we have been calling Vajrayana. In Japan there are two distinct Vajrayana schools: Tendai and Shingon, the true word sect. Both are brought to Japan at the very beginning of the 9th century by Japanese monks who have learned their secrets during their training in China. With each come complex, enlarged pantheons and sets of images kept hidden from all but a few adepts, and the developed use of ritual diagrams: mandala. A major characterization of this imagery and its use is that it is "magical." That is, it involves rituals by which the practitioners compel reality. The use of secret images goes along with a general incorporation of incantations, ritually charged numbers, gestures, and other objects. Early Heian Art As the court moved from Nara to Kyoto to escape the politics of the city, the temple of Muro-ji was taken over by the Shingon school and in attempt to guard its ritual purity, moved from Nara to a mountainous location some 40 miles outside of the city. [Though, one should note, in the direction of Kyoto.] The site of Muro-ji itself has a significant esthetic impact. The monastery is spread across a series of verdant natural hills covered thickly in evergreens and cedar-like cryptomeria of great natural beauty. It is a mountain, not a city setting. If the ostensible purpose was to escape the worldliness of the city, the effect was to return closer to the natural world. Here, there was no place to lay out the symmetrical formality of the Nara monastic plan. Structures were spread around irregularly, where the natural lay of the land permitted. This isolated location and asymmetry of plan was typical of temples constructed in this period. And indeed this use of asymmetry proved to be a strong characteristic of Japanese style architectural and otherwise, already visible in pre-Buddhist, Shinto art. 412 Kondo Muro-ji Heian 794 - 1185 The Kondo at Muro-ji shows some of the same characteristics. Despite continuing use of a stone wall to level the ground of the irregular site, in a sort of rustic sub basement, this is a structure returning largely to the indigenous tradition of being raised up on wooden pilings and roofed by shingles and thatch. [That is, wood and leaves.] The Chinese ideal was distinctly regular and symmetrical, on cleanly geometric stone basements under tile roofs. Though the carpentry of the interlocked wooden framework is still highly elegant, it is also quite stringently simplified. The cryptomeria shingles are thickly layered. This is also a much more modest structure than the monumental scale developed at Nara. A balcony is constructed on the side opposite the images for the viewing from the outside. 413 Goju no to Muro-ji Heian Early 9th The goju no to (5 story tower) has a magnificent setting, lost in the trees. Where, at barely 50 feet it is dwarfed by its natural surroundings. To see into its lower story, one actually has to bend down. The result is an intimacy of feeling. One passes through the monastic complex as one would hike through Yosemite or some other natural wilderness, with the temples structures settled into the glades. [These may be the only two buildings of the Jogan period to have survived.] At Toshodai-ji a porch was added to the Kondo to further separate the lay viewer from the ritual activity of the monks. A new structure called a raido was added to the Kondo, for laymen who wanted to hear the rituals, but were not to be allowed into the precincts with the monks. 414 Shaka (or Miroku) Todai-ji Heian 9th c Lee points out that one of the characteristics of Jogan period art has been its relative difficulty for western eyes. [He says less relativistically, "for modern historians."] Their expressions are strikingly dour, even forbidding, to the Western European eye trained to expect a prettiness and delicacy more in line with their own taste. One might say the same of much Byzantine imagery, an art which is also, less accessible and inviting, if somewhat more familiar. However one wishes to characterize its mood, the sculpture of the Jogan period is strikingly powerful. Another significant tendency of Heian sculpture and one that will last much longer than the Jogan period, is the move away from bronze icons to wood. Whatever the reason, wood, in large, solid masses at first and then more often pieced-together, becomes the favored medium of figurative sculpture. Take the seated preaching Shaka (S. Shakyamuni ) from Todai-ji. The figure sits in the standard simhasana (lion) posture, gesturing to the witness of the earth (bumisparsa), elegantly with its left hand while it holds the right, quite as sensitively, in a slightly irregular abhaya with its right. The robe hangs in heavy folds around its shoulders and over its lower torso. In a manner that can be traced to the continent, but which is particularly characteristic of Japanese development, the robe hangs open at the front revealing the division between the pectoral below the three conventional lines in the neck. The fleshy body is cut from a single block of cypress. Most striking is the face, which is even more inflated from within than the one we saw in Nara, expanding taughtly. The hands and the face are proportionately enlarged. The expression on the face is intense. It is one many Westerners have found verging on malevolent. [Which is certainly going too far in the direction of applying an inappropriate frame of reference, and so should be a caution to us not to jump too quickly toward assuming our first intuitions suit the intentions of another culture.] Whatever the nuances, the actual intentions are undeniably austere and less inviting than the more benevolently inviting Mahayana images we have been used to. The fact that some have called this image a Miroku (S. Maitreya), should remind us that we dont always know. The usual clue to a Maitreya is Bodhisattva vestments and a stupa in the headdress, like the Korean image (Lee 209). But Maitreya can be thought of as a Buddha as well as a Bodhisattva, and so it is here. The fact of the single block construction is visible in the cracks running vertically through the body. There is slight bits of paint still visible in the eyes, alerts us to the fact that the work was not painted as a whole. 415-6 Yakushi Buddha Jingo-ji Heian Early 9th c wood 5 1/2l Yakushi (S. Bhaisyajaguru) is the healing Buddha. It is characterized here by the vase of healing herbs in its left hand. Its hands and forearms are restorations, a point Lee uses to point out how much more subtly articulated is the rest of the image. What may look simple at first sight, or from a distance, turns out to be rather carefully developed. You may want to go back to the Miroku and observe the rippling rhythms of its robes folding around its arms and torso. In this case there is a combination of rather dull symmetry in the extensions of the legs on either side and much more articulated draping around the upper torso and the edges. Though over all this is a rather dull and uninteresting bit of drapery compared to the seated Miroku. The single block method of carving is called ichiboku-zukuri, and that is essentially what we see here. Only extensions such as the arms and hair curls are added. In the Later Heian, or Fujiwara, period images are made from multiple blocks that are assembled by pegs and glue and fitted together before they are carved, so that there is less liability to cracking and also allows greater undercutting. That technique is called yosegi-zukuri. The regularity of the folds here, is a Jogan and later characteristic called hompa shiki or the rolling wave pattern. It is composed of high, rounded ridges alternating with lower, angular ones. Lee traces it back across the continent to Central Asia, beginning from the "string" fold drapery of Bamiyan. We can see the result of the ichiboku-zukuri in the cracks running through the face of the Yakushi Buddha. The close-up view (416) also reveals the encrustation of snail curls fitted on and the careful attention to detail in the extremely subtle linearity and idiosyncrasy of its forms. We can also see here some of the characteristically Jogan and Japanese interest in the wood of the Buddhas body as wood: each fleck of the finishing knife left as a separate facet. Is this a characteristic we might tie to the Shinto interest in natural materials in and for themselves? And we go back to those wonderful eyes with their distinctively carved facets, or those of those distinctively menacing rosebud lips. How do I react to this forbidding, scowling or even disdainful expression? Once I got used to it, I became fascinated by it. And only once has it really threatened me. That was at Kaniman-ji. You will remember this face. 419 Seated Shaka Muro-ji Early Heian 794 - 897 wood 3 1/2 The seated Shaka is from Muro-ji. It is a paragon of the hompa shiki, rounded waves alternating with shallower triangular ones. Originally it was finished in colors over a white gesso. The rhythms of the rolling drapery folds are the glory of the piece. The smooth sections of flesh contrasting with the rippling textures of the drapery folds. CP 29Nyoirin Kannon Kanshin-ji Early Heian Early 9th ptd wood 3 1/2 Here we have a rare example of a Early Heian wood image surviving with most of its parts and its paint intact. It is a six-armed Nyoirin Kannon. Its skin is finished in gold, its robe fully colored in reds, golds, and blues. It sits in royal ease on a fully developed lotus before a flaming full body halo. In four of its hands it holds: a chakra (wheel), a lotus, a wishing gem (nyoi) and a rosary. The other two touch its cheek and the lotus (purity in a world of corruption). Each hand can save worshippers from one of the Six Realms of Existence. 422 Kongo-kai mandala Kojima-dera Heian 794 - 1185 The central section of a Kongo-Kai mandala in 422 is a detail of the fuller mandala, the Kongo-kai is the Diamond world or Vajradhatu mandala, we have already considered with Vajrayana imagery at Aurangabads Cave 7 and Borobudur. It is the cosmic mandala of 1,461 [Lee says 1,341] deities centered upon Vairochana, 33 of whom can be seen in this central most of the nine great fields that compose the full diagram. Platos Cave Kongo-Kai Kanshin-ji, Osaka Late Heian 897- 1185 Here is a full color version of the mandala of the Diamond realm. As a mandala the painting is a ritual diagram that the meditating Siddha (adept) passes through, from one station to the next to reach an assigned outcome. If Aurangabad 7 and Borobudur offered the rare examples of mandalas large enough to move through physically, the Kongo-Kai is the more typical, miniature mandala through which the adept passed mentally. This was a pattern going back to the earliest recorded Indian traditions, as for instance when the Vedic sacrificial altar was composed through rhythms and sounds rather than bricks. Ultimately such imagery and the rituals associated with them are revelatory of the fact that the significance of rituals is in the understanding and participation in their symbolism, not the presence their physical manifestations. Vairochana Buddha is the center of both this mandala and its complement the Taizo-Kai. Platos Cave Taizo-Kai Kanshin-ji, Osaka Late Heian 897- 1185 The Taizo-Kai (S. Garbha-dhatu) is the Womb World. It is composed of 12 more or less concentric precincts and 414 [Lee says 407] deities. At its center is a central court of 8 figures, surrounding Vairochana: Buddhas at the cardinal directions, Bodhisattvas at intermediary points. Vajra-holding forms symbolizing the power of the intellect to destroy human passion on one side, lotus-holding beings illustrating the purity of all human beings on the other. In this case we can see from photographs of the situation of the paired Kongo-Kai and the Taizo-Kai, the Vajradhatu and the Garbhadhatuthe Vajra world of Wisdom and the Womb world of material realityand how the adepts place themselves between the two worlds and meditates a passage between that brings them together in their own person as they attempt to transcend this world through the instrument of the two mandalas. The goal is to use through the meditation, that has characterized Buddhism from its earliest moments, with the mandala as an instrument, to unite the Siddha with Mahavairochana (J. Dainichi Nyorai). CP 30 & 424 Red Fudo Myo-o Myo-o-in Heian 794 - 1185 color on silk 5 The Red Fudo Myo-o, from Koyasan, is typical of one of the great Esoteric guardian deities. His name means "immovable." He is a terror to evildoers. He is normally seen, as here, with a pair of youthful acolytes and glaring out at the viewer. In the Jogan period he expands, pushing the borders of the picture: one fang up and one down, he holds a noose in one hand and a vajra & dragon-handled sword in the other. One of the youths is proper looking, the other is more like the Fudo, with fangs and a glare. In the modeling of the Fudos robe is the hompa-shiki pattern. What is more interesting is the transparency and delicacy of the robe. With the little flowers decorating the robe and the delicate metal jewelry hanging all across the figures body, banding his head and wrists there is a characteristically caricatural Japanese effect of delicacy overlaying powerful forms and increasing their power by contrast. We see some of the same inimitable caricature in the tightrope the image strides as a whole, between caricatural absurdity and terrifying power. A final interesting element worth mentioning is the combination of Chinese monochrome landscape for the ground and bright color for the figures. The transition from the Early to Late Heian when the Fujiwara takes full control from the imperial court at Kyoto. Though this does not lead to its coming out from behind the royal court, which is maintained as a facade. There are then two courts in Kyoto. The art of the Fujiwara period or Late Heian is characterized by its extreme esthetic self-consciousness and sophistication. CP 31 & 429 Parinirvana of the Buddha Kongobu-ji Heian 794 - 1185 color on silk 9 hanging scroll Koyasan The Paranirvana of the Buddha from Koyasan is the first of a type to survive. It shows the last moment of the great being as he lies, conventionally, on his right side, passing into Nirvana, surrounded by a full hierarchy of associated beings. Each one marks his place in the levels approaching enlightenment by his status and response to the event. The further along the Bodhisattva path the more equanimity shown. The princely Bodhisattvas in gold, like the Buddha, are calm and reserved. The Elevated deciples are in white and they too calm and dispassionate. The common monks, by contrast are seen darker in color, and beside themselves with grief, as are the guardian kings in their fancy garments but pained expressions. At the bottom the Kongo Rikishi are in inconsolable, while the animals, such as (Manjusris ?) lions are in distraught disarray. The whole makes for a very colorful assemblage of decorative caricatures, win a grove of jeweled trees, watched-over by the Buddhas mother, looking down from her heaven. The Buddha itself is a picture of equanimity, placidly unmoved in its triumph. The four shal trees that mark the platform are straight from the texts. As we look down from above in what will become the standard fashion. The work is a confetti of bright colors within wire outlines. 430 Shaka Emerging from the Golden Coffin Choho-ji, Heian Late 11th c The subject is the Buddha preaching to its mother following the Paranirvana. It is possibly by the same studio that produced the Koyasan Paranirvana. Again there is a welter of figures surrounding the Master. The use of rich color and decorative forms in both of these pictures is typical of the ornamental style of Tang. Both are altarpiece icons, to be prayed with, if hot too. What is most interesting here is the rarity of this subject, unknown in South Asia. 432 Amida Raigo Koyasan Heian 11th c color on silk 12 h The Amida Raigo is a sort of Mahayana yantra, different from the Vajrayana mandala. It is not a map of the cosmos to be traversed by means of a secret passage, but a straight forward depiction of salvation, that could be operated by simple faith , as the device of that salvation. The form rose among the Amida (S. Amitabha) cults of the Late Heian period, within the Jodo (Pure Land) sect. Koyasans is one of the earliest and finest to come down to us. This is a sect that rose in China in the 7th century and later had its greatest development in Japan. The meaning of raigo is "welcoming approach" of Amida: Amidas welcoming approach to his deciples. The form of the Koyasan is three paneled painting proportioned to match the function of the Christian altar triptych. Its two side panels are precisely half the width of the central panel, so that they may be folded across in to close it off. This is a form that Buddhists had been using in precisely the same way for portable altars for centuries if not a millenium. The central panel carried the essential scene, a golden Amida in a glowing mandorla surrounded by a host of attending deciples and gandharva musicians, flowing toward the observer on an effulgence, leaving a curving trail behind. To either side below, Amida is preceded by its two great emanation Bodhisattvas. On the viewers leftin this is image that is constructed particularly from the viewpoint of the worshipperis Mahastamaprapta hands held in the anjali of greeting, not the god but one facing the god. The raigo is a depiction of Amida descending from the western paradise to a dyeing worshiper to welcome the worshippers being to its promised place in the Paradise in which they will reach enlightenment and pass on to nirvana. The painting represents the dyeing persons last rite; indeed it is an instrument of the dyeing persons transition to the paradise. As Mahastamaprapta, on the left gestures anjali of greeting, the complementary Avalokitesvara, on the right, holds out a lotus pedestal upon which to take the "soul" back to the paradise. Here is yet another permutation of Padmapani, the lotus-handed ones, role as the savior Bodhisattva: where the lotus is transmuted from symbol to the actual device of purification by which soul is to be transported. The two side wings reveal a bit of monochrome landscape below, over which are seen more of the accompanying gandharva and apsaras, singers and musicians. The separation between the panels allows for the angling in of the wings to form an enclosure reaching out to embrace the worshipper, who is further connected with the imagery by a pair of threads reaching from the Buddha or the Bodhisattvas of the painting to be tied around the fingers of the worshipper. The painting is a Mahayana instrument, intended to cement belief in the Buddha Amidas promise of paradise, leading to enlightenment and eventual nirvana for those who have faith in its powers. 433 Amida Kochoho Heian 1146 The Amida Kochoho is a playful comment on the essential raigo message of a promised salvation for the believer. The average deciple of Jodo sect, it is suggested here, may have been no more anxious to enter heaven than the average Christian. Here we see the string from the welcoming Buddha pulled tight like a noose around the deciples neck, as Mahastamaprapta reaches out encouragingly, and the ever-compassionate Kannon uses the padma in yet another manner, as a shovel to urge the deciple toward his reluctant reward. Amida Kochoho: the Amida Who Summons to a Higher Plane. 434-5 Ho-o-do Uji Heian 11th c The Ho-o-do (Phoenix Hall) of the Byodo-in at Uji, between Nara and Kyoto, is a most interesting and probably the most elaborate and developed raigo image in existence. The it is a raigo in the body of an entire temple. The wooden structure that forms the temple is composed of elements taken from the palace of the nobleman who had it created. The temple, takes the form of a central hall, inhabited by a great Buddha image, flanked by a pair of wings and trailing a long tail. The whole thus forms the outline of the bird ( ) symbolizing the rebirth, promised by the raigo, which is also depicted in a more literal form flying off either end of the hall roof. The Phoenix hall is situated within a handsome garden surrounded by a lake, thus simulating the Sukhavati Vyuha, the lake of Amidas Western Paradise, which is promised to the Jodo deciple. Its image from the entrance gateway is of a beautiful palatial hall reflected in the waters of the pond. The tile roof and stone basement return us to Chinese elements, according to Lee. But it should be noted, that even though the Japanese connoisseur would agree that these were conventionally considered Chinese elements, they were by this time Japanese elements for half a millenium. That is longer than the English language has been spoken in the Western Hemisphere. And so as we do recognize out American language as "English," we should realize that calling tile roofs Chinese is not a suggestion of Chinese influence over Japanese culture. The light airiness of the structure, raised up on pilings and sailing above the pond, is characteristic of the Fujiwaras elegance. 436-7 Amida of Ho-o-do Jocho Heian 1053 gilded wood Buddha image 94" h The interior of the hall is composed entirely of the central imagery of the raigo. A magnificent wooden image of Amida sits, enthroned in meditation, on a many petaled golden lotus at its center. Its effulgent halo, filled with musicians rises up to a crowning canopy of effulgence in an architecture of golden filigree. The surrounding walls are supported by the usual network of pillars, brackets and beams, among which fly more of the musicians of Amidas entourage. The image of Amida, by the well noted sculptor, Jocho, is as light and image as one might imagine. It seems nearly to float from its seat. The face is finished in gold but also detailed to show an elegant mustache and features more solemn than the forbidding ones, more typical of the earlier, heavier imagery of the Jogan. The ensemble is a strikingly elegant and complete one, with the Buddha looking out from its elegant perch on the dais through the grill at the front of the hall, past the doors that, when shut, reveal a painting of the raigo that it is a monumental part of. When the doors are open and the Buddha screened from view by only the wooden lattice, it is visible within the temple, even from across the pond.... 448 Rabbit Diving, Choju Giga Toba Sojo Heian late 12th ink on paper 12" h x 37 l The penultimate set of images we will consider from the Heian period is found in a set of four handscrolls belonging to the Kozan-ji in Kyoto. The Chogu Giga (Animal Scrolls) are a series of satirical monochrome paintings attributed to an abbot of the temple, Toba Sojo (1053-1140). The works are all in monochrome ink, on paper. And most scholars today see at least two hands involved. Two of the rolls are thought to be c 1200, and two c 13 25-50. So it might be as well to consider the works as of the Kamakura period, we will be considering next. The subject is a set of satirical drawings of animals taking on the roles of Buddhist deities and deciples! The apparent intent, associated not unreasonably with a Zen monastery as Kozan-ji is, is to satirize hypocritical practices of some who claim to be Buddhists or who misuse the faith. So here we have rabbits and monkeys (actually apes) frolicking in a river, which is benign enough, if a few feet earlier in the scroll we hadnt already learned that these rabbits and apes were dressed as monks. 449Monkeys Worshiping a Frog Toba Sojo Heian late 12th The scene of the Apes, in Buddhist priests robes worshiping a frog with a leaf mandorla before onlooking apes, owls, and foxes, is more pointedly clear in its satire. If one can worship a form and think its yogic meditative posture makes it an enlightened being, one must surely be misled. And indeed the expression on the ape on the right here may be more telling than the wisp of prayerful sound emitted from the ape kneeling before the altar here. The intervening seals, which stand out in their cinnabar red even more in the original than they do in our black and white reproduction, are the marks of the temple intended to insure that when the work was disassembled as part of its restoration, all he original fragments were brought back together correctly and without losing any sections. These are, for all their satire and apparent jocularity, religious works. Though that is not to say a holy ones. 454 Flying Storehouse Shigisan Engi Heian late 12th color and ink on paper 12" h x 117 l The last piece we will consider is a section of the famous tale of the Flying Storehouse of Shigisan. This is one scene from over a hundred feet of story telling colorful painting. The style is called e-maki, or story telling hand scroll. The tales of the temple on Mount Shigi are the subject here. Legend had it that the Priest, Myoren did not have to go begging his meals door to door, because he had a miraculous golden bowl, that would make his rounds for him, thereby leaving him free to pursue other work. The section we see shows the occasion on which a parsimonious landlord refused to part with the requested rice ration, and was eventually shocked into recognition of the priests powers when the frustrated bowl, reacted by taking off with his entire grain storehouse. We see the finely outlined drawing of the event, the storehouse flying away on the top of the bowl, over the ocean, as the farmer laves his compound in hot pursuit upon his old horse, surrounded by the various types of his family and neighbors. It is all in a firmly caricaturing ink hand, filled in with delicate color. Rich surface patterns fill the style, but what is most prominent is the artists will to push caricature to its extreme in the brilliant distortions in the faces and body gestures of all the participants. Again the subject is Buddhist, but the actuality is a secular painting with a Buddhist subject, not a work of ritual use.	<urn:uuid:7547db8a-3103-4ddd-a022-9d740011f48e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.public.iastate.edu/~tart/arth382/lecture25.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945211	6,733	3.03125	3
Urbanization in the Middle East Urbanization and Informality Responses to Rapid Growth of Middle Eastern Cities Written by: Maruta Herding Table of Contents II. The Middle East: an Urban Profile III. Urbanism and Urbanization The inevitable process of urbanization bears chances and problems the like and it is a challenging the form of societal life. The first challenge for a social scientist is to entirely understand the phenomenon. On a horizontal or spacial level urbanization refers to a high density of urbanized areas as opposed to rural areas; on a vertical or timely level it refers to the process of the growth of cities. When adding more detail to this broad definition, one encounters some difficulties: Cities are centres of industry and education, of government, culture and intellectual life and provide the infrastructure of health care, shelter, food and water supply. However, urbanization is at the same time associated with the lack of these primary and secondary life supplies. Factories and universities do not suffice for all city dwellers; theatres, film and publishing are oftentimes exclusive and moreover, meeting basic physical needs is the greatest problem in the large slums of cities. Furthermore, while urbanization is on the one hand determined by stronger infrastructure including politics, economy and intellectual life, it must also be regarded as a simple relation of inhabitants per area who benefit from the facilities; as it increases and the inhabitants exceed the supplies, the flipside of urbanization comes to the fore. Again, this might be due to the lack of space (horizontal) or the lack of time for the supplies to increase accordingly (vertical). Saad Eddin Ibrahim provides a summarized definition of urbanization, referring to it as “a process of redistributional shifts of population from the countryside to towns and cities. The latter are human settlements characterized by a higher degree of population concentration living in a contiguously built up area and engaged in mostly non-agricultural activities.” There are various approaches to the phenomenon of urbanization – the analysis might focus on the causes, consequences and reactions to it. As far as the causes are concerned, rural-urban migration accounts for most growth of cities, furthermore population growth, refugees of droughts and wars as well as the underlying “classical” factor of industrial and economic growth. The consequences are diverse and can be divided into positive and negative, depending on whether the population exceeds the possible provisions. Cities certainly correspond to a higher living standard, job and education opportunities, access to information, possibilities of participation in political and cultural life. On the other hand, over-urbanization causes supply shortage of basic physical needs, employment and education leading to political unrests, the latter accounting for both positive and negative consequences. Reactions towards these developments appear from economic, political or governmental side and from the “people”, those city dwellers affected through urbanization. The economy might react by taking advantage of the large work force, industry flourishes or new businesses emerge; the government most probably engages in urban planning and the supply of shelter and infrastructure and is possibly occupied with responding to political movements or the integration of migrants. The people are likely to express their needs in political activism and invent jobs such as in the informal sector. It is these reactions that this paper attempts to identify and analyse, whereby the focus will the reactions to the negative consequences of urbanization. The Middle East and North Africa is a highly urbanized region with 55% of the population living in cities; only Latin America exceeds this rate by over 70%. Usually the population inhabits one or two big cities in a country; the most extreme example being Africa’s largest city, Cairo, which UN-HABITAT estimates with 11 million inhabitants. As far as density is concerned a study from 1971 already highlights that the population of the Nile Delta and Valley exceeds 1 500 per square mile and is the highest in the world, with Cairo having 23 000 per square mile. Beirut holds over 60% of the Lebanese people, Israel and Kuwait have an urbanization rate of 90%, the least urbanized country Sudan still has a rate of 25%. One of the major features in the region is its rapid urbanization not least because the rate of population growth is extremely high. Furthermore, throughout history urbanization and industrialization have been intertwined and have developed together. In the Middle East however urbanization has by far outstripped industrialization, and the weakness of the latter has not at all slowed down the former. Case Study: The Megalopolis of Cairo The rush on Egypt’s capital has evoked manifold reactions on the part of both government and inhabitants towards the lack of housing. In a general summary the housing situation has ameliorated over the past decades: While 2.6 persons shared a room in the mid-1970ies, nowadays half as much have to share one. Water and electricity supply rose from 65% and 77% to nearly 100%. Construction boom within the past three decades increased the supply of housing at the double rate of the population growth and oftentimes flats remain vacant for years. However, new housing was not made accessible to the poorer population, thus Cairo became a city of “flats without tenants and inhabitants without flats” as a survey put it in 1990. To understand this paradox development it is necessary to scrutinize the different kinds of housing in Cairo. In his survey on living conditions in Egypt’s capital Günter Meyer distinguishes seven types: The old city, the city of the dead, areas of state-sponsored housing, squatter settlements on state-owned land, informal settlements on irrigation land, “relief cities”, and safe-guarded residential blocs. All but the last two are inhabited by poorer population and are characterized by some degree of informality. In the old city the building boom of the 1980s, caused by rising income and transfers from migrant workers in the Gulf, led to illegal adding of stories on top of older houses and to the likewise unauthorized destruction and rebuilding of large apartment houses. Leaking water pipes caused rising ground water which destroys both ancient monuments and residential houses. Only at the end of the 1990s the authorities began to take action against illegal constructions, redeveloped buildings and addressed the sewage problem. The general situation in the old city is characterized by weak structural fabric and uncoordinated arbitrary construction. The phenomenon of life in the city of the dead highlights the housing shortage of the poor. Between the end of World War II and the 1980s 125 000 people settled in the burial houses of the large cemeteries east and south of the old city. Water and electricity supply is nowadays provided, however this caused an increase in rents so that the poorest can no longer afford it. In the 1950ies the state engaged in building houses similar to the Western European concept of “council flats” for low income population. Given to poor families at a extremely low rent the buildings lack maintenance and are entirely overcrowded; some families extend their flats by unconventional addition of stories on top or on the sidewall of the buildings. Since the 1970s state-led construction shifted towards provision of flats for sale rather than to let (Madinat es-Salam) or even luxurious apartment buildings for the wealthier (Mohandesin). The only opportunity remaining for the poorest parts of society is usually to occupy state-owned land. Manshiet Nasr started with the squatting of 40 homeless families in the area in the 1950s; similar is the development of the Zabalin’s or trash collectors’ areas on Muqattam hill. The government’s reaction is rather striking – the squatter settlements were legalized afterwards by selling the land and eventually construction increased rapidly. The most common type is living in informal settlements on former irrigation land, as for instance the area of Dar es-Salam in southern Cairo. While building on irrigation land is illegal due to the loss of potentially agricultural land it is possible to purchase the land and sell plots of it to single families, who are usually from the middle class or relatives of a migrant worker to the Gulf. As the state turns a blind eye to it people start their private constructions. Due to the high costs of the plot buildings are dense and high thus the extreme population density is, according to Meyer, the highest in the world with 80 000 inhabitants per square kilometre in al-Munira in 1996. Lacking fresh air during the summer, water and electricity during the first two decades, a sewage system and facing the problem of rising ground water, the government only became aware of the problems in the 1990s when these areas developed to “breeding grounds for terrorism”. As militant Islamic groups began to hide in and recruit people from the informal settlements the Egyptian authorities improved the infrastructure, paved and lighted roads, renewed the sewage system, and built schools and youth centres. To relief the metropolis from squatter and informal settlements the government started constructing the cities of 6 th of October and 10 th of Ramadan in the desert. Successful in industrialising, the residential areas remained largely empty. Most of the workers cannot afford the cost, more wealthier people purchase flats to be used in later years by their children or as objects of speculation. Only recently private house construction has increased among the wealthier people. Another new opportunity for the rich is living in isolated areas with are safe-guarded and consist of large villas, tennis and golf courses. Located mainly in Heliopolis and 6 th of October City these areas – named Beverly Hills, Utopia and the like – are enthusiastically accepted and quickly sold. The investments were often financed by non-hedged credits of state-owned banks which in the late 1990s led to a liquidity crisis of the state. The examples indicate that the response to the housing shortage is mainly an initiative from the people and less so from the government. The planned and unplanned process of urban growth reveals the inability of the state to cope with the enormous urbanization. It is very telling that the state does not apply the laws against the addition of stories onto old houses or the building on irrigation and state-owned land – not because the authorities do not know or do not have the means, partly out of a lack of willingness but most probably the passiveness is deliberate. If the laws were applied, shortage would increase and mass riots would be likely to occur pressuring the state to provide houses, infrastructure and land. Due to both a lack of money (or the management thereof) and short-sightedness the government welcomes the private and informal solutions while ignoring the long-term effects such as the loss of agricultural land, a worsening life quality, and the possible rise of extremism. Moreover the paradox of empty flats and homeless population enforces the increase of the gap between rich and poor. The creativity of the population to find shelter does not make up for the damaging long-term consequences. Commonly there is a correlation between urbanization and modernization; perhaps not a direct one certainly mediated through factors such as industrialization and communication. The Middle East is a region of rapid urbanization therefore one might expect a high degree of modernization. Saad Eddin Ibrahim argues though that urbanization does indeed take place but it is urbanism which is lacking – the quality of cities does not grow at the same rate as their size. Ibrahim refers to urbanism as a “qualitative change in people’s outlook, behavioural patterns, and the organizational networks which they create and participate in”. Furthermore it is understood as a life style associated with a more sophisticated and rational attitude, a higher degree of universalism and anonymity; some scientists even use the term interchangeably with modernity. Simplified one may think of the two terms as quantity and quality. Although not necessarily connected and not exclusively causing each other, urbanism and urbanization have been strongly intertwined, and both are related to modernization. For Arab countries however Ibrahim detects a large historical gap between the two where the rapid urbanization has not caused the same degree of urbanism or modernity. In her essay on urbanism in Cairo Janet Abu-Lughod distinguishes life styles by the dimensions of time and technology and derives four different types: 1. the traditional rural, 2. the modern small-town dweller, 3. the traditional urbanite and 4. the modern urbanite. Only the last shows the characteristics of urbanism, whereas the third type refers to migrants from rural areas who keep up their traditional life style. Strikingly, half of Cairo’s population consisted of these people in the 1970s and the trend is still similar today. The “ruralism” they bring along with them to the city and the lack of economic opportunities causes their low socio-economic status. The "traditional urbanites" are not participating in the education system and official work force and inhabit the old quarters of the city such as Bulaq, old Cairo, the medieval city and Shubra; similar trends have been examined in Baghdad and Moroccan and Algerian countries where the lifestyles of the migrated do not adopt to the urban and people stay in isolated parts of the city. A correlation index between urbanization and urbanism, whereas the latter is considered features of modernization and wealth, shows that the one of the Arab World is much lower than that of other regions of the world. Consequently the growth of cities in the Arab world does not contribute to modernization but rather causes significant problems within the cities. The reason for this rather inverted development are on the one hand that most Arab cities are not prepared for the rush on them, houses are old and infrastructure of schools, hospitals or transportation is missing. Maintaining their buildings and providing infrastructure cost Arab countries disproportionately more. On the other hand urban growth – due to natural population increase and rural migration – is twice as high as the increase in job opportunities. Thus where does the surplus labour force disappear? The results are typical of developing and of Middle Eastern countries: First of all there is a high rate of un- and under-employment without compensation through state welfare. Due to this lack of support however the Western understanding of unemployment cannot be applied in the same way. In order to survive the zero-income people are forced to invent small jobs with the consequence of the emergence of an informal sector, a phenomenon social scientist began to isolate in the 1970s. Secondly, and this is characteristic of states such as Egypt, the public sector employs largely more workers than needed. The desire to ease the unrest in the population due to underemployment causes the state to inflate its bureaucracy. Altogether the high and rapid growth of cities in the Arab countries neither enforces urbanism, modernization and a well-distributed rise in living standard nor is it even capable of responding to infrastructural problems, first and foremost, job opportunities. The trend indicated by the case study of Cairo and the discussion of urbanism hint at a correlation between informal housing and an informal working sector, not simply linked by the obvious factor of poverty but moreover by the speed of urbanization. J. S. Birks and C. A. Sinclair confirm this impression in their essay on urban employment structure in the Arab world. “Capital-poor countries”, here Egypt, Sudan and Yemen, show little industrial, but high public and tertiary employment, and a significant informal sector as opposed to the “capital-rich countries” of the Gulf. The informal sector has emerged with the growth of urban conglomerations, due to two main factors; the first of which resembles the people’s response to housing shortage and is typical of developing countries: The speed of urbanization in Syria, Sudan or Egypt did not correspond to that of the productive sector of economy thus the population was forced to invent job activities such as selling matches, tissues or vegetables in the streets. The second factor is specific for the poorer Arab countries in connection with work migration to the Gulf states. Birks and Sinclair argue that this type of migration contributes to urban growth in the donor countries and to the increase of informal work. Returning migrants usually acquire both skills and attitudes that mainly correspond to urban life so that they move to cities on their return; even though there might be no job opportunity and they end up in the informal sector. Furthermore, international migration is performed in steps from villages to towns to cities and finally abroad, however some never take the last step. Lastly, international migration is highly selective. As more skilled workers move abroad the economy of the donor country faces the loss of qualified work and the opportunity to expand the productive sector, thus causing further unemployment. Despite the beneficial character of work migration it directly contributed to the growth of cities and of the informal sector. Ananya Roy and Nezar al-Sayyad elaborate on the topic of the informal sector from a slightly different perspective by referring to “urban informality” as a “manifestation of informal processes in the urban environment” and even a new way of life. Thereby al-Sayyad detects a significant difference between the informal housing sector of Latin American and Middle Eastern countries which he associated with some kind of cultural specificities. While informality in Latin American countries caused strong political interaction between squatters and the state, informal dwellers in the Middle East remained rather apolitical and distant from the state in order to best secure their opportunities. This attitude results from the fact that political activism in urban Latin America supported the achievement of rights, in the Middle East however it was advisable to refrain from any formal or public sphere if land was to be illegally subdivided and built on. Struggle in the informal sphere meant to find a way to survive rather than political protest and follows two goals, the “redistribution of social goods and opportunities, and attainment of cultural and political autonomy”. Relating this attitude back to the question of a connection between informal housing and work, one can conclude that the “culture of informality” evoked by the housing situation is reflected by the same characteristics of labour. Being marginalized on the housing market as well as in the official economy the mostly poor population responds by creating their own flats and jobs. Although these lack sustainable development they are on the other hand very durable when it comes to planning an in-depth-improvement of the economic situation of the marginalized urban population. The Middle Eastern region faces an enormous growth of cities at a rapid rate without enjoying the same economic growth, rising living standard, equal distribution and political participation as it is usually found in cities. Instead there is a high degree of informality which is clearly visible in the architecture of cities such as Cairo and in the labour of the informal sector. Birks and Sinclair have highlighted factors of the correlation of these informalities and al-Sayyad has added the component of political invisibility of the “informal population”. From an optimistic point of view one might argue that facilities have largely improved; even more so if one does not distinguish between formal and informal solutions. However, urbanism how Ibrahim depicted it has not grown as much. That corresponds to Abu-Lughod’s concept of the “traditional urbanite”, the non-integrated city dweller who still keeps up his rural life style. Or to put it in Georg Simmel’s words, the “marginal personality [is] a manifestation of cultural hybridity – of living on the margin of two cultures without being a full member of either”, although in a city like Cairo where the percentage of informal housing and labour accounts for approximately fifty percent the term of marginality assumes a slightly different dimension. Abu-Lughod, Janet: Varieties of Urban Experience: Contrast, Coexistence, and Coalescence in Cairo. In: Ira M. Lapidus (ed.): Middle Eastern Cities. A Symposium on Ancient, Islamic, and Contemporary Middle Eastern Urbanism. Berkley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969. pp. 159-187. Blake, Gerald Henry and Richard Ivor Lawless (eds.): The Changing Middle Eastern City. London: Croom Helm, 1980. Ibrahim, Saad Eddin: Over-Urbanization and under-Urbanism: The Case of the Arab World. In: International Journal of Middle East Studies. Vol. 6, No. 1. January 1975. pp. 29-45. Issawi, Charles: Economic Change and Urbanization in the Middle East. In: Ira M. Lapidus (ed.): Middle Eastern Cities. A Symposium on Ancient, Islamic, and Contemporary Middle Eastern Urbanism. Berkley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969. pp. 102-121. Meyer, Günter: Wohnen in der Megastadt Kairo [Living in the Mega-City of Cairo]. In: Günter Meyer (ed.): Die Arabische Welt im Spiegel der Kulturgeographie [The Arab World from a cultural-geographic perspective]. Mainz : ZEWAF, 2004. pp.128-149. Richards, Alan and John Waterbury: A Political Economy of the Middle East. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996. pp. 251-274. Roy, Ananya and Nezar al-Sayyad (eds.): Urban informality. Transnational perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America, and South Asia. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2003. http://www.unhabitat.org/mediacentre/sowckit.asp [ 12-18-2004] \| Contact Mike Dorsey by email \|\|Mike Dorsey Home Mike Dorsey in Egypt Middle East Studies Education\|	<urn:uuid:d193d125-c2df-4c23-9e88-2deaca7c19d4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mikedorseyweb.tripod.com/mest/submissions/maruta_urbanization.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946386	4,444	2.65625	3
Copyright © Oct. 10, 2010 At first glance leap year seems a misnomer; ancient Rome effectively used a leap month because their calendar employed less than 365 days for a year. There is however a leap day, the placement of which is critical mathematically. The association with a year developed because ancient Rome dragged February with the leap period to its present location. By recognizing 3200 B.C. as the first solar year it’s noted there must be a definitive mathematic leap year. The rotation of earth each year beyond the 365 whole days accumulates and equals almost a whole day after four years (0.2424 ephemeris leap * 4 years = 0.9696 decimal rotational excess in 4 years). The excess equals 0.000664109 per day (365 * 4 = 1460 days in 4 years; 0.9696 / 1460 = 0.000664109). More accurately, in 33 years the rotational excess would amount to 0.000664176 per day to the billionth (8 / 12045 = 0.000664176). This is of course a mathematical average. The most accurate ephemeris calendar that can be written will have a rotating leap day. This rotating leap day will accumulate 46 extra days in the first leap cycle. Because the excess rotation equals 0.000664176 per day, it isn’t until the 1506th day that its placement is required (365 * 4 = 1460 + 46 = 1506 days * 0.000664176 rotational excess per day = 1.000249056 decimal accumulation which results in the leap day). The calculations then proceed to place the leap day on an uneven reductive scale in subsequent years. These leap days have an association with certain years (definitely new astronomic territory). The current leap year association may be from Eratosthenes through the Canopus Decree then through Sosigenes and given to Julius Caesar (45 B.C. was the epoch of the Julian calendar thus not a leap year). This sounds like the same principle used to declare the reign of ancient dictators as consummating the beginning day of the year they took office. I had this very argument with a researcher from the Calndr-L Club many years ago about whether the 32nd or 33rd year was the leap year, but at that time had no mathematical proof so fell back in line; my how things do change if you wait for them. The first vernal leap day was in the year 3196 BC inserted between August 14th and August 15th in the Egyptian Ephemeris calendar. That day accumulated a full extra day’s rotation of earth from the beginning day of the first solar year. This first solar year was 3200 BC and began with a Jan. 1st Friday (1/7 =.1428). The 1506th day was then a Friday as 1506/7 = 215.1428. That first leap day had an association with the fifth (5th) year in the rotation; not the fourth (4th) year * VERY IMPORTANT *. This isn’t a guess or some dictator’s impudent decision; it is rather mathematic and astronomic accuracy. You can see on page 247 the Gregorian Leap Year (fourth year) can not be aligned correctly with the celestial degrees. The true alignment of leap years are years 5,9,13,17,21,25,29 and 33. So, not only the seven days and solar years are confirmed mathematically and astronomically but the leap days and leap years as well. Yes, you can define the day of the week as well as the exact year and the exact leap day as well as the yearly association of the leap day mathematically. This alignment includes the Crucifixion Year and Pascal Year as leap years. While research is limited by what can be discovered from the past, mathematics unfolds the physics of life whether or not anyone in the history of the world ever knew of its laws. It now seems very interesting to know the true leap day and leap year in our modern times. The calendar is the focus of civilization and as such really represents stability, needed to develop “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”. Thus, the “mean” leap day is a very attractive development at the foundation of the mathematically accurate leap day. It’s found by dividing the total amount of days in the ephemeris 231-year mathematical cycle (84371 days), by the number of leap days necessary (56 leap days), a “mean” leap period is defined (84371/56 = 1506.625 leap day cycle). These “mean” leap periods rotate through each 33-year ephemeris cycle; precedent isn’t required to identify the leap day. 1506.625 days – 5th year, 15th hour. 3013.25 days – 9th year, 6th hour. 4519.875 days – 13th year, 21st hour. 6026.5 days – 17th year, 12th hour. 7533.125 days – 21st year, 3rd hour. 9039.75 days – 25th year, 18th hour. 10546.375 days – 29th year, 9th hour. 12053 days – 33rd year, 24th hour. At the end of each one of these hours begins a mathematical 24-hour “rest” (period of adjustment) to the Ephemeris calendar. This is the final definition of the Ephemeris calendar, whose angular accuracy is dependent on precise diurnal chronometry precluding astronomic change (<1’ per cycle; non-cumulative). David was referring to a Sabbath day in Psalms 95 “To day if ye will hear his voice,” (in other words belief in a day). The calendar was mis-aligned by Joshua, and David wanted to correct the Sabbath Day (Heb. 4:7,8); to do so the leap day must also be correct. Who can imagine defining even one day with the supposed billions of fraudulent geologic years, but to define the leap day mathematically is the pinnacle of astronomic accuracy. These leap days are a matter of belief and define what Christian is about (a Creator). It’s almost unbelievable the leap day and leap year can be reduced to a single fraction; two numbers and a line. All of the charts have been changed to reflect this new astronomic and mathematical reality, except the vernal leap day (X) has been left at the end of each year for ease of computation of the charts (I’m not suggesting it be celebrated there).	<urn:uuid:6239db13-ae94-4b68-8cfb-d2e697f6e08c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://enochsolarcalendar.org/leap-year/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934848	1,401	3.59375	4
Monroe City R-I Example Zoom search template page R 2620 Firearms and Weapons in School Definition of Firearm The term firearm includes, but is not limited to, such items as: - Any item which is a loaded or unloaded weapon, weapon frame, or weapon barrel and which is designed to, or may be readily converted to, expel a projectile by action of an explosive, or - Any item which will, or which may be readily converted to, expel a projectile by the action of an explosive or other propellant, and which has a barrel with a bore of at least one-half inch in diameter, or - Any explosive, incendiary, or poison gas, such as: bombs; grenades; rockets with a propellant charge of greater than four ounces; and other similar devices as recognized under federal law, or - Any combination of parts either designed to or intended for use in converting any device into a device as described in paragraphs above. Definition of Weapons The term weapon shall mean a "firearm" as defined above, and shall also include the items listed below, which are defined as "weapons" in section 571.010, RSMo. - Concealable firearm - Explosive weapon - Firearm silencer - Gas gun - Machine gun - Projectile weapon - Spring gun - Switchblade knife - Mace spray - Any knife, regardless of blade length (optional) - Items customarily used, or which can be used, to inflict injury upon another person or property. Students Who Bring Firearms or Weapons to School The District will take the following action upon determining that a student has brought a firearm or weapon to school: - The District will refer the student to the appropriate criminal justice or juvenile delinquency system, and - The District will suspend the student from school for a period of not less than one year (365 days) from the date of the infraction, and may, at its discretion, expel the student from school permanently. This suspension provision may be modified on a case-by-case basis upon recommendation of the District Superintendent if the Superintendent determines that circumstances justify such a modification. - The District may, at its discretion, provide a student suspended under this Regulation with educational services in an alternative setting. Applicability of Regulation to Students with Disabilities If the student who is determined to be in violation of this Regulation is a student with a disability under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, school administrators may assign the student to an alternative education placement, including suspension, for a period of up to forty-five (45) school days and/or take other steps to address the student's misconduct, as permitted by law. In such cases, the District and/or the student's IEP team will follow all procedures required by state and federal law. Board Approved Date: March 2010	<urn:uuid:e63bf5ce-54e4-4312-a55d-5adc280ee8cb>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://moconed.com/district/MonroeCityRI/district.php?reg=37	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.928043	592	2.640625	3
You will need a filter for your fish tank because it is going to remove excess food, decaying organic matter, particulates, dangerous chemicals, and fish waste products from the water! Your fish is excreting waste as he swims and if you don't remove the waste, toxins will build up and you will poison your fish. You can see that a filter is necessary. The way the filter works is varied depending on whether you have a biological, mechanical, or chemical filter. You must have a biological filter. I will also discuss mechanical and chemical filtration. The biological filter converts toxic ammonia (from your fishes' waste, excess food, and decaying or dying plant matter) into Nitrite, and toxic Nitrite into Nitrate. Nitrate must be removed from the tank water with regular water changes that you must do or else your fish will suffer kidney, liver, and eye problems, won't eat, and will not be able to breathe well. Biological filtration is established during cycling - biological filters must properly cycle before they can process fish waste. Mechanical filtration, on the other hand, is particulate filtration and pushes the tank water through filter media such as a sponge, filter floss, a dense mass of air bubbles (only in salt water), filter pads, or aquarium gravel. The quality depends on how fine the the media is, how much water is passed through the media, how often you clean your tank, and how messy your tank is. A chemical filter is carbon or chemical resins that extract toxins from the water. You will need to change an activated carbon filter often because it becomes saturated with chemicals. There are many filters to choose from, and you will get one that fits your needs and is right for the type of fish you are a pet parent to. Filtration will make your tank look cleaner and you will have to change the water less often in order for your fish to be happy and healthy! Of course, you still do your usual tank maintenance to ensure that your babies are free from stress and disease. This is the least we can happily and gladly do for our best little fishy friends! After all, these little guys and girls are a part of our family and we love them!	<urn:uuid:8d5bdf27-c431-496f-a561-990c5c55b095>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bellaonline.com/ArticlesP/art1838.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954203	460	2.78125	3
Washington's towering stature and legacy might misleadingly suggest that the early years of the new nation were times of great confidence and self-congratulation. In fact, just the opposite was nearly the case. Americans knew that the historical record of the long-term success of republican governments was exceedingly poor. Previous examples and classical political theory suggested that republics almost all suffered the fate of collapsing into anarchy and then being taken over by a power-seizing tyrant. The Philadelphia patriot Benjamin Rush keenly understood the risks facing the new nation. As a result he sharply rejected the idea that the military defeat of the British meant the end of the American Revolution. "On the contrary," he wrote in 1787," nothing but the first act of the great drama is closed. It remains yet to establish and perfect our new forms of government." The unsettled domestic issues that threatened to overturn the new republic were varied and complex. Any one of the major crisis points of the early 1790s might overturn the fragile new government. Where was the greatest threat: the challenging legal and political issues raised during the ratification of the Constitution, the disastrous economy of the 1780s, popular protests against federal policies in the west, or the varied military threats from Native Americans, the British in Canada, and war in Europe? If any one of them could have toppled the government, imagine how their combination must have made Americans fear for the future of the country. Most of these deeply unsettling threats would be addressed by the first federal government and usually in an aggressive manner that scored decisive victory. Interestingly, however, the solutions achieved by the first wielders of federal power also helped to create the conditions that would force them from office and lead to a dramatic change in American politics by 1800. To understand how much changed between the presidential elections of George Washington (1789) and Thomas Jefferson (1800), the kinds of challenges that had to be faced in the first decade of government under the new federal Constitution must be examined.	<urn:uuid:639d552c-13a1-41b3-a585-7e6d77e993f2>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ushistory.org/US/18.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.973386	400	3.90625	4
You are not currently logged in. Access your personal account or get JSTOR access through your library or other institution: If You Use a Screen ReaderThis content is available through Read Online (Free) program, which relies on page scans. Since scans are not currently available to screen readers, please contact JSTOR User Support for access. We'll provide a PDF copy for your screen reader. The Relationship of Prior Ability and Family Characteristics to School Attendance and School Achievement in Rural Guatemala Marc Irwin, Patricia L. Engle, Charles Yarbrough, Robert E. Klein and John Townsend Vol. 49, No. 2 (Jun., 1978), pp. 415-427 Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1128706 Page Count: 13 Since scans are not currently available to screen readers, please contact JSTOR User Support for access. We'll provide a PDF copy for your screen reader. Preview not available Data from a longitudinal study in progress were used to investigate the relationships between intellectual ability prior to schooling opportunities and characteristics of family and home environment, and elementary school attendance and performance in 3 rural Guatemalan communities. Pre-schooling mental test performances, family SES level, and indices of parental values concerning education were all associated with attending or not attending school. Length of school attendance was predicted by pre-schooling mental test scores for girls and by family SES level and parental values for boys. Age at first enrollment was predicted by both pre-schooling mental test scores and family SES level for both sexes. School grades were predicted by pre-schooling mental test scores and intellectual stimulation provided in the home but not by family SES level. It is argued that schooled and nonschooled peers in most semiliterate communities are unlikely to be originally comparable, and that conclusions based on previous studies of the effects of formal schooling on intellectual development must be reconsidered. Child Development © 1978 Society for Research in Child Development	<urn:uuid:42b5b6b4-a23b-4ac9-b5e4-d2e353947276>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.jstor.org/stable/1128706	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.927646	410	2.984375	3
It looks increasingly probable that Kosovo will gain its independence from Serbia, an outcome that should be of serious concern to Israel and its supporters. Ariel Sharon, to his credit, heard the alarm bells during the American bombing of Serbia in 1999, when he warned American Jewish leaders: "If Israel supports the type of action that's going on in Kosovo, it risks becoming the next victim. Brutal intervention must not be legitimized as a way to try to impose a solution in regional conflicts." And, it is no coincidence, as journalist Julia Gorin reminds us, that during the bombing of Serbia on behalf of Moslem Albanians in 1999 Saudi Prince Khaled Bin Sultan, commander of the allied Saudi troops during the first Gulf War, called on the US to do the same against Israel on behalf of Palestinians. The fate of Jews and Serbs, which has intersected in the past, is doing so again. The jihadist effort to expunge Jews from Palestine mirrors the Moslem goal of incorporating Kosovo into a “greater Moslem Albania” while expelling Christian When Serbia became independent of Byzantine rule in the 12th century, its economic, cultural, social and religious institutions were among the most advanced in Europe. Serbia functioned as a bridge between Greco-Byzantine civilization and the developing Western Renaissance. The center of the Serbian Orthodox Church was in Kosovo where churches, monasteries and monastic communities were established. A form of census in 1330, the “Decani Charter,” detailed the list of chartered villages and households, of which only two percent were Albanian. The Ottomans invaded Serbia in 1389 and consolidated their rule in 1459, propelling major parts of the Balkan peninsula and adjacent southeast Europe into a Koran-dictated Dark Ages. While a significant proportion of Serbian and Croatian nobility converted to Islam to escape the harsh conditions imposed on non-Moslems, most Serbian peasants clung to their Christian faith. Historian G. Richard Jansen reports: “Serbs and Jews became dhimmis subject to the dhimma or protection offered to Christians and Jews in newly Islamized lands in exchange for their lives. Similarly Bat Ye’or, in Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide writes: “For the Orthodox Serbs… this same period [the centuries of Moslem rule] is considered one of massacre, pillage, slavery, deportation, and the exile of Christian populations. In their eyes it was a regime which found its justification in the usurpation of their land and denial of their rights....In their wars of emancipation-and, later, of liberation—the Orthodox Serbs found that their bitterest adversaries were their Muslim compatriots attached to their religious privileges and their domination over the humiliated Christians.” In spite of forced migrations and oppression, like their Jewish counterparts, and unlike other Balkan nations, Serbs maintained their cultural and religious ties to their faith and shrines in Kosovo which, reinforcing the parallel, they called their Jerusalem. It was the Serbs who first mounted, in 1804 and 1813, insurgencies which spread through the region, culminating in the 1912 Balkan War which essentially eliminated the Ottomans from the Balkans. Early in the twentieth century Serbian Christians were roughly twothirds of the population of Kosovo, Moslem Albanians one-third. During World War I (triggered by the assassination in Serbia of the Austrian arch-duke) Serbs held off the Austrians for more than a year, before they were overwhelmed. Almost 800,000 Serbs perished, a fourth of the population. With full Serb support, the peace treaties of 1919-1920 established a state with the name "The Kingdom of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs." The awkward name was shortly changed to Yugoslavia with Kosovo an integral part of Serbia. At roughly the same time, the Balfour Declaration promised the Jews a restored homeland in Palestine which included what became the present day kingdom of Jordan. From then on Kosovo’s population underwent sharp population shifts. During World War II, when Yugoslav Serbs refused to join a Nazi “community of nations,” an angry Hitler ordered the destruction of Yugoslavia. Following the Yugoslav army’s capitulation in 1941, Serbia was divided by the Nazis between the Italians and the Bulgarians, who encouraged armed gangs of pro-Nazi ethnic Albanians to attack the Serbs and to torch, destroy and desecrate ancient churches and shrines. The Moslem Albanians, who surprised their mentors with their barbarity and zeal for atrocities, were rewarded when parts of Kosovo, Montenegro and Macedonia were annexed to “Greater Albania.” In 1943 the Nazis formed the 21st SS "Skanderbeg" division of Moslem Albanian volunteers to perform an “ethnic cleansing” (of Jews and Serbs) in Yugoslavia. Tens of thousands of Serbs were sent to a Croatian death camp and as noted by Raul Hilberg in The Destruction of the European Jews (1961) Skanderbeg played a major role in the Holocaust, rounding up Jews who were subsequently sent to Bergen- Belsen and various death camps. A Kosovar Moslem, Bedri Pejani, was appointed by the Nazis to rule occupied Kosovo. He promptly announced a plan to create a Great Islamic State in the region with the blessings of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin el Husseini. The Grand Mufti, who had led a jihad in Palestine, escaped capture by fleeing t o G e rm a n - occupied Europe where, from Sarajevo he urged the Nazis not to flag in their destruction of the Jews. Needless to say the Serbian Christian population dwindled under this onslaught and the proportion of Albanian Moslems surged. By the end of World War II, Yugoslav deaths totaled more than a million, roughly half of them Serbs. Although the province was restored to Yugoslavia after the war, the population balance in Kosovo did not shift in favor of Serbia. Tito, aiming for leadership of a wider Balkan alliance, did not allow Serbs who fled from their homes during the war to return. He did not enforce border controls and many thousands of Albanians infiltrated through the porous borders. (Like the Moslems in areas adjacent to Palestine in the interwar years, they were attracted by the superior economic conditions.) Seeking to pacify the restive Moslems, in 1974 Tito offered the province political, cultural, economic and juridical “autonomy,” along with large subsidies for agricultural and other projects, which merely had the effect of prompting a further influx of Moslems from across the border. For example, a new university was established in Pristina, with faculty from the University of Belgrade commuting by air. All this did not pacify the restive Moslems who as early as 1960 demanded independence for Kosovo. There were intermittent riots which escalated and an emergent Kosovo Liberation Army gave as its stated goal “an ethnic greater Albania” to include portions of Macedonia and Montenegro, parts of southern Serbia and an “ethnically pure” (read Moslem-only) Kosovo. In 1979 Menachem Begin, hectored by Jimmy Carter whose predilection for the Arab cause is well known, also offered the rioting Arabs of Judea and Samaria “autonomy” with the same disastrous results. As Henry Kissinger has noted, “autonomy” is a euphemism for independence. Initially, the media reported the situation in Kosovo fairly. For example, in July 1982 The New York Times noted: "Serbs have been harassed by Albanians and have packed up and left the region. The Albanian nationalists have a two-point platform, first to establish what they call an ethnically clean Albanian republic and then to merge with Albania for a greater Albania. Some 57,000 Serbs have left Kosovo in the last decade.” Five years later, in 1987, the Times was still reporting the persecution of Serbs within Kosovo. "Slavic Orthodox churches have been attacked, wells poisoned, crops burned, Slavic boys knifed. Young Albanians have been told to rape Serbian girls…. Officials in Belgrade view the ethnic Albanian challenge as imperiling the foundations of the multinational experiment called federal Yugoslavia….Ethnic Albanians already control almost every phase of life in the autonomous province of Kosovo, including the police, judiciary, civil service, schools, and factories." Milosevic rose to power with the promise of reversing this intolerable situation, restoring peace and Yugoslav control in Kosovo. But now international perception of the crisis turned against Serbia as Milosevic abolished the “autonomy” of Kosovo in 1989. There were arrests and house searches of Kosovar Albanians. And then the media went into a frenzy of accusations against the Serbs, much as it has against Israel and with similar distortions. The media depicted the armed, violent and jihadist Moslem Albanians as “unarmed civilians” despite the fact they called themselves an army and perpetrated assaults, bombings, murder of civilians and targeted assassinations of Albanians loyal to Serbia. President Clinton outrageously referred to a “holocaust” perpetrated by Serbia and compared the Moslems of Kosovo to the Jews—this, even though the Serbs had behaved well toward the Jews during the real Holocaust and Clinton himself was pressing Israel’s Jews to accept the “peace partnership” of Arafat, a brutal terrorist far worse than Milosevic, admittedly a dictator and a Communist thug. The right was as vehement as the left in demanding action. In September 1998 such luminaries of the right as John Bolton, Jeane Kirkpatrick, William Kristol and Paul Wolfowitz joined such far leftists as Morton Halperin in a petition to President Clinton demanding that he not only stop “the carnage in Kosovo” but use “massive Western pressure” to obtain “a new political status for Kosovo.” In March of 1999, the United States drew up a document, the “Rambouillet Agreement” which was, as Madeleine Albright boasted later, an absolute ultimatum to Serbia. It was a demand for Serbia to withdraw from Kosovo in favor of a NATO occupying force, something that no sovereign nation could or should accept. Incredibly, as The New York Times of April 8, 1999 reported, Milosevic accepted the entire package with the exception of NATO occupation of Yugoslavia itself. He wanted the troops to be under UN command. Dan Goure, then Deputy Director of the Center for Security and International Studies and a Pentagon official under the first President Bush said, "Rambouillet was not a negotiation, it was a setup, a lynch party." All this was in direct contravention of previously stated U.S. policy which declared that no national minority had the right to form a new state on other state territories… a policy which still guides the U.S. government in respect to recognizing Taiwan’s independence. An interesting provision of the so-called “negotiations” demanded that the Serb army and police forces withdraw and a new Kosovar police force be formed to include members of the Kosovo Liberation Party, which was supposed to disarm. Sound familiar? What happened subsequently is better known. In 1999 in concert with NATO, the Clinton administration commenced a 78 day bombing of Serbia. This action met with almost no objection in the West, hailed not only by liberal politicians and the media but by Margaret Thatcher, The Wall Street Journal and assorted conservative pundits and politicians. To sum up: the demand for Kosovo's independence led to KLA terrorism which led to repression and expulsion of Albanians by Serbian military and police, which led to the assault by the United States and NATO. While the brutality of the Milosevic regime was indeed a complicating factor, he is long gone, but the KLA continues its assault on Serbs, on their churches, priests, homes, even on civilians sitting in cafes, this under the nose of the U.S. and UN troops which have now occupied Kosovo for eight years. Never mind that the State Department in 1998 listed the KLA as a terrorist organization, indicating (as Interpol’s assistant director for Criminal Intelligence Ralph Mutschke reminded Congress in December 2000) “that it was financing its operations with money from the international heroin trade and loans from Islamic countries and individuals, among them allegedly Osama bin Laden.” Media and politicians alike, vastly indignant over Milosevic’s behavior, turn a blind eye. Speaking of Kosovo’s major city Pristina, where 40,000 Serbs lived before the UN took over (and where only 100 live now) Senator Joseph Biden, presidential aspirant and Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, declared proudly that Kosovo was a “victory for Moslem democracy” and “Pristina is one of the rare Moslem cities in the world where the U.S. is not only respected but adored.” (Indeed there is a street named for Madeleine Albright, who played an especially scurvy role in ramping up pressure against the Serbs). Similarly the media takes notice of Kosovo only to berate the Serbs for failing to acquiesce speedily and gracefully to the loss of their “Jerusalem.” Western leaders are blind to the danger to themselves in the principle they are establishing, namely that recent illegal immigrants from another state have the right to declare independence over territory long recognized as part of a different sovereign state whose inhabitants they have ruthlessly forced to flee. The United States, the EU and the vast majority of UN member states, now pushing strongly to establish Kosovo’s independence from Serbia, are also establishing a terrible precedent in flouting the very international law under which the UN’s occupation of Kosovo rests. UN Security Council Resolution 1244, drafted to end the NATO bombing, specifically reaffirmed that Kosovo belongs to Serbia. Detaching Kosovo from Serbia against Serbia’s will is to violate the UN Charter. Serbian President Vojislav Kostunica reports that “when we mention the need for legality, some of these officials [UN, EU, U.S.] become exasperated, even agitated. They respond with various comments to the effect that we should not be bound by ’mere’ legality.” (The UN’s ambassador to the “negotiations” with President Kostunica is former Finnish president Martii Ahtisaari, a close associate of George Soros and the openly pro-Albanian Soros-funded International Crisis Group.) Finally, there is an additional peril for the West here. The “two state solution” which aims to strip Israel of its ancient Jewish heartland, and the demand for Serbia to surrender Kosovo, the locus of its Serbian Orthodox faith, both advance the cause of resurgent Islam and worldwide jihad. To quote Bat Ye’or again: “In 1991, before the conflict erupted, the English edition of [Moslem Bosnian President] Alija Izetbegovic's Islamic Declaration (1970) specifically stated: ‘There can be neither peace nor coexistence between Arabia, the cradle of Islam and non-Islamic social and political institutions.’" And he concluded: “The Islamic movement must, and can, take over power as soon as it is morally and numerically so strong that it can not only destroy the existing non- Islamic power, but also build up a new Islamic one.” In Congressional testimony, our intelligence agencies have now disclosed that there are 16 terror training camps and arms depots in Kosovo. Julia Gorin warns: “Even conservatives, who support the war on terror and the war in Iraq, have a blind spot and an apathy when it comes to the Balkans, as well as to the fact that a lot of the terrorist attacks in Europe and elsewhere are connected to the Balkans.” Gorin notes wryly that when America needs to burnish its credentials among Moslems, it gloats about intervention on behalf of Moslems in Bosnia and Kosovo – and, of course, demands a solution to the “Palestine” problem. While Israel is not threatened with bombing by US/ NATO forces, economic sanctions and threats will be enough to squeeze Israel into surrender. Statesmen, commentators and pundits who urge solutions and negotiations both in Serbia and "Palestine" brush all historical claims off the table. They simply ignore the geographical facts of the Palestine Mandate where the Hashemites obtained over 82% of the land assigned as the Jewish National Home. They ignore the ancient and religious ties of the Jewish people to Palestine. They ignore the migrations of Arabs to Jewish towns in what Mark Twain called "The Wasteland". They ignore the strategic danger of a jihadist state in Palestine. With respect to Serbia, the “solution groupies” show the same disregard for historical and religious ties and sovereignty; the same indifference to the enforced migrations and immigrations which created an ethnic Albanian majority in Kosovo; and the same blindness to the dangers of a jihadist “greater Albania” anxious to incorporate Kosovo into a Balkan caliphate. And so Kosovo may become independent. Welcome to a new Moslem jihadist state, which will no doubt eagerly await the exchange of ambassadors with a jihadist Moslem state in Judea and Samaria.	<urn:uuid:c5047e4b-42a3-4cca-8be4-655fa576f5bf>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.savekosovo.org/?p=10&sp=279	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.957339	3,645	2.515625	3
West Nile Virus Found A mosquito pool collected on July 21 in the Lee District of Fairfax County tested positive for the West Nile virus, according to the Fairfax County Department of Health. This is the first positive mosquito pool identified this year and is the first indicator of West Nile virus activity in the county, according to the department of health. As a response to these findings, the department of health is reminding residents to protect themselves from mosquitoes by eliminating mosquito breeding areas around neighborhoods and homes and to use insect repellents. More than 34,000 mosquitoes have been trapped in 3,000 pools this year. In previous years positive pools were found much earlier in the season, according to the department of health. West Nile virus is spread to birds, humans, horses and other mammals through the bite of infected mosquitoes. Most people bitten by an infected mosquito do not get sick. However, the majority of those who do get sick usually suffer mild flu-like illness, according to the department of health. People over the age of 50 are at the greatest risk of serious illness, such as encephalitis — inflammation of the brain — or meningitis — inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord. Since mid-May, the Fairfax County environmental health staff has taken a proactive approach in combating West Nile virus by treating more than 35,000 storm drains with a larvicide, which inhibits mosquito breeding. Storm drain treatments will continue for the rest of the mosquito season in targeted areas of the country. While these treatments will not eliminate all of the mosquitoes that carry the virus, the mosquito population should be dramatically reduced. Since 2002, Fairfax County has had 17 human cases and two deaths as a result of West Nile virus. To help prevent mosquitoes the department of health recommends: use insect repellent containing DEET, picaridin or oil of lemon eucalyptus; wear long, loose, light-colored clothing; turn over or remove containers in your yard where water collects, such as old tires, potted plant trays, buckets and toys; fill in root-ball holes from downed tress or any depression that holds water for more than one week; eliminate standing water on traps or flat roofs; clean out birdbaths and wading pools once a week; clean roof gutters and down spouts regularly. For more information visit www.fairfaxcounty.gov/fightthebite. Breastfeeding Saves Money To help new parents save money and improve the health of a mother and child, the Virginia Department of Health suggests mothers breast-feed their young children. Mothers who breast-feed can save at least $700 on the cost for standard infant formula during the first year, according to estimates by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. This figure can increase significantly if the child needs a specialty formula, according to the department of health. Savings can increase further due to the fact that breast-fed babies generally incur fewer health-care expenses and their parents lose less time from work to care for a sick child. At least $3.6 billion could be saved nationwide in health care costs if more mothers breast-fed their babies, according to the health department. Breastfeeding is an important factor in reducing infant and childhood diseases, according to the health department. Breastfeeding decreases the frequency and severity of diarrhea and gastrointestinal illnesses in newborns and it also lowers the risk of respiratory infections, allergic diseases, childhood asthma and leukemia, according to the health department. It is recommended that mothers feed their infants only breast milk for the first six months of life and thereafter as long as it is mutually desired, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Breastfeeding may also protect children against obesity later in life. Research suggests that breast-fed babies are better able to regulate their feedings, which leads to better eating habits as they grow, according to the health department. Researchers also found a possible link between breast milk and a baby's ability to store fat in healthy amounts. Mothers also benefit when they breast-feed their babies. They experience a decreased risk of ovarian and breast cancer and increased weight loss. Breastfeeding mothers also show less postpartum anxiety and depression than do formula-feeding mothers, according to the health department. Breastfeeding in the United States has increased from 24 percent in the 1970s to 70 percent in 2002, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In Virginia, 67.2 percent of mothers who gave birth in a hospital in 2003 initiated breastfeeding, according to the Ross Mothers Survey. For more information about breastfeeding visit http://www.vahealth.org/breastfeeding. Other sites include the La Leche League's Web site at http://www.lalecheleague.org and the American Dietetic Association's site at http://www.eatright.org. Pet Rodents Health Risk The Virginia Department of Health is asking pet store owners that sell rodents such as mice, hamsters and guinea pigs to take extra precautions to limit the spread of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Usually carried by wild house mice, LCMV can also affect pet rodents, which can then pass the infection on to humans. For residents who currently own or are considering purchasing a pet rodent, or if a resident has a problem with wild rodents, the department of health recommends safeguarding against this disease — especially if pregnant or immunocompromised. Although human infection is rare, there can be serious consequences for the unborn child of a pregnant woman infected during the first or second trimester, according to the department of health. Similarly, those with weakened immune systems or individuals preparing to donate organs should also avoid contact with wild and pet rodents. In May an infection passed from a pet rodent to an organ donor in New England, resulting in the deaths of the three recipients of the donated organs, according to the department of health. Because of this, health officials have become increasingly concerned about LCMV. The infection was traced back to a pet rodent distributor in Ohio who supplies hamsters and guinea pigs to chain and independent pet stores in several states, possibly including Virginia, according to the department of health. Pet rodents can become infected with LCMV after coming in contact with wild rodents at a breeding facility, pet store, or at home. Humans can develop LCMV infection from exposure to urine, droppings, saliva, or nesting material of infected rodents. Most people who become infected with the virus do not become ill. Those who do fall ill may experience symptoms such as fever, stiff neck, lack of appetite, muscle aches, headache, nausea and vomiting. Symptoms occur one to two weeks after exposure and are usually short in duration. Currently there is no way to determine how many or which pet rodents are infected with LCMV. The only reliable test for LCMV in rodents requires that the animals be dead. The investigations at the Ohio distributor and the pet store where the donor bought the implicated rodent identified a small proportion of hamsters and a guinea pig as infected. There is no way to know what percentage, if any, of other pet rodents are infected. Studies on house mice have shown that anywhere from three to 40 percent are infected, according to the department of health. Testing healthy people for LCMV is not necessary. Similarly, testing people with previous history of LCMV-compatible illness generally is not useful. People who have been exposed to wild or pet rodents and show symptoms of LCMV should seek medical care. Pet rodent owners who are concerned about LCMV are reminded not to release unwanted pet rodents into the wild. This increases the risk of infection in wild rodent populations and is an inhumane way to dispose of unwanted house pets. For more information about pet rodent handling instructions, an overview of LCMV, and tips on how to keep your family safe from animal-born diseases, visit http://www.vdh.virginia.gov and click on the link for Disease Information and Prevention. Additional information about LCMV can also be found at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/lcmv.htm.	<urn:uuid:0ad67f6b-131d-410c-8b9d-4fd632fa8700>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.connectionnewspapers.com/news/2005/aug/16/health-briefs/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953632	1,693	3.1875	3
Dates of Previous Pole Shifts and Likely Events To Match including Joshua describing it in the Old Testament The cycle of Niburu and the return of the Annunaki is every 3,657 years as it speeds, in its huge sling shot 'orbit', through the path of the inner planets around the sun. The sign of the polar shift of the Earth on its axis is that the sun stands still until the rotation finds a new north, a new south, a new east and a new west. If Niburu pushes the poles to new positions on July 2011, then that is 1648 B.C. that the last passage occurred. this could be a candidate for the time that Joshua witnessed the Sun doing small circles in the sky as the portent of the passage of Planet X, through the inner solar system. This is consistent with the Jewish calendar. Adding another cycle of 3,657 years before that, we get to the date 5304 B.C. when Niburu came through the inner solar system. But we have no exact records to understand that, as Nancy Lieder, http://www.ZetaTalk.com, states, when each time the pole shifts, 'all record keeping goes to hell.' Joshua was on a killing spree, but as he prepared for battle with the five kings of the Amorites, he commanded "Sun, Stand Thou still" and it did. Of course it was a day like no other, as no one alive saw it happen the time before, and no one then alive would see the next time. But you who read this, will see this in the next two years. Commanding the sun to do what it would do naturally as the Earth slides free to a new point of balance and new compass directions seems foolish, but makes good reading for the times in which it occurred. Here is the KJV excerpt: JOSHUA CHAPTER 10 VERSES 13-14 And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher? So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day. And there was no day like that before it or after it So we have this broad outline of events when Planet X, otherwise known as the glowing planet Niburu, home of the giant selfish Gods known as the Annunaki in ancient clay tablets came through the inner solar system; each time having an effect that is greater or lesser than the last, depending upon orbits and distances. [If you have any better time lines or estimates of time lines, please send them to me if you can.] 600,000-300,000 B.C. Large humanoids from another planet in our solar system come to Earth and Mars to mine metals. Called the 12th Planet, or Planet X, or Niburu, they, the people called the Annunaki, are given the power of space flight as a gift by other more advanced aliens. They tire of doing work and decide to create slaves smart enough to work, but not so smart to know that the souls which inhabit the bodies are from the same source as the masters. 300,000-200,000 B.C. Various types of slaves are developed and tried out starting in Africa. The headquarters of the Annunaki is known as E-Den. The story is told in the Bible in the first book, Genesis. 100,000 B.C. Lemuria founded in the Pacific. Societies founded on peaceful social development spread to Asia. 48,000 B.C. Atlantis founded for those who seek power using technology. All remaining dinosaurs hunted down and killed. Annunaki are the 'gods' and in charge. 23,589 B.C. The first cataclysms shake Atlantis and sink some of it. Lemuria sinks? [Serious planetary changes] 19,931B.C. + 2011 = 21,942 years ago Early man takes advantage of climate changes and migrates through Asia to the Americas already populated with Atlantean colonists [Not so serious planetary changes] 16,274 B.C. + 2011 = 18,285 years ago The second sinking of much of Atlantis [Very serious planetary changes] 12,617 B.C. + 2011 = 14,628 years ago Atlantis founds colonies in the Mediterranean area. Advanced colonies are founded in the Andes, the Amazon and Mexico. Annunaki found colonies, not just mining, on Mars. [Not so serious planetary changes] 8,960 B.C. + 2011 = 10,971 years ago that last of Atlantis sank and the Pyramids were built by the Annunaki. The Gulf Stream forms and starts melting the northern hemispheric glaciers. Remnants of Atlantis regroup in Spain, Central America, and the Mediterranean areas. Early Greece and Egypt are founded. Ancient civilizations are founded in Asia, India, Sumeria, and Mesopotamia. It is not possible to sail across the Atlantic as floating debris makes it impossible. Contact and memories of other continents fade away only to be gradually rediscovered later on a much smaller scale. [Very serious planetary changes] 5,303 B.C. + 2011 = 7,316 years ago The flood of Noah. [Comparatively less serious planetary changes] 1,646 B.C. + 2011 = 3,657 years ago at the height of the ancient Mediterranean cultures of Rome, Greece, and Carthage and Phoenicia. The Jews escaped Egypt and sought the promised land. The Annunaki are banned from Earth by the Council of Worlds and seek mining on the Moon and Moons of Mars, having ruined Mars. They also start mining the 'Dark Twin' to Earth, on the other side of the Sun. Trade with the Americas from Europe and Asia begins a new post Atlantis period.China and Japan develop considerable civilizations. The Greek island of Santorini blows up and is later mistaken for the sinking of Atlantis.[Even less serious planetary changes] [**from 2011] and then to the present: 2011 at the height of a 6 billion person world economy. [Very very very serious changes including movements of the continents and death of 60-90% of the population followed by a change to 4th density from 3rd density and open contact with unselfish aliens] Top of Article : Zetatalk map of Earth after the polar shift. Remember, all the changes you see on this map occur within one hour. Notice how North and South America rotate up above Europe and Asia. Notice where Greenland goes. How this can occur without monstrous tidal waves I have no idea. Probably it can't. If you print this map out, it is slightly larger than a baseball, and smaller than a softball if you want to tape it to a ball to see how it looks. With the Earth covered with clouds of ash and smoke for up to 4 decades, it will we warmer than you would think as the clouds will keep the temperatures temperate in most locations. Within 2 years from the shift all the ice in the world will melt and that will raise the oceans 200 feet as scientists say, or 675-700 feet as Zetatalk says, which I believe more. Also, New England is still coming up from sinking under the weight of the glaciers and Zetatalk says that Maine will bounce up 450 feet at the shift. Therefore 450 feet up - coastline 700 feet up means that the new shore will be 250 feet higher than it is now in Maine. In other parts of the world, there will just be subsidence plus 675 feet of water, that is why Zetatalk recommends everyone be at least 100 miles from the coast at an elevation of 200 feet minimum at the time of the shift. Of course that will not help the UK or Florida which will first sink 150 feet at the pole shift. And here for context is the entire KJV version of Joshua Chapter 10, where Verses 11-14 describe what will happen to all of us on Earth in the near future. JOSHUA CHAPTER 10 VERSES 11-14 1: Now it came to pass, when Adoni-zedek king of Jerusalem had heard how Joshua had taken Ai, and had utterly destroyed it; as he had done to Jericho and her king, so he had done to Ai and her king; and how the inhabitants of Gibeon had made peace with Israel, and were among them; 2: That they feared greatly, because Gibeon was a great city, as one of the royal cities, and because it was greater than Ai, and all the men thereof were mighty. 3: Wherefore Adoni-zedek king of Jerusalem sent unto Hoham king of Hebron, and unto Piram king of Jarmuth, and unto Jephia king of Lachish, and unto Debir king of Eglon, saying, 4: Come up unto me, and help me, that we may smite Gibeon: for it hath made peace with Joshua and with the children of Israel. 5: Therefore the five kings of the Amorites, the king of Jerusalem, the king of Hebron, the king of Jarmuth, the king of Lachish, the king of Eglon, gathered themselves together, and went up, they and all their hosts, and encamped before Gibeon, and made war against it. 6: And the men of Gibeon sent unto Joshua to the camp to Gilgal, saying, Slack not thy hand from thy servants; come up to us quickly, and save us, and help us: for all the kings of the Amorites that dwell in the mountains are gathered together against us. 7: So Joshua ascended from Gilgal, he, and all the people of war with him, and all the mighty men of valour. 8: And the LORD said unto Joshua, Fear them not: for I have delivered them into thine hand; there shall not a man of them stand before thee. 9: Joshua therefore came unto them suddenly, and went up from Gilgal all night. 10: And the LORD discomfited them before Israel, and slew them with a great slaughter at Gibeon, and chased them along the way that goeth up to Beth-horon, and smote them to Azekah, and unto 11: And it came to pass, as they fled from before Israel, and were in the going down to Beth-horon, that the LORD cast down great stones from heaven upon them unto Azekah, and they died: they were more which died with hailstones than they whom the children of Israel slew with the sword. 12: Then spake Joshua to the LORD in the day when the LORD delivered up the Amorites before the children of Israel, and he said in the sight of Israel, Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon. 13: And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher? So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a 14: And there was no day like that before it or after it, that the LORD hearkened unto the voice of a man: for the LORD fought for Israel. 15: And Joshua returned, and all Israel with him, unto the camp to Gilgal. 16: But these five kings fled, and hid themselves in a cave at 17: And it was told Joshua, saying, The five kings are found hid in a cave at Makkedah. 18: And Joshua said, Roll great stones upon the mouth of the cave, and set men by it for to keep them: 19: And stay ye not, but pursue after your enemies, and smite the hindmost of them; suffer them not to enter into their cities: for the LORD your God hath delivered them into your hand. 20: And it came to pass, when Joshua and the children of Israel had made an end of slaying them with a very great slaughter, till they were consumed, that the rest which remained of them entered into fenced cities. 21: And all the people returned to the camp to Joshua at Makkedah in peace: none moved his tongue against any of the children of Israel. 22: Then said Joshua, Open the mouth of the cave, and bring out those five kings unto me out of the cave. 23: And they did so, and brought forth those five kings unto him out of the cave, the king of Jerusalem, the king of Hebron, the king of Jarmuth, the king of Lachish, and the king of Eglon. 24: And it came to pass, when they brought out those kings unto Joshua, that Joshua called for all the men of Israel, and said unto the captains of the men of war which went with him, Come near, put your feet upon the necks of these kings. And they came near, and put their feet upon the necks of them. 25: And Joshua said unto them, Fear not, nor be dismayed, be strong and of good courage: for thus shall the LORD do to all your enemies against whom ye fight. 26: And afterward Joshua smote them, and slew them, and hanged them on five trees: and they were hanging upon the trees until the evening. 27: And it came to pass at the time of the going down of the sun, that Joshua commanded, and they took them down off the trees, and cast them into the cave wherein they had been hid, and laid great stones in the cave's mouth, which remain until this very day. 28: And that day Joshua took Makkedah, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and the king thereof he utterly destroyed, them, and all the souls that were therein; he let none remain: and he did to the king of Makkedah as he did unto the king of Jericho. 29: Then Joshua passed from Makkedah, and all Israel with him, unto Libnah, and fought against Libnah: 30: And the LORD delivered it also, and the king thereof, into the hand of Israel; and he smote it with the edge of the sword, and all the souls that were therein; he let none remain in it; but did unto the king thereof as he did unto the king of Jericho. 31: And Joshua passed from Libnah, and all Israel with him, unto Lachish, and encamped against it, and fought against it: 32: And the LORD delivered Lachish into the hand of Israel, which took it on the second day, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and all the souls that were therein, according to all that he had done to Libnah. 33: Then Horam king of Gezer came up to help Lachish; and Joshua smote him and his people, until he had left him none 34: And from Lachish Joshua passed unto Eglon, and all Israel with him; and they encamped against it, and fought against it: 35: And they took it on that day, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and all the souls that were therein he utterly destroyed that day, according to all that he had done to Lachish. 36: And Joshua went up from Eglon, and all Israel with him, unto Hebron; and they fought against it: 37: And they took it, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and the king thereof, and all the cities thereof, and all the souls that were therein; he left none remaining, according to all that he had done to Eglon; but destroyed it utterly, and all the souls that 38: And Joshua returned, and all Israel with him, to Debir; and fought against it: 39: And he took it, and the king thereof, and all the cities thereof; and they smote them with the edge of the sword, and utterly destroyed all the souls that were therein; he left none remaining: as he had done to Hebron, so he did to Debir, and to the king thereof; as he had done also to Libnah, and to her king. 40: So Joshua smote all the country of the hills, and of the south, and of the vale, and of the springs, and all their kings: he left none remaining, but utterly destroyed all that breathed, as the LORD God of Israel commanded. 41: And Joshua smote them from Kadesh-barnea even unto Gaza, and all the country of Goshen, even unto Gibeon. 42: And all these kings and their land did Joshua take at one time, because the LORD God of Israel fought for Israel. 43: And Joshua returned, and all Israel with him, unto the camp to Gilgal.	<urn:uuid:57e83122-720e-4420-92ea-2ec3b9c7f115>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://ufodigest.com/article/dates-previous-pole-shifts-and-likely-events-match-including-joshua-describing-it-old	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950934	3,674	2.796875	3
Overview of Chronic Pain Pain is an unpleasant sensation triggered by the nervous system. The ability to experience pain is critical for survival because it can make us immediately aware of injury to the body. Pain is an individual experience affected by environmental, emotional and cognitive factors. Pain can be a symptom of illness, result from an injury, or occur with no apparent cause. Pain that results from illness or injury and tapers off or stops on its own or with medical treatment is called acute pain. Pain that persists after healing has occurred, results from long-term illness, or has no apparent cause is called chronic pain. Chronic pain may persist for weeks, months, or years and may not respond to treatment. It can be debilitating and often becomes the defining factor in patients' lives. Without relief, or the hope for relief, many patients lose the ability to eat, sleep, work and function normally. Incidence and Prevalence of Chronic Pain According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, chronic pain is the leading cause of disability in the United States. Chronic pain occurs in as many as 90 percent of cancer patients and often is under-treated.	<urn:uuid:1e8d5c3c-d300-494e-8dbc-9c4984c0bbc8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.healthcommunities.com/chronic-pain/chronic-pain-overview.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962351	235	3.625	4
During her parents’ 3-year honeymoon in Europe, Florence Nightingale was born on May 12, 1820, in Florence, Italy. She was named after her birthplace. Her only sister, Frances Parthenope, or Parthe, had been born a year before, also named after her birthplace (Parthenope is the Greek name for Naples). Florence’s parents were socially and politically connected, due to their wealth and membership in England’s upper class. The family had two homes, although they spent the majority of the year at Embley Park in southern England. Their summer home in Derbyshire, Lea Hurst, was Florence’s favorite of the two. Religion and education were integral parts of the Nightingale home; both would have a monumental impact on Florence’s later life. There was little opportunity for formal education during this time since universities were generally closed to women. Fortunately, Florence’s father, William Edward Nightingale, was an educated man and desired to share this education with his daughters. Florence studied history, philosophy, ethics, grammar, writing, and mathematics. She learned to speak Latin, Greek, French, German, and Italian. These teachings would prepare Florence for her later role in life. in 1837, while at Embley Park, Florence received her first “call from God.” At that time, she did not fully understand what it meant, but the call drove her to become more active in helping the local poor. In 1849, while traveling in Egypt with friends, Florence received her second call from God. The following year she vowed chastity and obedience to God. After this time in her life, nursing took a priority for Florence. Although she received two marriage proposals, Florence never married; instead she chose to remain true to her calling. Florence knew her calling was to serve the poor and sick. Her parents refused to allow her to become a nurse as nursing was not considered to be a suitable profession for a well-educated woman. However, during her trip to Europe and Egypt with friends, Florence visited Pastor Theodor Fliedner’s hospital and school for deaconesses at Kaiserswerth, near Dusseldorf. In 1851, the following year, she returned to Kaiserswerth and spent 3 months training as a nurse. This training and her experience working with the sick and poor led her to Harley Street, London, where in 1853 she was offered an unpaid position as the Superintendent of the Establishment for Gentlewomen during Illness. Florence Nightingale, the founder of modern nursing, thus began her career in nursing and hospital reform. She was able to utilize not only her fine education, but also her natural organizational skills to revamp the administration of the Establishment. In 1854, Sidney Herbert, the Minister at War, appointed Florence to oversee the introduction of female nurses into military hospitals during the Crimean War; Herbert selected Florence since he knew her both socially and professionally through her work at Harley Street. In November 1854, Florence Nightingale arrived at the Barrack Hospital in Scutari, Turkey, with 38 nurses. Although the doctors did not want the nurses there, within 10 days the medical and nursing staff were stretched to their limits due to the arrival of fresh casualties. The British hospital at Scutari was in shambles; there were no beds, no kitchen, little water, and few doctors. Florence was not only a caretaker, but also an administrator, organizing nursing support for the doctors and provisions and facilities for the hospital. During this time, Florence came to be known by the soldiers as a caring and dedicated woman; one who cared no matter what the social status of the person was. It was during this time that Florence Nightingale became known as “the Lady with the Lamp.” After the Crimean War, Nightingale quietly returned home. During the next few years, Florence made Army nursing reform the focal point of her career. In 1860, at the St. Thomas’s Hospital, the Nightingale School of Nursing opened in London. During this time, Florence was also consulted by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln for advice on Civil War nursing. In 1861, Florence developed severe spinal pain, which would limit some of her later endeavors. However, she did not let poor health keep her from implementing sanitation reform in India, which became the focus of her attentions for the next several years. After India, Florence turned to reform of another kind: nursing reform and women’s progress. In 1893, at the Chicago World’s Fair, Florence’s last paper was read to the Nurse’s Congress. On August 13, 1910, she died in her sleep at age 90. Today, Florence Nightingale is remembered for her pioneering work in public health, hospital administration, sanitary reform, and the use of statistical data for decision-making processes. SEE ALSO: Blackwell, Elizabeth; Healers, Nurse practitioner, Nursing, Women in the Health Professions (pp. 20-32), Women in Health: Advocates, Reformers, and Pioneers (pp. 40-48) - Dossey, B. M. (2000). Florence Nightingale: Mystic, visionary, healer. Springhouse, PA: Springhouse. - Goldie, S. (Ed.). (1997). Letters from the Crimea, 1854-1856/Florence Nightingale. New York: Mandolin. - Hobbs, C. A. (1997). Florence Nightingale. New York: Twayne. - Webb, V. (2002). Florence Nightingale: The making of a radical theologian. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press. - Woodham-Smith, C. (1983). Florence Nightingale, 1820-1910. New York: Atheneum.	<urn:uuid:fc07e8fa-9bc1-430c-bbf7-c9647d1dcfa9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://womenshealthency.com/n/nightingale-florence/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.978585	1,220	3.78125	4
Welcome to the Food and farming module for children aged 5-8 years. This module supports primary school children learning about where their food comes from and how it is farmed. This module is comprised of a comprehensive Teachers' Guide and three Key Facts: Key Fact 1 - All food comes from plants or animals; Key Fact 2 - Food has to be farmed, caught or grown at home; Key Fact 3 - Food is changed from farm to fork. The Key Facts are supported by lots of great resources including lesson ideas for the busy teacher, pre-prepared worksheets for children, interactive activities, PowerPoint presentations and colour photographs. This module is supported by three exciting interactive activties around food and farming. These are: This module also features exciting videos which show crops and animals being farmed and recipes being made, these are supported by easy-to-follow recipes and teacher guidance: Last reviewed: 14/06/2011 Next review date: 01/11/2013	<urn:uuid:efe614b7-e1d1-4e8f-9a38-e5bfc4073c4c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.foodafactoflife.org.uk/section.aspx?t=82&siteId=14&sectionId=63	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935081	205	4.125	4
Riders – 2/7 at 8 p.m. This program chronicles the journey of the courageous band of civil-rights activists in the Deep South in 1961. by Another Name – 2/13 at 9 p.m. Based on the Pulitzer Prize winning book by Doug Blackmon, this documentary challenges one of America's most cherished assumptions: the belief that slavery in this country ended with Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. The Bricks We Walk On – 2/13 Immediately following Slavery by Another Name, author and Atlantan Doug Blackmon visits sites in Atlanta with historic relevance to the program. Several Black History Month documentaries air on GPB Radio every Thursday night at 7pm February 2nd, 9th, 16th and 23rd The Little Rock Nine - 2/9 Carlotta Walls LaNier, one of the "Little Rock Nine" shares recollections of the sacrifices made and the abuses endured in her pursuit of a fair and equal education. Race and the Space Race - 2/16 The Space Age began when America was going through a wrenching battle over Civil Rights. In this program, we hear the stories of the people who broke the color line at Professor Ridley Recognizes Georgia’s DEN Leadership Council Georgia’s Discovery Educator Network (DEN) Leadership Council is made up of passionate technology-using educators who are equally excited about helping other educators improve their technical skills. DEN shares their knowledge on the council’s official blog, organizes tech meet ups, and are always interested in interacting with you. Here’s what educators said about how much they value their DEN Leadership Councils. In a survey conducted by the Harvard Graduate School of Education last year on the DEN, “respondents reported that the DEN had an extremely beneficial impact on how they used Be sure to add the DEN Leadership Council members to your professional learning networks (PLN) as they are happy to help you. you know that you can download videos you playback in the Discovery Education portal? Here’s how: Log on and search for video content. Click on the video you’d like to watch. To download that video or video segment, right-click on the download icon (or Ctrl + click if using a Mac) and choose "Save Target As..." On-air and Online Professional Learning Sessions Online – Bookmark this link: www.gpb.org/education/common-core and save the dates! Online training on the new Common Core Georgia Performance Standards continues this month and lasts through May. 2/1 –4th Grade English Language Arts from 10 a.m. -12 p.m. 2/1 – 11th and 12th Grade English Language Arts 2 p.m. - 4 p.m. 2/2 – Kindergarten Mathematics from 10 a.m. - 12 2/29 – 3rd Grade English Language Arts 2 p.m. - 4 2/29 – 6th Grade English Language Arts 10 a.m. - 12 p.m . GPB Learning media for lesson plans and media for Black History month and more.Don’t forget to log on. New webinar: Making Mobile Media Meaningful in (and Beyond!) Your STEM Classroom 2/1 at 7 p.m. - In this webinar, Hall Davidson will show educators how to build interactive projects and assessments that tap and expand student knowledge with apps, QR codes, social media sites, and more. Register now. BE ENGAGED … INFORMED Invite you to a community discussion on Macon School Reform Monday, March 12, 2012 The Peyton Anderson Community Services Center 6 p.m. – 7:30 p.m. For more information or to register for the event, you blog or have you always wanted to? We’re looking for guest bloggers to contribute to our Passion for Learning blog. All topic areas are welcome. If you are interested in being a GPB Teacher Blogger, send us your name, email address, topic of expertise and blog link (if you have one) to firstname.lastname@example.org. Find us on Facebook and keep up with State and National education news, hot topics, professional development opportunities, surveys, Follow us on Twitter and find out what educators like you are doing to make education relevant and learning interesting. Partners and Promotions Fernbank Museum of Natural History Don’t miss Wildlife Rescue! Discover how waterfowl are being saved, how orphaned animals are being released back into the wild, and more in this interactive exhibition. Educational in Nature is a resource-rich website for Educators provided by Georgia-Pacific. It meets Georgia Performance Standards in Science, Social Studies, Language Arts, Visual Arts, Math, Vocabulary, Reading, Listening, Viewing and Speaking for 4th and 5th grade students. This resource will make environmental education part of your curriculum with fun lesson plans. For example, you'll find activities that directly reinforce GPS science standards around simple machines and energy. Visit GPB.org/education to learn more. the young women at your high school to an event developed especially for them. Juniors and seniors are invited to work in group activities with girls from all over the state and hear from women leaders in the community. They will learn about exciting career opportunities they may never have imagined. Your participation is complimentary. So please, Save the Date:Thursday, March 29, 2012 Time: 8:00 am - 2 pm Location: Marriott Courtyard Formerly the Holiday Inn Conference Center Downtown Clairemont Avenue Decatur, Georgia 30030 404.371.0204	<urn:uuid:b2668725-ea06-42be-b5d7-5f67067f237a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://gpb.convio.net/site/MessageViewer?em_id=6381.0&dlv_id=9901	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.894247	1,261	2.65625	3
A sore throat is the general name for 2 common conditions: - Pharyngitis—swelling and inflammation of the pharynx (the back of the throat, including the back of the tongue) - Tonsillopharyngitis—swelling and inflammation of the pharynx and the tonsils (soft tissue that makes up part of the throat's immune defenses) Many things can cause a sore throat, such as: - Infection with a virus, such as the viruses that cause the flu, herpangina, and the common cold - Infection with bacteria, such as those that cause strep throat - Infectious mononucleosis - Mucus from your sinuses that drains into your throat - Breathing polluted air - Drinking alcoholic beverages - Hay fever or other allergies - Acid reflux from the stomach - Food debris collecting in small pockets in the tonsils - Certain immune or inflammatory disorders Sore throats are more common children, teens, or people aged 65 years and older. Other factors that may increase your chance of a sore throat include: Along with the sore throat, you may have other symptoms, such as: - Pain or difficulty when swallowing - Runny nose or stuffy nose - Enlarged lymph nodes in your neck - Hoarse voice - Red or irritated-looking throat - Swollen tonsils - White patches on or near your tonsils - Difficulty breathing When Should I Call My Doctor? Call your doctor if you: - Experience a worsening of your sore throat or the symptom lasts longer than you or your doctor expect - Have difficulty swallowing or breathing Have developed other symptoms, such as: - White patches on tonsils (may be a sign of strep throat) - Enlarged lymph nodes on your neck - Nausea or vomiting - Muscle or joint aches - Blood in saliva The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests calling your child's doctor if your child has a sore throat that goes on for more than 1 day (no matter what other symptoms are present). If you think you have an emergency, call for emergency medical services right away. Your doctor will do a physical exam. This involves looking closely at your mouth, throat, nose, ears, and the lymph nodes in your neck. This physical exam may include: - Using a small instrument to look inside the nose, ears, and mouth - Gently touching the lymph nodes (glands) in your neck to check for swelling - Taking your temperature The doctor will ask questions about: - Your family and medical history - Recent exposure to someone with strep throat or any other infection of the throat, nose, or ears Other tests include: - Rapid strep test or throat culture—using a cotton swab to touch the back of the throat to check for strep throat - Blood tests—to identify some conditions that may be causing the sore throat - Mono spot test—if mononucleosis is suspected Treatment depends on the cause of the sore throat. Options may include: - Pain relievers or fever reducers - Note: Aspirin is not recommended for children with a current or recent viral infection. Check with your doctor before giving your child aspirin. - Antibiotics for a sore throat caused by a bacterial infection - Throat lozenges - Decongestants and antihistamines to relieve nasal congestion and runny nose - Numbing throat spray for pain control in older children and adults, although the relief is very short-lived - Corticosteroids if there is trouble breathing Self-care steps you can do at home: - Get plenty of rest - Drink plenty of fluids - Try warm liquids (tea or broth), or cool liquids - Gargle with warm saline several times a day - Avoid irritants that might affect your throat, such as tobacco smoke and cold air - Avoid drinking alcohol To help reduce your chance of a sore throat: - Wash your hands frequently. Do this especially after blowing your nose or after caring for a child with a sore throat. - If someone in your home has a sore throat, keep their eating utensils and drinking glasses separate from those of other family members. Wash these objects in hot, soapy water. - If a toddler with a sore throat has been sucking on toys, wash the toys in soap and water. - Immediately get rid of used tissues, and then wash your hands. - If you have hay fever or another respiratory allergy, see your doctor. Avoid the substance that causes your allergy. - Reviewer: David Horn, MD - Review Date: 08/2015 - - Update Date: 09/30/2014 -	<urn:uuid:ef43635b-d269-4b7d-b8dd-9ee7f354b87e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://wesleymc.com/hl/?/100684/Pharyngitis/tonsillopharyngitis	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.90883	998	3.484375	3
\|October 12, 2015\|\|Posted by Eric Anderson under Darwinism, Evolution, Genetics, Natural selection, speciation\| A couple of weeks ago a friend forwarded me a link to this recent article about “ongoing research to record the interaction of environment and evolution” by University of California, Riverside biologist David Reznick. Reznick’s team has been studying adaptive changes in guppies. Reznick’s work focuses on tracking what happens in real-world situations in the […] \|September 10, 2015\|\|Posted by News under Evolution, Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| Further to: Life continues to ignore what evolution experts say, where we discovered that big (plausible) changes can be produced through hybridization, we also learn, from ScienceDaily: Ancient hybridization key to domestic dog’s origin, wolf conservation efforts There are four to five wild species of Canis in North America, according to the overview. In […] \|September 7, 2015\|\|Posted by News under Darwinism, Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| If you listen to Darwinblather, you’d never think to ask. (As the rest of us face the road ahead. Yes, it is all as out of touch as it sounds.) Meanwhile: BEACON Researchers at Work: The Origin of a Species? [D]espite all the fantastic work done since Darwin’s day, speciation is still mysterious. Speciation is […] \|August 25, 2015\|\|Posted by News under News, speciation\| Because Darwin. From Science Nordic: Both groups breed in the same area in the Caribbean, the Sargasso Sea, but typically you would expect a long-term physical separation of the two, to allow them to develop in different directions. This makes them a great mystery of evolution. Now scientists have solved this puzzle. It turns out […] \|August 8, 2015\|\|Posted by News under Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| From ScienceDaily: The team studied a plant-eating stick insect species from California called Timema cristinae known for its cryptic camouflage that allows it to hide from hungry birds, said CU-Boulder Assistant Professor Samuel Flaxman. T. cristinae comes in several different types — one is green and blends in with the broad green leaves of a […] \|June 27, 2015\|\|Posted by News under Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| Darwin’s finches, we are told, have reached their limits on the Galapagos Islands From ScienceDaily: The evolution of birds on the Galapagos Islands, the cradle of Darwin’s theory of evolution, is a two-speed process. Most bird species are still diversifying, while the famous Darwin’s finches have already reached an equilibrium, in which new species can […] \|May 16, 2015\|\|Posted by News under Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| The local tax funded cult, it turns out, is safe. Here: Why Close Relatives Make Bad Neighbors Abstract The number of exotic plant species that have been introducedinto the United States far exceeds that of other groups of organisms, and many of these have become invasive. As in many regions of the globe, invasive members […] \|April 9, 2015\|\|Posted by News under Just For Fun, News, speciation\| Mainly about the history of intelligent design of dogs, for better or worse. Fascinating stuff about the turnspit dog. Also. here: In order to understand how a breed can go extinct, first we need to get into what a breed is. And in order to get into that, we need to get into what a […] \|November 14, 2014\|\|Posted by News under News, Plants, speciation\| Speciation is not very well understood at all, anywhere; it is rather colonized by Darwin’s followers, as a support for their vision of life. \|October 28, 2014\|\|Posted by News under extinction, Intelligent Design, News, Peer review, speciation\| Some call these types of life forms “Lazarus species,” animals we thought were extinct. (One third apparently turn up again.) \|October 24, 2014\|\|Posted by News under News, speciation\| Aw, come on, you knew this was coming. If you fear spiders, why did you click? \|October 21, 2014\|\|Posted by News under Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| Tom Bethell: But it doesn’t take a genius to see that the ancestral group is (improperly) defined by the absence of the character that defines the descendant group. \|October 17, 2014\|\|Posted by News under News, speciation\| Dunno. Local grass snakes keep insisting that reptiles exist—as long as they can get below the frost line over winter, through cavities in the Shield. \|October 4, 2014\|\|Posted by News under News, speciation\| Didn’t realize it was that uncertain. Were told it was happening very day in every way. 😉 \|September 5, 2014\|\|Posted by News under News, speciation\| Researchers: Parasitic ants were no longer reproductively compatible with the host ants — making them a unique species. \|July 1, 2014\|\|Posted by News under Biology, Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| Until very recently, the lichen was believed to have just one species of fungus. \|April 5, 2014\|\|Posted by News under Intelligent Design, speciation\| Maybe the world is so fuzzy below the level of the genus that another approach to classification should be sought (and why that won’t happen soon). \|April 4, 2014\|\|Posted by News under Darwinism, Intelligent Design, News, speciation\| Don’t forget how much of the whole concept of a “species” is obscured and vitiated by the hunt for observed Darwinian speciation. \|March 27, 2014\|\|Posted by News under Darwinism, News, speciation\| So why use the word “evolved” at all? So we can pretend to know stuff we don’t? \|March 14, 2014\|\|Posted by News under News, speciation\| As David Tyler writes over at Access Research Network: Introgressive hybridization and the Galapagos finches A branching pattern of variation was central to Darwin’s concept of speciation. As one population of organisms follows one trajectory, another population may spin off in a different direction. When they are sufficiently far apart, they are considered to be […]	<urn:uuid:86b30006-5dbb-4b73-ad9c-fcb8084f5de8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.uncommondescent.com/category/speciation/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93631	1,375	2.96875	3
My 2-year-old son has been diagosed with Transient Erythroblastopenia of Childhood (TEC). I have not been able to find any documentation on this disorder. Could you provide me with some insight? He has had 2 blood transfusions within the past 6 weeks (approx 1/2 pint each). Before his first transfusion, his crit was a 12. Afterwards it went up to 24, but then gradually decreased to 15 when our Dr. decided on another transfusion. After the second one, his crit was up to 26. His white cell count and platlets are both normal. The second transfusion was yesterday. We are giving him iron supplements. Thank you for your time. Brian Wells – Santa Rita, Guam Dr. Greene’s Answer: The average life span of a red blood cell is 120 days. Every day, just under 1% of our old red blood cells retire, to be replaced by an equal number of fresh young ones. We depend on this steady supply of new red blood cells. If something were to interrupt this supply, we would be completely out of blood within 120 days, but would probably die within 90 days from not having enough red blood cells to deliver the minimum amount of oxygen needed for life. Your son’s diagnosis, transient erythroblastopenia of childhood (TEC), is a condition in which new red blood cells stop appearing. The children with TEC are otherwise well, so at first nothing appears to be wrong. Each day, though, they lose about 1% of their red blood cells. Very gradually they become tired and pale. After a number of weeks, the children are usually brought to the doctor because this fatigue and pallor become quite noticeable. The physical examination is usually normal, except for the pallor and an increased heart rate (the heart is working extra hard to pump the limited number of red blood cells around the body faster). The complete blood count (CBC) usually shows normal looking and normal sized red blood cells that are markedly decreased in number. The white blood cells and platelets are usually not affected. Reticulocytes (immature red blood cells) are profoundly fewer than normal, until the child is beginning to recover. TEC is uncommon, but has been seen with increasing frequency over the last few years. It occurs most commonly between the ages of one and three. TEC is thought to be triggered by a viral infection occurring 2 weeks to 2 months before the TEC. Some investigators have linked TEC to parvovirus B19, the virus that causes Fifth Disease, or Slap Cheek. In a recent study of six children with TEC, however, none of the children tested positive for parvovirus (Archives of Pediatrics, February 1995). There are also researchers who believe there may be a genetic component to TEC, but have yet to identify any responsible gene (Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, 29(9), Sep 2007, 659-660). In children with TEC, red blood cell production will recover spontaneously — usually within 30 to 60 days, but sometimes longer. In some children, transfusions are necessary to keep them alive and decrease their symptoms while waiting for this spontaneous recovery. Transfusions are given when the number of red blood cells is low enough to begin to severely affect the child’s health. This usually happens when the measure of red blood cells called the hematocrit (“crit”) drops to about 10 or 11, though the “cut-off” for giving a transfusion will be different for each child. A transfusion may be indicated sooner if there are significant symptoms or if there are no signs of early recovery in sight. Steroids have sometimes been given to children with TEC to try to hasten recovery, but this does not seem to be of any value. Iron supplementation may help a little, since iron is needed to build red blood cells. If TEC occurs outside the normal age range or if recovery is prolonged, further workup should be done. Likewise if the platelets or white blood cells are low in number (they can be mildly low in up to 25% of cases of uncomplicated TEC), or if the red cell size or appearance is unusual, further tests are indicated to rule out other, more serious, conditions (such as leukemia or Diamond-Blackfan anemia). If your son follows a typical course, his crit will begin to rise within a few weeks. The first sign of recovery will be a rise in his reticulocyte count. I am thankful that transfusions were available to support him until his own bone marrow begins producing red blood cells again.	<urn:uuid:73622154-f542-4645-a7d8-d4813e932337>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.drgreene.com/qa-articles/transient-erythroblastopenia-childhood/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95998	971	2.671875	3
1 - Introduction By now you've considered taking a dive into the world wide web and creating your own site, whether as a hobbyist or a developer/designer hopeful. Either way this tutorial will teach you the dead basics of the markup language known as HTML. HTML is, first and foremost, not a programming language. HTML is an acronym for Hyper Text Markup Language, meaning it's a markup. Think of a markup as a structure system, organizing elements into proper sections that make logical sense, and you have a base idea of HTML. We start with tags. A tag has an opening and closing, inside these tags are elements and various text that can be considered as contained. The most basic tag we can start with is the <html> tag. Notice how each tag begins with a < and ends with a >, denoting a tag, the text inside is what function the tag performs, as well as its attributes, such as <html bgcolor="white">. In this case it encompases an HTML document and sets the background color to white (We will discuss how to do this more effectively in CSS in a later tutorial.) This is the start of all of your documents. The closing tag is fairly simple as well, </html>. The difference is that the closing tag contains a slash which signifies a closing to the browser. Some tags are self closing but don't worry about that for now, we'll get into that a little later. 2 - Your first page So now we know about the <html> tag, but that's just the beginning, there are multiple tags meant to mark up your page and create structure. We'll start off with a bit of code: <html> <head> <title>Hello World!</title> </head> <body> <h1>My Title</h1> <p>My text. Welcome to the world of the web!</p> </body> </html> Copy and save this in notepad, click save and change the "Save As Type" to all files and name it "mypage.html". Go ahead and open it for reference. No doubt you're scratching your head as to the function of these tags but I wager that you know enough english to recognize some of the words in the tags. Well here we go, a step by step as to every tag: <html> - The start of every html document and also the close. <head> - The header, not to be confused with a site header or banner area. This header contains information that needs to be loaded at the second the site is visited such as scripts and other such resources as well as a title. <title> - The title is the text you see in the header of your browser window. <body> - The body is where all your content belongs <h1> - There are tags labeled h1 to h6, and they are known as the header tags. It will display a larger font but is ONLY to be used as a header, not a method of bolding text, this will be discussed later. <p> - The paragraph tag. Just as in standard writhing for each new paragraph you write you need a new tag to signify a line break. If you haven't already, take a look at your page by clicking on it where you saved it. 3 - Linking In the web you could easily put all your information on one page, but how effective would it really be? Assuming by some miracle you get users to stay on your site for more than 2 seconds it wouldn't last much longer with a scroll bar to infinity. This is where linking comes into play. Links are made with the <a> tag with an attribute of href which points to the page you wish to link to, such as this for google: Href is set equal to the site you wish to link to, and the text between the <a> tags is the text that appears as the hyperlink on your pages. Be warned though you need to include http:// on any external page, some servers would assume www.google.com points to a file on your server instead of addressing it as an actual page. 4 - Images Text and links are great, but without images the web would be quite boring to say the least. This is where we get to the <img> tag. The <img> tag has an attribute of src which points to the file to display, such as this: <img src="google.png" alt="google" height="50px" width="50px" /> Now there are some new attributes that you may not recognize, and surely you recognize the odd ending of the tag instead of a closing tag. This is called a self closing tag, which is denoted by a /> at the end of the tag. It wouldn't make much sense to have a start and a stop of an image now would it? Other attributes are: alt - The alternate text to be displayed on mouseover or in case of the image not displaying height/width - Literally the height/width of the image. I would strongly encourage you to always add the actual height and width of images because if the image breaks the replacing filler will take up the same amount of space which will prevent discrepancies in your designs if an image fails to load. While you can specify dimmensions other than the actual image size it is strongly discouraged because it takes the same time for the image to load even if you downsize it, you're safer using photoshops save for web and downsizing through 5 - Final notes With this we close the first part of basic HTML, the second part should be out the day after this is released and it will discus further how to structure your documents with the <div>, <ul>, <ol>, and other such tags. Until next time!	<urn:uuid:463c482f-7538-4457-9807-b8c5afd81420>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dreamincode.net/forums/topic/188595-basic-html-p1/page__p__1437674	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.90433	1,266	3.71875	4
\|Left to right - Slavic peasant, Avar warrior and Avar nobleman approx. 7th century AD.\| The Invasion of the Eurasian Avars Christ, our Lord, help our city halt the Avars. Protect the Roman Empire, and he who was written this. A rooftile in Sirmium dated 582 The Roman Empire faced a thousand years plus of endless waves militaristic barbarian invasions including Huns, various Gothic tribes, Arabs, Bulgars and Turks. The 6th century saw the newest barbarian tribe to threaten the Empire - the Avars. The Avars were a group of equestrian warrior nomads who established an empire spanning considerable areas of Central and Eastern Europe from the late 6th to the early 9th century. They were ruled by a Khagan, who led a tight-knit entourage of professional nomad warriors. In 557, the Avars sent an embassy to Constantinople, marking their first contact with the Eastern Roman Empire, presumably from the northern Caucasus. In exchange for gold, they agreed to subjugate the "unruly gentes" on behalf of the Byzantines. They conquered and incorporated various nomadic tribes -- Kutrigur Bulgars, Onogur/Utigur Bulgars, and Sabirs—and defeated the Antes. By 562 they controlled the steppes north of the Black Sea and the lower Danube basin. By the time they arrived in the Balkans, the Avars formed a heterogeneous group of about 20,000 horsemen. After the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527-565) bought them off, they pushed northwest into Germania. However, Frankish opposition halted further expansion in that direction. Seeking rich pastoral lands, the Avars initially demanded land south of the Danube River (in present-day Bulgaria), but the Byzantines refused, using their contacts with the Göktürks as a threat against Avar aggression. They thus turned their attention to the Carpathian plain and to the natural defenses it afforded. By about 580 the Avar Khagan, Bayan, established supremacy over majority Slavic, Hunno-Bulgar, and Germanic tribes. When the Eastern Roman Empire was unable to pay subsidies or hire Avar mercenaries, the Avars raided their Balkan territories. According to Menander, Bayan commanded an army of 10,000 Kutrigur Bulgars and sacked Dalmatia in 568, effectively cutting the Byzantine land link with North Italy and the West. At Maurice's accession, the greatest omissions of his predecessors were to be found in the Balkans. Justinian I neglected Balkan defenses against the Slavs, who threatened the frontier since 500 and pillaged the Balkan provinces ever since. Although he rebuilt the fortifications of the Danube Limes, he abandoned campaigns against the Slavs in favour of a policy focusing on western and oriental theatres. His nephew and successor Justin II played off the Avars against the Gepids and later on against the Slavs. But this only allowed the Avar Khaganate to become a more powerful threat than Gepids and Slavs. As Justin II let the Avars attack the Slavs from Roman territory, they soon noted where the most booty was to be made. To make matters worse, Justin II started the Roman-Persian War of 572–591, which tied down forces in the east at a time when they were needed in the Balkans. Maurice's predecessor and father-in-law Tiberius II Constantine emptied the treasury. For all those reasons, the Slavic incursions in the Balkans continued. A few months before Maurice's accession in the winter of 581/2 the Avar Khagan Bayan, aided by Slavic auxiliary troops, took Sirmium, a large fortified settlement south of the Danube. Doing this, Bayan established a new base of operations within Roman territory from which he could raid the anywhere in the Balkans unhindered. The Avars were only compelled to leave territory once the Romans under Maurice agreed to pay 80,000 solidi annually. The Slavs, partially under Avar rule, were not bound by the treaty and continued to pillage south of the Danube, making the Avars and Slavs quite different threats. \|An Avar Invasion\| Originally from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, the Avars were a group of equestrian warrior nomads who established an empire spanning considerable areas of Central and Eastern Europe from the late 6th to the early 9th century. Roman Wars on Four Fronts Romans faced wars on multiple fronts in the Balkans, Italy, North Africa and against the Persian Empire. So many historians fail to understand the unbelievable military and economic pressure the Eastern Roman Empire was under from constant invasions. Simply, the barbarian invasions never ended. They just kept coming over and over. The massive military expense of wars drained the Empire dry. Virtually all available funds were spent just to survive leaving little for building projects. A major consideration is what I call the "de-Latinization" of the Empire. With every barbarian thrust over the border you saw the destruction of Roman peoples, towns, cities, infrastructure and the economy. Lands lost to the Empire meant a loss of taxes paid to Constantinople as well as recruiting grounds for soldiers to defend the state. Every day was a nightmare. - Historians tend to write about a single Eastern Roman battle with no thought given to an Empire wide view. \|While the Eurasian Avars were invading the \| Balkans the Romans fought an invasion of Italy by the Germanic Lombard tribe. The Eastern Emperors and their generals in Constantinople woke up every day to a living nightmare of horror. The Empire was monstrously huge with multiple wars both large and small often happening simultaneously on several continents. If the Emperor transferred troops from one front to strengthen another he would only invite invasion on the first front. The Avars were only one of many problems. Tiberius II Constantine negotiated a truce with the Avars, paying them 80,000 nomismata per year, for which the Avars agreed to defend the Danube frontier, thereby allowing Tiberius to transfer troops across to the east for a planned renewal of the conflict against the Persians. In 575 Tiberius began moving the armies of Thrace and Illyricum to the eastern provinces. Buying time to make the necessary preparations, he agreed to a three-year truce with the Persians, paying 30,000 nomismata, though the truce excluded action in the region around Armenia. Not content with making preparations, Tiberius also used this period to send reinforcements to Italy under the command of Baduarius with orders to stem the Lombard invasion. He saved Rome from the Lombards and allied the Empire with Childebert II, the King of the Franks, in order to defeat them. Unfortunately, Baduarius was defeated and killed in 576, allowing even more imperial territory in Italy to slip away. Tiberius was unable to respond as the Persian Sassanid Emperor Khosrau I struck at the Empire’s Armenian provinces in 576, sacking Melitene and Sebastea. Shifting his attention eastward, Tiberius sent his general Justinian with the eastern armies to push the Persians back across the Euphrates. The Byzantines followed, and pushed deep into Persian territory, culminating in a raid on Atropatene. In 577, however, Justinian was defeated in Persian Armenia, forcing a Byzantine withdrawal. In response to this defeat, Tiberius replaced Justinian with the future Emperor Maurice. During the truce which Tiberius concluded with Khosrau, he busily enhanced the army of the east, not only with transfers from his western armies but also through barbarian recruits, which he formed into a new Foederati unit, amounting to some 15,000 troops by the end of his reign. \|Roman – Persian War of 572–591\| The Roman armies faced a major war with the Persian Empire in the east. At the same time they face invasion in the Balkans by the Avars, the invasion of Italy by the Lombards and a North African war against the Berbers. \|Solidus of Emperor Tiberius II Constantine wearing consular robes.\| Throughout 577 and into 578, Tiberius avoided all other entanglements which would have distracted him from the approaching Persian conflict. He appeased, quite successfully, both Chalcedonian and Monophysite Christians by the use of strategic appointments and the easing of persecutions. He paid the Lombard tribal chieftains some 200,000 nomismata in an attempt to keep them divided and prevent the election of a king. When the Slavs invaded Illyricum, he transported Avar armies to attack them and force their retreat. Consequently, when Khosrau invaded Roman Mesopotamia in 578, his general Maurice was able to invade Persian Arzanene and Mesopotamia, sacking a number of key towns and forcing the Persians to abandon their advance and defend their own territory. It was during this period that the ailing Emperor Justin finally died in early October 578. The ongoing success against the Persians in the east once again allowed Tiberius to turn his gaze westward. In 579 he again extended his military activities into the remnants of the Western Roman Empire – he sent money and troops to Italy to reinforce Ravenna and to retake the port of Classis. He formed an alliance with one of the Visigothic princes in Spain who was fomenting rebellion, and his generals defeated the Berbers in North Africa. The reality, however, was that the Empire was seriously overextended. In 579, with Tiberius occupied elsewhere, the Avars decided to take advantage of the lack of troops in the Balkans by besieging Sirmium. At the same time, the Slavs began to migrate into Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, which Tiberius was unable to halt as the Persians refused to agree to a peace in the east, which remained the Emperor’s main priority. To top it all off, the Army of the East was beginning to become restless, as they hadn’t been paid, to the point where they threatened to mutiny. In 580, the general Maurice launched a new offensive, raiding well beyond the Tigris. The following year (581), he again invaded Persian Armenia, and succeeded in almost reaching the Persian capital at Ctesiphon before a Persian counter-invasion of Byzantine Mesopotamia forced him to retreat back to deal with this threat. By 582, with no apparent end to the Persian war in sight, Tiberius was forced to come to terms with the Avars, to whom he agreed to pay an indemnity and to hand over the vital city of Sirmium, which the Avars then destroyed. Unfortunately, the migration of the Slavs continued, with their incursions reaching as far south as Athens. Although a new Persian invasion was halted with a significant defeat at Constantina in June 582, by this stage Tiberius was dying, apparently having eaten some poorly prepared, or possibly deliberately poisoned, food. \|The City of Sirmium\| Protected on two sides by the Sava River, Sirmium would have presented major problems to any attacking army. In the 1st century AD, Sirmium gained a status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, and became an important military and strategic center of Pannonia province. The war expeditions of Roman Emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II were prepared in Sirmium. The only known unexcavated Roman Hippodrome in the world is in Sirmium. A colossal building about 150m wide and 450m long lies directly under the Sremska Mitrovica town center and just beside the old Sirmium Emperor's Palace (one of just a few Sirmium publicly accessible archeological sites). The presence of the arena has clearly affected the layout of the present town. Ammianus Marcellinus called Sirmium "the glorious mother of cities". The Attacks on Sirmium (568–582 AD) The Siege of Sirmium in 580–582 was a decisive event in the history of the Balkans. The endless invasions by Eurasian barbarian tribes resulted in a steady "de-Latinization" of the Roman Balkan provinces. For centuries Sirmium had served as a major civilian and military capital for the Roman Empire. The fall of the city to the Avars deprived the Romans of its major stronghold on the northwestern Danube, opening the path for devastating incursions by the Avars and their Slavic allies into the Balkans. Sirmium, which for much of the 6th century had been controlled by the Goths and then the Gepids, had come back under Roman control in 567. The Avars appeared along the Danube at about the same time. The Avars launched a first attack on Sirmium in 568, but were seen off by the local governor, Bonus. Bonus resurfaces in chronicles about 568-570 as a general. His exact position in the military hierarchy is uncertain, but the location of his activities at Sirmium, while still being in charge of the Danube limes, suggests the position of a magister militum per Illyricum. The spring of 568 found the Avars besieging Gepid controlled Sirmium. Avar khagan Bayan's ultimate objective was Sirmium; at the original negotiations, he already requested that Langobards provide guides who could lead him against Sirmium. Moving in through the Moravian Pass and along the left bank of the Danube, 'taking immense pains and covering a long distance,' he set upon the Gepids. The late Langobard chronicles naturally attribute to their own king and people the glory of defeating the Gepids. But Byzantine contemporaries, who were well-informed and had a direct interest in the matter, recorded that it was Bayan who had 'defeated them in war' and 'smashed the Gepids' state'. Bayan defeated the Gepids' main force, led by King Kunimund; the latter was killed in battle, and Bayan, in keeping with ancient Eastern custom, had his opponent's skull turned into a drinking bowl before presenting it — ostensibly in friendship — to Alboin. Thereupon, Bayan immediately crossed the Danube to attack Sirmium's Gepidic defenders. The commander of the latter, Usdibad, did not wait for the Avars to arrive; he and his soldiers surrendered to the East Roman forces, who were on a state of alert. The Gepids' heir apparent, Reptila, fled to Constantinople, as did the head of the Gepid Arian Church, Bishop Thrasarik. By the time Bayan reached Sirmium, the town was already defended by Bonos's Byzantine troops; the latter repulsed the Avar cavalry, which was unprepared for the siege of a fortress. Bonus was in charge of the defense within the walls and was wounded in combat. When negotiations started between the defenders and the besiegers, Bonus was initially unable to attend the meetings. The Avars started suspecting that their opponent was dead, forcing Bonus to appear to them in person. The Avars eventually agreed to lift the siege in exchange for a "gift" (payment). Bonus sought the approval from Emperor Justin II. Months later, Bonus allowed an Avar embassy to cross Byzantine areas towards Constantinople. The negotiations at the capital failed. Justin II reprimanded Bonus for granting protection to an embassy that had clearly unacceptable demands. His message to Bonus also warned the general to prepare for renewed hostilities. In 569/570, Tiberius II Constantine, the comes excubitorum, instructed Bonus to guard the river crossings of the Danube once more. His subsequent activities are unknown. The 10th-century Suda lexicon preserves another fragment of Menander Protector concerning Bonus, though its context is left unclear. The passage has Bonus warning his men that the Avars use battle cries and the beating of the drums to unnerve their enemies. He instructs his forces to answer with battle cries of their own. The "Suda On Line" project translates the relevant passage (E, 2310): "The Avars in their battle-charge wanted to raise a confused and fierce noise, and along with their yelling to make a thud on their drums, so that the din would be raised so much that it would astonish and terrify the Roman army. Since Bonos knew this in advance, he forewarned the soldiers, so that they would not be dumbfounded by the melee, but imitating in advance what was going to happen, to be accustomed to what was to come by the similarity even before the event, and when they perceived the beating of the drums, they themselves would beat in return with their shields and shout the war-song and sing a paean and make a thump on the water-pots (which were made of wood)." The Byzantines secured peace with the Avars through the payment of an annual tribute, which by 578 had risen to some 80,000 solidi. \|Eastern Roman Soldiers\| The Second Attack on Sirmium (580 - 582 AD) In 580 began the second attack on Sirmium. The problem is this is yet another major Byzantine military campaign with nearly zero historical information available. Even Edward Gibbon's massive "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" spends only a few sentences on the subject with no meaningful detail. We need to fill in the huge historical gaps using logic and our knowledge of other campaigns. Was the city of Sirmium Important? - The actions of both the Romans and the Avars prove the city was very important. In two campaigns the Avars targeted the city first for conquest. The second campaign lasted nearly three years indicating a political and military will to make the capture of the city a priority as a key to the future conquest of the Balkans. For the Romans, Sirmium had been an important regional and Imperial capital for centuries. An Imperial Palace complex had been built there and a Hippodrome constructed for public entertainment. The importance of the city is indicated that the Roman commander refused to surrender the city to the enemy for nearly three years until instructed to do so by the Emperor. \|Roman Urban Militia\| Modern reconstruction of 6th century urban militiaman. His blue tunic marks him as a member of the “Blues Circus Fraction”. The double head eagle though appeared after the 14th century. Thanks to Koryvantes Certainly the Avars felt they had to take the city before trying to advance deeper into the Balkans. The Avars could not move south with a major Roman garrison intact in their rear. What Forces Were Involved? - There are no records of the numbers of troops involved. We do know that the Emperor shipped regiments from the Balkans to the eastern front to fight in the Persian War. Historians claim the city did not have enough provisions or an "effective" garrison . . . whatever that might mean. But the truth of the events has the city garrison, perhaps with the help of a drafted militia, standing against the Avars for nearly three years. So there were enough soldiers at hand to man the walls and protect the city. The Avars would have needed a significantly larger force than the Romans in order to maintain a siege. I suspect their force would fluctuate over the months and years, but at least several thousand would be on hand to keep the Romans trapped inside. Was The City Reinforced? - We know at the beginning of the siege that the Emperor ordered officers from Illyria and Dalmatia to the city to help organize the defenses. I suspect the officers did not travel alone so they may have brought a small party of soldiers with them. It is very possible that over the years that the garrison received periodic small amounts of supplies and reinforcements from neighboring Roman towns. The Avars may have controlled the countryside with their cavalry, but they faced the task of keeping thousands of their troops supplied with food for years. What Fighting Took Place? - Unfortunately there are no records of battles with the Avars, but I am almost 100% sure that the opposing forces did not sit and stare at each other doing nothing for nearly three years. The Avars were equestrian warrior nomads who appeared to have no ability or interest in constructing siege weapons to bring down the city walls. A siege causing starvation is the best they could manage. The Avar Khagan would have faced rebellion in his ranks from restless soldiers with nothing to do for months on end. The Khagan initially would have tried attacks on the city testing the defenses. As the Romans held firm the Khagan would probably have planned a regular series of smaller day and night probes of the city walls hoping to catch the Romans off guard. Being short on troops the Roman garrison may not have responded to the Avar attacks beyond cheering from the walls at the defeat of the enemy. If neighboring Roman garrisons had tried to help resupply Sirmium by river or land at night there could have been a number of small actions against the Avars. \|The Nearby Roman Fortress of Singidunum.\| What We Do Know - Historian Edward Gibbon says the Avar Khagan Bayan I marched with his men to the Roman Fortress of Singidunum which controlled the conflux of the Danube and Sava Rivers. An Avar fleet of large boats had been constructed to transport bridge making materials up the rivers. The Roman commander of this strong garrison challenged the Khagan as to his intentions saying his movements were a violation of the peace treaty. The Khagan swore oaths that he was not hostile to the Empire saying, "If I violate my oath may I myself, and the last of my nation, perish by the sword." The Khagan claimed he was simply moving to attack Slav invaders who had refused to pay the Avars their annual tribute. The Bishop of Singidunum held services with the rather disrespectful Avars who gave even more oaths of friendship. The Avar Khagan marched with his men from Singidunum following the right bank of the Sava River to Sirmium. Once the city was besieged Bayan said, "Inform the Emperor that Sirmium is invested on every side. Advise his prudence to withdraw the citizens and their effects, and to resign a city which it is now impossible to relieve or defend." \|Byzantine Infantry 6th C. AD\| The city at the time lacked a large enough garrison and unprepared to withstand a siege, as most of the Byzantine forces were engaged in the east against Sassanid Persia. The Byzantine Emperor Tiberius II tried to forestall the Avar attack by diplomatic means, but when the Khagan′s ambassador demanded the surrender of the city Tiberius said in reply, "I would sooner give your master one of my two daughters to wife than I would of my own free will surrender Sirmium." An interesting side note. The Avar ambassador was returning from Constantinople with his Roman escort when the entire party was killed by Slav pillagers. This casually mentioned event in Byzantine accounts tells us a great deal about the lawless conditions in the open countryside of the Roman Balkan provinces. Tiberius's armies were committed in Persia and Italy, but managed to send in a few officers from Dalmatia and Illyria to oversee the city's defenses. The Roman commander Theognis met with the Khagan on the islands of Casia and Carbonaria, but the negotiations proved to be fruitless. Despite the relative weakness of the garrison, the city resisted for almost three years. With no end in sight for the Persian War in late 581 or early 582, shortly before his death, that Tiberius agreed to surrender the city in exchange for the lives of its citizens. The Avars spared the population, but took their possessions and 240,000 solidi from the Emperor, as arrears of the tribute owed over three years. The Slavs took advantage of the siege of Sirmium to raid deeply into Roman territory. The Slavs began to raid further south into Macedonia and Greece, evidenced by many coin hoards in the region, particularly in Attica near Athens and in the Peloponnese. With Sirmium taken Bayan established a new base of operations within Roman territory from which he could raid the anywhere in the Balkans unhindered. The new Emperor Maurice's forces were tied down for years in a war against the Persians. He could muster only a small army against the Avars and Slavs in the Balkans. In a long campaign lasting until 602 Maurice pacified the Balkan borders, a feat not performed since the reign of Anastasius I. Avars and Slavs had been kept sternly at bay. The provinces were at a stage of potential recovery; reconstruction and resettlement were the keys to firmly secure Roman rule again. Maurice had plans to settle Armenian militia peasants within the depopulated areas and to Romanize the Slavs settlers in the area. \|Golden Roman helmet found near Sirmium; it has been \| exhibited in the Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad. \|Ruins of Imperial Palace at Sirmium\| \|Northern Balkans in the 6th century.\| Click on map to enlarge. \|Sirmium, Capital of the Praetorian Prefecture of Illyricum\| In 293, with the establishment of tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts; Sirmium emerged as one of the four capital cities of the Roman Empire, the other three being Trier, Mediolanum, and Nicomedia and was the capital of Emperor Galerius. With the establishment of Praetorian prefectures in 318, the capital of the prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium, remaining so until 379, when the westernmost Diocese of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, Pannonia (including Sirmium), was dettached and joined to the Praetorian prefecture of Italia assuming the name of Diocese of Illyricum. The eastern part of Illyricum remained a separate prefecture under the East Roman Empire with its new capital in Thessalonica. From the 4th century, the city was an important Christian center, and the seat of the Bishop of Sirmium. Five church councils, the Councils of Sirmium, were held in Sirmium. The city also had an emperor's palace, horse racing arena, mint, arena theatre, theatre, as well as many workshops, public baths, temples, public palaces and luxury villas. Ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus called it "the glorious mother of cities". At the end of the 4th century, Sirmium was brought under the sway of the Goths, and later, was again annexed to the Eastern Roman Empire. In 441, Sirmium was conquered by the Huns, and after this conquest, it remained for more than a century in the hands of various other tribes, such as Eastern Goths and Gepids. For a short time, Sirmium was the centre of the Gepid State and King Cunimund minted golden coins there. After 567, Sirmium reverted to the Eastern Roman Empire. The city was finally conquered and destroyed by the Avars in 582. (AVAR RULE) (Eurasian Avars) (Avar Khaganate) (Siege of Sirmium) (panacomp.net/Serbia - Sirmijum) (Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire) Baynes, Norman H. (1913), "Chapter IX. The Successors of Justinian", The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. II: The rise of the Saracens and the foundation of the Western Empire, New York: Cambridge University	<urn:uuid:c580d46c-48ef-4e0b-8bf2-93456e96a1e7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2014/02/the-siege-of-sirmium-and-invasion-of.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96816	5,940	3.21875	3
Rene Marcou, recipient of the first sponsored research funding at BC. BC's Space Pioneers University's Institute for Space Research is the legacy of one eccentric, hard-working Frenchman By Mark Sullivan Second in a series of profiles on outstanding Boston College researchers. On Nov. 1, 1954, a cigar-smoking Boston College mathematician with an obsession for numbers, Rene Marcou, was awarded an Air Force grant to develop algorithms for analyzing data collected by early rockets shot into the ionosphere. The check for $4,966.24 was the first government sponsored research funding ever to come to Boston College. In the 50 years since, the Institute for Scientific Research that began with the late Prof. Marcou, who died in 1996 at age 90, has received nearly $90 million for work that has helped put men on the moon, strengthen America's defenses, and keep planes and ships on course. Sponsored research in general has become a large-scale enterprise at Boston College, which took in a university-record $42 million in grant funding in the past fiscal year alone. The 43-person ISR lab tucked in St. Clement's Hall develops mathematical formulae used in analyzing the ionosphere, a layer of the atmosphere 60 to 2,000 kilometers up that is charged by solar radiation and reflects radio waves to distant places on Earth. The research, done largely for the government, has applications in satellite communications and global-positioning systems that guide aircraft. This past fiscal year, the ISR took in nearly $4.9 million in research funding. "Everything that impacts communications takes place in the ionosphere," said Director Leo Power '56 MA '64 MBA '72, who began with the research lab two years after Sputnik and has remained through the Space Race to the current era of cell phones and home satellite dishes. During the Cold War the researchers studied disturbances to the ionosphere caused by atomic testing, he said. Now they focus on those caused by natural phenomena, like space weather, or solar storms, or the auroras created when solar energy interacts with the Earth's magnetic field. In July, Senior Research Scientist Patricia Doherty was awarded an Air Force grant of nearly $2.7 million over five years to characterize and forecast ionospheric effects on communication and navigation systems. This work includes the study of potentially damaging ionospheric storms: She noted one of the largest magnetic storms on record pelted the ionosphere at the end of October a year ago. In May, Senior Research Scientist Brian Sullivan '63 MA '65 was awarded an Air Force grant of $4.99 million over five years for work on space-weather forecasting. "We've had solar storms that have knocked out power on the East Coast," said Sullivan, who has developed space-weather forecasting software for the Air Force, and now is devising a special film that when placed on a satellite can capture a full picture of space. The space research they do has down-to-earth significance, said Doherty. "Everywhere we go today is guided by satellite navigation - ships, planes, even a lot of cars have satellite navigation," she said. "Everything we do now is devoted to day-to-day life. We all have a cell phone. We all take planes or drive a car." What is now the Institute for Scientific Research began a half-century ago in the work done for the Air Force at Hanscom Field by Prof. Marcou, who joined the BC faculty in 1934 and was instrumental in building the Mathematics Department. In the early '50s, the aim was to study atmospheric conditions that would affect radar communications. The Air Force would launch a rocket with a sensor that would eject and parachute back to earth with readings taken of the ionosphere. Prof. Marcou was commissioned to devise mathematical algorithms that could be used to analyze the data. The work led to the founding of the Ionospheric Research Laboratory at BC in 1958. Power joined the lab as a junior researcher the next year, and Sullivan, in 1963. The two longtime colleagues last week fondly recalled their mathematician mentor in the years before scientific research became a multimillion dollar enterprise at the university. "Rene Marcou was a different breed, a real egghead, who had three loves: mathematics, politics and family," Power said. "A Frenchman, he would come to work every morning with his beret, a cigar, and a briefcase full of equations. He'd put the cigar on the chalk tray, the beret on the desk, pull the equations out of his briefcase, pick up the chalk, and begin deriving equations. "He would derive equations till five o'clock at night, when he would put the chalk down on the tray, pick up the cigar, put the equations in his briefcase, go home, have supper, turn on the television, watch 'Gunsmoke' while doing equations on his lap, then retire. The next day he'd start the same routine over again. "He was a real character," Power said, with a laugh, "a nerd before his time." Sullivan recalled Marcou's approach to teaching partial differential equations: "He would fill panel after panel with equations, then take a whole bloc of equations and say, 'We'll call this A.' The next bloc would be B, and then he'd total the equation A plus B plus C. You'd go home and look at your notes and say, 'what the heck is A?'" Sullivan recalled a "eureka" moment gone awry when a Frieden calculating machine was being used to plot the parabolic trajectory of a rocket. "Marcou spends two days doing it. Finally, he yells, 'I got it,' slams his hand down on the 'clear' button - and it was all gone." "He never made the adjustment to the computer age," said Power. But sponsored research at Boston College today can be traced to Rene Marcou's chalk-filled blackboard.	<urn:uuid:d10878ee-3a26-4e20-9fc9-c453666b460e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/rvp/pubaf/chronicle/v13/o21/research.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.964423	1,243	2.828125	3
Miller indices are a notation system in crystallography for planes and directions in crystal lattices. In particular, a family of lattice planes is determined by three integers, l, m, and n, the Miller indices. They are written (lmn) and denote planes orthogonal to a direction (l,m,n) in the basis of the reciprocal lattice vectors. Cite this work Researchers should cite this work as follows:	<urn:uuid:63b67977-ad92-40ab-974d-9f89df78c99e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://nanohub.org/resources/9136?rec_ref=4200	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.907851	91	2.515625	3
July 11, 2013 Glass Sponge Community Thrives Despite Antarctic Ice Loss Brett Smith for redOrbit.com - Your Universe Online The waters around Antarctica can be an inhospitable place, but a new study has shown that dynamic events in the region are constantly shaping and even boosting the ecosystems in the Southern Ocean.The study, published in Current Biology, reports on a surprisingly prolific community of glass sponges colonizing an area formerly covered by permanent ice - surprising because the sponges live long, slow lives that can extend up to 10,000 years. "By comparing identical tracks video-surveyed by remotely operated underwater vehicle in one of the least accessible parts of the Antarctic, we found two- and three-fold increases in the biomass and abundance of glass sponges, respectively, from 2007 to 2011," said co-author Claudio Richter of the Alfred Wegener Institute in Germany. "This is much faster than any of us would have thought possible." In 1995, the Larsen A ice shelf collapsed into the western Weddell Sea. Scientists had assumed that affected ecosystems there would slowly change over time due to the very low temperature and intermittent resources in the icy waters. "We now know that glass sponges may undergo boom-and-bust cycles, allowing them to quickly colonize new habitats in a short period of time," Richter said. "To the organisms living on the sea bed, the disappearance of the hundred-[meter]-thick Larsen A ice shelf must have been like the heavens opening up above them," he added. The ice shelf collapse had alleviated the darkness that once dominated the area, allowing sunlight to facilitate plankton growth. The exploding plankton population created a steady food supply for glass sponges, which feed on the smallest plankton by filtering it from the water. As the sponges grow, their vase-like bodies provide spawning and sheltering opportunities for fish and other Antarctic sea inhabitants. "Like corals, sponges create their own habitats," Ricther said. "To an extent they are like cities on the sea bed. There is something going on wherever they grow, and this attracts other sea dwellers to them." While the ecosystems appeared to benefit from the ice shelf collapse, the researchers said it would be premature to draw the conclusion that loss of ice induced by climate change would be beneficial for the Antarctic. "There are still too many unknowns to make predictions," said co-author Laura Fillinger, a biologist at the Alfred Wegener Institute. "One example is the question of the influence of competitors: currently we are witnessing a fierce competition for space on the sea bed." "Another concerns predators: in our dive in 2011 we hardly saw any of the snails and starfish, which feed on glass sponges," she added. "However, it is possible that these voracious predators will follow suit and wreak havoc." "A general principle to be learned from our study is that benthic communities are very dynamic, even under the extreme environmental conditions prevailing in the Antarctic," Fillinger said. "Only four years ago, the study area was dominated by a species of sea squirt. Now this pioneer species has all but disappeared, giving way to a community dominated by young individuals of a glass sponge."	<urn:uuid:f318aece-f938-4f9e-83f6-7ebc823a3b39>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112895933/glass-sponge-community-adapts-to-antarctic-ice-loss-climate-change-071013/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956568	684	3.84375	4
DES MOINES, Iowa (AP) — More than 130 scientists from Iowa colleges and universities say this year’s drought is consistent with a warmer climate predicted as part of global climate change and more droughts can be expected. Scientists and researchers from 27 Iowa colleges and universities signed the Iowa Climate Statement released Monday. It says a warming climate causes wet years to be wetter and dry years to be hotter and dryer. Those extremes lead to more flooding and drought, and Iowa has experienced both in recent years. The state was hard hit this year when drought spread across two-thirds of the country. The scientists say warming will continue as global emissions increase and greenhouse gases accumulate, and they expect a growing number of droughts as soon as the 2020s. (© Copyright 2012 The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)	<urn:uuid:d0720fb7-9a24-4804-aa29-e80e34b7e6b7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://minnesota.cbslocal.com/2012/11/19/iowa-scientists-drought-a-sign-of-climate-change/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943978	184	2.6875	3
The word default in tennis, is not the same as the word default in computers. In the computer world, the word default means, what your computer will do when you don’t tell it to do something else. Most families have two or more cars. Chances are that each member of the family has their favorite car to drive. If they have to go somewhere, there is a good chance that they will drive the same car every time. This, in the computer world, would be considered the default car for that person. When you type a document on your computer, the font selected is probably Times New Roman, Arial, Helvetica or Garamond. The font that your computer has set every time you go into the program is the default font. If you have two or more printers, one of those printers is where documents will go when you hit the print button, unless you make an effort to direct the job to the other printer. This is the default printer. So, that’s default. Use it three times today and the word is yours.	<urn:uuid:28751ac6-f6f7-4b9d-8662-24c464af5e4f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://helpmerick.com/what-does-default-mean.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943961	224	2.953125	3
The Mannesmann Giant Triplane was found in an incomplete state, in a hangar on the airfield at Poll, near Cologne, by an Inter-Allied Aeronautical Control Commission team in 19196. Initially thought to be a giant bomber capable of bombing New York, it is now thought to be a trans-atlantic ranged transport aircraft. Designed by Villehad Forssman, designer of the SSW R-plane, the aircraft was initially financed by the Deutche Bank, and Bruning & Sohn A.G., "owners of the four largest high quality plywood factories in Germany." Unsurprisingly, plywood was used extensively in it's construction. Missing several components when found, leading to the conclusion that these were constructed elsewhere, the I.A.A.C.C. team were impressed both with the overall concept, and detailed construction work they found, but were sceptical of the overall structural concept, considering it overweight, but at the same time weak. It has also been reported that the Triplane's mission was to drop propaganda leaflets over the USA, before that country entered the war. Illustrated below, a provisional 3-view of the aircraft, and a view of the interior of the fuselage. Sources :- Putnam's 'German Giants', pp.152-6, 'Giants of the Sky', Gunston, page 38.	<urn:uuid:f22f12e5-c59a-4888-9cda-64f009cd9eb8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.secretprojects.co.uk/forum/index.php/topic,10938.0.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.965892	290	2.78125	3
Their Eyes Were Watching God Chapter 20 Quotes How we cite the quotes: Citations follow this format: (Chapter.Paragraph) Janie mounted the stairs with her lamp. The light in her hand was like a spark of sun-stuff washing her face in fire. (20.11) Janie is so immersed in thoughts of Tea Cake, her son of Evening Sun, that she thinks of the lamp in her hand as a spark from her love, lighting her face and her path so that she can see. [Janie]: "Dey gointuh make ‘miration ‘cause mah love didn’t work lak they love, if dey ever had any. Then you must tell ‘em dat love ain’t somethin’ lak uh grindstone dat’s de same thing everywhere and do de same thing tuh everything it touch. Love is lak de sea. It’s uh movin’ thing, but still and all, it takes its shape from de shore it meets, and it’s different with every shore." (20.7) Janie lectures Pheoby that love is not a fixed thing that is the same for everyone who experiences it. Instead it is as fluid and changing as the sea, only shaped by the shores (or men) it meets. Society has a normative and inflexible idea of what love is, when actual love is different for everyone. Here was peace. She pulled in her horizon like a great fish-net. Pulled it from around the waist of the world and draped it over her shoulder. So much of life in its meshes! She called in her soul to come and see. (20.12) Both Janie’s innocence and maturity are represented here in the image of the horizon. As an innocent child, Janie always chased her horizons. Here at the end, she has both worshipped her horizons from afar and traveled them so she has the capacity to "pull it from around the waist of the world and drape it over her shoulder," without complete ignorance but also without cynicism. Now she can just marvel and cherish all the life snared in its meshes and relive her many full memories.	<urn:uuid:b71bfc72-8bbb-44f5-b6d2-cfab5ca1568d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.shmoop.com/eyes-were-watching-god/chapter-20-quotes.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952535	467	2.53125	3
Title: Strategies to Improve and Preserve Flexible Pavement at Intersections Funding Agency: Texas Department of Transportation Research Supervisor: Dr. Soheil Nazarian, PhD. PE Length: 2 years The failures of intersections are often a significant pavement performance problem requiring cost-effective, technically sound mitigation techniques. Truck heavy wheel loadings, particularly when slow moving or standing, and during hot weather, subject the pavement to stress/strain conditions, which may cause excessive permanent deformation. These high stress/strain conditions at intersections require these pavements to be designed, constructed, and maintained to withstand much more severe operating conditions than regular pavements. The products of the proposed research will include the guidelines for design and construction of intersections and a draft specification for the construction of intersections. An expert system will also be developed for TxDOT districts as an easy-to-use tool for selecting appropriate remedies at intersections. The implementation of an expert system for the selection of appropriate remedies for intersections seems logical. An expert system, a subfield of artificial intelligence, is a knowledge-based system whose performance is intended to rival that of human experts while being highly domain specific. It can be used to record and distribute scarce expert knowledge, to apply the expert knowledge to remote locations, to ensure the quality of problem solving, and to train experts out of ordinary people. The expert system in this case will serve as a step-by-step guidance on the process of designing the optimum solution. The expertise of the engineers that are experienced with intersection remediation would be utilized by everyone. The expert system will ensure a more rational, faster and consistent manner of selecting an alternative. Also uniformity of the decision process in using an expert system promotes more design consistency across the districts. Also, Expert systems are most valuable to organizations that have a high-level of know-how experience and expertise that cannot be easily transferred to other members especially that more baby boomers are retiring from agencies like TXDOT. The system is designed to carry the intelligence and information found in the intellect of experts and provides this knowledge to other members of the organization for problem-solving purposes.	<urn:uuid:92fc3682-a479-4bcb-abc5-b87259b22dc1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://wiki.utep.edu/display/EIP/Strategies+to+Improve+and+Preserve+Flexible+Pavement+at+Intersections	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93924	438	2.671875	3
Class Management Style these 12 questions and learn more about your classroom • Read each statement carefully. Write your response, from the scale below, on a sheet of paper. • Respond to each statement based upon either actual or 1. = Strongly Disagree 2. = Disagree 3. = Neutral 4. = Agree 5. = Strongly Agree (1) If a student is disruptive during class, I assign him/her to detention, without further discussion. (2) I don’t want to impose any rules on my students. (3) The classroom must be quiet in order for students to learn. (4) I am concerned about both what my students learn and how they learn. (5) If a student turns in a late homework assignment, it is not my (6) I don’t want to reprimand a student because it might hurt (7) Class preparation isn’t worth the effort. (8) I always try to explain the reasons behind my rules and decisions. (9) I will not accept excuses from a student who is tardy. (10) The emotional well-being of my students is more important than (11) My students understand that they can interrupt my lecture if they have a relevant question. (12) If a student requests a hall pass, I always honor the request.	<urn:uuid:2856236f-02ec-4adf-8b57-dfb6009a992c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.pedagonet.com/quickies/yourstyle.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.904843	298	2.96875	3
Curbing water use in American households could be as easy as making simple changes to your daily routine and installing a few water-efficient appliances, a recent article suggests. Among these actions are reducing shower times and toilet flushes, doing only full loads of laundry, and installing WaterSense and ENERGY STAR labeled products, just to name a few. With many water suppliers expecting to face water availability problems in the 21stcentury, water conservation offers a cost-effective and environmentally benign way to address these challenges as opposed to capturing, transporting, and treating new supplies. Co-authored by Benjamin D. Inskeep and Shahzeen Z. Attari, “The Water Short List: The Most Effective Action U.S. Households Can Take to Curb Water Use,” was published in the July/August issue of Environment magazine.* “We find that the average household can reduce their indoor water use by up to 45% (70 gallons per household per day),” co-author Shahzeen Z. Attari said. The results of the study, Attari said, are presented throughout the article in an easy-to-use, ranked water short list. Households are encouraged to reduce water usage to save money on water bills, minimize their environmental footprint, and do their part in contributing to conservation goals during times of shortage. The top five most effective actions to save water indoors, according to the article, are installing low-flush toilets, using a water-efficient clothes washing machine, reducing shower time to an average of five minutes, washing full loads of clothes, and reducing toilet flushes by 25%. Attari said the water short list identifies effective actions households can take to decrease water use and increase the sustainability of public water supply systems. * Read the full OPEN ACCESS article online: About Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group partners with researchers, scholarly societies, universities and libraries worldwide to bring knowledge to life. As one of the world’s leading publishers of scholarly journals, books, ebooks and reference works our content spans all areas of Humanities, Social Sciences, Behavioural Sciences, Science, and Technology and Medicine. From our network of offices in Oxford, New York, Philadelphia, Boca Raton, Boston, Melbourne, Singapore, Beijing, Tokyo, Stockholm, New Delhi and Johannesburg, Taylor & Francis staff provide local expertise and support to our editors, societies and authors and tailored, efficient customer service to our library colleagues SOURCE: Taylor & Francis Group	<urn:uuid:882340d9-dc04-4f4b-bef0-c12dcd379a9a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wateronline.com/doc/top-water-saving-tips-for-american-households-0001?atc~c=771%20s=773%20r=001%20l=a	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.922812	517	3.109375	3
Holidays mean old traditions are practiced once more. One holiday tradition of St. Augustine is to serve datil pepper jelly with cream cheese at Christmas events. This small, hot pepper has a long history in St. Augustine. The datil pepper was brought to St. Augustine by Minorcan settlers. It has been in the area for a few hundred years now and still its availability in the New World is almost exclusive to our area. Some local families enjoy boasting that they can trace the lineage of the datil peppers they grow each year back to many generations of their relatives. The datil pepper can be grown as an annual or perennial. If mild winters occur the plants can live for several years. Many people grow them in a five gallon bucket so they can bring the plant in if a hard freeze is expected. The peppers themselves can grow to about two inches long. They start out green, then turn yellow and are orange at full maturity. Green peppers are the hottest and using the seeds of the pepper makes the flavor even hotter. They do make a colorful bush. Datils come from a similar climate to ours but we get a little more humid. This is probably why peppers are produced heaviest in late spring and fall and slack off during our humid summers. Even now local datil plants can be seen holding a crop of peppers. Besides traditional jelly, datils can be used to heat up many dishes. Bottled Hell is a local homemade hot sauce recipe made by many gardeners. Another way to use datils and a colorful gift is to fill an attractive bottle with the peppers and then pour vinegar over them. This spicy vinegar is used over cooked vegetables or to flavor many other dishes. This holiday start a new, old local tradition and give friends a datil pepper plant or better yet give them some jelly or hot sauce. Hot, spicy datil seasoned foods are a wonderful way to warm one up on a cold winter's night. Read more Garden Hotline online © 2016. All Rights Reserved. Contact Us	<urn:uuid:8c4e6869-06d7-495c-b754-711e20704c0d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://staugustine.com/stories/121402/gar_1185431.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937751	412	2.734375	3
Retinal vein occlusion Retinal vein occlusion is a blockage of the small veins that carry blood away from the retina. The retina is the layer of tissue at the back of the inner eye that converts light images to nerve signals and sends them to the brain. Central retinal vein occlusion; Branch retinal vein occlusion; CRVO; BRVO Retinal vein occlusion is most often caused by hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) and the formation of a blood clot. Blockage of smaller veins (branch veins or BRVO) in the retina often occurs in places where retinal arteries that have been thickened or hardened by atherosclerosis cross over and place pressure on a retinal vein. Risk factors for retinal vein occlusion include: The risk of these disorders increases with age, therefore retinal vein occlusion most often affects older people. Blockage of retinal veins may cause other eye problems, including: Exams and Tests Tests to evaluate for vein occlusion include: Other tests may include: The health care provider will closely monitor any blockage for several months. It may take 3 or more months for harmful effects such as glaucoma to develop after the occlusion. Many people will regain vision, even without treatment. However, vision rarely returns to normal. There is no way to reverse or open the blockage. You may need treatment to prevent another blockage from forming in the same or the other eye. It's important to manage diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol levels. Some people may need to take aspirin or other blood thinners. Treatment for the complications of retinal vein occlusion may include: The outcome varies. Patients with retinal vein occlusion often regain useful vision. It is important to properly manage conditions such as macular edema and glaucoma. However, having either of these complications is more likely to lead to a poor outcome. When to Contact a Medical Professional Call your health care provider if you have sudden blurring or vision loss. Retinal vein occlusion is a sign of a general blood vessel (vascular) disease. Measures used to prevent other blood vessel diseases may decrease the risk of retinal vein occlusion. These measures include: Aspirin or other blood thinners may help prevent blockages in the other eye. Controlling diabetes may help prevent retinal vein occlusion. Crouch ER, Crouch ER, Grant TR. Ophthalmology. In: Rakel RE, ed. Textbook of Family Medicine. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 41. Kreutzer TC, Alge CS, Wolf AH, Kook D, Burger J, Strauss R, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab for the treatment of macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92:351-5. PMID: 18211925 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18211925. Reiss GR, Sipperley JO, Gaitan JR. Glaucoma Associated with Retinal Disorders and Retinal Surgery. In: Tasman W, Jaeger EA, eds. Duane's Clinical Ophthalmology. 2013 ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013:vol 3; chap 54E. Sanborn GE, Magargal LE. Venous occlusive disease of the retina. In: Tasman W, Jaeger EA, eds. Duane's Clinical Ophthalmology. 2013 ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2013:vol 3, chap 15. Wu L, Arevalo JF, Roca JA, Maia M, Berrocal MH, Rodriguez FJ, et al. Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group (PACORES). Comparison of two doses of intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: results from the Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group at 6 months of follow-up. Retina. 2008;28:212-9. PMID: 18301025 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18301025. Review Date: 5/8/2014 Reviewed By: Franklin W. Lusby, MD, Ophthalmologist, Lusby Vision Institute, La Jolla, CA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.	<urn:uuid:ee6929e2-c47e-494f-8e59-daa8861243ad>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://pennstatehershey.adam.com/content.aspx?productId=117&pid=1&gid=007330	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.831845	1,113	3.546875	4
What You Need to Set Up Your Mac OS X Snow Leopard Wired Network To set up a network on Mac OS X Snow Leopard, you need the right hardware and software. Some of the hardware and most of the software that you’ll need probably came with your Mac, and any good-sized computer store will have everything else you need to get up and running. Here is a list of equipment that you need to assemble before you start building your network: Devices that you want to network: Most times these are computers, printers, cell phones, smartphones, and other stand-alone, network-capable devices (such as file servers and shared tape back-up drives). Network interface card (NIC): The NIC connects to the network cabling, and it speaks the language of electronics, sending data around the network. Nowadays, most networks use the Ethernet networking protocol, and most NICs are Ethernet compatible. All Intel-based Mac models have Ethernet NIC hardware built right onto the Mac’s main system board. Switch: The switch is used to connect everything, so it’s the focal point of the network. A switch is really just a small box that has a bunch of Ethernet ports on it. A port is really just like an Ethernet NIC on your computer, but a switch has lots of them. Inside, all those Ethernet ports are arranged so that the talking (sending) wires from each port connect to the listening (receiving) wires on all other ports. Therefore, when one computer talks, all others listen. Setting up a switch is usually no more difficult than connecting a power cable to the device and then plugging in your computers with their own Ethernet cables. Cables: Cables are used to connect the Ethernet port on each computer to the switch, the central hardware of the network. With a little experience, you’ll be a cable-wielding superhero with hundreds of feet of cable draped across every piece of furniture in your place for your first LAN party. Technically, you can run 100 Mbps Ethernet over Cat5 cable. Although you can do 10/100 Mbps Ethernet over Cat5 cable, any new cables that you buy should be Cat5E or Cat6ll. Be sure to buy straight-through Cat5E/Cat6 cables (also called patch cables) and not crossover cables, which are used only in certain circumstances. Crossover cables are mainly used to connect two computers directly (to form a tiny, two-computer network), connect a cable/DSL modem directly to a computer, or connect multiple switches.	<urn:uuid:c5c30f5f-0fda-475b-a198-6c579bf818b1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/what-you-need-to-set-up-your-mac-os-x-snow-leopard.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.926424	532	2.515625	3
SOCIETY, SPORT AND ITS PARADOXES OF CURRENT SPORT Physical Education Department • Nowadays, sport is a sign of quality of our society, sport is a key part of our 21st society with its advantages and disadvantages. In this unit we’ll deal with some of the most controversial topics in sport phenomenon in society to make a critical thought about it. POLITICS AND SPORT • At a political level, sport is considered a propaganda tool. • In some countries sport is used as a way of leaving aside the real problems and of entertaining the citizenship. • At the same time, the politician tries to associate his image with a sport success. • On the other hand, sportsmen don’t want to be linked to a political party or ideology. • Think about these questions that everybody has listened to at any time: • ‘do you practice any • ‘what do you do in your • do you do any physical activity in the open air?’ • or ‘you should do sport’. ECONOMY AND SPORT • Nowadays, sport is a leading economic activity in Spanish society since it represents the 1.2 % of the Gross Domestic • Sport needs facilities and services which are rather expensive, it also needs specific material and equipment and it also needs people who teach sport, computers, medical assistance, TV satellites… that is, an economic importance that isn´t very often noticed. VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSIONS IN SPORT • It´s remarkable to say that human actions are influenced mainly by the environment, that is, the society. • It´s true the topic is open, maybe the collective contribution of Biology, Psychology and Sociology could give us an answer to this Then, why are we so worried by the • First of all, because the wave of violence around sport causes obvious personal, material and moral damages. But because of our tolerance towards violence has fallen, violence is not so extreme and our sensitivity is higher than BETS IN SPORT • Betfair, Bwin or Unibet are 3 of the most usual bookmakers. Betting on sports in the Internet is extremely easy: a credit card and be over 18 are the only requirements. • But this entails that matches are fixed, there are bent referees or agreements among the players to manipulate the scores in a sport competition. DRUG-TAKING IN SPORT Why is the reason to use drug? FORBIDDEN SUBSTANCES AND METHODS IN • In our society, medicines are not only used to fight illnesses but also to help in extreme (tiredness, pain, sleep, • The sportman resorts to them to stimulate himself, make his strength and concentration grow, calm his tiredness… • This is the group of forbidden • Anabolic steroids. • Pharmacological substances. “The recreational sport as well as the competitive one have an important role in current MASS MEDIA IN SPORT • By means of the mass media, sport has become • The king of sports is, without any doubt, football which is continuously broadcast in radio and TV and occupies plenty of pages in sport press. • Mass media exert great influence in the personal opinion of each person. SPORT MAKES AND POPULAR AND This sponsorship has a few characteristics that make it • Sport sponsorship represents the 11% of the advertising investment every year. This implies an investment of 600 • Visibility. It focused on advertising and marketing. It allows that the logo of the firm can be seen everywhere. • Spectators. Diverse, numerous and less elitist public. • Media presence. Sports are in the media more frequently than any other activity. Sponsoring a team, a sportsman of a sport event guarantees the presence of the logo in a video, in a photo…. SPORT MAKES AND POPULAR AND THE VALUES OF SPORT SPORT AND INDIVIDUAL • A desire of doing better. • Team spirit. • Reach the goals. • Although individual sponsorship is not born from sport sponsorship, it´s true that in this field we find more • Individual sponsorship is found either in team sports or individual ones. The same firm can sponsor Messi or Michael Phelps (a swimmer). • On the other hand, sport sponsorship must think about getting the highest results of ADVERTISING IN SPORT. • The relationship between Advertising and sport is so close that both activities profit • The sponsors use sport as a way of persuading consumers who are gradually more • Sport provides the businessman with a profitable alternative to carry out advertising campaigns with a • It´s possible to choose among sports broadcast in television or in live. ADVERTISING IN SPORT • From the football shirt to the stadium hoardings, the smartvision system or LEDs screens, everything is surrounded by advertising. • Most times firms resort to these strategies starred by celebrities: Cristiano Ronaldo, FREE TIME AND SPORT • Sports are the healthiest option for the human body, to practice them we should supplement them with another factor, our free time. • We must enjoy both. Free time means leisure and we have to choose what to do: rest, watch TV, do sport… PROFESSIONALIM AND SPORT • The sport spectacle entails the professionalization of the sportsman. He becomes a star, a worker on many occasions, a • For example, the NBA comes in 400 million€ every year, it also has 20 important • In Spain the professional sport is very developed in relation to the whole of the sport system. The professionalization reaches football and basketball but also other sports such as handball, volleyball… • On the other hand, in Spain we like organizing great championships and paying large amounts of money to • For this reason, Spain on many occasions is a goldmine for many of these sportsmen from other SCHOOL AND SPORT • We should provide them with a basic multi sport ….with contextualized learning situations where they can practice several technical tactical • On the other hand, the introduction to a sport can’t be reduced only to motor aspects but we also should try to foster an education in values and an improvement of attitudes. • Among these attitudes: Respect to the classmates. Be a good winner and a good loser. Cooperation with the classmates. Respect to the rules. Critical attitude towards some high competition behaviours. • We should try that students practice sport out of school and for that, they have to maintain a good relationship with it by means of positive WOMAN AND SPORT • Women have had restricted access to sport, for a woman is much more difficult to devote professionally to sport than for • There are other barriers that have to be overcome: Little presence in the mass No economic incentives to invest in female sport, Less spectacle of their SPECTACLE AND SPORT • The appearance of sport as a mass spectacle makes the person a passive subject (spectator) instead of an active one (sportsman). Sport becomes • The passive spectator identifies himself with the sportsman who • The sport spectacle causes the threat of making our conscience sleepy. There is no time to participate actively in the building of the human condition because in sport the spectacle becomes an addictive drug. JUNIOR SPORT AND EARLY PROFESSIONALISM • Not always sport skills last throughout the childhood and adolescence. • The difference between the recreational model of sport and the professional • Professional sport involves a greater amount of time devoted to train, economic income, regularity in It´s said that adolescence is the vital stage when more withdrawals in sport take It´s a key moment not only in the consolidation of personality but also in the choice of a vocation…. PARENTS AND SPORT • The fanatical father He searches for his son’s victory above all. He doesn’t respect the decisions made by referees, he uses swearwords and he is always complaining. • The sporting frustrated father He tried to excel in a sport but he didn´t achieve the goal. They use to choose this activity for their children without taking into account the child´s likes something that causes even his • The trainer father He wants his son to be a top sportsman, training is the most important activity leaving aside the pleasure of playing. This kind of training causes psychological and physiological risks in • The manager father This father offers the sport ´rights´ to a club of sport body. • The indifferent father The father doesn´t worry about the sport practice of his children. He just enrolls them on a sports club or they buy them a bike or a pair of skates. His aim is to get more free time for • The over-protective father • He forbids his children the practice of any kind of physical activity because they can be hurt. They prefer that his children play computer games at home rather than play in a court. In a sense, the children can´t play or establish social relationships in group. The sports father: • He has in mind the sports interests of his children. • He knows the difference between dangerousness and • He practices whenever he can, a physical activity with them. • He respects referees and • He makes his child see that the final goal of sport is its • He teaches how to win in a • He teaches how to lose. • He fosters the non violence. • As you can see, the facts of sport and the physical activity is more complex than we can see in the Physical Education class. • It´s a social phenomenon difficult to understand and that moves a lot of money every year. • It has become one of the most important	<urn:uuid:54a8a4f2-c02e-4b05-a83e-1f55cac08430>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.slideshare.net/manuelje17/5societysportanditscontradictions-120509050734phpapp02	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.895987	2,285	2.921875	3
January 24: Winston Churchill, unquestionably the greatest Englishman of his generation, died peacefully aged 91. It was 70 years to the day after the death of his father. life was the stuff of legends. As a young officer he took part in the cavalry charge at the Battle of Omdurman. He lived long enough to see men in space. During the First World War he was First Lord of the Admiralty and largely responsible for the Gallipoli landings in southern Turkey which turned into a disastrous and bloody failure. Churchill stood down, served with his regiment in the trenches and virtually vanished from public life in his "wilderness years." But in the late 1930s he emerged as a powerful voice urging rearmament at a time when most politicians wanted to appease dictators such as Hitler and Mussolini. When war came, Churchill was proved right. First in the Admiralty and later as prime minister, he used his skill in the English language to magnificent effect. His speeches in 1940, after the retreat from Dunkirk and during the crucial Battle of Britain were beautifully constructed but never bombastic. He spoke to the heart of Britain, never shielding the people from the terrible risks they faced but reassuring them that all would be well. To the astonishment of millions, Churchill was voted out of office in 1945 before the war was even over. His time had passed, the people voted for the brighter future promised by Labour and the Welfare State. Although Churchill served again as prime minister, his finest hour was as a war leader. His magnificent state funeral truly marked the passing of an era. One observer said: "It was a scene which belonged to an age of greater amplitude than our own." February 8: Cigarette advertising was banned from television although it was to be some years before it disappeared entirely from the big screen. Critics were ferocious in their condemnation saying it was an illogical move to discriminate between different media. How could you ban cigarette advertising on the telly at night and allow it in daily newspapers and at the cinema, they argued. Health Minister Kenneth Robinson said that TV was targeted because it was an effective form of advertising for the vulnerable 11-15 age group. October 29: Harold Wilson's dramatic flight to Rhodesia in a bid to head off Ian Smith's "unilateral declaration of independence" ended in failure. Although an optimistic spokesman for the PM declared that the "door can still be considered ajar" it had in fact been slammed shut by Smith and even Wilson could not get a foot in. The row was over Rhodesia's unwillingness to give black people any political power November 29: The self-appointed guardian of public morals and the bane of the television industry took her first bow today when Mary Whitehouse set out on her mission to clean up TV. The bespectacled housewife had formed the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association and claimed to have more than 500,000 supporters. Her call was for the BBC to be more accountable both financially and morally to the people who paid the licence. She cited a play in which a crucifix doubled up as a pipe rack as being in bad April 28: Football legend Stanley Matthews finally hung up his boots at the incredible age for a player of 50. The Wizard of the Wing had played several times for Stoke City that season and was still able to bamboozle opposition defences. At the end of his final match he was chaired off the field by two other footballing legends, Russia's Yashin and Hungary's Puskas.	<urn:uuid:0a832bbc-c347-4a78-8a1c-073f9a33ae79>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.expressandstar.com/days/1950-75/1965.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.981514	776	3.1875	3
\|Here is a game that you play against a friend. You are given a list of numbers. You move first and pick either the first or the last number from the list, which is then removed from the list. Your friend moves next and again picks either the first or the last number from the list that remains. You move alternately in this manner till all the numbers in the list have been picked.\| Your score at the end of the game is the sum of numbers that you have picked. Your friend is a master of the game and will always play to ensure that your total score is as small as possible. Your aim is to compute your maximum score under these circumstances. For instance, suppose that the sequence of numbers is the following. In this case, the maximum score you can obtain is 9. To achieve this, you pick 1 in the first round. This forces your opponent to pick one of the 2's. Depending on which 2 he picks, you can either pick 5 in the second round and 3 in the third round or 3 in the second round and 5 in the third round.	<urn:uuid:7122d29b-90f8-494d-95d8-9882ce9b5c51>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.cplusplus.com/forum/general/80201/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958268	225	2.890625	3
165 Richmond Street / Province House Links and documents 1843/01/01 to 1847/01/01 Listed on the Canadian Register: Statement of Significance Description of Historic Place Province House is a Classical Revival style public building constructed of Nova Scotia sandstone located in historic Queen Square. The building has housed the legislature since the Island was a colony and was the location of many important historical events such as the Charlottetown Conference of 1864. Province House is also recognized as a National Historic Site and as a designated provincial heritage place. It is open to the public year round. This municipal designation encompasses the building’s exterior and parcel; it does not include the building’s interior. The historic value of Province House lies in its important role in the history of Canada; its beautiful Classical Revival architecture; and its importance to the streetscape. Before Province House was constructed, the Island’s Legislature met in various homes and taverns. Finally, in 1837 Lieutenant Governor, Sir John Harvey, called for 5000 pounds for a building to house the two branches of the legislature and offices. A public design competition was held that year but the project was delayed by the need for a building to house the Supreme Court as well. At last, in 1842, the Legislature voted for a further 5000 pounds and construction began the following year. Local builder, Isaac Smith, who had won the public design competition, had no formal architectural training but he was responsible for many of the public buildings around Charlottetown in the period. Smith was also appointed foreman of the project. His brother, carpenter Henry Smith, as well as local trades people and labourers were hired to work on the huge structure making it a truly Island accomplishment. The Colonial Building was comparable to public buildings in other colonies making it a huge achievement and a source of pride to Islanders. Province House was built in the Classical Revival style. The Classical Revival style was the result of further study of Greek original forms. Pattern books, such as those by architect and writer, Asher Benjamin, made the architectural vocabulary available to all builders. The style influenced Canadian architecture the most of any of the architectural styles. A more formal approach to the Classical Revival style was used for public buildings reminiscent of the temples of Greece and Rome. A great number of 19th Century public buildings were built in the Classical Revival style. Lieutenant Governor, Sir Henry Vere Huntley, laid the cornerstone of Province House in May 1843 among a celebration that included a speech, a band and a parade. The official opening of the building took place in January 1847, when the first session of the Legislature was held there. Interestingly, the Legislature still meets there to this day. One of the most important events that ever took place at Province House was the Charlottetown Conference of 1864 where delegates met to discuss the Confederation of Canada. The meeting was the first of a series of meetings that would ultimately lead to the Confederation of Canada in 1867 making Charlottetown the Cradle of Confederation. Province House was made a National Historic Site in 1966 for its role as the Birthplace of Canada. The building had been altered a number of times throughout the years, however between 1979 and 1983 the building was restored to reflect the 1864 period. The building, which is located on historic Queen Square at the end of University Avenue, is a landmark in Charlottetown and an important building to the City, Province, and the Nation. Sources: Heritage Office, City of Charlottetown Planning Department, PO Box 98, Charlottetown, PE C1A 7K2 The following character-defining elements illustrate the Classical Revival heritage value of Province House: - The overall massing of the building - The symmetry of the building's facades - The Nova Scotia sandstone construction - The style and placement of the windows including the six over six windows of the first and second floor, as well as the three over three windows of the third floor. The windows behind the portico have pediments above them as do the windows of the east and west sides. - The size and central placement of the heavy paneled doors - The portico, with its arched doorways four square columns, four doric columns and pediment above, giving a temple effect - The size and shape of the mouldings and stonework of the building’s exterior including the pilasters, lintels, sills and beltcourses running between the floors - The hipped slate and copper roof - The size and placement of the chimneys Other character-defining elements of Province House include: - The location of Province House on Queen Square Prince Edward Island City of Charlottetown City of Charlottetown Zoning and Development Bylaw Theme - Category and Type - Governing Canada - Government and Institutions Function - Category and Type - Legislative Building Architect / Designer Location of Supporting Documentation Heritage Office, City of Charlottetown Planning Department, PO Box 98, Charlottetown, PE C1A 7K2 Cross-Reference to Collection Province House, a National Historic Site, is a major heritage resource in Prince Edward Island. It is centrally located at the heart of Queen's Square at the foot of Great George…	<urn:uuid:c422c7b8-c142-43af-b174-2fc85c49515b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=4009&pid=0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952674	1,111	2.859375	3
Music of the late 1890s played a significant role in the war effort during the Spanish-American War. Patriotic marches and sentimental songs romanticized the war and rallied Americans behind the cause. One hundred years ago, songwriting and singing were vital parts of American popular culture. Pianos and sheet music were fixtures in middle and upper class homes, and songwriters were celebrities. Advertisements for sheet music filled magazines, and public singing was quite common. In the 1890s, singing and dancing defined a U.S. cultural identity. During the Spanish-American War era, songwriters played a role somewhat akin to that of the yellow journalists. Just as newspaper stories promoted the war, popular songs celebrated the war by honoring its heroes and victories. Songs like Brave Dewey and His Men and The Charge of the Roosevelt Riders lauded war heroes Commodore Dewey and Theodore Roosevelt. Other songs, like Ma Filipino Babe and The Belle of Manila, sentimentalized the struggles abroad and romanticized the idea of intervention. Even songs like The Black KPs, which are racist and offensive to modern ears, were intended to rally the U.S. public behind the war effort. By celebrating characters like Teddy Roosevelt and lamenting scenes like the Maine's explosion, 1890s song brought the drama of the war into living rooms, parlors, and dancehalls across the United States. Ultimately, these patriotic songs made being patriotic popular. Like television today, songs of the Spanish-American War era not only entertained and celebrated, but also shaped popular opinion. Visit the 1890s Sheet Music Gallery where you can view the colorful sheet music covers, listen to popular songs of the Spanish-American War era, and read 1890s sheet music. Content by Great Projects Film Company, Inc. Copyright © 1999	<urn:uuid:abac98f1-570e-4ee9-9643-55800cafa37a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.pbs.org/crucible/music.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953768	362	3.640625	4
Helping Nebraskans enhance their lives through research-based education. The Benefits of Snow by Don Janssen, UNL Extension Educator While opinions may vary on how desirable snow is, in particular the amount that falls, snow actually has several benefits for yard and garden plantings. One major benefit of a good snow cover is snow functions as an excellent insulator of the soil. Without snow, very cold temperatures can freeze the soil deeper and deeper. This could lead to damage of root systems of trees and shrubs. The insulation effect of snow also helps protect perennials, bulbs, ground covers, and strawberry plantings from alternating freezing and thawing cycles. Without snow, milder temperatures and the sun could warm the soil surface, leading to damage from soil heaving, which can break roots and dry out plant parts. Snow also helps conserve soil moisture over the winter. If you have not yet mulched perennial beds, with snow, you may not have to. If little snow is on the beds, however, it would be good to mulch. Evergreen branches, such as from the used Christmas tree, are a good material choice. Straw is another suitable material. Mulches could be applied over existing snow. There are a few drawbacks to snow. Heavy snow can damage trees and shrubs as the weight accumulates on branches. If there are heavy snows, carefully brush off snow from branches. The other drawback of snow in the landscape is small animals, such as voles (field mice) are now protected from predators. These pests may gnaw on tender bark at the base of young tree trunks and the stems of shrubs. Voles also will tunnel on the surface of lawns under the snow, making very visible winding trails as the snows melt in spring. Rabbits will also be more likely to feed on tender bark when the ground is covered. One final positive on the snow is the enhanced visibility of some landscape plantings. Trees and shrubs with ornamental bark, such as red twig dogwood or river birches, look more brilliant. Ornamental grasses left standing from last season are much more visible. Evergreens may look much greener, especially when a bright red cardinal is sitting in them. Snow cover makes winter complete. University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension in Lancaster County is your on-line yard and garden educational resource. The information on this Web site is valid for residents of southeastern Nebraska. It may or may not apply in your area. If you live outside southeastern Nebraska, visit your local Extension office Contact Information University of Nebraska-Lincoln in Lancaster County Web site: lancaster.unl.edu 444 Cherrycreek Road, Suite A, Lincoln, NE 68528 \| 402-441-7180	<urn:uuid:baf0f71f-dafc-4e19-92c4-2015f2ea78c5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://lancaster.unl.edu/hort/articles/2006/snow.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935094	579	3.09375	3
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Salsa criolla is a South American side dish and condiment that is very commonly served with grilled meats. The name salsa criolla is a variation on the word creole, which in broad terms refers to the mixture of ethnic influences seen in much of Latin America and the Caribbean. Salsa criolla combines European, African, and Amerindian food culture, the variety of which may be seen within the unique ingredients of different recipes. Recipes have evolved by taking European cooking traditions and applying them to locally available ingredients. Typically, red onions are used as a base, though other varieties are sometimes used. The flavor of onions has a tendency to overpower other ingredients in a dish, especially when they are prominently featured. To prevent this from happening, the onions are always soaked in water for a period of five to ten minutes. The soaking period rinses off the pungent bite that is characteristic of raw onions and allows the flavors of the other ingredients to come through. In addition to salsa criolla's onion base, the dish also contains chili peppers, cilantro, and lime juice. Typically, vinegar, salt, and pepper are also added to the mix. There are many variations and uses for salsa criolla. In some varieties, beets, boiled potatoes, and avocados are used. If made with boiled potatoes, the more filling dish is served as a side. When served as a condiment, the ingredients vary based upon what it accompanies. Aji yellow peppers are used in spicier varieties, and in areas where they are unavailable, jalapenos are substituted. When not used as a side to grilled meats, the mixture is served on toast as a snack. Sometimes known as sarza criolla, the dish is most commonly identified as Peruvian. In Peru, the onions are sliced into thin half moon shapes. All other ingredients are finely minced so that the flavors of every ingredient can be tasted in every bite. With this in mind, often the dish is set aside to rest before being served. The people of Argentina, known as criollos, are of Spanish descent. Their food is known as criolla food. This name was given to relate the Spanish influence on Argentinian food, and salsa criolla makes an important "comida criolla" condiment. Argentinian salsa criolla uses sunflower oil in addition to the other ingredients. The oil calms the tangy flavor found in vinegar heavy varieties, but is preferred by those who do not want its heavy flavor to dominate.	<urn:uuid:2c68727a-67e7-4ef3-8cb7-0888f0a2ba0b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-salsa-criolla.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.960221	537	2.625	3
SEND A PRIVATE MESSAGE HIRE THIS WRITER Immorality was as rampant in New Testament times as it is today. How did the early church respond to the immorality in the world, and what does that teach us for today? The Roman world was one filled with pagan practices, immorality, and situational ethics. Not that every individual was grossly immoral; in fact, it is evident that the typical Roman respected authority, cared for family, and worshipped family gods. Yet the pagan beliefs in that society pervaded the cultural environment and were particularly evident among the ruling class. Assassination was a common practice. Marriages were viewed as matters of convenience, to be discarded casually. Sexual images dominated much "religious" art. The excavations at Pompeii, for example, have uncovered large homes with prominent paintings of phalluses and sexual acts. When Jesus pronounced the foundation of the church after Peter's confession, He and the disciples were in Caesarea Philippi, the center of the worship of the god Pan, an especially licentious cult. They may well have been overlooking the temple of Pan at the time, where a river purported to lead to the home of Pan emerged from the hillside. "The gates of Hades will not overpower (the church)," Jesus pronounced (Matthew 16:18). For anyone else this would be a preposterous claim. Many other spiritual leaders emerged around those times, only to disappear forever after the death of the leader (see for example, Acts 5:33-37). In challenging the popular culture and religious practices, Jesus proclaims that His church will stand up against even the most heinous practices. Jesus never directly confronted individual immorality. When He met the woman at the well, He treated her with kindness and respect, merely pointing out the facts of her situation and calling her to sin no more after she recognizes Him as the Messiah. Jesus' confrontations were not with individuals enslaved to sin, but rather with the religious establishment that sought enslave those individuals with endless superfluous rules and regulations or with those who insulted the Father (such as the money-changers in the temple). He taught the precepts of God in a manner that focused on repairing the hearts of individuals rather than on trying to convince people to change behavior. He knew that a change in the heart would inevitably lead to changes in behavior. The New Testament church never directly confronted the immorality of individual unbelievers. The only examples we have are of confrontations with the immorality of individuals within the church. The best-known example occurred in Corinth. Paul had founded the church in Corinth, but soon after he left, things went sour in many ways. When he reached Ephesus during his third missionary journey, members of the Corinthian church came to report what was going on in their city. 1 Corinthians (which is really Paul's second letter to the church there) describes numerous misguided and immoral practices, but he reserves his most biting comments for a man apparently sleeping with his (step-)mother--"immorality of such a kind as does not exist even among the Gentiles," he says (1 Corinthians 5:1). He berates the church for arrogantly accepting this man's gross immorality. What Paul says next is instructive: "I wrote you in my letter not to associate with immoral people [obviously, in an earlier letter]; I did not at all mean with the immoral people of this world, or with the covetous and swindlers, or with idolaters, for then you would have to go out of the world. But actually, I wrote to you not to associate with any so-called brother if he is an immoral person, or covetous, or an idolater, or a reviler, or a drunkard, or a swindler-not even to eat with such a one. For what have I to do with judging outsiders? Do you not judge those who are within the church? But those who are outside, God judges." (1 Corinthians 5:9-13a) Paul specifically says that Christians are not to judge the immorality of non-Christians! Later, it appears the Corinthians may have once again misinterpreted Paul's instruction by becoming entangled with non-Christians. "Do not be bound together [Greek, heterozugeō] with unbelievers; for what partnership have righteousness and lawlessness, or what fellowship has light with darkness?" (2 Corinthians 6:14) he says in a later letters. The word heterozugeō means to be yoked unequally, an image that would have been vivid in the agrarian society and harkened back to God's instruction to Israel not to plow with an ox and a donkey together (Deuteronomy 22:10). Such a practice would be highly upsetting for the animals and would be unproductive. Quoting Isaiah 52, Paul then advises the Corinthian church to "come out from their midst and be separate", (2 Corinthians 5:17a). Clearly, Paul is not telling the church to isolate itself from the world physically but rather morally--be separate from their practices, be different, be distinctive. Far too often, we get it exactly backwards! Our modern evangelistic efforts are often aimed at attacking sinners, rather than showing them--through our deeds and our words--the incredible majesty of the Jesus and God's grace. Our efforts to shape American public policy along Christian lines are well-intentioned but misguided. The Gospel doesn't work through laws, political persuasion, or judicial decisions--it's designed to work its way into the heart of individuals, changing the world one person at a time. To a lot of the world, organized efforts of conservative Christians to block homosexual marriage, ban reproductive choice, erect Christian monuments, and support public prayer are attempts to legislate morality--our morality. Do we really believe any of these will open anyone's heart to the Gospel? Don't get me wrong--I believe single-sex marriages and abortion are detestable to God, but it will do no good to impose our will on those who have no relationship with God. Alabama Justice Roy Moore's decision to haul the Ten Commandments monument into the Alabama Supreme Court may have been a courageous display of conviction, but it probably didn't lead a single person to Christ. And the entire argument about prayer in schools and other public venues strikes me as rather silly. Jesus told us to pray in secret (Matthew 6:6), not at football games. Did the early believers lobby Rome to permit a public prayer before gladiatorial contests? Of course, it is quite possible to advance these kinds of causes in ways more compatible with the New Testament examples. Groups of high school students gathered around a flagpole are more powerful than a constitutional amendment. Offering a loving alternative to abortion is far more productive than shouting epithets at people entering a clinic. Leading a quiet life, doing our best to life the kind of life God made us to live is far more persuasive than words on a block of granite. Practicing the kind of nonjudgmental love toward those rejected by the religious establishment--as Jesus did with tax collectors and prostitutes--is more likely to lead homosexuals to a genuine relationship with God than waving negative posters at a "Gay Pride" parade. I'm sure that some of you could cite examples of people convicted by confrontational tactics, but how many others have been dissuaded by such spectacles? Does that mean we should do nothing about the behavior of others? Mē ginomai! (may it never be!, or God forbid!) as Paul would say. First, we should certainly rigorous defend our fundamental right of religious expression (and defend that of others as well). There is a very real trend in this country to discourage genuine Christian discourse. Second, we should always be prepared to respond to those who are seeking purposefulness in life. As Peter wrote, "Sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being ready to make a defense to everyone who asks you to give an account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and reverence; and keep a good conscience so that in the thing in which you are slandered, those who revile your good behavior in Christ will be put to shame" (1 Peter 3:15-16). Note that Peter assumes the world will slander Christians, but today it's at least as common for Christians to be slandered non-Christians. Third--and this is one of the places we really have it backwards--we should confront sin and immorality with the ekklesia. I'm not talking here about Catholic-bashing by Protestants or liberal-bashing by fundamentalists, but the direct, loving discussion of ungodly behavior within our church family. It does little good for evangelical Christians to be attacking Gene Robinson personally--both warning and encouragement are functions of existing relationships. On the other hand, it is certainly appropriate for church leaders to strongly warn both the Catholic Church for its handling of abusive clergy and the U.S. Episcopal Church for its ordination of a gay bishop. Both have brought shame to the church. Paul told the Corinthians to continue to associate with immoral people (just not to be unequally bound together) in order develop relationships that can lead people to Christ. But he also ordered them to "remove the wicked man [the man sleeping with his father's wife] from among yourselves" (1 Corinthians 5:13b) so that (1) the man might be restored because he knows better and (2) his sin would not infect the church. The norm among many Christians today is to shun unbelievers and accept sinning believers. It is always important to recognize that the motivation for either action--associating with unbelievers and removing sinning believers--is a desire that the individual might find his or her way (back) to God. And, by the way, I'm certainly also not talking about the kind of pulpit accusations practiced by a few in conservative circles. Confronting sin needs to be personal--friend challenging friend in love. Only the most extreme cases draw the public censure Paul proscribed in Corinth. If one of his friends had been more of a friend and challenged his behavior, it probably never would have become the huge problem it did for the entire church. The problem with attacking the immorality of the world is twofold: (1) When the church sets itself up as judge, people may feel unworthy of exploring a relationship with God. A line has been drawn between "insiders" and "outsiders." Those of us on the inside understand, of course, that we're all unworthy and need God's grace to hope for reconciliation. But how can those on the outside know that? From their perspective, the church is a club with impossible entrance requirements, and that's a terrible shame because the church of Jesus Christ really has the easiest entrance requirements in the world--just accept the free invitation. (2) The "outsiders" know that the "insiders" don't live up to their own standards and often view the church as a bunch of hypocritical, self-righteous, self-satisfied bigots. They end up judging the church by its flawed members rather than its perfect founder, and is it any wonder? If we're holding up a bunch of rules and regulations rather than Jesus, how else can they judge us? The bottom line is that the early church was interested in two things: (1) bringing more people to know Jesus and (2) helping each other stay faithful. There is no evidence they were interested in reforming the world in any way other than one new disciple at a time--a powerful lesson for today's institutional church. This article is adapted from an issue of "Ekklesia Then & Now" (ET&N). For more information about ET&N, go to www.ETandN.com PLEASE ENCOURAGE AUTHOR, LEAVE COMMENT ON ARTICLE Read more articles by Richard Soule or search for other articles by topic below. Search for articles on: (e.g. creation; holiness etc.)Read more by clicking on a link: Main Site Articles Most Read Articles Highly Acclaimed Challenge Articles. New Release Christian Books for Free for a Simple Review. God is Not Against You - He Came on an All Out Rescue Mission to Save You ...in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them... 2 Cor 5:19 Therefore, my friends, I want you to know that through Jesus the forgiveness of sins is proclaimed to you. Acts 13:38 LEARN & TRUST JESUS HERE The opinions expressed by authors do not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com.	<urn:uuid:e8eb7dbd-ad7a-47c1-9083-32372dad55cc>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.faithwriters.com/article-details.php?id=29118	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96444	2,647	3.265625	3
How should we manage fisheries, forestry and other 'common pool' resources, where one person's use of them means less is available for others? Nobel Prize-winning economist Elinor Ostrom explains why we must change the way we think about managing common pool resources. English, , 327kb This paper draws out policy-implication from a major meta-analysis of value-of-statistical-life estimates that OECD has been conducting over several years. English, , 1,194kb Green growth is not only desirable and achievable, it is also essential if the food and nutrition requirements of future generations are to be met. This preliminary report outlines a broad strategy for green growth in the food and agriculture sector. It is part of the OECD’s Green Growth Strategy. This workshop will help policy makers improve understanding of the environmental effectiveness and economic efficiency of agricultural policies, and evaluate measures that improve agriculture’s environmental performance, such as incentives for farmers to deliver public goods. "The success of green growth will depend on whether it is a shared global agenda. Many developing countries are not yet fully equipped to introduce new ‘greener’ policies and tap into the benefits of a green future", declared Mr Gurría at the Global Green Growth Summit. English, , 1,202kb The OECD recently analysed the impacts of environmentally related taxes and similar instruments on innovation activity in firms and households. The key findings from this analysis are presented in this policy brief. English, , 638kb This policy brief presents a guide for policy makers to environmentally related taxation that is included in the OECD Publication "Taxation, Innovation and the Environement". Food prices are literally a matter of life and death, especially for the poorest of the poor, who already spend up to 80% or 90% of their income on food. Unfortunately, our medium term projections for global supply, demand and prices of agricultural commodities show that most prices look likely to trend significantly higher in the coming decade. The Green Growth Strategy, outlined in this book, provides concrete recommendations and measurement tools to support countries’ efforts to achieve economic growth and development, while at the same time ensure that natural assets continue to provide the ecosystem services on which our well being relies. The strategy proposes a flexible policy framework that can be tailored to different country circumstances and stages of development. This book provides measurement tools, including indicators, to support countries’ efforts to achieve economic growth and development, while ensuring that natural assets continue to provide the resources and environmental services on which well-being relies. The strategy proposes a flexible policy framework that can be tailored to different country circumstances and stages of development. This report accompanies the synthesis report Towards Green Growth.	<urn:uuid:e15d69be-e18f-44d9-a3bd-c804b7c3bf17>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/publicationsdocuments/55/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.916652	554	2.625	3
Reflective paint is used to make objects visible that would otherwise be invisible in the dark. Some examples are signs, road markings, bollards etc. The paint lights up brightly when it is illuminated by e.g. the headlight of a car. As a result of this, it is possible to have highways without lighting. How does reflective paint work The paint works on the same way as the eyes of a cat that glow in the dark. In fact the paint contains a lot of tiny glass spheres. They are just a little bigger than the thickness of the paint layer which causes them to protrude a little. If this was not the case, the spheres would have almost no effect. It is often said that these kinds of tiny spheres or microbeads are bad for the environment. This is because they are too small to be filtered out of the water. As a consequence of this, the particles end up in the seas. However this discussion is mainly about synthetic particles. We could not find articles that mention that microbeads of glass could also be dangerous. Where to buy reflective paint To make it easy we have collected the most populair products for you. By clicking on one of the links you will be redirected to the cheapest supplier that we could find on this moment for that particular product. Please consider that the prices may have been changed since the writing of this article. Price per oz \|RUST-OLEUM 214944 10oz Reflective Paint\|\|$5.37\|\|10 oz\|\|$0.54\| \|Rust-Oleum - 223884 - Clear Reflective Aerosol Paint\|\|$12.95\|\|12 oz\|\|$1.08\| \|Duplicolor NL100 Duplicolor Clear Reflective Nite Lites Aerosol Spray\|\|$12.25\|\|7 oz\|\|$1.75\| \|Krylon K09955 Glass Sphere Clear Industrial Reflect-A-Lite Reflective\|\|$10.62\|\|12 oz\|\|$0.89\|	<urn:uuid:b3f7628e-4ba8-40c5-920f-e187c78675d5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.glowinthedarkpaintworld.com/reflective-paint-makes-things-visible-in-the-dark/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.922599	424	2.671875	3
If you listen to Gov. Paul LePage and his Republican allies, they’ll tell you Maine’s economy has turned a corner. Businesses are creating jobs, more people are working and fewer people are living below the poverty threshold. Fewer Mainers are dependent on government programs to get by. Sounds like Maine’s economy has recovered, right? But listen to the governor’s detractors, and you get a different picture. Maine has lagged the nation in job creation and economic growth. Some 50,000 Maine residents are still unemployed. Many still need a hand up from government programs. In official terms, the nation’s economy started turning around in June 2009 after a recession that started in December 2007, according to the National Bureau of Economic Research. How far has Maine’s economy come since the start? By a handful of key measures, it’s growing, but slowly, and the state has a ways to go before it recovers completely. Even if Maine recovers to its pre-recession norm, it will still lag the nation on important measures such as household income and productivity. Slower job growth The most significant job losses in Maine took place in 2009, according to data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Maine ended 2007 with 620,600 nonfarm jobs. The state shed jobs during nine of the following 12 months. By December 2008, the state was down to 608,500 jobs. A year later, the state had 592,200 jobs. Maine hit its jobs low point — 591,500 jobs, or 4.7 percent below the pre-recession total — in August 2010 and again in May 2011. Today, Maine still hasn’t regained all the jobs it lost during the recession, though the number of jobs has grown from the low point. The state had 602,600 jobs on the books in August — 2.9 percent below its December 2007 total. Maine isn’t unusual for having fewer jobs today than it did nearly six years ago, but Maine’s jobs recovery has been slower than New England and the nation’s. New England’s July jobs total was 1 percent below its December 2007 count, while the nation’s was 1.5 percent lower. In New England, Massachusetts is the only state that has more jobs today — 0.7 percent more — than it did before the start of the recession. While Maine’s job growth has lagged the nation’s, the state’s unemployment rate hasn’t risen as high. In December 2007, Maine’s rate was 4.8 percent, while national unemployment stood at 5 percent, according to the Maine Department of Labor. In July, Maine’s unemployment rate was 7 percent, while the national rate hovered at 7.3 percent. The unemployment rate in Maine translated to 49,966 people out of work in July, down from a peak of 59,076 in February 2010. Maine has also had a higher percentage of its population participating in the labor force. Maine’s participation rate was 65.3 percent in August, compared with 66.2 percent in December 2007. The national rates were 63.2 percent in August and 66 percent at the start of the recession. Labor force participation among Maine men slipped to 69.7 percent in 2012 from 72.4 percent in 2008. Among Maine women, the drop has been less pronounced: 60.7 percent in 2008 to 60.5 percent in 2012. Lower output, slightly faster earnings growth Unlike the nation, Maine never went a full year without economic growth. Between 2008 and 2009, while the national economy shrank 2.28 percent, Maine’s economy grew 1.11 percent. Since the U.S. economy has begun to turn around, however, the growth in Maine’s gross domestic product has lagged the nation’s. Between 2009 and 2010, Maine’s economy grew 2.59 percent compared with 3.74 percent nationally. The next year, between 2010 and 2011, Maine’s economy grew slightly more slowly, 2.23 percent, while the national growth rate increased to 3.97 percent. And the Maine and U.S. growth rates stayed about the same between 2011 and 2012, according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis: 2.22 percent and 4.05 percent respectively. Meanwhile, Maine’s per-capita economic output has long lagged the nation’s — it ranked 40th in 2011 — and generally grown more slowly since the start of the recovery. Maine’s per-capita economic output was $34,597 in 2012, compared with $42,784 nationally. Middle of the pack on housing prices Home prices in Maine have yet to recover to their pre-recession levels, according to the Federal Housing Finance Agency’s home price index. That’s also the case for every other New England state and the nation as a whole. Maine home prices in June of this year were 11.3 percent lower than they were at the December 2007 start of the recession. Across New England, today’s prices are still 12.7 percent below their pre-recession levels. Across the nation, prices are 13.4 percent lower. Within New England, Vermont’s home prices are closer today to their pre-recession levels than any other New England state’s — just 3.6 percent lower than they were in December 2007. Rhode Island has seen the most dramatic price slide: Today’s home prices are 23 percent lower than they were before the recession. Connecticut’s are 16.8 percent lower today, and New Hampshire’s are 16.2 percent lower. More poverty, but less than the nation Maine’s poverty rate has been lower than the nation’s since the start of the recession. However, poverty rates both in Maine and nationally have yet to return to pre-recession levels. Data released Wednesday by the U.S. Census Bureau show a stalled economic recovery when measured by poverty and income. Maine’s poverty rate for 2012 was 14.7 percent, the highest in New England and statistically no different from the 2011 rate of 14.1 percent, according to Census’ American Community Survey. In 2000, 10.1 percent of Maine residents lived below the poverty line. The Census Bureau this week also released state poverty rates as measured by the Current Population Survey, which showed a slight, but statistically insignificant, year-over-year drop in Maine’s poverty rate; the Current Population Survey surveys fewer households than the American Community Survey. The nation’s 15.9 percent poverty rate for 2012 was unchanged from 2011. In 2000, the U.S. poverty rate was 12.2 percent. Income was similarly stagnant between 2011 and 2012. Maine’s median household income of $46,709 for 2012 was about the same as the state’s 2011 income level, $47,811. Nationally, the median income was $51,371 for 2012 and $51,324 for 2011. Measured in today’s dollars, neither Maine nor the U.S. — where median incomes in 2000 were, respectively, $48,595 and $55,030 — has caught up to precession levels. Maine’s higher poverty rate since the start of the recession corresponds with a higher percentage of low-income students in Maine schools. In 2012, 46.1 percent of students qualified for free- and reduced-price meals, up from 37.6 percent five years earlier, according to the Maine Department of Education. As the state’s poverty rate rose, the number of Maine residents receiving food stamps did, too. The number jumped 46 percent between 2008 and 2012, to 253,000 from 173,000. That jump happened as food stamps eligibility nationwide expanded. Nationwide, the number of people using food stamps jumped even more dramatically: 65 percent. Some 46.6 million people in the U.S. were using food stamps in 2012, up from 28.2 million people four years earlier, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Matthew Stone is BDN opinion page editor.	<urn:uuid:478bc120-2f13-4b26-9424-7b6b15c13e5b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://bangordailynews.com/2013/09/20/business/is-maines-economy-recovering-what-the-statistics-tell-us/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959367	1,737	2.609375	3
A nice paper on the topic. This paper surveys qualitative crisis monitoring data from sites in 17 developing and transition countries to describe crisis impacts and analyze the responses and sources of support used by people to cope. These crises included shocks to export sectors as a result of the global financial crisis, as well as food and fuel price volatility, in the period from 2008 to early 2011. Respondents reported the crisis had resulted in significant hardships in the form of foregone meals, education, and health care, food insecurity, asset losses, stress, and worsening crime and community cohesion.Although the export-oriented formal sector was most exposed to the global economic downturn, the crises impacts were more damaging for informal sector workers, and some of the adverse impacts will be long-lasting and possibly irreversible. There were important gender and age differences in the distribution of impacts and coping responses, some of which diverged from what has been seen in previous crisis coping responses. The more common sources of assistance were family, friends, and community-based and religious organizations; formal social protection and finance were not widely cited as sources of support in most study countries. However, as the crisis deepened, the traditional informal safety nets of the poor became depleted because of the large and long-lasting shocks that ensued, pointing to the need for better formal social protection systems for coping with future shocks. The idea is macro indicators alone do not tell you whether people are fine: This study has shown that the analysis of macroeconomic indicators alone can conceal important aspects of the process of economic recovery. In particular, the resumption of GDP growth in late 2009 or 2010 in many developing countries gave optimism to governments and the donor community that the impacts of the crises were relatively short-lived and that the livelihoods of the poor were not strongly affected. The findings of this study do not support this argument. Despite the narrow employment base of export production in developing countries, formal sector workers fuel the rural economies through remittances and provide a customer base for a large number of informal sector workers. Therefore, even temporary labor shocks to the formal economy have long-lasting impacts on the urban and rural poor. The reason is that often the first wave of coping responses adopted by poor people (incurring debt, forgoing health care, diversification) led to the second wave of impacts (selling assets or increased competition in the informal sector). In many surveyed countries, poor people were living through this second round of negative impacts at the same time the national economies were showing strong signs of economic recovery.	<urn:uuid:99208ef5-918f-4ece-ab69-9112628e1e44>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.alleconomists.com/2012/06/anatomy-of-coping-evidence-from-people.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968799	510	2.53125	3
Relaxed selection and trait loss in evolution I was surprised to find that when African weaverbirds were introduced into habitats where they no longer needed a highly refined ability to recognize their own eggs, their abilities nevertheless remained highly refined for over 150 generations, whereas their egg colors evolved rapidly. This seemed to go directly contrary to the common observation, stated most famously by Ernst Mayr in 1960, that behavior evolves quickly and first, and morphological traits (body parts) evolve more slowly and have to play catch-up. I found that a couple of other studies had shown the reverse trend as well, and noticed that the three studies shared one thing in common: the traits in question were decaying. This made sense. Mayr, and just about everybody else who thinks about trait evolution, concentrates mostly on traits that natural selection favors, traits that are beneficial to their bearers. Fewer people think about traits that are useless, or becoming less useful over time, so a rule that assumes that we're talking about beneficial traits was able to slide by for fifty years. In reality, if a behavior is useful and can change quickly (like much behavior can), we can expect Mayr's trend-- the behavior will tend to adapt first, followed by morphological traits. But if the behavior in question is losing its utility, like the egg recognition abilities of the weaverbirds I was studying, an animal might just stop performing the behavior, but the ability to do it might remain latent in its brain. The morphological traits, that are more likely to stick out like sore thumbs and be a burden to an individual when useless, would be selected against to a greater extent, and so would tend to decay more quickly. Other people I knew were studying similar things at the time. Susan Foster noted what she called "relaxed selection" in her stickleback fish, and Dick Coss reviewed this situation in a book edited by Susan, after working for several years on the loss vs. retention of antipredator defenses in ground squirrels. Dan Blumstein was also looking at antipredator behavior in large herbivores in areas safe from predators. At an Animal Behavior Society meeting these three biologists promptly got me excited about developing the conceptual advantages of this research strategy. I was leery about calling it "relaxed selection" because what we were really talking about is the relaxation or reversal of a single agent of selection, but we couldn't come up with a good alternative. Eventually, with their prompting, I assembled a group of twelve biologists into a working group on “Relaxed Selection and Trait Loss in Evolution” at the NSF-funded National Evolutionary Synthesis Center based at Duke University. In August 2007 we began a series of meetings, to continue through 2009, to discuss and develop theory that may help explain what happens to traits upon relaxation of the source of selection that gave them their raison d'etre. Our group has researchers of all sorts of organisms, and expertise that spans genetic, developmental, and phenotypic/ecological levels of inquiry. I look forward to using the theory and predictions we develop as the basis for future empirical work in my lab, although I haven't yet decided on an empirical study system. Our group has already published one major review/perspective article, and we are working on additional papers. Please let me know if you would like more information about our group, or if you have references or a study system you would like to share with us. Consequences of relaxing a source of selection on a trait See the flowchart below (from Lahti et al., invited and in review in TREE.) When an environmental change weakens an important source of selection, a trait may follow eight likely pathways with regard to its function, its level of expression, and its evolution. Although these can follow any environmental change, the weakening of an important source of selection is distinctive in that it increases the likelihood that the trait loses its function, or adaptive value. A central question in the study of relaxed selection is which path a trait will take and why. Here is a likely example of each pathway from nature (please see the manuscript for references). In the following, the trait loses its function and fitness advantage in the new environment: How lost traits develop: dolphin hindlimbs and mouse hand webbing The embryo of the spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata at 24 days (left) has a well-developed early hindlimb bud (h), which has regressed by 48 days (right), while the forelimb bud progresses, showing digital primordia (f). Photo and research by Brian K. Hall. \|Development of the mouse hand illustrates formation and then programmed death (apoptosis) of cells between the digits; these are engulfed and cleared by macrophages. Photo and research by William Wood.\| Selection knock-outs as a method for the study of evolution and adaptation Cases where an important source of selection has been removed from a trait are like “knock-out” experiments, since removing a source of selection can provide insights into the role of that source of selection as well as the nature of trait interactions and how those interactions affect fitness and the evolvability of traits. Just as pathologies have made contributions to physiology, and mutations and knockouts have aided genetic research, we are likely to gain a better understanding of trait evolution if we attend not only to cases where a trait confers a particular functional advantage, but also where that advantage has been removed. \|The teleost Astyanax mexicanus has diverged into a surface form (left) and a cave form (right); the cavefish has lost pigmentation and eyes. Research and photos by Bill Jeffery.\|\|The orchid Ceratandra atrata (left) is pollinated by oil-collecting bees, and possesses a brown oil-producing callus in the center of the flower. A more derived species, C. grandiflora, is pollinated exclusively by beetles that do not collect oil, resulting in relaxed selection on oil production. In this species, flowers have either a vestigial oil gland (center) or none at all (right). Research and photos by Kim Steiner.\| In addition to gaining perspective on the factors influencing the evolution of complex traits in general, many of my results would relate to public and environmental health issues. For instance, an understanding of relaxed selection will help us understand and address the consequences of sheltering humans from natural selection due to medical and social advances. Such study may also inform our attempts to relax selection that we have imposed on other organisms with undesirable results. Our actions have unintentionally increased antibiotic resistance in pathogens and pesticide resistance in agricultural pests, and our exploitation of fisheries has caused life history evolution. How can we most effectively relax anthropogenic sources of selection? To what extent can we expect these situations to be reversible? What are the best ways of promoting such reversals? A major goal of my future work on relaxed selection and trait loss will be to place us in a better position to address these issues.	<urn:uuid:c1895ed9-9c27-4584-8e99-ba02a861a185>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://qcpages.qc.edu/Biology/Lahti/Research/Relsel.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961771	1,456	2.859375	3
Microsoft Office Excel 2016 in Windows 10 can be configured to display a number with the default currency symbol. In addition to the options for currency symbol, the format The format has options for the number of decimal places and negative number handling too. The case in point here is how you add a currency symbol before a number in the cells since, simply typing a symbol sign at the beginning of a currency value will not recognised as a number. Let’s see how to do it. Format Number as Currency in Excel Excel users wanting to display numbers as monetary values, must first format those numbers as currency. To do this, apply either the Currency or Accounting number format to the cells that you want to format. The number formatting options are visible under the Home tab of the ribbon menu, in the Number group. Next, for displaying a number with the default currency symbol adjacent to it, select the cell or range of cells, and then click Accounting Number Format Button image in the Number group on the Home tab. (If you want to apply the Currency format instead, select the cells, and press Ctrl+Shift+$.) If you would like to change other aspects of formatting for your selection, Select the cells you would want to format. Next, on the Home tab, click the Dialog Box Launcher adjacent to Number. See the screenshot below. Then, in the Format Cells dialog box, in the Category list, click Currency or Accounting. Thereafter, under the Symbol box, click the currency symbol that you want. If you do not wish to display a monetary value, simply chose the None option. If required, enter the number of decimal places that you want for the number. As you make changes, it will reflect in the number in the Sample box, indicating changing the decimal places affect the display of a number.	<urn:uuid:10be2f14-2c93-4fed-9b5b-294b4eb01142>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.thewindowsclub.com/format-number-as-currency-excel	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.798	377	3.59375	4
Find over 200 print-friendly fact sheets about heart disease and related health topics. Short bowel syndrome is a condition that prevents a person from digesting food and absorbing nutrients properly. It occurs when a large amount of the small intestine has been surgically removed or is affected by disease (such as Crohn's disease). The main symptom of short bowel syndrome is watery diarrhea. A person with short bowel syndrome usually needs a special diet along with vitamin and mineral supplements. Complications may include kidney stones, gallstones, and significant weight loss. October 8, 2012 E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine & Arvydas D. Vanagunas, MD - Gastroenterology To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.	<urn:uuid:a2df9581-ea51-4e76-a13f-10ef6d142bc8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.cardiosmart.org/healthwise/sts1/4586/sts14586	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.898187	193	3.578125	4
How to Design a Garden Bed image by Earl53 - Morguefile, S.F. Heron, Draw the existing landscape features on the graph paper to scale if possible. Include your home, driveway, walkways, patio, porch, deck and any other permanent features. To determine scale, measure the length of your home. Take this measurement and scale your drawing with one block on the paper equal to 1 foot. Consider the location of your garden bed. Exposure to sunlight and choosing the proper plants for the location can make or break the success of your garden. Watch the sunlight in the planned garden for a few days to determine whether the spot experiences full-shade, dappled shade, partial shade/sun or full sun. Choose an area where your garden will be visible from your home, entryway or outdoor living spaces to increase enjoyment in the beauty of your garden and your hard effort. Consider the shape of your garden. Formal gardens have straight lines and fixed geometric shapes. Less formal gardens are freely shaped with curved lines that enhance the design of your home. For example, a border garden with an irregular edge creates more visual interest than a straight edged border. Both are beautiful, but the curved border creates an illusion of flow that corresponds well with other features in the landscape. Decide on appropriate design aspects. Garden design can get complicated when considering color scheme, balance, symmetry, cohesion and unity of design. Choose a color scheme for the new garden bed that complements the other gardens in your yard or if it's the only garden, one that flatters the home façade. Symmetry refers to the equal proportion of plants on each side of a garden. Balance paired with symmetry allows for more flexibility in the placement of plants. Balance involves the use of color as well as actual kinds of plants to create an overall sense of organization. Cohesion ties the entire design together, including using the use same types of plants from other parts of your landscape to create similarity. Evaluate your location to determine the appropriate plant height. Some homes have sloppy foundations that simply beg for a garden to hide behind. Consider the features near your garden. Don't hide the windows, porch railings or design of your patio. Gardens should blend into the landscape, enhancing the permanent features of your property rather than detracting from them. Decide on plant arrangement. In general, taller plants should be placed toward the rear of the garden or in the center of circular gardens. Plants should then range down in size with lower plants such as ground covers and small annuals near the front. This placement allows the plants to complement each other. Decide on your plants by using the Hardiness Zone Map (http://www.garden.org/zipzone/index.php) and resources from your local garden center. No one knows local plants better than the nearest nursery. Consult with a specialist before making final decisions on your plants. Jot down the name, blooming time, sun and water requirements, growing guidelines and soil needs for each plant. Add your proposed plants onto your scaled drawing. Remember that plants need space to grow, especially perennials. You can place fewer plants the first year of planting and add more in the future after the first round becomes established. Also include any planned borders such as bricks, rocks or simple trench edging.	<urn:uuid:37fe9746-c820-46fc-9fc4-b79c9876baba>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.gardenguides.com/68319-design-garden-bed.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.901802	685	2.640625	3
History is a well-rounded degree program and our current history majors have big plans, including - law school, politics, teaching, the military, graduate school, museum studies, public history, library science, social work, working for local, state, or federal government, and the FBI. You can do anything with a history degree! Famous History Majors include - Presidents Kennedy, Nixon, and Bush; the U.S. Attorney General; many senators, members of congress, and judges; sports agents; many former and current Fortune 500 CEOs; Sacha Baron Cohen; Conan O'Brien; Steve Carell; Jimmy Buffett; Malcolm Gladwell; and so many more. Click the links to see others. Here is what some of our graduates are doing now: - Teaching: Schools continue to need new history and social studies teachers, particularly those who can teach in areas beyond American history when needed. Many students have found this program dovetails well with the programs in Dominican’s School of Education, too. - Law School: Because of its emphasis on asking questions and drawing conclusions based on past behavior or events, history is a great pre-law major. - Business: Many general employers realize that history majors have learned to know which questions should be asked and, often, how to figure out the answers. These are general skills that adapt well to many work settings, even when the major’s content may not be directly applicable to the company’s business. In short, history majors tend to be quick studies on the job. - Information-oriented Work Settings: Museums, archives and historical societies can be viable, but competitive choices for history graduates. The history degree is excellent preparation for applying to Dominican’s Graduate School of Library and Information Science. - Government Service: Professional jobs can be found at many governmental agencies that have varying levels of emphasis on history. With foreign language preparation, some Dominican graduates have joined the U.S. Foreign Service. - Graduate School in History: For those who want to enter academia, graduate school in history will be essential training.	<urn:uuid:aef5272f-8141-4f63-a956-010dfed1cbc7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dom.edu/departments/history/careers	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943961	430	2.515625	3
< Browse to Previous Essay \| Browse to Next Essay > About Washington State -- Frequently Asked Questions and Their Answers HistoryLink.org Essay 5315 : Printer-Friendly Format This essay offers a brief introduction to the state of Washington, its jurisdictional development and government, and its official symbols. The State of Washington occupies the far northwest corner of the contiguous 48 United States. It occupies 66,582 square miles (176,600 square kilometers) between the Pacific Ocean on the west and the Idaho border at 117 degrees longitude. Washington borders Canada on the north along the 49th parallel and Oregon on the south along the Columbia River and 46th parallel. In area, Washington ranks as the 20th largest state and embraces dramatically variegated western and eastern natural environments divided by the Cascade Range. It is home to some six million residents (2001 census estimate) employed in a diverse economy dominated by aviation; software and other technological enterprises; wheat, apples, beans, and other agriculture; forest products; and fishing. The state is a major exporter of manufactured goods, foodstuffs, raw materials, and hydroelectricity, and it is a popular tourist destination. In 2000, the U.S. Department of Commerce estimated Washington’s gross state product at $220 million. Present-day Washington has been home to numerous Native American tribes for at least 10,000 years. The first European explorers and traders visited it the late 1700s, and Lewis and Clark followed the Snake River and Columbia River to arrive at the Pacific Ocean near present-day Long Beach in November 1805. The Hudson’s Bay Company established major forts and trading stations in the early 1800s, followed by American fur traders, settlers, and missionaries. Great Britain and the United States jointly occupied the region between 1818 and 1846, when Britain ceded the Pacific Northwest below the 49th parallel to the U.S. Two years later, the U.S. created Oregon Territory, including the future states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho and a portion of Montana. Washington Territory (including Idaho and western Montana until 1863) was separated from Oregon on March 2, 1853, and gained statehood on November 11, 1889. Olympia has served as the capital of both Washington Territory and State since 1853. Seattle is the state’s most populous city (population 563,000 in 2000), followed in rank by Spokane, Tacoma, Vancouver, Bellevue, and Everett. The federal government created Oregon Territory on August 14, 1848. The area of the new jurisdiction included the present-day states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and western Montana. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 triggered a large westward migration, and settlement of Oregon Territory was promoted by passage of the Donation Land Claims Act of 1850, which granted 160 acres to any U.S. citizen who agreed to occupy his or her land for five years. On August 29, 1851, 27 male settlers met at Cowlitz Landing (south of present-day Olympia) to petition Congress for a separate “Columbia Territory” covering the area between the Columbia River and 49th parallel. The petition was reaffirmed by 44 delegates who met in Monticello on November 25, 1852. Congress approved the new territory on February 10, 1853, but changed its name to “Washington.” President Millard Fillmore signed the bill on March 2, 1853, and Olympia was named the Territorial Capital. President Franklyn Pierce named Isaac I. Stevens as the first governor of an area that included northern Idaho and western Montana until President Abraham Lincoln established Idaho Territory on March 4, 1863. Washington’s non-Indian population grew steadily to more than 300,000 over the following decades. Its residents began petitioning for statehood in 1881, and Washington was admitted to the Union on November 11, 1889, with the signature of President Benjamin Harrison. Thirty federally recognized sovereign Indian tribes and reservations occupy substantial areas in Washington, and there are an additional seven unrecognized but culturally distinct tribes. Washington has a bicameral Legislature and is divided into 49 Legislative Districts, each of which elects one Senator to a four-year term, and two Representatives to two-year terms. The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Attorney General, Auditor, Treasurer, Commissioner of Public Lands, Superintendent of Public Instruction, and Insurance Commissioner are elected statewide to four-year terms. The nine members of the State Supreme Court are elected statewide to six-year terms. Washington’s State Constitution has been substantially amended since 1889, and has authorized citizen initiatives and referenda since 1912. Washington currently includes 39 counties, and hundreds of incorporated cities and other special districts responsible for local government and services. Voters also elect Members of Congress from 10 districts as well as two United States Senators representing the entire state. State Emblems and Anthems State Motto: The word “Alki,” preferably pronounced “AL-kee,” means “by and by” in the Chinook trading jargon used by early Euro-American traders and Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest. It was first applied in 1852 by Charles Terry to his settlement (originally called “New York” after his native state) on present-day Alki Beach in West Seattle. Alki was adopted in the original Territorial Seal, which also features a representation of the “Goddess of Good Hope,” an anchor, and a depiction of buildings in a forest. State Seal: The official State Seal features a likeness of President George Washington adapted in 1967 by graphic designer Richard Nelms from the famous Gilbert Stuart portrait. The first 1889 version of the seal was quickly created by jeweler George Talcott, who placed a postage stamp bearing Washington’s picture inside two rings traced from an ink bottle and a silver dollar. Talcott’s brothers then wrote “Great Seal of the State of Washington 1889” between the two circles, and cut a die for printing. State Flag: Washington adopted its official flag, featuring the State Seal on a green background, in 1923. State Nickname: The phrase “The Evergreen State” appears on Washington license plates and in numerous official and unofficial uses, but it has never been formally adopted. Historian and journalist C. T. Connover is credited with coining it. State Song: Washington’s official anthem is the highly forgettable ditty, “Washington, My Home,” with lyrics by Helen Davis and music by Stuart Churchill. Adopted in 1959, the song succeeded the unofficial anthem “Washington Beloved,” penned by University of Washington professor Edmund Meany and scored by Reginald de Koven. Alas, a campaign to substitute the rock classic “Louie Louie” (first popularized by the Tacoma-based band, The Wailers) failed in the 1980s. State Folk Song: Woody Guthrie wrote his famous ballad, “Roll On Columbia, Roll On” to promote the cause of public power for the Bonneville Power Administration in the early 1940s. The Legislature adopted it as the state’s official folk song in 1987. State Dance: The square dance (or quadrille) was named the official state dance on April 17, 1979. State Amphibian: The Pacific chorus frog became the official state amphibian on July 22, 2007. State Mammal: It took until 2009, but in that year, at the suggestion of students from Wedgwood School in Seattle, the State Legislature designated the Olympic marmot (Marmota olympus) as Washington's official "endemic mammal." The marmots are social animals and live in groups of more than a dozen members at various locations on the Olympic Peninsula in Western Washington. They socialize and identify one another by touching noses and sniffing cheeks, and during the summer months spend most of their time eating and sunbathing before retiring to underground burrows. After coming out of a long hibernation that stretches from September to May, they can commonly be seen along Hurricane Ridge in the Olympic National Park. State Marine Mammal: We also have a state marine mammal, the orca. The campaign to designate the orca as such was initiated by a second-grade class in Oak Harbor, Washington. The class at Crescent Harbor Elementary School proposed the orca and gathered more than 1,000 signatures to present to the state Legislature. The Legislature passed the bill and Governor Christine Gregoire signed iton April 24, 2005, making the killer whale the official state marine mammal. State Bird: The present official state bird, the western or American goldfinch, aka “wild canary” (Carduelis tristis) was formally adopted in 1951 based on a special election among state school children. The first such election resulted in the designation of the meadowlark in 1928, but seven other states had already chosen the same species. A later election conducted by the Washington Federation of Women’s Clubs gave the nod to the goldfinch (over the tanager, pileated woodpecker, junco, and other worthy candidates), and the State Legislature officially anointed the bright yellow bird in 1951. A later campaign to give the state bird honor to the geoduck (actually an obscenely large and grotesque clam) failed. State Insect: The green darner dragonfly (Anax junius drury) was approved by the Legislature in 1997 as a result of a campaign spearheaded by students at the Crestwood Elementary School in Kent. More than 25,000 students from some 100 schools participated in the final vote to name the ubiquitous carnivorous bug, also known commonly as a “mosquito hawk.” State Fish: The Legislature named the steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss ) the official state fish in 1969. Like other “anadromous” fish, this relative of the salmon is born in freshwater streams, then migrates to saltwater where it spends most of its adult life. Unlike salmon, steelheads may return more than once to their birthplace streams to spawn before dying. State Mollusk: No official designee, yet, but many favor the banana slug. This could be the geoduck’s second chance for immortality as well, but HistoryLink favors the magnificent Giant Pacific Octopus, which is the largest of its kind and also the most intelligent of all invertebrates. State Plants and More State Vegetable The Walla Walla sweet onion became the official state vegetable on Sunday July 22, 2007. State Flower: The Coast Rhododendron was selected over five other candidates (including clover) to be Washington’s floral representative at the 1893 Columbia Exposition in Chicago. The 1892 special ballot was limited to women, who did not then have the right to vote in official elections. State Tree: Washington adopted the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) as its state tree in 1947, after being teased by the Portland Oregonian for its glaring lack of a sylvan symbol. State Fruit: The apple, one of Washington’s leading agricultural exports, was adopted in 1989 as part of the statehood centennial celebration. State Grass: The native bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) was named the official state grass in 1989. The other popular candidate for this honor remains illegal except for medicinal use. State Fossil: The extinct Columbian Mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) was named the official state fossil in 1998 at the urging of students at Cheney’s Windsor Elementary School. These giant furry cousins of modern elephants roamed most of northern Asia, Europe, and North America until approximately 10,000 years ago, and their remains have been unearthed at many locations in Washington. State Gem: Petrified wood was named the official state gem in 1975. Many specimens of ancient cypress, oak, elm, and gingko trees were preserved through lava flows and infiltration with sand over millions of years, and a rich deposit of these fossils can be found in the Gingko Petrified Forest State Park near Vantage. State Ship: The container ship President Washington was christened as Washington’s official ship in 1983 to recognize the regional importance of maritime trade. In 2007 the Lady Washington was named Washington's official ship. The 112-foot brig was built in Aberdeen as a full scale reproduction of the original Lady Washington that became the first American vessel to visit the West Coast of North America in 1788 under the command of Captain Robert Gray. The new Lady Washington was built by Grays Harbor Historical Seaport Authority and launched on March 7, 1989. State Tartan: In 1988, Vancouver residents Margaret McLeod van Nus and Frank Cannonita designed a distinctive tartan (a grid of intersecting bands of color on a solid background based on traditional Gaelic weaves) to help celebrate the following year’s centennial of Washington’s statehood. The red, white, blue, yellow, and green pattern was officially adopted by the Legislature in 1991. Compiled from the official Washington State website, (www.access.wa.us), and other state government sources. Note: This essay was updated on April 26, 2005, on July 24, 2007, on December 29, 2012, and on October 29, 2013. < Browse to Previous Essay Browse to Next Essay > Government & Politics \| Licensing: This essay is licensed under a Creative Commons license that encourages reproduction with attribution. Credit should be given to both HistoryLink.org and to the author, and sources must be included with any reproduction. Click the icon for more info. Please note that this Creative Commons license applies to text only, and not to images. For more information regarding individual photos or images, please contact the source noted in the image credit. Major Support for HistoryLink.org Provided By: The State of Washington \| Patsy Bullitt Collins \| Paul G. Allen Family Foundation \| Museum Of History & Industry \| 4Culture (King County Lodging Tax Revenue) \| City of Seattle \| City of Bellevue \| City of Tacoma \| King County \| The Peach Foundation \| Microsoft Corporation, Other Public and Private Sponsors and Visitors Like You	<urn:uuid:4e97019f-84e9-46bc-8a5e-4b2743d3fb87>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=5315	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949175	2,998	3.421875	3
On May 4,1886, a decade of labor turmoil climaxed at Haymarket Square, a produce center west of Chicago's downtown. On that day police officers clashed with unionists at a workers' protest rally organized by anarchists, individuals who wanted to abolish all systems of governmental authority This affair represented a pivotal event in the history of both the labor and anarchist movements in the United States. Like the Dreyfuss case in France in the 1890s, the Red Scare in America after World War I, and the Sacco Vanzetti trial in Massachusetts in 1921, the Haymarket episode helped to divide a nation, arouse emotions, and spawn discontent. This incident further demonstrated the inequities of American capitalism and the limitations of American justice, thereby revealing a great deal about America's moral conditions during the Gilded Age, a period of time from the post-Civil War period to the turn of the century. The Haymarket riot occurred at a time when thousands of workers across the country were periodically on strike. The first nationwide strike, which was accompanied by violence, occurred in 1877. That year the railroad disorder interrupted the shipping and receiving of foodstuffs and other items. Two years later, the Knights of Labor, originally a secret fraternal lodge founded by Uriah S. Stephens in Philadelphia, expanded into a labor organization under the capable leadership of Terence V. Powderly. The Knights of Labor achieved more power when it forced certain railroads to meet its demands in 1885. The next year, labor ferment was so prevalent that President Grover Cleveland included in his annual message to Congress a statement regarding economic problems confronting America's laboring classes. The labor situation was especially distressful in Chicago, a city with numerous tenement slums and a tradition of bitter labor disputes and social tensions in the post-Civil War period. In 1871 a disastrous fire wiped out the downtown and most homes on the North Side, destroying approximately $200 million worth of property. At least three hundred people died and more than ninety thousand were left homeless. During the years following the conflagration, Chicago's industry and its population skyrocketed. Workers—mostly immigrants— crowded into the city living in hurriedly constructed housing, much of which quickly turned into slum neighborhoods. Among the city's other outstanding problems were the consequences of the Panic of 1873, the industrial depression in the early 1880s, high rents, inadequate schools, filthy streets, unsanitary environmental conditions, intermittent strikes, and immigrant suspicions—all of which combine to produce ongoing socioeconomic and political turmoil. Chicago was a congested city where thousands of laborers, often exhausted from long hours of hard work under the supervision of cruel employers, lived in poverty. Many yearned for a new Utopia in which they would enjoy improved working and living conditions. The festering atmosphere offered opportunities for anarchists to agitate the dissatisfied and for socialists to propagandize in the late 1870s and early 1880s, culminating in 1877 when four Socialist Labor candidates captured seats in the Illinois legislature. Chicago was a city of intolerable extremes in the 1880s. Marshall Field, a wealthy businessman, spent $75,000 on a birthday party for his son, while in innumerable families, ten-year-old children worked along with their parents in factories to scrape together a meager existence. Wealthy meatpacker Gustavus F. Swift exhibited no remorse in dismissing a worker who had broken a leg at work and hiring a healthy replacement. When the demand for meat declined, Philip D. Armour, another Chicago entrepreneur, turned out thousands of men at his plants without notice and showing no concern that families might starve. Such were the inexorable laws of trade in the 1880s. Those unable to rise to the top echelons of power were smashed underfoot. An English tourist observed that in Gilded Age Chicago everybody was "fighting to be rich" and "straining to be refined" but that nobody could comprehend how to make the city a fit place in which to live. "Chicago people," remarked a local minister, "are money and pleasure mad. In other cities the question is 'Does reform help the city?' In Chicago it is 'Does it pay?'" In these deplorable conditions, socialists—who advocated government ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods and services—gained popularity among city dwellers and workers in the developing industries of Chicago and other urban centers. By 1886, Chicago surfaced as a hotbed for socialist propaganda. Anarchists also fed off the ills of economic recessions and the indifference of politicians. Often they found fertile ground among industrial workers, encouraging them to protest against oppressive systems. In 1884, the German Cigar Makers' Union declared that the only way to emancipate mankind was to rebel openly in all parts of the country against the existing economic and political institutions. Yet, the American political system, accustomed to the problems and the pace of an earlier and simpler time, reacted slowly and uncertainly to the social problems of the era. Most conservatives in positions of prominence blamed foreign agitators for the disturbances that contributed to the turbulence and crises of late-nineteenth-century America. They favored strict laws to curtail the major demographic changes that accompanied the arrival of millions of immigrants from eastern Europe and Asia. Chicago grew so rapidly during the Gilded Age that public services could not keep up with the demand. Roads, sewers, housing, health programs, and transportation systems strained to accommodate all the changes. By 1890 Chicago ranked as the second largest city in the United States. Of the more than one million people, nearly 80 per cent were either European immigrants or the children of immigrants. Many Germans, in particular, emigrated to Chicago during the time of the unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia and Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, who attempted to wreck the Socialist parties. Regrettably, German-Americans became targets of suspicion because of the activities in their homeland and because of the radical actions in Chicago by an outspoken minority As a result, xenophobia ran rampant in sections of rural Illinois and elsewhere. In an endeavor to assuage the deteriorating situation and help immigrants adjust to city life, Jane Addams and Ellen Starr in 1889 in Chicago founded Hull House, one of the first settlement houses in the United States. Although labor unrest had been fomenting in Chicago for years, it intensified in February, 1886, when a strike took place at the McCormick Reaper Works over the refusal of the company to discharge nonunion workers. Meanwhile the Knights of Labor, agitating for an eight-hour day as one way to improve the lives of American workers, joined the chorus of other groups calling for strikes on the first day of May. A tense situation characterized by fear worsened when unemployed men smashed windows of the McCormick plant. Inflammatory newspaper articles and fiery speeches compounded the already heated controversy culminating in the mass meeting on May 4. An alarmed Mayor Carter H. Harrison assembled policemen near the square to preserve order. After hearing anarchist speakers endorse violence, Captain John "Black Jack" Bonfield, the police inspector, decided to disperse the crowd. At that moment a bomb exploded, instantly killing one police officer and two civilians, mortally wounding six police officials, and injuring sixty-eight other persons. The police fired on the scattering crowd, an action reminiscent of the Kent State University tragedy on May 4,1970, in another midwestern town during an era of social upheaval over civil rights and the Vietnam War. John Swinton, a journalist, reported that the Haymarket bombing was "a godsend to the enemies of the labor movement," but Terence Powderly condemned "the band of cowardly murderers, cutthroats, and robbers." Eight Chicago labor leaders charged with being accessories before the fact, were apprehended and placed on trial on grounds that they had preached agitation and violence and as such had incited the bomb throwing. In reality, the defendants—Albert Parsons, August Spies, Samuel Fielden, Michael Schwab, George Engel, Adolph Fischer, Louis Lingg, and Oscar Neebe—were tried for their views about society. Their previous radical statements had already prejudiced the twelve jurors, not one of whom belonged to the industrial working class. All eight men were found guilty. Presiding judge Joseph E. Gary, responding to the conservative uproar, denied a motion for a new trial. Appeals to the Illinois Supreme Court and later to the United States Supreme Court proved futile. Republican Governor Richard J. Oglesby found nothing unusual about the verdict and refused to grant clemency to the convicted men. Four of the convicted anarchists were hanged in 1887, an action denounced by Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labor, as "judicial murder." Parsons shouted at his hanging: "Let me speak.. .let the voice of the people be heard!" Spies muttered from beneath his white hood: "There will come a time when our silence will be more powerful than the voices you strangle today." Some twenty thousand workers marched in the funeral procession for the executed men. Lingg committed suicide in his cell by exploding a dynamite cap in his mouth. The other three men received long prison terms. Prior to the Haymarket riot, most Americans either were unaware of the existence of revolutionary groups or regarded them as harmless. Often blind to reality and the growing disparity between the "have" and "have not" classes, contented conservatives too frequently overlooked the potential for social eruption, conveniently forgetting the immortal words of Sarah Norcliffe Cleghorn, an American pacifist and socialist author who expounded in an epigrammatic poem: "The golf links lie so near the mill that almost every day the laboring children can look out and see the men at play." On the other hand, after the Haymarket catastrophe, revolutionaries were viewed as a genuine threat to the security of the United States. It was the country's first "red scare," and the effects lasted a long time. In 1903, 1906, and 1907, Congress passed immigration acts that prohibited anarchists from entering the nation and discriminated against undesirable aliens. At the time of the Haymarket tragedy, John Peter Altgeld, a German-born reformer and naturalized American citizen, was judge of the Superior Court of Cook County, Illinois, and remained so until 1891. A private during the last year of the Civil War and a schoolteacher before practicing law, he had moved to Chicago in 1875 where he actively participated in Democratic politics and gained a reputation for honesty and integrity. He welcomed new challenges while advocating principles that directed his own life. In the process, he became a moral warrior unafraid of his destiny. In 1892 Altgeld, with the help of farm and labor votes, defeated Governor Joseph W. Fifer, a Bloomington Republican, in the Illinois gubernatorial election. Upon taking office in 1893, Governor Altgeld embarked on a program of reform to improve prison life, education, and factory working conditions. He also appointed Florence Kelley, a respected social worker, as state factory inspector. During this time, Clarence S. Darrow, a prominent Chicago attorney, urged the governor to pardon the Haymarket prisoners as one of his first acts as chief executive. But a reluctant Altgeld hesitated, citing the burden of other business. But after studying the complicated case in detail, the governor concluded that the jurists had been incompetent, that insufficient evidence for conviction existed, and that the bomb-thrower was never identified. In other words, the trial had been a miscarriage of justice. A leader of courage, vision, and determination, Altgeld demonstrated his character and conscience by his conduct in examining the Haymarket incident and trial. On June 26, 1893, Governor Altgeld acted on the matter by issuing a pardon for the three surviving prisoners while exonerating the others posthumously. At once a furious storm of protest broke. Altgeld's decision outraged public opinion and contributed to the polarization of politics in the state. Although his pardon message was factual, reasonable, legally sound, and rightly argued that the trial fell into the realm of unjust American jurisprudence and that poor people lacked equal opportunity before the law, Altgeld suffered the ultimate political consequences when conservative forces in Illinois, such as the Bloomington editor William O. Davis, and the nation caustically derided him for freeing Fielden, Schwab, and Neebe. Voters equated Altgeld with radicalism. Altgeld lost his bid for re-election in 1896 to John R. Tanner in the national Republican electoral sweep that installed William McKinley of Ohio in the White House over the beleaguered William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, the powerful orator and Democratic and Populist presidential nominee. Altgeld died six years later. The consequences of the Haymarket riot and its outcome changed American society and attracted worldwide attention. The riot was a major symbolic event in United States labor history with national repercussions and dimensions. A seemingly insignificant occurrence influenced a large segment of the American citizenry, remaining in their minds and changing the feeling of the country toward radicals. This small but important development was reminiscent in some ways of the Boston Massacre in 1770 in colonial times, which awakened the colonists to their differences with Great Britain. Moreover, the five men who died because of their alleged role in the Haymarket melee eventually surfaced as the first revolutionary martyrs in the United States. Several developments should be mentioned in listing the effects of the Haymarket pandemonium. The biggest casualties of the fracas were the eight-hour day working conditions, wages, and the image of labor in the public mind. Across the country anti-labor attitudes increased while radicalism in American labor decreased. The incident also made Americans cognizant of anarchism, equating it with violence. In addition, two years after the Haymarket explosion, Congress established a federal department of labor (though without Cabinet status), which became a separate department in the executive branch in 1913. Although the Haymarket affair temporarily set back unionization, the episode ultimately strengthened the movement toward unionism that abhorred violence. Gilded Age personal lives reflected a sincere desire for peace and a commitment to nonviolence in a civilized society. Americans favored peaceful progressive reform rather than armed insurrection. Reform came with labor laws over the next forty years, for out of the Haymarket experience and its aftermath grew the right to strike and to bargain collectively both of which remain integral parts of United States labor in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.	<urn:uuid:d267b5bf-bb10-4966-8d91-7d5ec4f32b8a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.lib.niu.edu/2002/iht910209.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961232	2,968	3.890625	4
It is ugly, messy even. Sometimes it stains fishing line and leaves boats discolored. It makes fishing tough too. It is algae, the green stuff that appears on the surface of many North Dakota lakes during warm summer days. This year the first algae blooms may have arrived a few days earlier than expected, but it was an early spring too. Algae changes the appearance of a favorite fishing lake in a few hours time. Blooms are not unusual, but they can be an indicator of trouble brewing on a body of water. "We just came off historic flooding. Decomposition is more than ever. It is a great recipe for stink," said Greg Power, North Dakota Game and Fish Department fisheries division chief. "In North Dakota we have more winter kills than summer kills, so it is hard to predict." Algae in bloom on Lake Audubon. Such occurrences are not unusual for North Dakota waters, but can lead to a depletion of dissolved oxygen. Despite the presence of green algae, fishermen were enjoying their time on the water near the Lake Audubon embankment last Sunday. Reservoirs are particularly vulnerable to algae blooms. Algae blooms have been common for years at Lake Darling, including this year, but they seldom lead to fish kills. Duane Anderson, Upper Souris National Wildlife Refuge, has been monitoring the condition of the reservoir. "There is vegetation. The weeds are growing, typical for this time of year," said Anderson. "Right now we don't consider it critical." When algae dies, it consumes oxygen. Given the right conditions, such as an extended period of warm temperatures with little water movement, an algae die-off could play a significant role in the health of a lake, river or reservoir. "It is not the daytime highs, but rather the nighttime lows that really jumps up the water temperature," said Power. "The nutrients are always there, always waiting for warm weather." The water temperature on Lake Darling rose to over 80 degrees July 7. A few days later, it dipped back into the upper 70s, still considered quite warm for North Dakota water in early July with the historic hot weeks still to come. "If the water temperature pushes 85 it is lethal for northern pike," stated Power. Recently a pike kill developed in the James River. The water temperature rose in the shallow river and left pike with no cooler water. When water gets too warm for their liking, pike will seek out deeper, cooler water. If there is none available, pike are in serious trouble. Power said he doesn't consider this year's algae blooms and water temperatures to be much worse than normal, but adds that at least some summer kills are inevitable. Some lakes are simply too shallow to provide fish with protection from an extended period of high temperatures. Power lists northern pike and trout as being particularly vulnerable. Summer fish kills can occur in a matter of hours. Fishermen who enjoy excellent fishing one evening could find the same lake depleted of oxygen by the following morning. It takes somewhat of a perfect storm for that to occur, such as a combination of an algae die-off, very warm nighttime temperatures and calm conditions. "I'm looking forward to somewhere around August 20," said Power. "Inevitably that's about the time we get cool nights, northwest winds and the lakes start turning over." "Turning over" is a reference to the thermocline, the layer of cool water in deeper lakes that begins to mix with warmer water from above as temperatures moderate. The result is generally improved fishing as deepwater-dwelling fish begin to move back into shallower water. The depth of the thermocline depends on water temperatures. The last critical year for water temperatures, said Power, was in 1988 when water levels were low and summer temps were high. Game and Fish crews will begin testing for dissolved oxygen in the coming weeks.	<urn:uuid:a4aae9d7-2941-46b7-ad25-25e2c11c5284>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.minotdailynews.com/page/content.detail/id/567339/Algae-blooms-under-way.html?nav=5012	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962486	814	2.71875	3
Location: jackson,, mississippi 39212 January 24, 2013 5:52 pm While I was chopping wood I. Found the strangest insect. Signature: Abraham White You didn’t clarify if you found this Eyed Elater among the wood, or if it was found upon splitting wood. We needed to research something about the larval stage of the Eyed Elater, Alaus oculatus, the largest North American Click Beetle, and this is what we learned on BugGuide: “Larvae are predatory, eating grubs of wood-boring beetles like cerambycids (longhorns).” BugGuide then provides this information on the life cycle: “Eggs are laid in soil. Larvae predators of beetle larvae in decaying wood, especially hardwoods. Pupation is in unlined cell underground or in rotting wood.” That would indicate that you would only find the Beetles among rotting wood, and not viable fire wood. When Click Beetles wind up on their backs, like in your second photo, they are able to flex their bodies, producing an audible click, and the snapping action propels the Click Beetle into the air, often righting itself when it lands.	<urn:uuid:4f08a63c-0bc1-40dd-94e6-8e255515610d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.whatsthatbug.com/2013/01/25/eyed-elater-found-while-chopping-wood/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950734	259	2.65625	3
Take a field trip with a group of some 30 scientists to one of the most ancient vistas on Earth – the Pilbara area of Western Australia. It is here many scientists believe the presence of our earliest ancestors is etched into rocks nearly 3.5 billion years old as stromatolites. You can take this journey through a set of hi-tech NASA tools: 1. Virtual Field Trip was created in a collaboration between NASA and Macquarie University. It links together other tools in the suite, including:	<urn:uuid:d9f5153f-9498-4268-9b52-a8da2c01afea>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://pilbara.mq.edu.au/mediawiki-1.6.5/index.php?title=For_the_public&redirect=no	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.942209	106	3.0625	3
Development Cooperation Handbook/Definitions/Baseline The noun baseline in general usage refers typically to the conditions that exist at a given point, usually the start point, of an activity, study, or project. An example of this usage can be found in medical studies, in which participants vital signs and other measurements at the start of a study are referred to as their “baseline measurements”. represents the approved time phase plan for a particular item, factoring in the addition or subtraction of approved project cost, scope, schedule, and technical changes. This approved time phase plan can apply to a number of components of a project, including the project as a whole, a work package, a schedule activity, or a work breakdown structure component. The term baseline, although in most common usage applies to the current baseline, can be used to refer to the original baseline (or some other specific baseline altogether). The term baseline is typically used with a modifier of some sorts. Some examples of this are “cost baseline“, “performance measurement baseline”, and “technical baseline”. For more information, see performance measurement baseline.	<urn:uuid:32d06266-a3bd-44b7-b09a-ec2df2a7e59c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook/Definitions/Baseline	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.901936	233	3.078125	3
You may not be surprised to learn that children who attended the 2013 Boston Marathon were six times more likely than non-attendees to suffer from PTSD. Given the carnage and panic wrought by the bombs, which caused 3 deaths and 264 injuries, you’d expect more trauma symptoms from those on the scene. But a new study reports that kids who had up-close views of the ensuing manhunt were just as likely to suffer PTSD as those with near exposure to the bombing. And kids who may not have had first-hand experience of either—well, the more news coverage they watched, the more mental health disturbances they suffered. The study, published online June 2 in Pediatrics, surveyed 460 parents of children who lived within 25 miles of the marathon or of Watertown, where the manhunt took place. They were asked about their children’s experiences during the week of the attack and about their psychological and social functioning in the following six months. The investigators, led by psychologist Jonathan Comer, formerly of Boston University and now at Florida International University, were interested in the impact both of the bombing and of its ripple effects afterward. They also wanted to measure both PTSD and less severe mental health issues such as conduct and peer problems, hyperactivity and inattention. Interestingly, they found an even stronger link between broad mental health problems among the kids with dramatic exposure to the manhunt (hearing shots, having their house searched, for example) than among kids with similar sensory experience of the bombing itself. The investigators also measured both the time the children spent glued to the set and whether parents had tried to limit their news viewing. Overall, the kids watched an average of 1.5 hours of attack coverage and more than 20% watched for over three hours. “Two thirds of the parents did not attempt to restrict their children’s viewing at all,” Comer says. “Yet we saw after Oklahoma City and 911 that TV exposure can have negative mental health effects on children, both near and far.” Experts on children and media tend to agree that restricting children’s media exposure to violent events is critical. Casey Jordan, a criminologist and justice professor at Western Connecticut State University, says that adults can put in context the sensationalism of media coverage designed to create a sense of danger. But children generally cannot. “The best rule,” he says, “is TURN IT OFF unless you really have a suspect on the lam in your neighborhood.” Just get the basic facts, he suggests, and do so by Internet if possible. Parents can help their children through these scary times by speaking to them honestly but calmly about what is happening and letting them express their reactions and fears. “It’s important to reassure them that they are safe,” says psychologist Daniel J. Flannery, who directs the Begun Center for Violence Prevention Research and Education at Case Western Reserve University. “Explain,” he says, “that the event was very unusual, and sometimes bad people do bad things but not everybody is like that. Their sense of normalcy has been taken away from them, and they need to get that back. “ Calm matters, agrees Jordan. “Do not go off on a tangent about ‘those people’ or a rant about who is to blame,” he says. “Children are sponges, they will learn from parents’ own reaction to crime and chaos, and absorb all the fall-out from what they hear and see.” This new study suggests that parents be alert to changes in their kids even months after—and miles away from—a violent incident. Are they eating or sleeping less—or more? Are they more withdrawn or anxious, acting out at school or with friends? The children may not have been personally involved in the traumatic event, suggests this research, but they may still be suffering trauma. “The reach of terror and associated fear,” write the authors, “is not confined to the boundaries of an attack itself.”	<urn:uuid:b6465c32-9060-4a49-8d65-e2855ffc974b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://time.com/2809367/news-coverage-boston-marathon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.980402	841	2.59375	3
Diversity of Funeral Customs — Cremation and Inhumation — Tombstones and their Inscriptions Of the fixed remains of the Roman era in Britain, those which relate to the burial of the dead are the most numerous. Our archaeological literature teems with notices of their discovery, and as these casually meet the eyes of the readers, they give rise to an impression of bewildering diversity. It is only by the comparison of a large number of them that the diversity, although great, is seen to have a limit. But why the diversity at all? This suggests a number of interesting questions. How far are the differences contemporary — how far successive? To what extent are they due to local conditions, to the diverse religious beliefs of the time, and to foreign influences? Are the modes of burial substantially a legacy of the customs of pre-Roman natives, or a Roman importation? It is probable that all of these contributed to the complex, but it is hardly possible at present to assign their relative shares in bringing about the result. Diversity of funerary customs, however, long preceded the Romans in the west. During the two or three centuries before the conquest, both cremation and simple inhumation were in vogue in England, the latter preponderating in the north and the former in the south. In Yorkshire, many skeletons of this period, laid in a contracted attitude or at full length, in cists, wooden coffins, or simply in graves, have been found, and some of them were remarkable for the wealth of associated objects. Of the many urn-fields in the south-eastern counties, one at was notable. The cremated remains, all in earthen vessels, were in circular holes, unmarked by mounds; and with most were associated other vessels, several being bronze ewers and tankards, and these, as also the smaller objects, were of Late-Celtic type. In another urn-field, near Haslemere in Surrey,2 the cineraries were generally accompanied with accessory vessels; but the pottery was of later type and assignable to the period of Roman influence immediately before the conquest. In both burial-grounds, many of the graves were arranged in 'family circles.' The interments of Roman Britain are also of both kinds, burnt and unburnt, but the former predominate. They occur singly or in small groups near the houses of the time, and in large aggregates outside the town walls, clustering especially about the roads leading from the gates, as at Rome and Pompeii. The chief burial-ground at Colchester extended for about a mile on each side of the road which issued from the west gate. The cemeteries of York were also of great extent, and considerable numbers of interments have been found outside the walls of Viroconium, Verulamium, and Bath. Contrary to the early Roman laws which prohibited sepulture in towns, burials took place within the limits of Roman London and Caerwent, but apparently only few. The graves were mostly 'flat,' that is, they were not covered with mounds; but tumuli are known, and some of large size, as, for instance, one of a group of seven known as the Bartlow Hills, at Ashdon in Kent, and explored with remarkable results, was 147 ft. in diameter and 47 ft. high. The custom of placing various objects, chiefly vessels of pottery and glass, with the dead, was as general as in previous times. Inscribed tombstones were common, but their absence or fewness in districts where suitable stone was not obtainable, renders it probable that wooden memorials were also used. There is little doubt that in the earlier part of the era cremation was the prevailing, if not the sole, custom in this country. It was so in Italy; but by the beginning of the 5th century it was so completely a thing of the past, that Macrobius could learn nothing about it except from books. There is a consensus of opinion that it was supplanted by inhumation in Britain by the middle of the 4th century. This is somewhat confirmed by the fact that in a group of burials, the interments are occasionally of one kind only. The larger and earlier burial-ground at Colchester, and that by the side of the Watling Street at Wroxeter, contained only burnt remains; and similar burial-grounds have been found at Swanmore in the Isle of Wight,3 near Dover, by the side of the Roman road to Canterbury,4 and at Witham in Essex and Larkfield near Maidstone.5 On the other hand, two hundred graves opened in the Isle of Portland about 1850,6 three hundred half-a-mile east of Irchester, Northamptonshire, in 1873,7 more than seventy on the north side of Great Chesterford, Essex,8 and eleven at Chatham Lines in 1897,9 yielded only unburnt interments. In most aggregates of graves, there is a large preponderance of the one or the other, and sometimes their positions indicate their sequence. The excavation of a small burial-ground at Litlington, Royston, was specially interesting, as it proved that the burnt interments it contained were, with one exception, older than the unburnt. It was a rectangular walled space about 390 ft. long, and the burials were arranged in parallel rows. These originally consisted of burnt remains in urns, some of which were afterwards displaced and scattered, when the graves were dug for the unburnt corpses. The exception referred to, was a skeleton below an urn of burnt bones. That the enclosed space had been used for a long period was proved by the coins, and it is clear that during this interval cremation was supplanted by inhumation, but not suddenly, the skeleton followed by an urned interment implying an overlap. This Litlington enclosure is interesting in other respects. Within two of the corners, the ground was burnt and covered with wood-ashes, and there is little doubt that the funeral piles were erected on these spots. Similar ustrina have been observed in other burial-grounds. But it was not unusual for the body to be burned over the grave. At Wroxeter, for instance, two or three interments were in large square pits, the sides and floors of which were excessively burnt and blackened with charcoal.11 It is probable that we have at Litlington a villa burial-ground, as traces of apparently a large rural house of the time were noticed in A smaller walled cemetery was examined at Lockham near Maidstone, in 1842.12 The entrance appeared to be on the north-east side, where also were the remains of funeral fires. Six undisturbed interments were found, consisting of burnt bones in glass and earthenware vessels, with which were associated other vessels, several of bronze, and four iron lamps. Two of these interments were in built cists or vaults and two in large amphorae with the necks removed. The enclosure also contained the rms of a rectangular tomb-house, 14 ft. by 12 ft. 6 ins., and of another, circular, and 11 ft. 6 ins. in diameter. The latter was of peculiar interest. Above a plinth of pink cement was a stuccoed dado 2 ft. high, decorated in colours; and to judge from the vague description, the scheme consisted of small reddish-brown squares separated by broad bands of pale yellow on which were parallel groovings in red. Above this, the wall was painted green and ornamented with engaged columns and pilasters (presumably alternating) in red, each with a square blue base. The height of the structure and how treated above are matters of conjecture. No mention is made of a doorway, but as the north-east side was excessively ruined, it may have been on that side, and this applies equally to the rectangular tomb-house. Both had been rifled, but as a portion of a skeleton was found in the former, and the interior of the latter was large enough to contain a sarcophagus or coffin, we may conclude that the interments At Holwood Hill, Kent,13 near the remains of apparently a large house, were found a small rectangular tomb-house with an entrance in the west side, and containing a stone sarcophagus or coffin, two other coffins in graves, and a circular buttressed building, 30 ft. in diameter, with an entrance on the east. This structure had been painted red externally, and with various colours on the inner side. The interior had been rifled, but a single trench disclosed broken pottery and charcoal. Possibly this mausoleum contained burnt interments, but those of the coffins would certainly be unburnt. Similar large circular buildings have been noticed at Chedworth and at Wiggenhall in Sussex. The general rule in the case of cremation was to place the burnt bones collected from the site of the pile or rogus in an earthen vessel. Vessels of various shapes and sizes were used for the purpose; but globose jars or ollae of the forms of C5, 9, and 11, Fig. 45, were so customary that these are popularly known as cinerary urns. They, however, were common domestic utensils of the time, and so far as is known no pottery was specially made for funerary purposes in this country. The vessels occasionally had lids, as H11, Fig. 50; more frequently a shallow saucer or dish, a piece of flat stone, or a tile, served as a cover. Less frequently glass vessels were used, especially the large square or cylindrical handled bottles, and less frequently still the burnt bones were sealed up in cylindrical leaden receptacles or ossuaria, of which there are good examples in the British and York Museums. As a rule, the cinerary with its contents was simply placed in a hole in the ground about 18 ins. or 2 ft. deep, with or without accessories, and was then buried. But frequently some sort of additional protection was devised. Occasionally the hole or grave was converted into a small vault by covering it with a large tile or stone. Or a cist was constructed in it of four tiles on their edges for the sides, and a fifth for the cover, of which several have been found at Colchester.14 Or the receptacle was of masonry, as at Lockham. A more carefully made loculus was hewn out of a cubical block of stone with a flat stone for its cover, as one found at Carlisle,15 within which was a square glass ampulla containing the human ashes, with an earthenware lamp in its mouth and small vessel by its side. A large cylindrical example from Harpenden, Hertfordshire, now in the British Museum,16 rested upon, and was covered by, two oblong blocks of stone 5 ft. long, and contained a glass cinerary with four other vessels around it. Other examples of cylindrical loculi have been found, with circular slabs for their covers; and one at Cirencester17 had for its cover a cylindrical block of the same size as the lower one, instead of a slab. Large amphorae with the necks broken off were occasionally used for the same purpose as at Holwood Hill, and others have been found at Colchester,18 Lincoln, London, Hemel Hempstead, Stratford-Bow, and Hoo St. Werburgh.19 Cists of a tent-like form constructed of roofing-tiles have been found at York and elsewhere. In these, two rows of the flat tiles (tegulae) were inclined against one another, roof-wise, the ridge being capped with the half-round tiles (imbrices), while a flat tile closed in each end. In one at York only burnt bones were found; in another were several vessels, one containing burnt bones, all resting on a tiled floor.20 The reader has already learned something of the objects — the 'grave-goods' — associated with cremated interments. Nowhere can these be better studied than in the Joslin Collection in the Colchester Museum. The 'finds' from each grave are grouped together. There are 123 groups, and nearly all relate to burnt interments. In the majority, the cineraries are earthen ollae; in several, small amphorae; and in one, a basin. Two are glass vessels — a two-handled jar with lid and a hexagonal bottle; one a cylindrical 'ossuary' of lead; and another, a wooden toilet or dressing-box with bronze fittings and lock. With the exception of several cists of tiles, the cineraries and their accessories were simply buried in the earth. The accessories are extremely varied. Vessels of pottery are the most numerous; then follow in descending order, bracelets or bangles, necklaces and beads, glass vessels consisting mostly of the little bottles known as lachrymatories, lamps, brooches, pins, dice and counters used in games, finger- and ear-rings, coins, dressing-boxes, mirrors, tweezers and nail-cleaners, charms or amulets, spindle-whorls, spear-heads, a buckle, clay figure of a bird, piece of bronze chain, nails of sandal, bronze ligula, and a few other single objects. These were mostly placed at the side of, or around, the cineraries, as in the Aylesford and Haslemere graves; but in more than a dozen burials, some were in the cineraries with the burnt bones, and these were mostly articles relating to personal attire and adornment which had passed through the fire with Excluding the saucers and other shallow vessels used as covers for the cineraries, about 270 vessels of pottery are associated with 92 cremated interments in the collection, representing an average of nearly 3 to each, but the actual numbers range from 1 to 14, the prevailing numbers, however, being 2, 3, and 4. These vessels are of all shapes and wares, but are mostly of the smaller sizes. Of the glass vessels, 33 out of a total of about 40 are the so-called 'tear-bottles' which probably contained balsams or aromatic unguents, and ten at least of them are described as 'fused,' indicating that they had passed through the fire. All the lamps are of earthenware, but their distribution is uneven, the 28 examples being associated with 17 interments, one of these having 6. All the objects relating to games, consisting of square dice and a larger number of 'counters' were found in one cinerary, and had been burnt. It will be noticed that most of the remaining objects related to the toilet. The sex and age of the dead are often indicated by the accompaniments. With women were buried bracelets, mirrors, dressing-boxes, and the like; and with infants, tetinae or feeding-bottles and small odds and ends which may have been their cherished playthings. The Joslin Collection is so well representative of the generality of the cremated burials of the era, that further examples, with the exception of the remarkable burial-mounds at Ashdon in Essex, are unnecessary. Of these, six were explored between 1832 and 1840,21 and each was found to cover a single cremated interment, deposited in a receptacle or tomb, and surrounded with a wealth of grave-goods. Under the largest mound were the remains of a wooden chest or tomb, 4 ft. 2 ins. by 3 ft. 8 ins., and 2 ft. high, containing the cinerary, a square-handled bottle of green glass, and the following objects: a bronze jug or ewer (Fig. 54, D), inlaid with silver and lying in a bronze patera; a richly enamelled globular bronze situla; a bronze lamp; two bronze bath strigils; a folding seat resembling a camp-stool of iron, with bronze ornaments and indications of a leather top; a narrow-necked glass flask stopped with some bituminous substance and containing a partly congealed oil floating on a sweet liquid with an apple-like odour; another smaller glass flask which had been stopped in a similar manner; a small square glass amphora containing decomposed vegetable matter; a tall square glass-handled bottle; and a small earthen vessel. Just outside the chest was a large earthen amphora containing earth, ashes, and fragments of burnt bones, apparently the final gatherings from the site of the funeral pile. The other mounds were of smaller size, but their contents, although less elaborate, were similar. Four of the receptacles were of wood, and the remaining one was strongly constructed of tiles and closed in by larger tiles in overstepping courses. In four of these, the burnt bones were in glass vessels, and in one they formed a central heap. With three of these interments, were bronze ewers and paterae associated together as in the largest tumulus; and with all were glass and earthen vessels. Among the remaining accessories were four iron hanging lamps as at Lockham, the metal mountings and other remains of three dressing-boxes, a small wooden tankard with bronze fittings,22 a small decayed basket, and a sponge. One of the glass flasks contained a fatty substance, and another traces of a liquid. In one of the wooden cists, the bronze vessels had been covered with a linen cloth, and the floor strewn with branches of box. A similar association of a bronze ewer and patera has been observed in some other cremated interments, notably in one near Canterbury and in others at Medbourn in Leicestershire and Shefford in Bedfordshire. These vessels recall the ewer and patera so often carved on the altars (p127), and this suggests that they served a like purpose in the funeral ceremonies. We know from Roman writers that it was customary to pour or sprinkle wine on the pile and on the remains after the fire; and it may well have been that the utensils used for the purpose were often deposited in the tomb. Bronze vessels, it is true, are rarely found associated with the dead, but ordinary glass and earthen vessels may have been more generally used. It was also customary to scatter perfumes and odoriferous gums and spices on the pile, and it is by no means improbable that these were brought to it in the so-called 'tear-bottles' and other small vessels so frequently found in the graves. Two of the five Bartlow Hills lamps retained remains of charred wicks showing that they had been placed in the tombs, lighted — another ancient and widespread custom, probably of Oriental origin, but apparently far from universal in this country. The three glass bottles containing vegetable liquids or their traces, apparently a mixture of honey and oil in one case, and a vessel containing fowls' bones, are of special interest, as very few deposits of like nature have been found elsewhere. Almost invariably the vessels, mostly of pottery, associated with Roman interments, whether burnt or unburnt, have supplied no clue whether they were placed in the tombs empty or otherwise. We know that it was a general practice almost everywhere in an early stage of culture to place foods and other things useful in life with the dead, either with a view of propitiating their ghosts or in some way of satisfying their wants. In our Roman era, the meaning of the custom may have been so far lost sight of that it was only represented by empty vessels as a rule. Food-stuffs under ordinary conditions would rapidly disappear by the ordinary processes of decay, but the exceptional instances cited above go far to show that the ancient usage was still in vogue. On the other hand, many objects of personal use, as brooches, rings, bracelets, and the like, were parts of the attire in which the deceased was burnt, and in the case of unburnt burials in which he or she was interred. Others again, as dressing-cases and their contents, mirrors, and children's toys, we may conceive to be treasured trinkets, deposited in the grave from no other motive than a loving regard for the dead. The branches of box in one of the Bartlow Hills tombs may also indicate a general custom, as leaves of the same plant have been found in a Chesterford burial, and the remains of foliage in several others. Roman influence was strong, the dead body, when buried unburnt, was almost invariably laid at full length in the grave. To what extent the prehistoric custom of burying it in a contracted or flexed attitude passed into Roman times is uncertain. Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers exhumed many contracted and extended skeletons about the sites of the Romano-British villages at Woodcutts, Rotherley, and Woodyates in but as these villages were any of pre-Roman origin it may well be that some of the burials were older than the conquest. Still, it is noteworthy that the few objects which were undoubtedly Roman, or had a Roman facies, were mostly associated with the extended skeletons. Seven or eight of the extended skeletons had hobnails about their feet, showing that they had been buried in their shoes or sandals, and presumably in their clothes as well. In the graves of about as many there were iron nails in positions to imply that they belonged to wooden coffins of which no other traces remained.24 Vessels of pottery were few. With five of the seventeen Woodyates burials there were Roman coins, and three of these were found by the heads of the skeletons, leading the General to consider that, in accordance with a well-known Roman custom, each had been placed in the mouth of the deceased as a fee for Charon to ferry him across the Styx. Coins in similar positions have been found in graves elsewhere in this country, showing that the custom was observed; but, however common in Italy, it does not seem to have been general with us. The heads of the skeletons of these three villages pointed in various directions, some to the north, but more generally the extended skeletons lay in directions roughly east and west, with the heads mostly in the latter direction, and this appears to have been the prevailing orientation in Wooden coffins or chests were certainly in common use during the Roman era, as the frequent presence in the graves of not only nails, but of iron or bronze bindings, hinges, and other mountings, prove, but very few remain. A good example of a rectangular coffin was found at Stanley Grange, Derbyshire,25 in 1903. It was constructed of oak boards which appeared to have been pegged together, as there were no nails or other metal details. The skeleton was extended at full length with the head to the east-north-east, and on its right side was a small hexagonal bottle of glass. Occasionally a wooden coffin was enclosed in a cist constructed of flag-stones or tiles, and examples of both have been found at York. Coffins hewn out of a single rock of stone were much used, especially where suitable stone was at hand, Bath stone being especially adapted for the purpose. These coffins are usually wedge-shaped; sometimes they approximate to the modern form, and rarely are rectangular. Occasionally they were rounded within at the head or the foot. They appear to have always had covers, flat, rounded, or slightly coped, and of a single piece or several. They were usually roughly hewn into shape and were intended to be buried; but occasionally they were carefully finished, with or without inscriptions, and more or less decorated, and these were certainly not buried. A good example of the latter sort was found in the Green, Westminster Abbey, in 1869.26 It was 7 ft. long, 2 ft. 5 ins. wide at the head, and 2 ft. at the foot, and 18 ins. high, and it had a coped cover. One side and the cover alone were ornamented, the former having an inscription to the deceased, and the latter a cross of a common type of the 11th or 12th century in relief. Apparently it originally occupied a recess, the cover and front alone being exposed to view. The Christian emblem indicates that it was re-used at the time it was carved. This was no uncommon practice, and Bede27 records an instance. When the remains of St. Etheldreda, abbess of Ely, were translated to the new church in the 7th century, they in a marble coffin most beautifully wrought, which was found outside an abandoned city called Grantecester. This 'abandoned city' was Roman, and there is no doubt that the coffin was from its cemetery. Marble coffins, although frequent in Italy and Gaul, must have been rare in this country, for apparently there is no example in our collections. Still, several highly ornamented ones in stone are known, the finest, perhaps, being one in the British Museum from Haydon It would be better described as a coffer or sarcophagus than a coffin, for it is rectangular, with a coped cover. On the front is a large panel filled with a wavy godrooned pattern, with a central medallion containing the profile-bust of a boy in low relief, and on each end a basket of fruit, while the slopes of the cover have a handsome foliated design. The cover was originally fastened down by an iron strap or clamp at each end. This sarcophagus contained a leaden coffin in which were found the remains of a boy. As the back is quite plain, it evidently stood against a wall, perhaps the back of a small tomb-house, as those at Holwood and Lockham. Remains of these structures have also been found at York and elsewhere. Lead coffins have been frequently found, but comparatively few have escaped the melting-pot. They were wedge-shaped or rectangular, and were usually made of a single sheet of lead with the corners so cut that when the sides and ends were beaten up, the cut edges either met or the one could be doubled over the other, the joints being fused or soldered. The covers overlapped the sides and were often made in the same manner. They were occasionally plain, but more often decorated. The decoration was simple and characteristic, consisting of straight beaded lines in relief, arranged in bold zigzags, saltires, or other rectangular figures, and the intervals often contained simple devices, of which the scallop was the most frequent. The ornamentation was effected by stamps which were pressed into the sand-bed on which the lead sheet was cast. There are fine examples in the Colchester and York Museums. A rectangular one found at Bexhill in 1871 had, in addition to the ordinary ornamentation, small reliefs of a lion, ewer, and Medusa's head repeated several times; and another found in the Kent Road, London, had figures of Minerva in its compartments. There are several instances of these coffins being enclosed in shells of stone or wood, and probably the latter was customary. Lead coffins are more frequent in the east and south-east than in the west.29 A remarkable burial-mound known as Eastlow Hill, containing a skeleton in a leaden coffin, was opened at Rougham in Kent, in 1844. The coffin, enclosed in a wooden shell, was in a tomb built in the form of a small house, 12 ft. long and 6 ft. 6 ins. wide, of masonry with a tiled roof, upon a concrete platform. The only object associated with the skeleton was a small coin near the head; but a small chamber at one end of the 'house' contained broken glass and other vessels.30 There was a curious custom both here on the Continent, of covering the corpse in the coffin with liquefied lime, or, according to other statements, plaster of Paris. The result is that the hardened material often retains a perfect impression of the body and its clothing, and actual portions of the latter are sometimes preserved. There are several examples of these calcareous fillings in the York Museum. One covered the body of a lady and her child, and the garment in which she was buried was of a velvety texture ornamented with crimson or purple stripes. Another indicates that the corpse was entirely covered with a coarse canvas. In another example, the body had been habited, the legs crossed, and the feet shod; and, upon the limy matrix being removed, the following objects were found above the left shoulder — a portion of a gold ring and two jet rings, two gold ear-rings, two bracelets, several bronze rings, and two bead necklaces. In another example, a young lady had been entirely enveloped in a coarse cloth, and deposited in a leaden coffin enclosed within a stone one, her head apparently resting on a pillow; the most interesting feature is that the calcareous environment preserved her coiffure intact. Her auburn hair had been slightly twisted and coiled at the back of the head in the circular fashion in vogue during the Constantine period, and secured by two jet pins.31 The tombstones, like the Roman altars, are 'good, bad, and indifferent.' Some found in the vicinity of the military centres are, we can well imagine, the products of men who were better soldiers than stone-cutters; others, notably at London and Colchester, were certainly made by skilled masons. Like the altars, too, they exhibit no Late-Celtic traits in their ornamentation. With few exceptions, they are, like our headstones, slabs of stone bearing on their fronts the epitaphs. The simplest are rectangular slabs, sometimes quite plain, but more often panelled in front; and the panel may be rectangular, or have a gabled head, in which case the head may be converted into a pediment by a horizontal line of moulding across its foot. There is a good London tombstone of the latter type in the British Museum in which the tympanum is ornamented with a trident and two dolphins, each external spandrel having a roundel. Another found at Great Chesters has the pediment of an unusual ogee outline and containing a two-handled More often the summit of the slab is shaped to the pediment, and most of finest tombstones are of this type. In these a definite architectural effect was often obtained by flanking the front with two pilasters. In another British Museum example, the pilasters are panelled and ornamented with floral scrolls, and have quasi-Corinthian capitals, the tympanum being filled with foliage. The pilasters are sometimes fluted, and occasionally they simulate engaged columns. The pediment is sometimes flanked with ornaments, and these are usually lions, as in tombstones at Wroxeter and Benwell, the latter having a curious rayed human head in the tympanum. In the most elaborate tombstones, the panel or in lieu thereof a shallow round-headed niche or alcove contains a sculptured subject, the inscription being at the foot. There are several types of these sculptured stones. In the most frequent, the deceased is represented standing at full length. There is a notable example in the Colchester Museum (Fig. 39),32 in which the deceased, a centurion of the Twentieth Legion, Marcus Favonius, is represented in military dress with his left hand on his sword and holding in his right the insignia of his office, a staff. This tombstone is specially interesting because it was found fallen over the lead ossuary which contained the ashes. Another fine example of the type was found at South Shields. It presents the deceased, a woman, seated, and apparently knitting, in an alcove, which is flanked with two panelled pilasters supporting an elaborate pediment (Fig. 39). Of much simpler character is the tombstone of a boy aged five years, found at Old Penrith. The figure of the deceased has a whip in one hand and in the other what seems to be a toy, and it occupies a deeply sunk panel. Occasionally there are two figures, as those of a centurion and his wife at Chester. A tombstone at York has four figures, those of a soldier, his wife, and his infant son and FIG. 39. TOMBSTONES AT COLCHESTER AND SOUTH SHIELDS Another type of these sculptured monuments presents a horseman riding over a fallen barbarian and often in the act of spearing him — a device of Greek origin and presumably confined to the graves of soldiers. There are several examples in the Chester Museum, and others have been found at Hexham, Wroxeter, Bath, Cirencester (Fig. 40), and elsewhere. A third type, known as that of the 'sepulchral banquet,' is of great antiquity and has an Eastern origin, and probably it originated in ancestor worship. The deceased is represented as reclining on a couch, with a small tripod table in front, and holding a goblet in the right hand; and there is usually a juvenile attendant before or behind the couch. There are several examples at Chester, others at Corbridge, York (Fig. 40), South Shields, and elsewhere. FIG. 40. TOMBSTONES AT CIRENCESTER AND YORK Sufficient has been said to give the reader a general idea of the funeral monuments of the era. The exceptions in this country are few. There are a few instances of memorials in the form of a pilaster or stele. One in the Guildhall Museum is a hexagonal pedestal inscribed to a lady, Claudia Martina, and it was probably surmounted with her statue, as a female head of stone was found with it. Others are mural tablets which were probably affixed to tomb-houses, and we have already described several carved and inscribed stone coffins which were evidently intended to be exposed, and thus to serve as the memorials of the dead. The sculptured subjects, instead of conforming to the three types given above, occasionally depict scenes from mythology or from daily life. The epitaph generally records (1) the name of the deceased mostly with some brief particulars as to his or her station or condition; (2) the age at death, and, in the case of a soldier, the length of his service; and (3) the person or persons who raised the monument. It is usually prefaced with D. M., Dis Manibus, 'To the gods of the shades,' but probably it came to have no definite meaning and is best rendered, 'To the memory of.' It sometimes ends, especially in the earlier monuments, with H. S. E., Hic situs est, 'He or she lies here.' The name of the deceased is usually in the nominative, and when not so in the dative. More particulars, as a rule, are given of the soldier than the civilian. The length of his service is nearly always stated, and often his legion or cohort, his birthplace, and 'tribe,' and if an officer, his rank. The age is expressed by an abbreviation of vixit annos, as VIX. AN. XXIV, 'He lived twenty-four years,' or of annorum, as VIX. AN. XXXI., 'Thirty one years (of age)'; and the soldier's service by an abbreviation of stipendiorum, as STIP. XIII, 'He served thirteen (years).' If the heir erected the monument the formula is H. F. C., Heres faciendum curavit, 'His heir caused this to be made'; if a father did this — PATER F. C. The same may be expressed by F. for fecit or P. for posuit — thus VACIA SOROR F., 'The sister made this'; CAEC. MVSICVS LIB. EIVS P., 'Her freedman, Caecilius Musicus, placed this.' The following examples will give the reader a general idea of the epitaphs of the era:— At Chester — D. M. P. RVSTIO FABIA CRESCEN. BRIX. MIL. LEG. XX. V. V. AN. XXX STIP. X GROMA HERES FAC. C. "In memory of P. Rustius Crescens of the Fabian tribe from Brixia, a soldier of the Twentieth Legion, 'The Valerian and Victorious,' aged thirty years and served ten. Groma, his heir, had this (stone) made." (Brixia, now Brescia, in Italy.) Cirencester — RVFVS SITA EQVES CHO. VI TRACVM ANN. XL STIP. XXII HEREDES EXS TEST. F. CVRAVE. H. S. E. "Rufus Sita, horseman of the Sixth Cohort of Thracians, lived forty years and served twenty-two. His heirs, in accordance to his will, had this erected. He is laid here" (Fig. 40). Great Chesters — DIS M. PERVICAE FILIA F. "In memory of Pervica. Her daughter erected this." Silchester — MEMORIAE FL. VICTORINAE T. TAM. VICTOR CONIVNX POSVIT. "In memory. To Flavia Victorina, Titus Tamphilus (?) Victor, her husband, placed this." York — D M SIMPLICIAE FLORENTINE ANIME INNOCENTISSIME QVE VIXIT MENSES DECEM FILICIVS SIMPLEX PATER FECIT LEG VI V. "To the divine shades. To Simplicia Florentina, a most innocent thing, who lived ten months. Filicius Simplex of the Sixth Legion, 'The Victorious,' the father, erected this." Chesters — D. M. S. FABIE HONORATE FABIVS HONORATIVS TRIBVN. COH. I VANGION. ET AVRELIA EGLICIANE FECERVNT FILIE DVLCISSIMME. "Sacred to the gods of the shades. To Fabia Honorata, Fabius Honoratius, tribune of the First Cohort of Vangiones, and Aurelia Egleciane, raised this to their daughter most sweet." Housesteads — D. M. ANICIO INGENVO MEDICO ORDI COH. PRIMAE TVNGR. VIX. AN. XXV. "To the memory of Anicius Ingenuus, physician in ordinary to the First Cohort of Tungrians, lived twenty-five years." The Author's Notes: 1. Archaeologia, lii, p315. 2. Proc. Soc. Ant. xxi, p217. 3. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxiii, p213. 4. Arch. Jour. xvi, p297. 5. Proc. Soc. Ant. 2, xvii, p94. 6. Arch. Jour. x, p60. 7. Vict. Hist. Northamp. i, 183. 8. Arch. Jour. xvii, p117. 9. Proc. Soc. Ant. 2, xviii, p39. 10. Archaeologia, xxvi, p368. 11. Uriconium, p346. 12. Arch. Cantiana, lxii, p76. 13. Archaeologia, xxi, p336. 14. Brit. Arch. Assoc. v, p134. 15. Arch. Jour. xxi, p88. 16. Arch. Jour. ii, p251. 17. Brit. Arch. Assoc. iv, p70. 18. Ib. ii, p275. 19. Arch. Jour. ii, p255; Archaeologia, xii, p108; xxvii, pp412, 434. 20. Archaeologia, ii, p177; Arch. Jour. xxv, p294. Several have been recently found at Newstead. 21. Archaeologia, xxv, p1; xxvi, pp300, 462; xxviii, p1; xxix, p1. 22. The handles of similar tankards have been found at Caerwent and Newstead. 23. Excavations, i, p33; ii, p190; iii, p204. 24. Of eleven interments at Chatham, most yielded the large nails of wooden coffins, and five of the skeletons had hob-nails at the feet. Arch. Cantiana, xxiii, p14. 25. Derbyshire Arch. Jour. xxvi, p227. See also Arch. Jour. vi, p109; xii, p197; Brit. Arch. Jour. 1858, p336. 26. Arch. Jour. xxvii, p103. 27. Hist. Eccl. bk. iv, xix. 28. Arch. Jour. x, p255; Price, Roman Antiquities, Mansion House, plate iv. 29. Arch. Jour. x, pp61, 255; xii, pp78, 283; xvii, p99; xx, p99. Brit. Arch. Jour. ii, p297; xx, pp88, 200. Collect. Antiq. iv, p173. Archaeologia, xvii, p333; xxxi, p308. 30. Arch. Jour. lvii, p97. 31. Arch. Aelian. viii, 127. 32. Brit. Arch. 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Once thought to be a planet, Pluto is now recognized as a dwarf planet due to its mass and inability to sweep its neighborhood clean. While most objects in the solar system orbit the sun on essentially the same plane, Pluto's orbit takes it outside of the traditional range. Along with its largest moon, Charon, Pluto also is part of the only binary planet group in the solar system. These significant differences mean that the dwarf planet formed a little bit differently from the larger planets in the solar system. The early solar system Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to spin, forming the sun in the center of the nebula. With the formation of the sun, the remaining material began to clump up. Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles. The solar wind swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, from the closer regions, leaving only heavy, rocky materials to create smaller terrestrial worlds. But farther away, the solar winds had less impact on lighter elements, allowing them to coalesce into gas giants. In this way, asteroids, comets, planets, and moons were created. Pluto's rocky core would have been the first to form under this scenario. From there, gases and ices would have been pulled in gravitationally, with the core growing larger and larger. But like the other dwarf planets, Pluto failed to gather enough mass to reach the classification as a full-scale planet. Pluto is unique in the solar system because it is technically a binary planet. The center of mass for Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, lies outside of the interior of the once-ninth planet. This means the icy pair could provide insight into not only binary planets, but also how planets form in systems with two or more stars. "In terms of the dynamics of how planets form around binary star systems, Pluto is the closest example we have," Scott Kenyon, a theoretical astrophysicist at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), told Space.com previously. Not a Neptune reject The early solar system was a cluttered place, with planets, dwarf planets, and asteroids scattered all around. As planets traveled through their paths, their significant mass gave them a great deal of gravitational power, changing the orbits of smaller bodies. Some were catapulted into the sun, while others were cast out of the solar system completely. The solar system today is clean compared to its early life. Pluto's bizarre orbit led many astronomers to conclude that it had been kicked from the orbit of the planet Neptune at some time in its history. This seemed strengthened by the planet's similarity to Neptune's largest moon, Triton. However, Pluto's orbit is such that it can never collide with the large planet, meaning that it could not have once been part of its system. Part of a crowd Once scientists demonstrated that Pluto could not have been a part of Neptune's system, they began to search for another reason for the then-planet's bizarre behavior. Their search led them to the discovery of the Kuiper Belt, a cloud of rock and ice on the distant edge of the solar system. As a planet, Pluto stands out in terms of temperature, distance, and orbit, but as a Kuiper Belt Object, Pluto is but one of millions of chunks of rock and ice. Admittedly, Pluto is the largest known object in the region, but the dwarf planet Eris falls as a close second, and was originally thought to be larger than Pluto. Indeed, the discovery of the massive dwarf planet in 2005 led to the reclassification of Pluto as a dwarf planet rather than a full-scale planet in the solar system.	<urn:uuid:743286eb-bdc7-47c6-a98d-5810b4433b62>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.space.com/18561-how-was-pluto-formed.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96289	790	4.5625	5
The role of the caregiver has many facets. An effective caregiver, whether a professional or family member, is interested in providing educated, nurturing and loving care to allow patients or loved ones to become as self-sufficient as they might be and to heal with An effective caregiver must be an effective communicator. Communication is critical on several levels. The caregiver is the “eyes and ears” of the medical team, observing the patient daily, and must be able to develop a rapport with nurses, therapists and physicians. Secondly, the caregiver must be able to discuss with the loved one daily needs, both emotional and physical. It is evident, therefore, that the caregiver must be skilled in the art of communication. Communication—talking, listening and exchanging information—is at the heart of caregiving. Effective exchanges will allow you to understand your loved one’s needs, express your concerns to the doctor and ask for help you need from others. Communication becomes more difficult when people are tired, in pain, frustrated or depressed. It is easy to become distracted, confused or intimidated in a doctor’s office or on the phone with an insurance representative. When communication breaks down, the misunderstandings that arise can range from inconvenience to disastrous. By keeping a few basic communication principles in mind, you can keep the flow of information open with your family and with the care special needs that your loved one has that might affect communication. Does he have hearing, vision or speech impairments? Is there dementia or confusion? Talk with any former caregivers to get an idea of what kind of communication has been effective for them. Also talk with healthcare professionals in the field relating to your loved one’s impairment for communication strategies. Be prepared to adjust communication strategies as his condition changes. Talk to your loved one about the care she is receiving Find out how she feels about the members of the care team, the care plan, and how it is being implemented. Ask how she has responded to treatments and how they have affected the quality of her life. Find out if there are any needs that she has that are not being met to her Make consultation appointments with all of your loved one’s doctors to find out the details of the care plan. Get as much information about treatment and expected outcomes as you can. It is helpful to ask for written information or even take a tape recorder with you to the consultation. Communication is the process that we use to send and receive messages and exchange information with other people. We communicate using signs and symbols, including words, drawings and pictures, and also by behavior and gestures. The simplest form of communication takes place between two people…a sender and a receiver. These two constantly switch roles as communication takes place. The next step, providing feedback, occurs when the receiver repeats or responds to the sender’s message, letting the sender know that the message was received and understood. During a conversation, this three-step process is usually repeated over and over. Communication can be either verbal or nonverbal; that is, with or without words. Nodding your head instead of saying “yes” is nonverbal communication. The tone or emphasis we have to words is also nonverbal communication. Body language is a form of nonverbal communication. Movements, facial expressions and postures can express different attitudes or emotions, including sadness, happiness, anger and pain. Just as when speaking, we send messages with our body language that other people receive and interpret. people send one message verbally and a very different one nonverbally. Nonverbal communication often tells us how someone is feeling, despite what he or she is saying. Your loved one may tell you, “I’m feeling a little better,” but stay in bed and stare blankly at the wall. Such nonverbal clues can tell you he may be depressed. You may need to say something like, “Dad, you don’t seem to be feeling better. You seem to be feeling down today.” This could open the door for verbal communication and allow him to express his feelings, or at least allow you to acknowledge what he is feeling. Barriers to Communication can be blocked or disrupted in many ways. The following are some barriers to communication and ways to avoid a. Your loved one does not hear or understand what you say…speak clearly and check that any hearing aid is working. b. You do not hear or understand what she is telling you. Ask her to repeat what she has said. c. The meaning of words or terms is not clear. Use simple words and avoid medical terminology. d. Using clichés makes your message meaningless. e. Asking “why” makes your loved one defensive. The word “why” often does not allow you to open up a conversation that is helpful in resolving the question. answers end a conversation. Unless you are seeking direct information, ask open-ended questions that need more than a “yes” or “no” answer. and Complete Communication In addition to avoiding barriers to communication, these positive techniques will help you send and receive clear, a. Be a good listener. Allow the other person to express her ideas feedback as you listen. Active listening involves focusing on message and providing feedback. Offering general but leading responses such as “on?” or “go on” or “hmmm” provide feedback and encourage the sender to expand the message. c. Bring up topics of concern. If you know a topic may be of concern, raise it in a general, non-threatening way. d. Let some pauses happen. Use silence to allow the other person to gather her thoughts or decide to convey another message. e. Ask for more. When your loved one reports feelings, events, or symptoms, restate what you have heard to clarify. Ask if there is more he or she can tell you. Communication with Medical Professionals with a care team is equally as important as communication with your loved one and within your family. Do not hesitate to take an active role in the care of your loved one. You, as caregiver, must understand what plan of care has been established. You must be able to send clear and accurate messages about the state of your loved one’s health. As a family caregiver, you are often in the best position to observe changes in symptoms, abilities and general health. The more clearly these are conveyed to the doctor, nurse or other professional caregivers, the better the care that will be provided. Planning your communication in advance and writing notes will help you get all necessary information across and ensure that all of your questions are answered. Be polite and focus on the information that you need to send and receive, rather than any frustrations you may have. While the experience of visiting a doctor’s office may be frustrating, it is more important to get the information you need than to express your aggravation. Observing and Reporting family caregiver, you probably spend more hours with you loved one than anyone else does. You are in an excellent position to observe and report on his condition, including any changes, occurrences or new symptoms. Any of the following should be reported immediately to the doctor or agency. You may also need to call 9ll or go to an emergency room for assistance for falls, chest pain, severe headache, difficulty breathing, changes in mental status such as confusion, sudden weakness, high fever, loss of consciousness or bleeding. conditions should also be reported--loss of appetite, rash, difficulty sleeping, pain, weakness or fatigue, nausea, depression or withdrawal. You should not try to diagnose the problem nor should you try to decide if a complaint is important or trivial. When in doubt, Always gather your information and write notes before calling the doctor or nurse. Plan what you will say in advance; writing notes is a good way to help you remember. If you have to leave a message, make it brief, complete and clear. If someone will call you back, keep the notes by the phone or in your pocket so you can easily find them. Write your observations, when you first noticed them, and any supporting details such as the presence of fever. Always be prepared to give the patient’s name, date of birth, Social Security number and insurance information. strategies for phone calls may also be used for visits to the office of professionals. at all levels is essential for the continued physical and emotional well-being of a loved one, and serves as a key bridge between the patient and the healthcare team. All caregivers should consider the importance of communication and reflect upon strategies to develop the art and science of communication. Washington, DC neurologist William Leahy, MD, is the author of Caregiving at Home, and Providing Home Care: A Textbook for Home Care Aides. An Assistant Professor of Neurology at the Johns Hopkins Medical Institution, he has devoted his book royalties to a project teaching high school students heath care careers. He has been honored as "Washingtonian of the to our weekly e-newsletter	<urn:uuid:b2c67347-1a89-44b4-b607-e05bc072b7aa>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://caregiver.com/articles/print/communication_the_essentials.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935808	2,106	3.09375	3
Our products have been classified on compositions and are successfully tested. The products are classified under the label of: A. Flowers Nutrient B. Grains Nutrient C. Fruits and Vegetables Nutrient D. Cattle Feed Nutrient The basis of a fertile garden is good soil fertility. NPK rating (or N-P-K) is used to label a good NPK fertilizer based on the relative content of the chemical elements nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) that are commonly used in fertilizers. The three elements promote plant growth in three different ways. In simple terms, these are: N – Nitrogen: promotes the growth of leaves and vegetation. High Nitrogen Fertilizer encourages lush leaf growth, bushiness and branching. An absence of nitrogen fertilizer will show up in small plant size, weak and spindly stems or in extreme cases, yellowed misshaped growth. P – Phosphorus: Phosphorus Fertilizers promotes root and shoot growth. Healthy root systems are the basis for healthy plants. With a strong root base, plants are less susceptible to wind damage. They are more drought resistant, and can handle an overabundance of water. Overall a good phosphorus fertilizer results in strong root systems that create plants that tolerate the different variable extremes of growing conditions. K – Potassium: Potassium Fertilizer promotes flowering, fruiting and general hardiness. This nutrient has the responsibility of encouraging plants to flower, produce fruit and continue to flourish. However, NPK ratio for a NPK Fertilizer should be such that it should cultivate maximum productivity without harming the plants as well as soil. Om Herbal Nutrient gives you appropriate nutrient ratio which enhances the soil fertility and increases plant growth.	<urn:uuid:e57f6655-8be6-4289-8fb5-aa2e7e08e656>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.omherbals.com/nitrogen_phosphorus_fertilizer.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.880371	387	2.65625	3
Allen Jenkinson from Milnsbridge says that, like me, he is watching his weight. “I’m on two diets,” he says. “You don’t get enough to eat with just one.” He and his friends are also involved in research involving beer consumption and loss of weight. This is the same Allen and friends who each year go to Ireland to test the quality of the Guinness. He bases his weight loss theory on science lessons remembered from Royds Hall. So watch out, here comes the theory: “A calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree centigrade.” The same should apply to a pint of beer, he says, as it is 95% water. Here it gets complicated. A pint weighs 568 grams. Assuming the beer starts at an ambient room temperature of 20°C it would rise, within a few minutes of entering the stomach, to the body’s temperature of somewhere around 37°C. “The temperature of the beer would increase by the difference of 17°C, therefore if you multiply the beer’s 568 grams by this temperature differential, you come up with a figure of 9,656 calories. This energy has to come from within the body’s core and, if the science holds correct, by increasing the amount of the beer and lowering its temperature you would consume more calories and in turn you would lose more weight. What do you think?” Sounds good to me. Allen says the theory requires considerable research and he and his dedicated team would be willing to accept sponsorship. Chance would be a fine thing. Mind you, there have been stranger ways to lose weight on the market. There’s the fresh air diet, lemon juice diet, baby food diet, vinegar diet, banana diet, cabbage diet, egg diet and the lip gloss diet. A beer diet could be extremely popular. I shall certainly be trying it. In moderation, of course.	<urn:uuid:a61bec65-5467-41c2-a25d-7fb2c84bb8e7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.examiner.co.uk/lifestyle/lifestyle-opinion/denis-kilcommons-beer-diet-could-6183023	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961407	426	2.8125	3
A crucifixion scene in the style of the Antwerp Mannerist painters. Artist/maker unknown, Flemish Copes are a form of church vestment that consist of a semicircular cloak at the front with the vestiges of a hood at the back, often in the form of a shield. Copes were worn by priests and higher clergy during processions. The embroidered decorations on Netherlandish cope hoods often depict scenes from the Gospel or figures of saints. The embroidery seen here illustrates a crucifixion scene in the style of the Antwerp Mannerist painters. Like many church embroideries of the sixteenth century, this example was embroidered in one of the professional workshops of the Netherlands, which were usually staffed by men. One embroidery would be the work of several artisans. For this design, the master would have been responsible for the figure of Christ—which was embroidered separately and later appliquéd onto the cross—an assistant would have worked the background, and an apprentice the borders. The same patterns were often reproduced for different clients; at least one other cope hood with this design is known.	<urn:uuid:8675d341-d33b-4e6d-9693-1873812b872b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/50061.html?mulR=19860%7C9	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.978821	242	3.078125	3
Conservation and Restoration of Objects - focus on wood Movable and immovable wood-based objects and historic musical instruments Room \| S21, 22, 23 The spectrum of wood-based objects ranges from constructional elements in the context of monument preservation such as floors and other stationary furnishings, across all kinds of furniture to wooden keyboard and wind instruments. The conservation of technical constructions and models as well as folkloric and ethnological objects also fall within this section. Students will also deal with combinations of wood with other materials: wooden surfaces are often refined with varnish, lacquer, polychrome finish or metal coating, and additional materials such as metals, gems, glass, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, ivory or horn may be used. The interplay of different manufacturing techniques, problems of construction and the typical characteristics and susceptibilities of various materials often results in complex types of damage which may be challenging to deal with. In the survey, examination and analysis of such damage, all of these factors must be taken into account. Apart from artistic, historic and cultural aspects, basic factors such as function and usewill influence the conservator's decision regarding the selection of conservation concept and method. In the development and realization, students are challenged to acquire a wide variety of manual skills and conservation techniques, especially through interdisciplinary collaboration. Head of Studio Other Teaching Staff	<urn:uuid:beb97633-b832-4598-8d4c-1c463bbff029>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.akbild.ac.at/portal_en/institutes/conservation-and-restauration/studios/objects-focus-on-wood	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937486	285	3.21875	3
The Siemens and Halske T52, also known as the Geheimfernschreiber ("secret teleprinter"), or Schlüsselfernschreibmaschine (SFM), was a World War II German teleprinter cipher machine. The machine and its traffic were codenamed Sturgeon by British cryptanalysts. While the Enigma machine was generally used by field units, the T52 was an online machine used by Luftwaffe and German Navy units, which could support the heavy machine, teletypewriter and attendant fixed circuits. It fulfilled a similar role to the Lorenz SZ 40/42 machine in the German Army. The British cryptanalysts of Bletchley Park codenamed the German teleprinter ciphers Fish, with individual cipher-systems being given further codenames: just as the T52 was called Sturgeon, the Lorenz machine was codenamed Tunny. The teleprinters of the day emitted each character as five parallel bits on five lines, typically encoded in the Baudot code or something similar. The T52 had ten pinwheels, which were stepped in a complex nonlinear way, based in later models on their positions from various delays in the past, but in such a way that they could never stall. Each of the five plaintext bits was then XORed with the XOR sum of 3 taps from the pinwheels, and then cyclically adjacent pairs of plaintext bits were swapped or not, according to XOR sums of three (different) output bits. The numbers of pins on all the wheels were coprime, and the triplets of bits that controlled each XOR or swap were selectable through a plugboard. This produced a much more complex cipher than the Lorenz machine, and also means that the T52 is not just a pseudorandom number generator-and-XOR cipher. For example, if a cipher clerk erred and sent two different messages using exactly the same settings — a depth of two in Bletchley jargon — this could be detected statistically but was not immediately and trivially solvable as it would be with the Lorenz. There were several (mostly incompatible) versions of the T52: the T52a and T52b (which differed only in their electrical noise suppression), T52c, T52d and T52e. While the T52a/b and T52c were cryptologically weak, the last two were more advanced devices; the movement of the wheels was intermittent, the decision on whether or not to advance them being controlled by logic circuits which took as input data from the wheels themselves. In addition, a number of conceptual flaws (including very subtle ones) had been eliminated. One such flaw was the ability to reset the keystream to a fixed point, which led to key reuse by undisciplined machine operators. Following the occupation of Denmark and Norway the Germans started to use a teleprinter circuit which ran through Sweden. The Swedes immediately tapped the line, in May 1940, and the mathematician and cryptographer Arne Beurling cracked the two earliest models in two weeks, using just pen and paper. The Swedes then read traffic in the system for most of the war, not only between Berlin and Oslo, but also between Germany and the German forces in Finland, and of course the German embassy in Stockholm. The British at Bletchley Park later also broke into Sturgeon, although they did not break it as regularly as they broke Enigma or Tunny. This was partly because the T52 was by far the most complex cipher of the three, but also because the Luftwaffe very often retransmitted Sturgeon messages using easier-to-attack (or already broken) ciphers; thus, attacking Sturgeon was not the most economical way to get the plaintext. The British first detected T52 traffic in summer and autumn of 1942. One link was between Sicily and Libya, codenamed "Sturgeon", and another from the Aegean to Sicily, codenamed "Mackerel". Operators of both links were in the habit of enciphering several messages with the same machine settings, producing large numbers of depths. These depths were analysed by Michael Crum.	<urn:uuid:68706df0-8e45-4f1c-bde4-3ea4827179c7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.thefullwiki.org/Siemens_and_Halske_T52	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977909	881	3.203125	3
When the United Nations took stock of the global human condition at the turn of the millennium, its findings were quite alarming: More than 1 billion people lack access to clean drinking water, and more than 2 billion lack electricity for heating and lighting their homes or refrigerating their food. In response to this humanitarian crisis, many countries are building new dams to provide water supply and electricity. Nearly 400 dams are planned or under construction in Central America, 200 in Brazil, and, in China, nearly 50 in the Yangtze River basin alone. "As Fatal as Cardiac Arrest" to River Ecosystems These development plans present daunting challenges for a conservation organization such as The Nature Conservancy. Clearly, additional development of water infrastructure will be needed in developing regions such as Asia, Africa and Latin America to alleviate poverty and improve human health. But at the same time, we very well understand the potential consequences for river ecosystems in those countries. Dams block the fluid highways used by migrating fish, and rearrange natural water-flow patterns that have choreographed aquatic life cycles for millennia. Analogs to human health are instructive: While water pollution is as harmful as excessive cholesterol in a bloodstream, the construction of dams has in many rivers been as fatal as cardiac arrest. Today, there are more than 45,000 large dams on the planet. Less than two percent of U.S. rivers — and less than 40 percent of all large rivers in the world — remain free-flowing and relatively undeveloped. In the context of a world that has already experienced so much ecological damage, it’s unnerving to contemplate a lot more river development, even when motivated by humanitarian concerns. It Takes Science, Water Engineering, and Collaboration Fortunately, many environmental organizations are questioning whether water and electricity needs can be met in less-damaging ways. The Conservancy is using its unique role as environmental advisor and mediator for many governments and the dam industry — drawing on our considerable scientific capacity, water engineering expertise and reputation for collaborative solutions. We are reinvigorating many degraded rivers by improving dam operations through partnerships with water agencies — such as our work with the Army Corps of Engineers in nine U.S. locations. In other countries such as China and Honduras, we are working with energy agencies in planning new dams, to help them avoid ecological damage. In so doing, we are helping to illuminate a pathway toward a sustainable future in which humans prosper and the heartbeat of the planet’s rivers remains strong.	<urn:uuid:4e137a5c-11c3-453c-bfa9-275e8b4fc5d6>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/habitats/riverslakes/global-freshwater-program-improving-dams-for-people-and-nature.xml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956992	516	3.46875	3
Takeout is the American way. We like our conveniences, and that sometimes means eating our favorite restaurant food in the comfort of our own homes. Maybe we're too busy, too tired or too lazy to cook that night. Perhaps we want to dine on our favorite sushi while we click to our favorite show. Sometimes we just can't finish the enormous portions we're served and need to take home leftovers. Did someone say, "bonus lunch"? And that doesn't include fast-food places where drive-thru rules. One of the many problems with this — besides growing obesity, fewer home-cooked meals shared around the dinner table and a generation of children who don't know how to cook — is the proliferation of to-go containers that end up in landfills. A large percentage of those containers are made of polystyrene (known by many as Styrofoam). Polystyrene is a lightweight, petroleum-based plastic good for keeping beverages hot or cold and for keeping electronics safe during shipping. It's also inexpensive. Sounds great, right? Not so fast. Styrene, the basic building block of polystyrene, creates some major health concerns during its production. Workers who are exposed to styrene can experience irritation of the skin, eyes and upper respiratory tract, along with gastrointestinal effects, according to Earth Resource Foundation. Chronic exposure can affect the central nervous system and can cause minor effects on kidney function and blood. Styrene is classified as a possible human carcinogen by the EPA and by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Earth Resource Foundation's website states that producing polystyrene creates air pollution and liquid and solid waste. Environmental groups say toxins are released into our foods through polystyrene containers when food is hot or reheated. Polystyrene that doesn't make it to landfills can break down into smaller pieces, which could choke animals and clog their digestive system. It floats, contributing to the marine debris on coasts and waterways around the world. Many curbside recycling companies don't accept polystyrene, although Jacksonville's recycling programs do. Not everyone thinks polystyrene is a problem. Keith Christman, managing director of plastics markets for the American Chemistry Council, an industry trade association for American chemical companies, said the levels of styrene in polystyrene are low and at safe levels, citing that polystyrene meets requirements for food contact set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. He said polystyrene food service products are more often recycled than paper products and make up a tiny fraction of consumer waste. "It's about 90 percent air, so you use much less material to make it in the first place than other alternatives," Christman said. "It results in lower greenhouse gases and less solid waste." When polystyrene food containers are recycled, many are turned into durable applications such as picture frames and architectural moulding. He said there's a good market for that material, but not much is collected. He said polystyrene is stable in landfills. As far as its danger to animals and waterways, he said the biggest danger is littering. When any trash is not properly disposed, it's a threat to wildlife. Environmentalists say one thing, while industry experts say the opposite. So what's a concerned consumer to do? That's where The Girls Gone Green, a nonprofit that explores environmental, animal and health issues through outreach and events, comes in. Executive Director Julie Watkins — an Action News meteorologist — and Christina Kelcourse have been working with Jacksonville Beach, Neptune Beach, Atlantic Beach and Ponte Vedra Beach restaurants to Hang Up The Foam and offer eco-friendly to-go containers. Watkins said many businesses are receptive to the environmental issues, given their close proximity to the ocean and the St. Johns River, but the cost can be prohibitive. "They don't want to continue using it, but it's a cost thing," Watkins said. "Restaurants are willing to pay a little more, knowing they're protecting their customers and their local ecosystem." The Girls Gone Green contacted Sea Breeze Food Service, a locally owned and operated food distributor, to help them find the most cost-effective, eco-friendly containers. Andrew Combs, a district sales representative, said about 5 percent of his clients asked for biodegradable products in the past. But he has been talking to some of the company's 50 beaches clients as part of this initiative and getting good response. "It's definitely a tough pill to swallow when you're looking at the bottom line," Combs said. "You're helping the community and helping future generations who won't have to deal with the clean up." He said biodegradable containers can cost two to four times as much as polystyrene products. He's working with his vendors to provide the lowest cost to his clients. He said the products will be compostable, biodegradable and made from a cornstarch product that looks like cardboard. One thing about products labeled compostable or biodegradable: They often require industrial compost facilities. Many will not biodegrade in the tomblike conditions of landfills, Christman said. Some companies say they do. Arrow Tableware claims its products will completely biodegrade in 180 days in a landfill. More than 100 cities have banned polystyrene food packaging, mostly on the West Coast. Several other cities are considering bans. "What we're trying to do here is a little unique, because we're asking the businesses to voluntarily give up Styrofoam," Watkins said. She said once restaurants have signed up to Hang Up the Foam, The Girls Gone Green will come up with ways to recognize the businesses, such as posters for their doors. Then, consumers can make their own decisions about whether they want to hold	<urn:uuid:b7abc73b-fa8c-42d8-955c-8e20690b3fcd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.folioweekly.com/Hold-the-Foam,7235	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962923	1,215	3.09375	3
using sin(θ)/θ x->0 = 1 explain how a.) lim (sin2x)/5x = 2/5 as x ->0 b.)lim (cos h -1)/h = 0 as h->0 using the half angle formula cos h = 1 - 2 sin^ * (h/2) since a. is an identity do does the substitution rule apply? in b. i can set it up: lim -((2sin^2 )*(h/2)/h) im not sure what to do or how to solve this limit. my algebra is a little weak so can you explain it to me in simple terms?? any response would be great!	<urn:uuid:0875e133-5bbd-4340-ae74-e2761842c679>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mathhelpforum.com/calculus/196831-trig-limits-problem.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.86555	148	2.78125	3
Marx at 193 While discussing Marx’s insights, John Lanchester asserts that today we ‘have an affluent bourgeoisie which is international but which in the Western world forms the majority of the population, and a proletarian workforce largely in Asia’ (LRB, 5 April). The global working class is incontestably far larger today than it was in Marx’s time, and more than 50 per cent of the world’s population now lives in urban areas. De-industrialisation, far-reaching technological change and the rise of the financial and service sectors are all features of the Western economies. But this does not mean that the working class in these countries has disappeared or somehow morphed into ‘the class of modern capitalists, owners of the means of social production and employers of wage labour’, as Marx and Engels defined the bourgeoisie in The Communist Manifesto. The capitalist class includes many people whose remuneration may come nominally in the form of a salary but is in fact given to them in virtue of their position (for example, the directors of large companies), as well as others who are not employers but who serve the capitalist class in high administrative positions. Yet they remain a fraction of the population in Britain or anywhere in the West. The proletariat is, according to Engels, ‘that class of modern wage labourers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labour power in order to live’. This is still an apt description of the economic reality facing the vast majority of working people today. Lanchester asserts that ‘there is no organised global conflict between the classes; there is no organised global proletariat.’ But there is heightened class struggle in many parts of the world, including several European countries. The Eurozone crisis and the troika’s harsh austerity medicine was met with a series of general strikes in Greece, Spain and Portugal, and last November’s public sector strike in Britain. Marx and Engels laboured to build a workers’ International that sought to challenge and overthrow capitalism and to usher in a new socialist society. This is clearly not the intention of today’s well-salaried international trade union bureaucrats or the leaders of the pro-big business, social democratic parties. But the continuing capitalist crisis and seemingly endless austerity lead to deepening class struggle and to ‘new’ forms of mass opposition to capitalism and its ideology such as the Occupy movement. If the West now benefits from the production of an ‘external proletariat’ as John Lanchester suggests, those workers pay a high price for the privilege of working for us. More than 75,000 Chinese people died in accidents at work in 2010, according to China’s National Bureau of Statistics. Lanchester describes the Chinese mega-factories producing consumer goods for export. These are powered by electricity generated overwhelmingly in coal-fired power stations. On average, in the collieries where the coal is mined, more than six miners die each day – again, according to the official figures. Chinese officials acknowledge that the death rate per million tonnes of coal extracted is between thirty and fifty times that in ‘developed’ countries. If the official figures are to be believed, these death rates are falling even as output increases. In 2005, when total production was under two billion tonnes, nearly six thousand miners were killed. In 2010, output had risen to 3.5 billion tonnes, and the official death toll was 2433. However, the real number of fatalities is thought to be many times more because thousands of mining deaths go unreported in China. John Lanchester errs in claiming that Marx doesn’t allow for the fact that nature’s resources are finite. ‘All progress in capitalistic agriculture,’ Marx wrote in the first volume of Capital, ‘is a progress in the art, not only of robbing the labourer, but of robbing the soil … All progress in increasing the fertility of the soil for a given time is a progress towards ruining the lasting sources of that fertility.’ Neither did he believe that such issues would be resolved once the capitalist mode of production was superseded. His observations chime with current concerns about sustainability: ‘Even a whole society, a nation, or even all simultaneously existing societies taken together, are not the owners of the globe. They are only its possessors, its usufructuaries, and, like boni patres familias, they must hand it down to succeeding generations in an improved condition.’ John Lanchester’s explanation of how Facebook – a company that creates no obvious material value – could be worth more than $100 billion is interesting. I wonder, though, if Marx would have seen Facebook’s owners more as landowners or ‘rentiers’ than as capitalists. Websites don’t create any value, but by exploiting their property rights in highly sophisticated advertising space they allow capitalists to compete with each other in exchange for a slice of the heightened surplus value. Facebook’s appearance as a (free) leisure good is supported by its essence as prime retail space. A Lifetime of Being Not-Picasso T.J. Clark promotes what I think of as the Whig interpretation of modern art, which traces a line from Manet and Monet to Cézanne, Van Gogh and the Cubists and the Fauves, triumphantly culminating in abstraction (LRB, 22 March). In doing so he calls in a view of Turner that is equally out of date, linking as examples of his achievement The Blue Rigi and Interior at Petworth, the first one of the supreme works of the British Romantic watercolour school, the second an ébauche, the meaning and purpose of which has yet to be determined. Only under the rubric of ineluctable progress towards abstraction can the so-called Interior at Petworth be awarded this accolade. X-radiography has now shown that it has nothing to do with Petworth but is (very loosely) based on an interior at John Nash’s East Cowes Castle; its extremely confused details have been thought to indicate that Turner intended a ‘Sacking of the Temple in Jerusalem’, which would fit with other biblical subjects of about 1830: Pilate washing his hands, exhibited that year, and the unexhibited Christ driving the traders from the Temple. If it had ever reached completion, it would have been very far from abstract, but a detailed historical invention of a type fashionable in the 1820s and 1830s. It is fifty years since Kenneth Clark and Lawrence Gowing held up Interior at Petworth as a masterpiece by which Turner’s international renown ought to be assessed. Those pursuing the ignis fatuus of ineluctable modernism will no doubt continue to misread it for their own purposes. As Sam Smiles has recently shown, the narrative of ‘Turner as proto-modernist’ was largely invented by the Arts Council after the war (using previously unseen and largely unfinished sketches) to counteract the equally politically motivated campaign by the US to promote abstract expressionism. T.J. Clark mentions a ‘crazy hole in the dancer’s torso to the left’ in Picasso’s Three Dancers. Rather, it is clearly a patch of blue sky, and a balcony railing, visible through the window inside the curve of her right arm as she reaches to touch hands with the dark, seemingly masculine figure on the right. And the ‘striped gobstopper’ in the middle of that space is almost certainly the setting sun – perhaps accounting for the patches of maroon strewn about the room and the one outside: evening light. T.J. Clark discusses in passing a ‘flawless Pissarro of the railway station at Lordship Lane. The painting has a strange shape, 17 and a half inches by 28 and a half.’ These dimensions are extremely close to those of the Golden Rectangle. In what European context can that appear as a strange shape? In the 2011 Champions League final there’s a momentary camera close-up of Alex Ferguson clenching his fists as he realises his team is losing irreversibly to Barcelona – Giggs and Rooney are found wanting next to Messi. It is amazing that Tate Britain’s curators walked into the same trap in staging Picasso and Modern British Art, as they too are caught on Barca’s ‘roulette wheel’. T.J. Clark’s analysis is acute and traces the emotional arc of that Ferguson moment; sheer dismay by the time he reaches Hockney, and catharsis at the encounter with Les Danseurs by the other Malaga-born genius from Barca. The encounter brought back that revelatory moment some of us experienced at school in the 1950s and 1960s when our art teachers showed us Picasso for the first time and initiated us into a lifetime of being not-Picasso. What to say about Lanzmann? As Adam Shatz points out, Claude Lanzmann wasn’t, as he liked to think, the first person to return to the scene of the Holocaust (LRB, 5 April). Rudolf Vrba, for one, had preceded him, though he had a very different story to tell from the ‘long moan’ of Lanzmann’s Shoah. In 1944, the communist cell in Auschwitz organised Vrba’s escape, along with a comrade, Alfred Wetzler, with the remit to warn the Jewish community in Budapest of their imminent deportation to the camps. They conveyed the message to Rudolf Kastner, one of the Zionist leadership in Budapest, but Kastner and his colleagues bribed Adolf Eichmann to permit a group of 1684 Jews to escape by train for Switzerland, abandoning the remaining 437,000 to their deaths. Vrba ended the war as a machine-gunner with the partisans. He graduated and worked as a biochemist until the resurgent anti-semitism in Communist Czechoslovakia forced him to escape to Israel. There he found the same Zionists in power who had earlier betrayed their communities. Kastner was even briefly a minister in Ben-Gurion’s government, resigning only after his role in Budapest had been exposed (he was assassinated in 1957). Vrba left Israel in disgust in 1960, settling first in London, where we met him, and later, more happily, in Vancouver, where he died in 2006. He submitted evidence to the Eichmann trial in 1961. Although he remained committed to Israel as a safe haven for Jews, the original title of his own life story, I Cannot Forgive, reflects his ambivalent feelings. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose In 1981, when making Auschwitz and the Allies, a documentary film for the BBC, I got in touch with the estimable Jan Karski, mentioned by Adam Shatz in his review of Claude Lanzmann’s memoir, in the hope of including the remarkable story of his attempt to warn the Allies of the horror unfolding in Poland. Eventually I met with Karski on a research trip to Washington. He agreed to take part, but told me he had been asked by a French director called Claude Lanzmann not to appear in any other documentary. If Lanzmann agreed, then he would happily participate. I rang Lanzmann in Paris. I explained the genesis of the film and argued that surely there was room in both our productions, with their different perspectives, for such an important contribution. ‘No,’ Lanzmann replied, ‘forget your film. I am making a masterpiece.’ The conversation ended. A and C or B and D Glen Newey, writing about Daniel Kahneman’s Thinking, Fast and Slow, doesn’t give a full enough explanation of the ‘sure thing’ principle (LRB, 22 March). It can perhaps be best understood in the context of Maurice Allais’s famous paradox. Allais asks us to choose between two options, say A and B, where A is an offer to receive £1 million for certain, and B is a lottery ticket that offers an 89 per cent chance of winning £1 million, a 10 per cent chance of winning £5 million and a 1 per cent chance of winning nothing. A and B thus share a ‘common consequence’ (or ‘sure thing’) – i.e. an 89 per cent chance of winning £1 million. According to standard economic theory, we should immediately detect this common consequence, and see that the only relevant part of A is an 11 per cent chance of £1 million and the only relevant part of B a 10 per cent chance of £5 million and a 1 per cent chance of nothing. Allais then asks us to choose between C and D, where C offers an 89 per cent chance of nothing and an 11 per cent chance of £1 million, and D offers a 90 per cent chance of nothing and a 10 per cent chance of £5 million. The common consequence across C and D is an 89 per cent chance of nothing. Thus the relevant parts of A and C are identical, as are the relevant parts of B and D. That is, we should prefer A and C, or B and D, but never, as is often observed in practice, A and D. That people tend to prefer A over B can be attributed to the ‘certainty effect’, which can in turn partly be explained by loss aversion: when certainty is offered, people weight it heavily, far more than can be explained by standard concepts of risk attitude. More generally, the Allais paradox implies that we do not evaluate goods independently of one another (i.e. our valuation of A is influenced by B): actual choice is often at odds with the normative precepts of the dominant theories of rational choice. This can have huge implications across all realms of life, from the ordering of items on a supermarket shelf so as to maximise sales of particular products, to the composition of programmes that a state sponsored TV channel may choose to transmit so as to maximise trust in its nightly news features. London School of Economics Paint it as you see it Seamus Perry’s essay on Samuel Palmer makes his defiance of proportion and perspective seem natural (LRB, 5 April). As a boy aged 11 I met Stanley Spencer, whom I liked because he wore a shabby pin-striped suit and was the same size as me. My mother teased him: ‘Why do the figures in your paintings have such puffed up limbs – like bolsters?’ He replied: ‘I’m very small, you know, and I see them that way.’ If only Palmer had kept his own vision when he went to Italy – as the more robust Turner did. Sadly he allowed the emotional lability that let him see blossom rushing at him out of a tree to be tamed by Victorianism into mere fussiness. It was about the Cold War Geoffrey Wells is right that anyone who was alive in the years following the publication of Catch-22 will recognise it as a novel of the Cold War (Letters, 5 April). As a national serviceman, I was stationed at the Army School of Education (at Wilton Park near Beaconsfield). With ammunitionless rifles and in best battledress and boots, we guarded a concrete citadel with no visible means of access surrounded by the buildings of the school. It turns out that it was, in its day, unique: a fallback nuclear defence HQ provided against the possibility of the unthinkable. Several were planned, one for each of the regions of the UK, but this was the only one ever built. For this duty we paraded in front of Wilton Park House, built for an 18th-century governor of Madras called Du Pre. Claiming to quote the then Nato supreme commander, one of the senior officers, who used it as a mess, condescended to inform me that the price of liberty was eternal vigilance, before demoting me from acting sergeant. Benedict Birnberg is to be congratulated on his support of Stephen Sedley’s demolition of Jonathan Sumption’s thesis that the judiciary has been overreaching its constitutional powers in the area of political decision-making (Letters, 5 April). Birnberg rightly points out that any blame for inappropriate allocation in law-making or decision-making lies primarily in the parliamentary forum. He might have added that the process of legislation can only cover the situation at the time of the statute and then only in general terms; as to the latter it is the function of the courts to determine whether an individual citizen’s case falls within the statutory provisions. Who ever thought that Parliament’s authority could reach out to effective enforcement in individual cases years ahead? It has been the traditional role and function of the judges to interpret the language of the statute; courts have frequently complained that the statute is unclear or misses the target, and the judges then have to resolve the ambiguity or fill in the gaps. Rather than engage in vapid debate about the relationship of the judiciary to the other two arms of government, and vice versa, the urgent need is to review the process of legislation in the bicameral system and, more specifically, to improve substantially the scrutinising of the parliamentary bills sponsored by the executive. Drones, Baby, Drones Andrew Cockburn, writing about the US predilection for unmanned warfare, mentions an effort from the Vietnam War era called Igloo White, which was intended to disrupt the flow of men and matériel along the Ho Chi Minh trail (LRB, 8 March). He mentions that the Vietnamese were able to disrupt the signals, but doesn’t mention how. Christopher Robbins, in The Ravens, his account of the air war over Laos, notes that the Igloo White system included ‘people sniffers’ that detected body odour. As a countermeasure, users of the trail placed bags of buffalo urine along the way for the B-52s to find. In addition to the more lethal measures used to disrupt the trail, the US also dropped laundry detergent and Budweiser (to make the trail more slippery in the rainy season), and hatched a plan to attach bomblets to homing pigeons. Don’t forget the Irish Barbara Newman writes that ‘for much of the Middle Ages the vernaculars were scarcely thought to have grammar at all’ (LRB, 22 March). In fact, vernacular grammar was studied in early medieval Ireland at an extremely advanced level, by means of a linguistic philosophy derived directly from the Latin grammars of Donatus and Priscian. This high regard for the vernacular is perhaps best reflected in the Irish grammatical treatise Auraicept na nÉces (The Scholars’ Primer), the core of which is dated to the eighth century, and the study and transmission of which continued for centuries thereafter. Similarly, Newman’s account of Isidore’s Latin etymologising fails to note that his influence also extended into the vernacular, for example in the early Irish etymological glossaries, such as Sanas Cormaic (‘Cormac’s Glossary’), whose earliest strata are in Old Irish and therefore date from before c. 900 AD. In her concern to emphasise the gender imbalance of the early medieval Latin classroom, Newman neglects the geographical and political imbalance of her own account, thus obscuring the complex interactions between Latin and vernaculars to be found in the early medieval world. Medieval Ireland’s significant cultural achievements might have a better chance of being more widely known if the chairs of Celtic at the Universities of Oxford and Edinburgh were not presently unoccupied, the former as a result of recent failure to raise funds to endow the post fully, the latter having been subordinated to the interests of the Modern Scottish Gaelic lobby. In the Negev In light of Neve Gordon’s disturbing report, ‘In the Negev’ (LRB, 22 March), readers might wish to know of the Campaign for Bedouin-Jewish Justice in Israel, which has been launched by the American Jewish Alliance for Change and Rabbis for Human Rights, in North America and Israel. Nothing to Read In his review of the recent Bowie biographies, Thomas Jones misquotes a line from ‘Sound and Vision’ as ‘Pale blinds drawn all day/Nothing to do, nothing to say’ (LRB, 5 April). It should be ‘Nothing to read, nothing to say.’ Having nothing to do might be any old statement of youthful anomie; not wanting to read anything speaks of a far deeper disengagement. The record was made while punk was busting out all over, and represents Bowie’s own response to the prevailing mood of nihilism. While others did hysterical anger, he opted for an affectless stoical note, in which nothing – looking at the outside world, picking up a book, talking to anybody about anything – is worth doing. Thomas Jones writes: I wrote ‘nothing to read/nothing to say’, but a scrupulous colleague corrected it according to the published lyrics (my fault: I meant to warn them not to but forgot). They also changed ‘drifting into my solitary’ (with its overtones of ‘confinement’) to ‘solitude’, again according to the lyrics as usually printed but not what Bowie sings. Or at least, not what I hear him sing. Someone told me he always heard ‘pale blinds drawn all day’ as ‘playing the blinds’ and imagined Bowie running his fingers down a Venetian blind. Charles Glass claims to have discerned a pattern of violence between the Greeks and the Turks in 1821, and again from 1919 to 1922, that was characterised by Greek ‘massacres’ of Turks followed by a disproportionate ‘hyper-retaliation’ from the Turks against the Greeks (LRB, 8 March). Hence, he sees the Greek uprising in the Peloponnese in 1821 and the violence against the Muslim population that followed as the cause of the Turkish massacre of the island population of Chios. Similarly he sees the ‘mass murders’ of Turkish soldiers and civilians at the quayside in Smyrna in May 1919 as being responsible for the slaughter of perhaps as many as two hundred thousand Greeks and Armenians during the sacking of Smyrna by the Turks in September 1922. However, context and perspective are everything. The fact is that massacres were committed by both sides in the 1821 uprising and the ‘mass murder of Turks in Smyrna’ in 1919 followed an attack on the recently disembarked Evzones regiment as it marched past the heavily armed Turkish garrison. In the ensuing battle, between three and four hundred Turks and a hundred Greeks were killed. No mention is made by Glass of the Greek victims. Glass also suggests that Venizelos had intended to ‘impose Greek rule on the Turks in 1922’. This had never been Venizelos’s intention. He had from the outset of the Greek campaign in Anatolia agreed with the allied powers to restrict his ‘megali idea’ to Smyrna and its hinterland, where the Greeks claimed, with some justification, to be the majority population and where they had lived continuously for more than two thousand years before the Turkish occupation. But in any case, Venizelos could not have engaged in a campaign to impose Greek rule on the Turks in 1922 as he had been voted out of office on 14 November 1920. Don’t give up yet Colin Kidd is too pessimistic about Labour’s electoral chances were the union with Scotland to be dissolved (LRB, 8 March). ‘Without support from its Scottish heartlands,’ he asks, ‘how often, if ever, could Labour hope to form a majority in England, or even in England and Wales?’ Only in the highly marginal general elections of 1950, 1964, February and October 1974, when Labour scraped home with single-figure majorities would the party have failed to win a majority without Scotland. In 1945, 1966, 1997, 2001 and 2005, Labour would still have enjoyed overall majorities in the Commons. 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The cervix is the opening to the uterus where menstrual blood, babies, and sperm pass. It is also the opening through which abortions are performed. Spermicide and barrier methods of birth control, like the diaphragm, female condom, and cervical cap, work by covering the cervix and preventing sperm from entering the uterus. Hormonal methods of birth control, including oral contraceptives and Depo Provera, affect the mucus around the cervix and make the opening more resistant to sperm. · When you use your speculum and flashlight you can see your cervix, the os of the cervical canal, and the vagina walls · You can know what is normal for this part of your body, and see what secretions are normal and natural and any discharge that may signify infection. If you have an irritation, you can use natural remedies to treat conditions such as yeast, bacterial infection, trichomonas, or cervicitus. · You can recognize the signs of pregnancy · You can recognize the changes during your menstrual cycle. You can especially recognize fertile mucus, a sign of ovulation. With a speculum it is no longer necessary to guess when you’re fertil. · You can understand your doctors instructions so that you can do what he/her advises. Most women’s cervix is a knob-like pink structure about the size of a small plum, but the cervix of women who have never been pregnant may be a little smaller and dark pink, and women who have had children may have a slightly larger cervix of a medium pink. As we get older, the cervix becomes a lighter shade of pink. A healthy cervix is usually smooth and shiny. In the middle is an opening. This is the os; the os may be so small you can hardly see it, however in most women, it is slightly open. The os usually open up (some during the ovulation time of). In some women, especially women who have had several children, the os may be more open. Usually the cervix is an even shade of pink, but in some women, you can see a darker almost red ringed area just outside the os (sometimes this ringed area may extend outward on the face of the cervix). This is the “squamo-columnar junction”. Where the column-shaped cells that line the cervical canal meet the flat cells that cover the cervix, it forms a circular line. When a girl starts to menstruate, the cervix may be almost covered with the reddish “columnar” cells. Each menstrual cycle, the growing columnar cells push forward and become flattened, forming squamous cells. These flat cells are shaped like pancakes and are piled on top of each other to form the outer layer of the cervix. The squamo-columnar junction has gradually receded to the point that it cannot be seen in most adult women’s cervixes. Women frequently see some fluid coming out of the os. This fluid is generally a natural secretion. The vaginal is self-cleaning. This fluid, which is clear and odorless, keeps the walls of the vagina moist. In the middle of our menstrual cycle, our secretions usually change; they become clear and sticky, this is called fertile mucus. These secretions indicate that we’ve ovulated and if a man ejaculates semen containing sperm or if we have sperm inserted into our vaginas for artificial insemination, this fertile mucus and up through the egg tube will draw the sperm up through the cervical canal into the uterus to meet up with the egg. Learning to spot the differences in our secretions by using a speculum can help us to predict ovulation and either prevent pregnancy by avoiding penis-vagina sex or using a condom, or to encourage pregnancy by timing our penis-vagina sexual encounters. The walls of vagina are ridged. Very young women tend to have more pronounced ridges. Adult women’s ridges are less so, and older women’s vaginal walls become somewhat flattened out. Sometimes, the vaginal wall becomes clear as glass and the red blood cells can be seen. If the woman has regular penis-vagina sex, the walls stay thicker and more rugged. If a woman resumes having penis-vagina sex after not having had it for awhile or infrequently, sexual intercourse can be painful at first. If a woman is not having regular penis-vagina sex, the thickness of the vaginal walls is not important There are a variety of types of fluids that come out of the cervix that may indicate an infection. You can spot these fluids before they mix in with the vaginal secretions and decide if you have a problem. (see yeast condition) During menstruation, the menstrual blood which is made up of the cells that lined the uterus that are no longer necessary because we didn’t conceive during ovulation, trickles out. It is bright red and odorless. It is only when the menstrual blood is exposed to oxygen that it becomes a rusty color and has an odor. When we are pregnant, even a few days pregnant, the cervix softens, and our os begins to open up a little; frequently a drop or two of clear mucus will be at the opening of the os. If we have been looking at our cervix and know how it generally looks, this opening-up is very noticeable. If we do self-examination with other women who have seen different cervixes, they can usually spot this right away. Usually the Cervix is an even color and has no blotches or inflammation, but sometimes you may see imperfections which may indicate an infection or you may see a bruise which might have resulted from the banging of the penis. This term, which does not mean that the surface of the cervix is eroding or wearing away, indicates that there’s a reddish irritation on the cervix. This may be the result of a tampon rubbing against the cervix, an infection, abrasion or trauma, or an IUD string lying on the cervix. These irritations can last awhile. It’s a good idea to keep doing self-examination every week to see if it will go away. Doctors usually like to treat these irritated areas because they want to be sure that the irritation is dealt with while the woman is in the office. When you go for a check-up, the doctor may cauterize the irritation by blowing very cold air on it to freeze the outer cells. These cells will die and be cast off and new cells will grow to replace them. Women doing self-examination often see a cyst on their cervix, which looks like a pimple or blister on the surface of the cervix. Some cysts are white, and can be tinged with a reddish-blue color; others are grayish white with a red rim. They vary in size from a pinhead to a small pea. These usually cause no problems, but do change in size and appearance during the menstrual cycle. Polyps look like soft, bright red, stalk-like growths. Polyps are not as usual, but they are nearly always benign growths. Vaginal Infection: When an infection erupts, the vagina is often red and swollen and very tender; the vulva and inner lips can also become swollen and irritated and itch intensely. With your speculum and mirror, you can nearly always distinguish between a yeast condition, a bacterial vaginal infection, trichomonas, and these can be dealt with by using over-the-counter remedies or home remedies. Once you know the signs and symptoms of these common problems, you will be more likely to spot the symptoms of conditions that require medical treatment. Gonorrhea, unfortunately, often is difficult to detect except with a laboratory test, however, you may see a thick, yellow-greenish discharge which could be gonorrhea. Or, if in addition to irritation and discharge, you also have burning on urination, a yellowish discharge directly from the cervix, or pain the pelvic area, you may have chlamydia, which can be detected by taking a culture of the vaginal secretions. If you see lesions on the cervix or vulva along with symtoms of general ill health, you may have an infection of the Herpes virus and you need medical attention. Sometimes, you can see a whitish secretions, sometimes cottage-cheesy or clumpy, on YOUR cervix and when the speculum is in place for a minute or two, it will form a pool under the cervix. You may or may not experience an irritation on the inner lips and the vaginal opening. If this is a Yeast Condition, it will probably have a yeasty odor (like fresh-baked bread). Yeast is a one-celled plant (candida albicans or monilia), and it is normally present in our vaginas. It only becomes a problem when it overgrows. Other than intense irritation and itching, there are no serious health consequences of this condition. Please Note: some women get intense irritation and itching without seeing even a speck of Yeast, but doing a treatment for Yeast Condition gets rid of the problem. Women have used a variety of ways to clear up a Yeast Condition. There are over-the-counter medications, such as Moni-Stat or homeopathic remedies, that some women swear by. Or, many women have used home remedies, such as taking a vaginal douche, with either clear water or water with a couple of tablespoons of vinegar to flush out the excessive amounts of Yeast. Be sure to wash the douche bag with soap and water and dry thoroughly to prevent reinfection. Inserting plain, non-sweetened yogurt into the vagina and leaving it in can clear up a Yeast Condition. Be sure the yogurt is not pasteurized, because it is the live bacteria in the yogurt culture (lactobacillus acidophilus) that do the work, restoring the healthy balance in the vagina. Bacterial Vaginal Infection results when there is a change in the normal bacteria of the vagina that causes harmful bacteria to overgrow. A runny discharge of a brownish color and a foul or fetid odor may indicate a bacterial infection. This discharge may keep the inner lips moist, while the vagina is usually dry, remaining so even during sexual excitement. Fortunately, there are a number of home treatments for bacterial vaginal infections. Getting relief from responsibilities and getting plenty of rest is important. Douching for one to four days with water and vinegar, herbal tea or Betadine (povidone-iodine) are effective treatment for Bacterial Vaginal Infection. Some women who have repeated bouts of Bacterial Vaginal Infection have found that it helps, in addition to using the self-help remedies,to have their male partner wash his genitals and hands before sexual intercourse. Trichomonas can be treated at home, avoiding the anti-fungal drugs that are usually prescribed which have side-effects. Whatever treatment a woman chooses, it is very important that her male partners either get treatment or use condoms for two or three months afterwards. Otherwise, the infection is passed right back. Douching with full-strength povidone-iodine (Betadine) has been successful in getting rid of Trichomonas or bacterial infections. Women have reported the greatest success in curing Trichomonas if douching is continued for a week following a menstrual period, particularly since the condition has a tendency to recur during this time. (Pregnant women are cautioned not to use Betadine). “Sucking Air” is the most effective way to be sure that the povidone-iodine, which kills the Trichomonads on contact, reaches every wrinkle and crevice of the vagina. Some women fill a douche bag with the undiluted povidone-iodine and hang it high. Others pour from the bottle. You lie on your back in the bathtub facing away from the faucet with your legs resting on the back wall of the tub or against the wall. The higher your hips are, the better. Some women can raise their hips and stand on their shoulders, so that the vagina is upside-down and balloons so that it has no creases or crevices. Relax the muscles in your abdomen, buttocks, and anus so that the organs fall away from the vagina. Next, spread the vaginal open either with two fingers or the speculum. The Betadine is poured from the bottle or douche bag until it overflows. Leave the solution in for several minutes. As you come to a seated position, the solution runs out. This procedure seems messy, but povidone-iodone is easily washed off and doesn't stain. Douching with herbal teas can often clear up a vaginal trichomonas infection. Those teas have antiseptic properties and relieve inflammation. They are: bayberry, goldenseal, and slippery elm. Brews of these teas can be prepared by steeping one ounce of cut or powdered herb in a pint of boiling water for 15 to 20 minutes and used after the liquid has cooled to a lukewarm temperature. This 21-year-old woman is on day 25 of her menstrual cycle. Although she thought she probably ovulated on her day 20, her os is still open and clear mucus can be seen in it. She also has a very noticeable squamocolumnar junction. She has had no births or abortions. The white, creamy pool of secretions under her cervix is partly from a slight bacterial infection. (Please select image to enlarge.) This woman is 23 years old and has had three abortions, one of which was done two-and-a-half weeks before this picture was taken. Her cervix does not look any different because of her recent abortion. Her cervix faces upward, indicating that her uterus is tilted backward, a perfectly normal position. This is called a “retroverted” uterus. She has some irritation on the cervix which does not bother her. (Please select image to enlarge.) This woman is 28 years old and sexually active. She has had two children, which probably accounts for the shape of her os, and two miscarriages. (Please select image to enlarge.) This woman’s cervix has a few small red blotches near the os and you can see a clear mucus secretion coming out. Her vagina walls, right next to the cervix, has a ripply texture. She is six weeks pregnant. (Please select image to enlarge.) The secretion covering the cervix in this picture is white and clumpy. This woman typically has a lot of secretions and this secretion, a mixture of mucus and cast-off cells, is completely healthy. In appearance, it could be mistaken for a yeast condition, but it lacks the other characteristics of yeast, a yeasty odor or irritation of the vagina or clitoris. This photo was taken the day before her period was due. Note how dark the cervix is. Also, her cervix was cauterized by cryosurgery a year before and has had this irregular texture ever since. (Please select image to enlarge.) In this photo, (taken in the mid-1970's) an IUD string can be seen coming out of the os. The whitish part of the string at the os is where bacteria have gathered, like pus of an infection. This woman’s IUD is a Dalkon Shield, a type that has been removed from the market in the U.S. because of the number of deaths and severe infections associated with it. (It is now recommended that every woman who has a Dalkon Shield have it removed.) She is 31 years old. The red spots above her os is an irritation commonly seen on the cervixes of women who have IUDs. (Please select image to enlarge.) 2250 Fair Park Avenue Los Angeles, CA 90041 Phone : 323-960-5026 Home \| Self-Help \| Anatomy \| How To Stay Out of Gynecologists \| Birth Control \| Abortion \| Menstrual Extraction \| Carol’s Website \| History \| Library \| Archives \| Related Links \| Contributions \| Call To Action \| Contact Us \|	<urn:uuid:77f8d2eb-1078-41de-a032-4dc9e1138bb5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.womenshealthinwomenshands.org/HowTo.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946872	3,411	2.984375	3
The name “Willow Creek” sounds innocent enough, and usually in June the stream is merely ankle deep as it meanders through the town of Heppner, Oregon. But on June 14, 1903 thunderstorms in the surrounding rolling hills fed the trickle until it became a raging torrent. An ominous roar–not thunder, not wind, a grinding, terrifying roar– the likes of which the community had never heard before; a swirling, crashing, breaking and tearing, an onrush of leaping, darting and tearing, crushing tumbling wall of water. shrieks of terror, screams, moans and anguished prayers in an indescribable pandemonium–and the dead and dying were buried beneath water and mud and debris, and strewn in the underbrush at the edge of a flood for two miles down Willow Creek. The destruction continued one awful hour. A cloudburst about one mile south of the city had piled up a wall of water 200 yards wide–to sweep without warning down the narrow gorge, leaving death and destruction in its path (The East Oregonian, June 12, 1953 – via Heppner Chamber of Commerce). 247 people were killed in the flood. Two-thirds of the houses were destroyed. Less severe floods have occurred since 1903, and in the early 80s the Willow Creek Dam was built to mitigate the possibility of future floods.	<urn:uuid:f7cff226-3f90-4281-b114-949ac52cc5ee>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://portland.daveknows.org/2011/06/14/june-14-1903-flash-flood-devastates-heppner-oregon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972057	281	3.0625	3
Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. It’s hard for snake enthusiasts not to be taken in by the Eastern hognose snake, Heterodon platyrhinos. It puts on an incredible defensive display, it’s stout, viper-like body is variably patterned in many hues and its natural history is quite unique. However, a preferred diet of toads precludes it from becoming well-established in captivity. The Western hognose snake (H. nasicus), however, shares many of its eastern cousin’s outstanding qualities, yet has a wide appetite that is easily satisfied in captivity. Stoutly built with strongly keeled scales and an upturned snout; tan, brownish-yellow or grayish-yellow in color, with dark blotches; reaches 16-36 inches in length. Central and western North America, from southern Canada through Arizona and Illinois to northern Mexico (San Luis Potosi). Prairies, farms, sparsely wooded fields and semi-deserts, usually in areas of sandy soil suitable for burrowing. Western hog nose snakes spend much time below ground. Mating occurs from March to May, with 9-25 eggs being laid in June –August. The young, 6-7 inches in length, hatch after an incubation period of 45-54 days. In the wild, Western hog nose snakes take young ground nesting birds, mice, shrews, toads, lizards, snakes and reptile eggs. In one study, they were found to be a major predator on Pacific pond turtle nests. Those I’ve kept have done very well on small mice and quail eggs. Other Interesting Facts This snake’s upturned snout (modified rostral scale) assists in digging for fossorial prey such as toads and the buried eggs of turtles and lizards. Specially modified teeth allow the hognose snake to puncture toads and defeat their defense mechanism of inflating themselves with air. The western hognose puts on a less elaborate display when threatened than does its eastern relative. It will, however, spread the head in hood-like fashion and strike, and will sometimes play dead when this bluff fails. Animals feigning death roll onto their backs with the tongue lolling out, and will flip onto their backs if righted during the process! Eastern Hog Nose Snake Conservation I have been involved in a re-introduction program for the eastern hognose snake at Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge in NYC. In this area, it inhabits open beaches and sand dunes…please see the accompanying photo. I’ll write about this interesting program in the future. Read more about Western hog nose snake care and natural history. Please write in with your questions and comments. Thanks, until next time, Western Hognose Snake image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Dawson	<urn:uuid:b38fc447-bda3-448a-a4fa-35a070a0e5e9>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2009/09/25/the-western-hognose-snake-a-toad-specialist-that-can-do-without-toads/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.939406	606	3.34375	3
We've been talking about confirmation bias, which is the tendency to seek out data that confirm one's preconceptions, while ignoring data that conflict with those preconceptions. But there is a flip-side to this phenomenon known as disconfirmation bias.Yes, we're quite knowledgeable about confirmation bias, and we routinely deal with denialism, which is ignoring contradicting evidence. Of course, on the topic of evolution versus creationism, Creationists, to my knowledge, have never bothered coming up with examples of what would be confirming or contradicting evidence for their unfalsifiable "hypothesis." Quotes from some psychologists: When evaluating an argument, can one assess its strength independently of one's prior belief in the conclusion? A good deal of evidence indicates the answer is an emphatic no. This phenomenon, which we refer to as the prior belief effect, has important implications. Given two people, or groups, with opposing beliefs about a social, political, or scientific issue, the degree to which they will view relevant evidence as strong will differ. This difference, in turn, may result in a failure of the opposing parties to converge on any kind of meaningful agreement, and, under some circumstances, they may become more extreme in their beliefs.The history of science says otherwise. New ideas come up quite often, get rigorously tested, and if they keep passing tests, they become accepted. I'm sensing the usual sour grapes involved in psychobabble arguments instead of honest inquiry, but that's mostly because I have a lot of prior experience with Creationists. Cynicism is no substitute for a sound, logical argument based on evidence. Science and skepticism may be conservative, but they're inherently expansive. More psychobabble follows, including one example involving the death penalty. Of course, that's an ethical/moral argument for the most part, not one of science. Back to Telic Thoughts' commentary: It makes sense that a disconfirmation bias would exist. If the human brain is wired to defend its preconceptions with confirmation bias, attacking beliefs that threaten those preconceptions would likely be part of the same strategy. This undercuts Michael Shermer's belief that "Skepticism is the antidote for the confirmation bias." In reality, hyper-skepticism, or selectively applied skepticism, may simply be another facet of the same brain processes that generate confirmation bias.What is "hyper-skepticism"? Where are Shermer and my fellow skeptics applying our skepticism selectively? That's what I'd like to hear you talk about. What does disconfirmation bias look like? I would like to propose three possible signs that disconfirmation bias is taking place, where one may be defending their preconceptions more so than playing the honest skeptic who is simply trying to "follow the evidence."The difficulty with this is that sometimes people actually live up to negative stereotypes, and I can't recall the last time a Creationist broke from the mold. In contrast, skeptics rarely ever act according to the predictions of Creationists. 1. According to Edwards and Smith, "When one is presented an argument to evaluate, there will be some automatic activation in memory of material relevant to the argument." Searching one's "memory banks" can easily become relying on stereotypes. A stereotype, after all, is the brain's "summation" of previous experience that is linked by certain cues. Thus, I hypothesize that when one is confronted with an argument that challenges their preconceptions, the more that person relies on stereotypes, the more it is likely they are exhibiting disconfirmation bias to protect a preconception. How can you tell if stereotype is involved? Often, it is obvious. For example, if a critic on the Internet poses his own argument against my design hypothesis, and I begin to rail against Richard Dawkins, obviously my brain has been tapping into information about Dawkins to interpret my opponent. Often times, however, the evidence is more subtle. And that takes me to my second sign.Just a note: I have yet to meet a Creationist who knows anything whatsoever about Dawkins's views. From what I've seen, they've done everything they can to shove Dawkins into their straw man molds and failed. At least he deserves kudos for demonstrating some sliver of self-awareness. 2. If one's brain is on "a deliberative search of memory for material that will undermine the argument simply" and the "search include stored beliefs and arguments that offer direct evidence against the premises and conclusion of the presented argument," it stands to reason the person with disconfirmation bias will have a strong tendency to link a current argument with the perceived failures of previously-experienced arguments. This creates a mental inertia that leads to two expressions of disconfirmation bias:Oh, boy. Have you ever considered that the presented argument is exactly the same as a previously experienced and refuted argument? That's why we've got things like the Index to Creationist Claims. I haven't seen anything new in Creationism in decades aside from this one guy claiming ice is magnetic. And even then, it seems he was copying Kent Hovind or someone of his ilk, trying to defend the "vapor canopy" tripe. a. Misrepresentation "“ Let's say that Jones develops an argument that threatens the preconceptions of Smith. But let us also say that Smith had previously successfully dismantled a similar, but different, argument that was once posed by Miller. The memory of this experience will shape the way Smith reacts to Jones. The brain processes involved in disconfirmation bias will cause Smith to morph Jones' position into that of Miller's. Smith will feel vindicated by the disconfirmation bias, while Jones will recognize that Smith is attacking a "straw man."The problem I experience with this: All subtle variations of Creationism have almost all the same underlying faults. Usually, if they're making a straw man claim on me, it's for an unimportant detail. Even if I concede that minor inaccuracy, they tend to continue whining about it for the rest of the thread while ignoring any questions about their premises. b. Faulty Extrapolation "“ This is a more subtle version of misrepresentation, where Smith's brain is so highly activated that it is sensitized to "cues" from Jones that lead Smith to believe that Jones is reaching for Miller's point. Smith will not focus on the actual argument Jones is making, but will be trying to "anticipate" where he thinks the argument is going in order to cut it off. In this case, Smith is not really disconfirming Jones' argument; he is creating an illusion of disconfirmation in his mind because he thinks he knows where the argument is going (when it may not even be going in that direction).I'm sometimes guilty of this, but mostly in an effort to rouse the creationist from his circular mill by shock. Of course, much of the time, the extrapolation is something the creationists never thought of, and never made a cutoff limit for. They tend to make up principles that only seem to apply when it's convenient for them. 3. Finally, to put this lengthy blog (and tired blogger) to bed, there is the dead give-away of personal attack. When someone attacks another person by questioning their motivations or with ridicule (and more), they are seeking to discredit the argument by discrediting the person who makes the argument. If such personal attacks are linked to stereotypes, it becomes clear the person's brain is adopting an "end justifies the means" approach to disconfirmation bias.There's a difference between an ad hominem fallacy and an insult. None of my arguments are based on the stupidity of the opponent. Sometimes I have to use ridicule to shock someone awake at the absurdity of their arguments. Or to keep my sanity with laughter when faced with someone who parrots debunked arguments over and over and over. When I lob an insult at someone, it's a conclusion based on their poor logic, stereotypical robotic behavior, ignorance of the most basic knowledge, etcetera. I never use it as a premise to disregard someone's opinion. In summary, skepticism is a good thing, but skepticism can be just another facet of the way brains defend "their territory." Add tribalisitic group behavior to the picture and the whole process is amplified and entrenched. I propose that you can detect disconfirmation bias at work, in individuals or groups, when hyper-skepticism, stereotype, misrepresentation, faulty extrapolations, and personal attacks occur more often than not.There's a difference between skepticism and rationalization. Skepticism requires that someone make an escape route in the form of specific types of evidence that would openly contradict a false belief. Without leaving room for falsification of a bias, you can never get out of it. That's why Creationism is a bad idea: It's unfalsifiable. There's no telling what kind of evidence would support or contradict it, since they tend to fall quiet or change the subject in the matter. That's why Creationists use stereotypes, misrepresentation, faulty extrapolations, straw men, and ad hominem fallacies to defend themselves. There was a time in my life when I was willing to entertain some of the fluffier forms of Creationism like theistic evolution. The fact that I could be convinced to join the ranks of atheism means that I was perfectly able to listen to the other side. Cynicism is no substitute for a collection of good, logical arguments. I write the way I do because I seek to emulate the wonderful people who won me over with unapologetic vigilance and irreverence in the face of would-be PC Police.	<urn:uuid:461f1e62-c0da-41fa-8a2b-4eca5bda9aed>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://rockstarramblings.blogspot.com/2009/05/lets-poke-troll-1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.957054	1,987	3.125	3
This topic is monitored by Moritz Law Professor Peter M. Shane Withstanding Election Day Terrorism Could a terrorist attack lead to the postponement of this year's November 2 presidential election? The Department of Homeland Security recently announced that the U.S. government possessed credible intelligence that Al Qaeda was plotting terrorist activity intended to disrupt America's democratic processes. Although the announcement did not reveal the specific nature of this threat, one possible scenario could be a bombing (or series of coordinated bombings) on or immediately prior to election day, November 2, 2004, intended to disrupt the 2004 presidential election. 1 Questions therefore have arisen about whether the presidential election could be rescheduled or postponed if circumstances warranted, just as New York City rescheduled a municipal primary election originally scheduled for September 11, 2001. As discussed below, any nationwide postponement of the presidential election is both unlikely and inadvisable. Technically, November 2, 2004, is the date when each state is scheduled to choose its presidential electors, who in turn will cast their official ballots for the offices of President and Vice President on a subsequent date. The U.S. Constitution provides that: "The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States." 2 Pursuant to this authority, Congress by statute has designated "the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November, in every fourth year" 3 (or November 2 this year) as the date when the electors "shall be appointed." In turn, Congress has established "the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December next following their appointment" 4 (or December 13 this year) as the day for all state electors to cast their votes for President and Vice President. The Constitution empowers each state legislature to determine the "Manner" by which that state will appoint its presidential electors. States are not obligated to hold a general election to select their electors, but all states have chosen to do so. Each state has its own voting procedures that permit all registered voters in the state to go to the polls on the day prescribed by federal statute to cast a ballot in favor of the electors of a specified presidential candidate. In addition, all states have some system of absentee balloting, which permits some voters to cast their ballots by mail or electronically in advance of the designated election day. Federal law makes no express provision for postponing or rescheduling the date designated for appointing presidential electors. However, federal law does provide that if a state "has held an election for the purpose of choosing electors, and has failed to make a choice on the day prescribed by law, the electors may be appointed on a subsequent day in such a manner as the legislature of such State may direct." 5 A terrorist attack that closed polling locations, destroyed ballots or voting equipment, or intimidated a substantial number of voters from reaching the polls might lead a state to conclude that it was unable to choose its electors on the prescribed day. The key questions that would arise in such a circumstance would be how a state determines that it has "failed to make a choice" of its electors, including whether it has been unable satisfactorily to complete their election on the designated election day, and what back-up processes it will use instead to choose its electors. Predictably, legal challenges would occur were a state to declare the failure of its scheduled election and decide to appoint its electors through a subsequent election (or some other process). Although Bush v. Gore 6 may have added a layer of federal equal protection jurisprudence to these issues, the primary legal questions would involve unresolved matters of state and federal statutory interpretation, namely, what it means for a state to have "failed to make a choice" of its electors, in light of its specific election processes and in the context of a terrorist attack on these processes. One threshold issue likely would be how much discretion state election officials should have in deciding to abort or invalidate the state's scheduled election in favor of an alternative selection process, or whether instead a certain level of disruption must first have occurred, which makes the orderly completion of the regular voting process an impossibility. In some states, existing statutes may already specify when an election can be postponed. (See Election Emergency Statutes for 25 critical states in the November election) Alternatively, courts might avoid this issue entirely on the basis that it is a "political question" not subject to judicial review. Another question might be whether a state can even claim to have "held an election for the purpose of choosing electors" — a prerequisite for the explicit statutory option of using an alternative selection process — if a terrorist attack on the eve of the scheduled election keeps all or some of the polling places from ever opening. If not, courts instead might reasonably imply an emergency power for a state to reschedule its election, just as courts might permit a postponement in the event of a natural disaster that rendered it physically impossible for some voters to cast a ballot on election day. (This actually occurred in 1985 in Pennsylvania, as discussed here) Timing would be crucial to a state's effort to respond to a disruption in its selection of electors. Absent a congressional postponement of the December 13, 2004, date when electors nationwide are required to give their votes for President and Vice President, this statutory deadline will drive the calendar for any rescheduling of a state's election. 7 Of course, Congress could alter the date for the electors to give their votes (as well as the date when Congress is scheduled to meet to receive the votes), provided that the entire process is complete by January 20, 2005, the date that the Twentieth Amendment to the Constitution specifies is the date when the current presidential term ends. Yet even if a number of states have failed to choose their presidential electors on November 2, powerful reasons exist to expect them to complete whatever alternative processes they use before the scheduled December 13 meeting of electors. These reasons include: (1) reducing the disparity in information (including the outcome in other states) available to voters in only those states that have postponed the appointment of their electors; (2) limiting the time that candidates could now target their campaigns on only some states; (3) minimizing the complex campaign finance law issues that might result from the continuation of the campaigns past their anticipated endings; and (4) providing the president-elect with adequate transition time before assuming office. A hypothetical alternative that might mitigate some of the preceding problems of just a few states postponing their elections would be for all 50 states and the District of Columbia to reschedule the entire presidential election. Of course, this is a highly unlikely occurrence, absent some federal authority requiring a nationwide postponement. No such federal authority presently exists, although Congress could empower the newly created Election Assistance Commission, the Department of Homeland Security, or some other body, to take this step under certain conditions. Alternatively, Congress itself could act to reschedule the election in light of a terrorist attack, a vastly preferable method given Congress's bipartisan and democratically accountable composition. However, no matter what federal body exercised the power to postpone a presidential election, this would be an unprecedented and dramatic step, fraught with the potential for abuse for partisan advantage. In addition, a nationwide postponement of the presidential election would not resolve either the campaign financing issues or the reduced transition time. More importantly, a nationwide postponement of a presidential election could do incalculable harm to the national psyche, while providing terrorists with a dramatic victory, both symbolic and actual. Accordingly, the preferable response to a terrorist attack on the nation's electoral processes is a response that preserves as much of the election day routine as possible, in as many locations as possible. Whatever difficulties may arise from ad hoc state responses to terrorist attacks in particular locations likely are preferable to the costs of a more sweeping response throughout the United States. It therefore should fall primarily to individual states, after first doing all they can to protect their established election processes, to adjust their processes only as necessary to minimize any attempted terrorist disruption. One option that states might consider would be to rely more on voting by absentee ballots in the event that either a terrorist strike, or fear of one, keeps citizens from going to the polls on November 2. Ultimately, however, the most important factor in countering any terrorist attack may be the fortitude of individual voters who refuse to be immobilized by fear and instead take responsibility for preserving democracy's core. [Posted: July 19, 2004] 1. Many other types of terrorist attacks on the political process, and in particular on the presidential election, also are possible, including: assassination of candidates; attacks on political conventions; attacks on the electors themselves, on their individual state meetings, or on Congress's counting of their votes; and attacks on inauguration proceedings and ceremonies. See John C. Fortier & Norman J. Ornstein, If Terrorists Attacked Our Presidential Election, __ Election Law Journal __ (forthcoming 2004). 2. U.S. Const. art. 2 § 1. 3. 3 U.S.C. § 1. 4. 3 U.S.C. § 7. 5. 3 U.S.C. § 2. 6. 531 U.S. 98 (2000). 7. In addition, federal law provides a "safe harbor" for states that have resolved any question about the identity of its electors at least six days prior to the date when the electors vote, which presumably precludes any challenge to the legitimacy of these electors when Congress meets to count their votes. As a prerequisite, this safe harbor provision requires that in resolving any controversy about the identity of its electors the state be following procedures established "by laws enacted prior to" the November election day. See 3 U.S.C. § 5.	<urn:uuid:d125fbda-e3fc-47bb-9dc0-87eae85dfe1c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/electionlaw/ebook/part7/elections_pres02.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961373	1,998	2.625	3
This coming weekend (January 14–15), Peace Boat and five other international non-governmental organizations will host the Global Conference for a Nuclear Power Free World in Yokohoma, Japan. The event was organized in the aftermath of the March 11, 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan and the resulting disasters at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. The overarching goal of the conference is to facilitate discussion of a nuclear power free world. Regional and international experts, activists, and people affected by radiation exposure from nuclear power plants will come together to generate a roadmap promoting the decommissioning of these facilities worldwide. Participants will discuss policies that support renewable energy over nuclear energy and create action plans for implementing these policies in Japan and other countries that depend heavily on nuclear. The Worldwatch Institute recently published an article, “Global Nuclear Generation Capacity Falls,” discussing the current status of the nuclear industry. Last year saw a decline in global nuclear generating capacity, stemming largely from the events at Fukushima and several countries’ reactions. Germany, for example, decommissioned more than 8 gigawatts of nuclear capacity immediately following Fukushima. China, a country that still plans ambitious nuclear capacity growth in the future, suspended its nuclear power plant permitting process pending further review. Japan, which has relied heavily on nuclear energy for decades, took many of its reactors offline, leaving only 10 of its 54 nuclear reactors connected to the grid following the earthquake. While the immediate response to Fukushima contributed to a recent decline in nuclear generating capacity worldwide, the long-term role of nuclear energy remains unclear. Meetings like the Global Conference for a Nuclear Power Free World, regardless of one’s personal views on nuclear energy, are therefore important for addressing the real possibility that nuclear energy will play a diminishing role in the world’s energy mix in the future. Stakeholders and policymakers need to have real discussions on how to successfully transition away from this important source of energy, which accounts for 13 percent of global electricity production, to prepare for the possibility that future nuclear power expansion will be politically untenable. Despite its risks, there are benefits to nuclear energy that make it difficult to replace. Climate change remains one of the greatest challenges of the 21st century, and nuclear’s relatively low carbon footprint, especially when compared to traditional fossil fuels like coal and natural gas, make it an attractive source of energy. Also, in the case of already-built and operating nuclear reactors, nuclear energy provides a reliable source of baseload power that operates at low variable costs. Nevertheless, nuclear energy remains a controversial source of electricity. Past incidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima highlight that nuclear accidents are a real possibility, and that they can have fatal consequences on a scale much greater than those of other power-generating technologies. So while the coal industry has been plagued with countless more fatal accidents than the nuclear industry over the past several decades, it is the scale, not the quantity, of potential accidents that makes nuclear such a risky and controversial source of electricity. Rising costs, increasing plant construction periods, the risk of nuclear proliferation, and the question of long-term nuclear waste storage are also major concerns that need to be considered when discussing the fate of nuclear energy. Nuclear energy provides a significant share of electricity generation in several countries—more than 75 percent in France—and for these countries the question becomes how to realistically and responsibly replace nuclear energy in the future. The Global Conference for a Nuclear Power Free World provides an exciting forum through which stakeholders can tackle this very question. While many people in the world call for an end to nuclear energy, a less-explored but related issue is what energy source will replace it? If fossil fuels, especially coal, were used as a substitute, global greenhouse gas emissions would likely increase, providing a poor and reckless solution to the problem. In today’s world, nuclear energy’s role as an important source of baseload power provides a challenge for countries that intend to phase out their nuclear power capacity. Innovative and creative solutions that allow renewable energy to replace nuclear energy need to be created, and the upcoming conference provides a good venue to advance this dialogue. Matt Lucky is a Sustainable Energy Fellow at the Worldwatch Institute.	<urn:uuid:ddee05c9-9f9c-4d06-8903-9579c7aeb30f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blogs.worldwatch.org/revolt/stakeholders-discuss-a-future-without-nuclear/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.92861	856	2.703125	3
According to the Center for Disease Control, ergonomics is the scientific study of people at work. The goal of ergonomics is to reduce stress and eliminate injuries and disorders associated with the overuse of muscles, bad posture, and repeated tasks. This is accomplished by designing tasks, work spaces, controls, displays, tools, lighting, and equipment to fit the employee´s physical capabilities and limitations. Because the nature of the UVM workplace is so diverse, providing a single guide for designing an ergonomically sound space is simply not feasible. Even within our lab community, the variation in work environments is significant. The checklist provided can be used for some basic assessment as a precursor to a consultation. The Department of Risk Management & Safety has two Certified Ergonomic Evaluation Specialist. Please feel free to contact firstname.lastname@example.org to schedule a work-site specific consultation. Back Safety & Injury Prevention For a thorough compilation of information on understanding basic back and neck mechanics, as well as a guide to injury prevention and management, please visit Blue Cross Blue Shield.	<urn:uuid:3d197e8c-4a46-498b-b6b7-8420e476e16a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.uvm.edu/safety/lab/ergonomics-back-safety-injury-prevention-in-the-lab	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.909751	219	2.796875	3
Native American Law Native American law is quite intricate, since every tribe has a different legal system and each system varies in complexity. Many small tribes were simply ruled by a chief with or without a council, but today Native American law is based on representative democracy. Navajo native American law is among the most complex, since there are many Navajo. Native American Law in the Navajo community is dependent on councils who often do not want excessive interference from the American government and wish, when possible, to have full control over their affairs. Native American Law in the Navajo communities is formed by five agencies with 110 chapters with 88 delegates elected every four years. The agencies have judicial, executive and legislative branches just like the central government. The agencies have plenary power, which means they can submit proposals for new laws to the Secretary of the Interior. Most tribes also have their own tribal codes and laws they follow. In previous generations, Native American Law varied from tribe to tribe and those who had the most sophisticated forms of Native American law tended to dominate. For instance, the Iroquois were able to incorporate tribes they conquered into their complex governmental system. They were unusual in the fact that they brought in new tribes rather than simply conquering them. This enlarged the Iroquois nation and increased its power. The Iroquois were among the most populous and powerful tribes in the North American continent and it was thanks to their version of Native American Law that they were able to increase their power and their numbers. Native American Law today is mainly involved with negotiations between tribal representatives and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Such negotiations have been friendlier in recent decades, especially since 1978 since many Native American practices, which had been proscribed for much of the twentieth century, were made legal once again on the grounds of Freedom of religion. More on this subject: Native American Law Related Article Links Disclaimer: The American Indian Heritage Foundation or Indians.org do not personally endorse or support any of the comments made within the writings of this article.	<urn:uuid:1307ac06-9a35-4c01-8ef9-1f6a50a39dd5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.indians.org/articles/native-american-law.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.983728	405	3.828125	4
The maps are actually backwards in the timeline. They go from current to past in the order they are in. I wont go into HUGE detail but the maps are showing movement of the rock due to tectonic activity during those eras in time of the planet. During each period of time the movement of the continents to their current location and placement on the planet was going on. Paleozoic era ( 542 - 251 million years ago ) the land masses were broken up from a supper continent into smaller land masses then by the end of the era they had connected again. Mesozoic era ( 251 - 65 million years ago ) the super continent splits into a northern and southern half. Then by the end of the era the land masses split into what is now the diferrent continents that we know today. Northern becoming North America and Euroasia and the Southern becoming South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and Indian subcontinent which is what collided with the Asian plate during the Cenozoic (the next period), the impact giving rise to the Himalayas. Cenozoic era ( 65 million - present ) is mainly the final positioning of the continents. Not much happened in terms of tectonic movement but it is what we have today. This is of course the belief of the scholars and historians. You take it for what you will.	<urn:uuid:39902920-78d3-4b03-a815-91b42b8da959>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://gpex.ca/smf/index.php?topic=369.0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.9659	280	3.3125	3
The complete history of Montana During World War II Look for it in a bookstore near you! This compelling account of Montana during World War II covers personal stories, local politics, industry, agriculture, education, sports, and social life during the upheaval of a world-wide conflict. This is the tale of ordinary citizens who came together to support their sons and daughters overseas, and the tens of thousands of residents who left the Treasure State to serve their country in the military and defense plants. Those who remained planted Victory Gardens, purchased record amounts of war bonds, and endured the hardships brought about by war-time shortages and rationing. This highly readable account is the most comprehensive look at Montana during the early 1940s, and the tremendous sacrifices made by ordinary people to support their country in time of war. Originally published in 1994, this revised edition of the classic Montana’s Home Front During World War II includes many rare and previously unpublished photographs. What others think “a wealth of new information and many never-before-seen photographs of Montana during the 1940s. The result is a very comprehensive, fascinating account of how the state’s population coped with the tragedy of a worldwide military conflict.” – Judith Shafter – State of the Arts “you’ve got to see it for yourself but any history or travel enthusiast will be very pleased with the wealth of information in this book.” – Greg Wortman, Billings Examiner “excellent for the wealth of Montana history contained within. A fascinating snapshot of civilian life during the war” – ebay member burnafterreading The training of the First Special Service Force “Devil’s Brigade” at Fort Harrison. The construction of Malmstrom Air Force Base and the Great Falls based Lend-Lease operation to aid the Soviet Union. The experience of hundreds of Italian and Japanese civilians who languished behind barbed wire at the Fort Missoula Detention Center. The hellish fighting encountered in the jungles of New Guinea and the Philippines by the 163rd Infantry Regiment (Montana National Guard). The terrors of night combat as the crew of the USS Helena battled Japanese ships in the treacherous waters near Guadalcanal. Look inside the book. Was Senator B.K. Wheeler duped into revealing America’s top-secret war plan, the Victory Program, just days before Pearl Harbor? Did the Soviets run a nationwide spy ring from an Air Force Base in Montana? The answers to these and many other questions are answered in Montana’s Homefront During World War II 2nd Ed. Gary Glynn examines in detail the impact of the Second World War on Montana politics, industry, agriculture, education, sports, and crime. Train with the Canadian-American commandos of the First Special Service Force “the Devil’s Brigade” as they become a superb fighting unit at Fort Harrison. Languish behind barbed wire at the Fort Missoula Detention Center with hundreds of Italian and Japanese civilians. Pick sugar beets alongside German prisoners of war and American college students from Sidney to Stevensville. Fight alongside the men of the 163rd Infantry Regiment (Montana National Guard) in the hellish jungles of New Guinea and the Philippines, at Sanananda, Aitape, Wakde, Jolo and Zamboanga. Experience the terrors of night combat as the crew of the USS Helena battle Japanese ships in the treacherous waters off Cape Esperance and Guadalcanal. Cheer as the 5th Marines raise the USS Missoula’s flag over Iwo Jima. Far from the famous World War II battlefields of European theater and the Pacific, many ordinary Montanans made tremendous sacrifices to support the war effort. Tens of thousands of residents left the Treasure State to serve their country or work in defense plants. Those who remained purchased record numbers of war bonds, planted Victory Gardens, and endured the hardships brought about by war-time shortages and rationing. Montana’s Home Front During World War II, 2nd ed. is available in print and ebook formats. This book was written with the assistance of a Dave Walters Fellowship from the Research Center of the Montana Historical Society.	<urn:uuid:6cd5e29e-7b4b-43b2-8a29-415ccb41edb8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://garyglynn.com/wordpress/my-books/montanas-home-front-during-world-war-ii-2nd-ed/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.91842	883	2.515625	3
When your cat or dog has allergies, it can be a truly miserable experience. Allergies make your pet extremely uncomfortable, and in an unfortunate twist, your pet’s efforts to alleviate symptoms by grooming and scratching will only accentuate the problem, potentially leading to secondary health issues. Find out more about how to recognize and respond to your cat or dog’s allergies, so that you can keep your pet happy and healthy. There are four main factors that may cause an allergic response in your cat or dog: - Atopic Allergies: Also known as inhalant allergies, these are allergies to environmental factors in the home or outside. These can also be allergies to seasonal occurrences, like blooming flowers, trees, or grass, or they can be year round, with allergies to dust, mold, or mildew. - Flea Allergy Dermatitis: This allergy is caused by fleas. While nearly every pet will find fleas uncomfortable, some pets also experience an allergic reaction to the flea's saliva, which is left behind during the biting process, and will develop an extreme skin irritation. - Food Allergies: Just as humans can have allergies to various foods, so too can cats or dogs. Food allergies are frequently to proteins like chicken, beef, or soy, but pets may also be allergic to wheat. Tracking down which aspect of the food your pet is responding to will generally take several weeks. - Contact Allergies: Relatively rarer, contract allergies are caused by a pet coming in contact with an irritant, like a detergent or the medication in a flea collar. Pets don’t know when they develop allergies. Your cat or dog just knows that they are uncomfortable. And unfortunately, the common responses pets have to this discomfort -- excessive grooming, scratching, and licking -- do not alleviate symptoms, and can in fact cause skin infections and irritations. Pets may experience gastronomical distress, like vomiting and diarrhea. If pets have seasonal allergies, they may sneeze due to congestion and develop watery, red eyes. The best way to handle your pet’s allergies is to visit the vet, who will be able to ask questions to reveal the potential cause of the allergies, give your dog or cat an allergy test, and make recommendations, as well as prescribing medications, to help improve your pet’s allergy-caused discomfort and symptoms. Potential treatments for allergies may be medications such as steroids, antihistamines (such as Hydroxyzine), and immunosuppressants (such as Atopica). With food-related allergies, your vet may have you try out several different kinds of foods in order to determine what’s causing your pet’s allergy. In some cases, if your pet is responding to environmental conditions, you can reduce your pet’s exposure to the allergen by cleaning or frequent baths. Food supplements can also be helpful at diminishing symptoms and reducing your pet’s skin discomfort. This information is for informational purposes only and is not meant as a substitute for the professional advice of, or diagnosis or treatment by,your veterinarian. Always seek the advice of your veterinarian or other qualified professional with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard or delay seeking professional advice due to what you may have read on our website.	<urn:uuid:3fa1d9b4-269e-457c-85eb-94fb1db37a54>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.petcarerx.com/article/allergies-in-dogs-and-cats/256	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935995	691	2.796875	3
Today more than 5.5 million Americans have Alzheimer’s, and 10 million caregivers will attend to them during the coming year. If we do not find a way of preventing this disease, there will be about 8 million cases by 2030 and as many as 16 million in 2050. Alzheimer’s is economically as well as emotionally burdensome: direct and indirect costs of the disease amount to over $100 billion annually, according to the National Institute on Aging. What is to be done? It’s been over a century since the German physician Alois Alzheimer described this disease in 1906. Will we remain unable to heal or prevent this fatal illness? This reporter spoke with scientists at UC Berkeley and elsewhere to better understand what we currently know and what we have yet to learn about this disease. Were Alzheimer’s caused by a germ, it would probably be much easier to remedy. Bacteria are a familiar kind of enemy, one that a traditional medical approach is designed to combat. You just ride into Dodge City and kill the bad guys. (Unfortunately, the “bad guys” often mutate and learn to survive the drugs we throw at them—but that’s a story for another time.) Alzheimer’s is a more complex adversary. Although we are learning to use imaging technologies to observe the havoc being wreaked in the brain, we haven’t been able so far to clearly identify the responsible party or parties. The most persuasive and widely accepted hypothesis about Alzheimer’s is that it essentially involves the accumulation in the brain of a protein called “amyloid beta.” A protein consists of one or several long strings of amino acids and routinely forms, folds, and unfolds under the guidance of enzymes and so-called “chaperone” molecules. Enzymes also slice protein strings, and it’s this last action that appears to be implicated in the development of Alzheimer’s disease. Two enzymes, beta secretase and gamma secretase, clip an amyloid beta segment (colored yellow in the diagram) out of a larger, and entirely normal, parent molecule, amyloid precursor protein (blue). The clipped segments, in soluble form or clumped into plaques, damage neurons and synapses. Because amyloid beta accumulation is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease, it’s an obvious therapeutic target. There are multiple points of possible intervention into the amyloid-related sequence of events—the so-called “amyloid cascade”—that eventually cripples the brain. Substances are being explored that could inhibit or halt the cleaving of the precursor protein by the beta and gamma secretases. Another approach is to prevent the amyloid beta segments from attaching to one another. Yet another is to clear the plaque deposits from the brain, once they have formed. All of this seems straightforward enough, and in the early nineties, when details of the amyloid cascade came to light, there was optimism that the seemingly inexorable processes leading to Alzheimer’s could be interrupted. Now, as a new decade gets under way, the story appears to be more complicated than many anticipated. Alzheimer’s may turn out to be an illness that has multiple, interrelated molecular causes. Still, it’s likely that the amyloid cascade plays an important role in the disease, and many scientists are trying to understand it. Here at UC Berkeley, the bioengineering team of Dr. Teresa Head-Gordon is studying the self-assembly dynamics of proteins; this research may unlock the mysteries of many diseases in addition to Alzheimer’s. In the UC Berkeley lab of Dr. Randy Schekman, graduate student Regina Choy is studying the “trafficking” (directed movement within the cell) of the precursor protein that may lead to Alzheimer’s. Up on the hill, at the Lawrence-Berkeley National Laboratory, Dr. Bing Jap and his colleagues have been studying proteins that are active within cell membranes, including the gamma secretase enzyme mentioned above. Such research has revealed a great deal about molecular processes that are characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease. Advancing toward the discovery of effective remedies to the disease will also require, though, studies of living human subjects. But it has been difficult in the past for such studies to follow the disease in its early stages. By the time a person develops the tell-tale symptoms of the disease such as memory loss, a lot of neurological damage has already been done. Yet progress is being made on observing the disease further “upstream,” as it were, years before the full-blown disease becomes manifest. The laboratory of Dr. William Jagust, a scientist at the UC Berkeley School of Public Health and at the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, uses PET scans and magnetic resonance imaging to measure amyloid deposits. That information can help to identify people whose cognition is currently intact but who—judging from their amyloid level and certain neural and behavioral measures—are at high risk for Alzheimer’s. We can then study these individuals over time in order to learn more about the neurological changes that lead to the disease. People who are likely to get Alzheimer’s obviously make the best experimental subjects in clinical trials that seek to establish which preventive therapies work and which do not. But clinical trials of this kind, which could last a decade or longer, are going to be enormously expensive, requiring a level of funding far above what is currently available. Given that Alzheimer’s disease threatens to devastate our nation’s health care system, the current level of support for research into the disease is very low. Zaven Khachaturian, former director of the NIH Office of Alzheimer’s Disease Research and the chief architect of NIH Alzheimer’s research programs, told the Berkeley Daily Planet that “The amount of funding going into Alzheimer’s research has been flat and is actually going down.” The NIH provided less than half a billion dollars for the research in 2009. Cancer research, on the other hand, received 13 times more support. There is a movement building to increase funding for Alzheimer’s research. A Congressional Task Force established an “Alzheimer’s Study Group” that proposed in 2009 that a project to overcome Alzheimer’s be made an urgent national priority, and that an “Alzheimer’s Solutions Project Office” be created within the federal government. “Our effort has to be major, akin to the Manhattan Project or the Apollo project to land someone on the moon,” according to Khachaturian. “We will ask President Obama for a commitment of this kind … [aiming] to prevent the disease within the next decade, by the year 2020.” This sense of urgency is an appropriate one, even if we consider only the economic cost of the disease. However the current health care debate in this country is resolved, reform will fail unless Alzheimer’s disease is defeated. Raymond Barglow is the founder of the Berkeley Tutors Network. I wish to thank the scientists and research advocates who discussed with me current directions and prospects of Alzheimer’s research. Providing guidance early on was: Laurel Martin-Harris, graduate student at the Brain Research Institute, UCLA. Also very helpful were: Regina Choy, graduate student, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, UC Berkeley Elizabeth Edgerly, Ph.D., Chief Program Officer, Alzheimer’s Association Teresa Head-Gordon, Ph.D., Department of Bioengineering, UC Berkeley William Jagust, M.D., UC Berkeley School of Public Health and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute in Berkeley Bing Jap, Ph.D., Senior Staff Scientist, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Zaven Khachaturian, Ph.D., President, Prevent Alzheimer’s Disease 2020; Chief Editor, Alzheimer’s & Dementia: the Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association; Senior Science Advisor to the Alzheimer’s Association; Senior Science Advisor to Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health Edward Koo, MD, School of Medicine, UC San Diego	<urn:uuid:c42243c4-e20a-475c-bb38-cd92791ae4cc>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/issue/2010-02-25/article/34707	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940856	1,704	3.453125	3
Editor’s note: As a special service for our readers, WND is running a series of dispatches from Allan Wall chronicling his transition from civilian life as he prepares to fight with his National Guard unit in Iraq. Allan will write for us as often as he is able to let our readers vicariously experience what people in his position are going through. We hope you will check regularly for Allan’s dispatches and encourage your friends and family to do likewise. “De Re Militari,” or “The Military Institutions of the Romans,” is a description of the Roman army written in ancient times by Vegetius. It’s a fascinating read. It gives the reader an insight into the Roman army, its organization, strategy and training. It’s an invaluable historical source, but it also has a very contemporary feel to it. That’s because so much of what Vegetius describes is still very relevant. It’s even relevant to our situation at Fort XYZ, preparing to go to Iraq. Modern armies face the same organizational challenges as the Roman army. Rather than re-invent the wheel, much modern military organization has been copied from the ancient Romans. When you read Vegetius, it seems obvious. The modern U.S. Army, including those of us who’ve been preparing for Iraq duty at Fort XYZ, owe a great debt to the ancient Romans. Vegetius begins by explaining the key to the Romans’ military greatness: “Victory in war does not depend entirely upon numbers or mere courage; only skill and discipline will insure it. We find that the Romans owed the conquest of the world to no other cause than continual military training, exact observance of discipline in their camps and unwearied cultivation of the other arts of war. Without these, what chance would the inconsiderable numbers of the Roman armies have had against the multitudes of the Gauls? Or with what success would their small size have been opposed to the prodigious stature of the Germans? The Spaniards surpassed us not only in numbers, but in physical strength. We were always inferior to the Africans in wealth and unequal to them in deception and stratagem. And the Greeks, indisputably, were far superior to us in skill in arts and all kinds of knowledge. “But to all these advantages the Romans opposed unusual care in the choice of their levies and in their military training. They thoroughly understood the importance of hardening them by continual practice, and of training them to every maneuver that might happen in the line and in action. Nor were they less strict in punishing idleness and sloth. The courage of a soldier is heightened by his knowledge of his profession, and he only wants an opportunity to execute what he is convinced he has been perfectly taught. A handful of men, inured to war, proceed to certain victory, while on the contrary, numerous armies of raw and undisciplined troops are but multitudes of men dragged to slaughter.” What Vegetius says about discipline and training are as true now as when they were written. He also offers recommendations for military training: “The first thing the soldiers are to be taught is the military step … the young recruits in particular must be exercised in running. …” Today, soldiers train on various weapons – so did the ancient Romans. Vegetius tells us they trained on swords, javelins, slings and some on bows and arrows. He also writes about the Roman army’s use of catapults, temporary bridges and the various tools the Roman soldiers carried with them. Vegetius writes that “… the legion should carry with it wherever it moves whatever is necessary for every kind of service so that the encampments may have all the strength and conveniences of a fortified city.” And he writes: “To accustom soldiers to carry burdens is also an essential part of discipline.” As today, road marches were part of training: “It was a constant custom among the old Romans, confirmed by the Ordinances of Augustus and Hadrian, to exercise both cavalry and infantry three times in a month by marches of a certain length. … They made these marches not in plain and even ground only, but both cavalry and infantry were ordered into difficult and uneven places and to ascend or descend mountains, to prepare them for all kinds of accidents and different maneuvers that the various situations of a country may require.” More on training: “In short, both legionary and auxiliary troops should continually be drilled in cutting wood, carrying burdens, passing ditches, swimming in the sea or in rivers, marching in the full step and even running with their arms and baggage, so that, inured to labor in peace, they may find no difficulty in war. … In war, discipline is superior to strength.” Here is Vegetius’ description of a centurion, the leader of 100 infantrymen: “The centurion in the infantry is chosen for his size, strength and dexterity in throwing his missile weapons and for his skill in the use of his sword and shield; in short, for his expertness in all the exercises. He is to be vigilant, temperate, active and readier to execute the orders he receives than to talk; strict in exercising and keeping up proper discipline among his soldiers, in obliging them to appear clean and well-dressed and to have their arms constantly rubbed and bright.” Bible students will find this interesting, as several Roman centurions are mentioned in the Gospels and Acts. Record-keeping was also important in the Roman army, as it is in today’s U.S. Army: “Several posts in the legion requiring men of some education, the superintendents of the levies should select some recruits for their skill in writing and accounts … for the whole detail of the legion, including the lists of the soldiers exempted from duty on private accounts, the rosters, their tour of military duties and their pay lists, is daily entered in the legionary books. … The daily guards in time of peace, the advanced guards and outposts in time of war, which are mounted regularly by the centuries and messes in their turns, are likewise punctually kept in rolls for that purpose, with the name of each soldier whose tour is past, that no one may have injustice done him or be excused from his duty by favor. “They are also exact in entering the time and limitation of furloughs. …” If you’re interested, I recommend you find a copy of Vegetius and read for yourself. To close this article, let me share this quite telling comment from “De Re Militari”: “… No great dependence is to be placed on the eagerness of young soldiers for action, for fighting has something agreeable in the idea to those who are strangers to it. …”	<urn:uuid:429010b0-2478-4f4a-87bd-2a3e1a5ebb53>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wnd.com/2005/03/29532/print/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.973161	1,442	2.625	3
One of the big news stories this week is about how the government has just enlisted members of academia to begin to “police” online opinion for possible “misinformation”, but a new study has found that people are not as anxious to share their views on-line as most of us believe. According to the Daily Mail, researchers at the Pew Research Internet Study have detected what they call the “spiral of silence” phenomenon on-line which means people are only willing to opine about hot-button issues if they know their audience agrees with them. “People do not tend to be using social media for this type of important political discussion,” said Keith Hampton, a communications professor at Rutgers University who helped conduct the study. “And if anything, it may actually be removing conversation from the public sphere.” The survey was conducted shortly after Edward Snowden was caught leaking classified intelligence that exposed just how widespread was the government’s surveillance of Americans’ phone and email records. A total of 1,801 adults were surveyed and 86 per cent said they would be willing to discuss the issue if it came up at various in-person situations, such as while out with friends, at work, in public meetings. But when it came to posting those opinions on-line, that number dropped in half to just 42 percent who said they would be willing to post something about it on Facebook or Twitter. The typical Facebook user, who logs onto the site a few times every day, was half as likely to discuss the Snowden case as was a non-Facebook user. However, Facebook users whose audience agreed with their opinion were twice as likely to join an on-site discussion about it. Twitter users were found to be one-quarter as likely to share opinions in work than those who never use Twitter. The research also concluded that social media wasn’t making it any easier for people to share opinions that they wouldn’t otherwise share. What is causing this phenomenon? Hampton believes people may be acting this way because they’re afraid of offending someone on-line, a behavior that inadvertently stifles debate. Lee Rainie, director of the Pew Research Center Internet Project, believes social media may actually be making people more sensitive to the opinion of others. “Because they use social media, they may know more about the depth of disagreement over the issue in their wide circle of contacts,” Rainie said. “This might make them hesitant to speak up either online or offline for fear of starting an argument, offending or even losing a friend.” The only problem is that when people aren’t able to share their opinions openly and gain from understanding alternative perspectives, we can become a polarized society, Hampton warned. This might come as a shock to the National Science Foundation which is financing the creation of a new web service that will monitor on-line “suspicious memes” and what it considers to be “false and misleading ideas”, particularly as it applies to politics. Called the “Truthy” database, it’s being created by researchers at Indiana University and is costing taxpayers nearly $1 million. © All Rights Reserved, Living His Life Abundantly®/Women of Grace® http://www.womenofgrace.com	<urn:uuid:514b88d9-d6a0-4b26-82e2-3d639b7dcf1f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.womenofgrace.com/blog/?p=32905	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.966017	692	2.703125	3
Conservation tools and techniques How should OEH best collect, map & manage cultural knowledge and information? What are the best decision support tools for managing and conserving cultural heritage? Research in the area of conservation tools and techniques aims to, firstly, analyse emerging trends and issues in NSW and in the national and international context and, secondly, provide practical guidance on improved ways of assessing, conserving and managing cultural heritage places and landscapes. How can the community values of heritage places be effectively integrated into 'significance assessment' and land management? This research project (2000-2001) reviewed three decades (1970s-1990s) of NPWS cultural heritage research and management. The discussion paper argues that any one place in the landscape may be significant to different people for many different reasons. It proposes a more fluid process of significance assessment - one that involves community members in investigating the whole range of heritage values of places and landscapes. This guide (2001) was prepared to assist in the identification of Aboriginal unmarked graves. It is aimed to assist non-specialists who have only limited technical expertise to select the most appropriate technique(s) for grave identification. Oral history is an essential part of OEH's cultural heritage work and involves both Aboriginal and non-indigenous people. These guidelines were prepared for OEH staff who are engaged in recording oral histories with people from communities throughout NSW. This guide (2006) was developed to provide information on the identification and recording of Aboriginal scarred trees in NSW. How can an assessment of Aboriginal cultural heritage be conducted at a regional scale? This research project (2004-2006) developed a general approach to cultural heritage regional assessment which can be adopted in a regional assessment and planning process. The literature review examines concepts of culture, cultural heritage, landscape and cultural landscape. It outlines landscape-scale approaches that are being applied in cultural heritage management around the world and in Australia, and discusses ways in which some of these approaches may lead to more effective management of NSW national parks and reserves. This resource document on Aboriginal fishing in NSW has been compiled to direct Aboriginal people and researchers interested in the topic to existing documentary sources. The emphasis of the bibliography is Aboriginal women’s fishing. All landscapes contain the imprint of human use. This guide has been prepared for use by park managers to assist in the identification, assessment, management and interpretation of cultural heritage landscapes and cultural values. It advocates a 'cultural landscape approach'. - Historic themes framework for NSW parks The NSW NPWS parks system contains broad scale landscapes which are layered with histories and meanings. This framework (forthcoming) provides an overview of the historical activities, processes and events which have taken place across protected areas in NSW. Historic themes are a tool that can be applied in park management. - Values assessment discussion paper How can we both recognise the value of the multiple constructed meanings and make conservation decisions in the real world which will almost certainly privilege some meanings over others? This current research project examines different value frameworks from around the world that are applied to heritage. It explores the practicalities of managing the uncertainty and fluidity of varying conceptions of heritage and heritage value. Denis Byrne 2008, 'Heritage as social action', in Graham Flairclough, Rodney Harrison, John H Jameson Jnr and John Schofield (eds), The Heritage Reader, Routledge, London, 149-73. Steve Brown 2007, 'Landscaping heritage: toward an operational cultural landscape approach for protected areas in NSW'. Australasian Historical Archaeology 25: 33-42. Page last updated: 06 January 2015	<urn:uuid:efe4b080-3222-4608-bee2-a323db161209>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/chresearch/ResearchThemeConservationToolsAndTechniques.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.914427	736	3.171875	3
Probability Density Functions Date: 07/23/2003 at 14:13:15 From: Kevin Subject: Probability Density Functions My boss has given me the responsibility of taking a set of data, finding the correct distribution that goes with it, and then drawing the PDF onto the histogram chart. Unfortunately I'm not sure what steps are needed to go from the data to a known distribution. Since I'm using various sets of data that change every time I can't send in an example at all. The most frustrating part is that since I don't have a statistics background I don't know where to begin. I've heard phrases like shape parameter, scale parameter, Pearson Distribution, Goodness of Fit test and Method of Moments, but they don't make any sense to me. I've done extensive research within textbooks, the Internet, and through Profs at the local university; however, I still don't have a clue where to begin. Below are the various PDF's for the distributions. Exponential: lambda * Exp(-1 * lambda * x) Gamma:[x^(a - 1) * Exp(-(x/B))] / [Gamma(a) * B^a] Normal: Exp[(-(x-u)^2) / (2 * (a^2))]/[a * (2 * PI)^0.5] Rayleigh: [x * Exp(-0.5 * (x / a)^2)] / a^2 Weibull: [a * (x^(a-1)) * Exp(-(x/B)^a)] / (B^a) For the Normal curve I've learned the various parameters that go into the function; however, none of the other curves is as well documented. What I need is a guiding voice to tell me where to begin and how to go about finding out which distribution the data falls under. Finding out how to calculate the shape and scale variables where applicable would be nice as well. Date: 07/23/2003 at 15:07:36 From: Doctor George Subject: Re: Probability Density Functions Hi Kevin, Thanks for writing to Doctor Math. As you suspect, you have a learning curve to climb. The most common thing to do is to fit a Pearson distribution to the data. The basic method of moments technique compares the first four moments of your data with the moments of the curves in the Pearson family. The third and fourth moments, related to skewness and kurtosis, are the basis for determining which member of the Pearson family to use. The other moments tell you how to scale and shift the distribution to fit your data. I strongly recommend that you get your hands on Norman Johnson's book, _Systems of Frequency Curves_. The Rayleigh distribution is a special case of the Weibull, and neither of them is in the Pearson family. If you have a reason to fit those particular distributions they must be done separately. The Pearson Type IV is numerically difficult to handle. It is common to substitute the Johnson Su distribution for it. You will find it in Johnson's book as well. A key question is what information you hope to gain from the fitted distribution. Drawing inferences from the fitted distribution is not always as good an idea as it initially seems (though it may make for impressive presentations). It may be that the distribution will have little to do with your actual data in some critical respect. There is a substantial amount of code that you will have to write. Many of the building blocks are available for free through the NIST website. You may also want to construct random number generators for the various members of the Pearson family to help when testing. If need be, there are commercial software packages that do this kind of task. Whether or not you can integrate with them effectively is another issue. Write again if I can give you more help. - Doctor George, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/ Search the Dr. Math Library: Ask Dr. MathTM © 1994-2015 The Math Forum	<urn:uuid:fbe389e5-c6c5-435b-987d-23f4c9dc3198>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/63726.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938366	838	2.5625	3
C++ concepts: CopyInsertable Specifies that an instance of the type can be copy-constructed in-place by a given allocator. CopyInsertable into the container value_type is identical to X, and, given \|\|an allocator type\| \|\| an lvalue of type \| \|\| the pointer of type \| \|\| expression of type (possibly const) \| X::allocator_type is identical to std::allocator_traits<A>::rebind_alloc<T>, the following expression is well-formed: std::allocator_traits<A>::construct(m, p, v); And after evaluation, the value of p is equivalent to the value of v. The value of v is unchanged. X is not allocator-aware, the term is defined as if A were std::allocator<T>, except that no allocator object needs to be created, and user-defined specializations of std::allocator are not instantiated. A is std::allocator<T>, then this will call placement-new, as by ::new((void)p) T(v)	<urn:uuid:f2c7e9d1-46a6-43df-94e1-eee70ed73c36>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/concept/CopyInsertable	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.814078	248	3.125	3
DuBois, James M. PhD, DSc; Burkemper, Jill PhD From the 1970s to the present, a steady stream of literature has insisted on the importance of ethics education and the need to establish an adequate ethics curriculum within medical schools.1–6 A variety of arguments for ethics education have been offered, however, Thomasma and Pellegrino summarize well the main point: the practice of medicine is an intrinsically ethical enterprise because patients are suffering and vulnerable, and medical treatments are not merely technical, they often invade patients' bodies and engage their consciences.7 Several efforts have been made to develop an “ideal” medical ethics curriculum. Elements of ideal curricula typically include approaches to ethical problems (e.g., principlism or casuistry), issues related to professional ethos (e.g., codes and duties to treat), multidisciplinary issues (e.g., ethics committees and impaired colleagues), patients' autonomy and clinical dilemmas (e.g., consent, privacy, use of life support), student—physician issues (e.g., disclosure of students' status in the clinical setting), issues in academic medicine (e.g., authorship and research ethics), and social issues (e.g., resource allocation and preventive medicine).8–12 Addressing each of these ethical topics arguably contributes to the ultimate aim of enhancing the quality of patient care in ways that respect other basic human needs in society. Arguments for ethics education have not fallen on deaf ears. The consensus that ethics education is an important element in the formation of new physicians is reflected in the American Association of Medical Colleges' (AAMC's) Curriculum Directory, where all medical colleges in the United States claim to require ethics education.13 Nevertheless, a medical college's claim to require ethics education tells us nothing about the nature of the requirement. For example, most schools (58%) state that they teach ethics only as one component of a larger required course.13 Ethics might receive 20 or more formal classroom hours or no formal time (instead, all faculty may be encouraged to engage ethical issues in their courses and on clinical rounds). Moreover, little is known about the contents of required formal ethics components. While studies have been done on what ethics education ought to be, no study to date has determined what actually are the objectives, teaching methods, course contents, and assessment methods used in ethics education in U.S. medical schools. Unfortunately, present curriculum directors are unable to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their ethics offerings relative to those of other schools. Moreover, medical ethicists are unable to determine how actual ethics courses compare with the several “ideal curricula” that have been developed by committees of experts. Finally, knowledge of the actual breadth of ethics education is currently limited to anecdotes and to reviews of the literature, thus limiting creative efforts to rework syllabi. These three gaps in our knowledge and abilities motivated this study. This study's primary aim was to determine the scope and contents of required, formal ethics components in the curriculum of U.S. medical schools. We analyzed ethics course syllabi to identify and rank order the courses' objectives, teaching methods, content areas, and methods of assessing students' performances. The AAMC provided mailing labels for all curriculum directors of four-year medical colleges in the U.S. (n = 121). A one-page questionnaire was sent to all curriculum directors asking whether ethics at their schools was taught as a formal, required component, as an elective, or not at all. We also asked for the year or years in which ethics was taught to students. Finally, we requested course syllabi for all required, formal ethics components in the four-year medical curriculum used during the 1999–00 school year. We read all syllabi using an open-coding method to produce a comprehensive list of all elements found in the syllabi that fell into one of four generic categories: course objectives, teaching methods, course contents, and methods of assessing students. All other statements (e.g., those pertaining to class times, locations, and instructors) were ignored. We then analyzed the open-coding elements to subsume them under natural and, where possible, non-over-lapping categories. The categories were used to create a database in a standard software program. The syllabi were then read individually and their coded data entered into the database. Schools, rather than syllabi, constituted cases in our database; if a school had more than one required ethics component, data from all required courses' syllabi were entered into that case. Data from ten syllabi (17%) were entered by two researchers to establish interrater reliability. The data from remaining syllabi were then entered by one researcher. We used t-tests for independent samples to compare participating schools with non-participating schools with regard to enrollment and tuition cost to estimate the generalizability of our findings. Our statistical analyses of syllabi data primarily aimed to provide descriptive data on the frequencies of various course objectives, teaching methods, course contents, and methods of assessing students. We performed two-sided t-tests to compare the mean numbers of course objectives, teaching methods, course content areas, and assessment methods between schools that are religiously affiliated and those not so affiliated, and between schools that do and do not grade their ethics courses. We calculated correlations between mean numbers of course objectives, teaching methods, course content areas, and methods of assessing students. Finally, we compiled and rank ordered readings that were recommended or required in the syllabi. Questionnaires were returned by 87 representatives of the schools (72%). Of these, 69 (79%) claimed to require a formal ethics course, and of this subset, 58 (84%) provided their ethics courses' syllabi. Participating schools did not differ significantly from non-participating schools with regard to enrollment or tuition costs. Interrater reliability was .90 on how to categorize a given statement in the syllabi. The total number of relevant statements identified across all syllabi was 1,292. Only 18 of these statements (1.4%) were deemed “uncategorizable” due to ambiguity (e.g., content areas such as “media on the midway” or “current issues”). Codification and analysis of all syllabi identified ten course objectives, eight teaching methods, 39 content areas, and six methods of assessing students. The means for individual schools were three objectives (range = 0–8), four teaching methods (range = 0–6), 13 content areas (range = 3–32), and two methods of assessment (range = 0–5). Table 1 presents rank orders and descriptions for the ten course objectives. Only two course objectives were found in more than half of the courses: to familiarize students with medical ethical topics (77%) and to develop ethical reasoning/problem-solving skills (64%). Table 1 also presents rank orders and descriptions for the eight teaching methods. Four teaching methods are used by a majority of schools: discussion/debates (84%), readings (83%), writing exercises (64%), and lectures (64%). Finally, Table 1 presents the names and rank orders of the six methods of assessing students. Two methods were used in a majority of required ethics components: class participation (90%) and examinations (64%). Table 2 presents the names and rank orders of the 39 content areas. Only six content areas were taught in a majority of schools: informed consent (85%), health care delivery (75%), confidentiality and privacy (67%), quality of life/futility/provision of treatment (67%), death and dying (66%), and euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide (60%). Table 2 also shows that 39% of all medical schools addressed research ethics in some manner. Given the recent interest of the Office of Research Integrity and other governmental bodies in research integrity, we have devoted a separate article to analyzing in detail the research ethics course contents of these syllabi.14 Fifty-one percent of all colleges reported teaching ethics in one year only (26.5% in the first year, 14.3% in the second year, 8.2% in the third year, and 2% in the fourth year). Thirty percent reported teaching ethics in two years, 10% in three years, and 8% in four years of medical school. This information was derived from both the syllabi and the questionnaire and does not indicate that all of these year components involved formal education. Eight colleges of medicine were religiously affiliated, and these schools did not differ significantly from non—religiously-affiliated schools in the numbers of coded elements found in syllabi. A total of 48 schools' syllabi indicated that courses were graded, and the graded courses did not differ significantly from non-graded courses with regard to the numbers of coded elements found in syllabi. Graded courses using a pass/fail method, however, addressed significantly fewer content areas (three fewer on average) than did those using other methods of grading (p < .05, t = −2.01). The mean numbers of course objectives, teaching methods, course content areas, and methods of assessing students found in syllabi were all significantly correlated with each other at p < .05, with the exception of the number of methods and number of content areas, which showed a strong trend (p < .065). The 58 syllabi either required or recommended 1,191 distinct readings, only eight of which were used by more than six schools. No reading was required or recommended by more than ten schools. Table 3 lists in rank order those readings used by more than 10% of all schools. Throughout this discussion, some limitations of this study will emerge that suggest that caution must be used in drawing hard and fast conclusions from our data. Nevertheless, our participation rate of 72% was impressive, especially considering that some schools do not offer formal courses in ethics and that others will not share course syllabi on principle. The fact that participating and non-participating schools did not differ significantly regarding size or tuition cost suggests that our sample was not only large but also representative. Moreover, the 90% agreement in the ways the raters categorized elements of course syllabi suggests that our data are trustworthy. Overall, the study achieved its aim. Nevertheless, as a descriptive study, our findings leave unresolved the most important questions: Are changes to ethics curricula necessary or desirable? And, if so, what changes should be made? The question of relevance is best discussed in the context of examining the extent to which this study fulfilled its three main purposes: (1) to enable curriculum directors to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their ethics program relative to those of other schools, (2) to enable medical ethicists to determine how “real” ethics education compares with “ideal ethics curricula,” and (3) to enable ethics instructors to see the breadth of methods and topics used in ethics education. First, by comparing his or her own course syllabus with the information presented in Tables 1 and 2, a curriculum director can reliably determine how his or her course compares with most other ethics courses taught in medical schools throughout the United States. In contrast to most quantitative survey studies, however, the raw data (the words on the syllabi) and not the survey instrument (e.g., fixed items on a paper-and-pencil questionnaire) generated the categories used. This means that, particularly when comparing course content areas, discretion must be used. Some categories subsume others (e.g., “death and dying” might subsume “euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide,” or “patient—physician relationship” might subsume “truth-telling” and “confidentiality and privacy”), whereas other categories simply overlap in a vague manner (e.g., “professionalism” and “patient—physician relationship”). We left the categories in their present forms because further analytic reduction of the categories would have led to the loss of information and in some cases a possible distortion of course content. This means that a syllabus that lists only very general content areas will be shortchanged in the comparison if the course actually covers several specific topics under these general headings. In turn, discretion must be used in comparing the numbers of content areas found in some syllabi with this study's mean number of content areas. This problem, however, hardly exists with the other generic syllabus categories (course objectives, teaching methods, and methods of assessing students). Nevertheless, determining the relative strength or weakness tells us very little from a normative point of view, and we hope our data will not encourage schools to be satisfied with being at or even above the national mean. Relating what is real to what is ideal is a complex task. On the one hand, the actual ethics curriculum described in this study has a normative element; it presumably reflects what numerous ethics instructors considered to be the best ethics course they could offer given real time and resource constraints. On the other hand, one cannot simply move from the fact that schools are doing such-and-such to the claim that such-and-such is ideal or even adequate. We found some of our results were clearly inadequate to the needs of future physicians. Less than one third of all schools formally addressed ethical issues surrounding genetic testing and screening. This is worrisome given that genetic testing and screening is already common and will become more common as our knowledge in this arena advances. Further, the results of genetic testing pertain to other important ethical issues such as health insurance coverage, abortion and eugenics, privacy rights, and rights to information about one's health. Perhaps most surprising to us was the fact that only 10% of all schools formally discussed ethics committees and consultations. Students need to be made aware that ethics committees are consultative bodies available to assist staff, families, and patients in making difficult health care decisions. Failure to address the nature of ethics committees may contribute to the perpetuation of misperceptions (e.g., the perception of those who call consults as whistleblowers) and the underutilization of valuable resources. Other shortcomings of our national curricular performance in ethics are best understood by contrasting the national averages with the results of “ideal” ethics curriculum studies.9,10,12 While none of the ideal-curriculum study groups offers the final word on what an ideal curriculum is, the opinions of these groups of academic deans and medical ethicists are informed and deserve serious attention. For example, Musick and Jenkins used a Delphi survey to attain consensus on what elements are “essential” or “very important” to teach in medical ethics courses.12 In the first round, 80% of 55 academic deans of U.S. medical schools reached a consensus on 25 topics that should be taught. In round two using the same sample, consensus was reached by 80% of the second-round participants that 19 topics were essential or very important. If the 19 topics are mapped onto the course content areas found in the present study, all 19 “ideal” topics are included among the top 22 course content categories found in this study. This appears to show considerable overlap between the ideal and the real. However, as noted already, only six of these topics are covered by more than half of the medical schools that require formal ethics education. A majority of schools are not covering a majority of topics that the curricular deans of medical schools consider to be essential or very important in the formation of future physicians, which suggests the need to invest significantly more time in the medical school curriculum to ethics education. Miles et al. discuss the importance of evaluating students not merely to assess their progress toward educational goals, but to communicate that ethics is as rigorous and deserving of attention as other areas of the medical curriculum.9,p.710 Our study determined that the majority of programs requiring formal ethics education do evaluate students, though the most common mode of grading is pass/fail and the most common criterion for assessment is “participation” (which may mean that by merely attending the required sessions one receives the highest grade). The fact that the number of methods of assessing students correlates positively and significantly with the numbers of course objectives, teaching methods, and content areas might reinforce the idea that the rigor and quality of assessment go hand in hand with the overall rigor and quality of a course. In a review article, however, Musick notes: With the exception of the 1985 accreditation standards, there are no other official requirements that U.S. medical schools provide instruction in subject areas related to ethics, law, humanities, values, and/or professional attitudes. Even the LCME Standards are very broad in nature, leaving ample room for interpretation by each school …. There appears to be little consensus among medical schools as to what a required or “core” curriculum in ethics education for medical students should contain.11p.246 Our study confirms that there is nothing like a common core curriculum in medical ethics at present. (The fact that only eight of 1,191 readings are used by more than six schools—and no reading is used by more than ten schools—illustrates this fact quite powerfully.) Moreover, it confirms that the gap between the real and the ideal is significant even among schools that require formal ethics education. In the absence of any official requirements of content for ethics education, the role our data can play in aiding individual faculty members in developing their own ethics curricula takes on greater significance.	<urn:uuid:7921e2c9-cff1-4a49-af3d-e8f9cee37a39>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://journals.lww.com/academicmedicine/Fulltext/2002/05000/Ethics_Education_in_U_S__Medical_Schools__A_Study.19.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954607	3,601	2.921875	3
TOGO was a Japanese roller coaster manufacturer, famous for inventing the stand-up roller coaster. TOGO went bankrupt in the early 2000s due to a lawsuit by Knott's Berry Farm for their problems with Windjammer Surf Racers. TOGO is also credited with creating the first working pipeline roller coaster. TOGO was infamous for their rough, sometimes even painful, rides. TOGO created several unique coasters, including its combination of a looping, Sit-Down, and Hyper Coaster: Manhattan Express (now known as "Roller Coaster") in Las Vegas. Their looping wild mouse roller coaster was a style of ride with a drop into a vertical loop, followed by the hairpin turns and drops of a traditional Wild Mouse roller coaster. TOGO is also renowned for inventing the Twist-and-Dive roll, an inversion. A variation of this maneuver included a half of an inclined loop instead of a half-loop, so the end of the element is at an angle. This was used on the now-defunct Viper at Six Flags Great Adventure. This article needs improvement. You can help Coasterpedia by editing it!	<urn:uuid:994730d0-d9d1-4cea-b57d-31bbba6337a1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://rollercoaster.wikia.com/wiki/Togo	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.967371	241	2.765625	3
A Garden That Does More Than Just Look Pretty COLUMBIA - A week after the 40th anniversary of the Clean Water Act, communities are still looking for ways to solve the problem of dirty creeks, streams and rivers. An increasing number of urban areas means more buildings and parking lots, and less places for storm water runoff to go after a rain storm. One way communities like Columbia are working to prevent this is by installing rain gardens. Rain gardens not only beautify property, but also collect and filter rain water polluted with oil from cars and pesticides while running over surfaces like pavement and grass, keeping it out of nearby streams and rivers. Missouri River Communities Network official Steve Johnson said the most drastic consequence of not handling the storm water problem is the potential for streams and rivers to go from being just unhealthy, to completely lifeless. For those with doubts about the benefits of rain gardens, Johnson said there are a few things people should keep in mind. - They're inexpensive. Rain gardens can be any size, making it easy to maintain one in a park or your backyard. - While rain gardens might resemble marshland, a perk of rain gardens is that owners don't need to fear attracting pesky mosquitoes. The garden will filter the water in one or two days, so even if adult mosquitoes do lay their eggs after a storm, larvae will have no way to thrive once they hatch. Right now, Johnson says there haven't been enough studies done to know what type of rain garden is most effective. But regardless of the type, Johnson says simply having a rain garden is sure to make a difference.	<urn:uuid:39f01125-9cdf-478c-9a23-406e212200d5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.komu.com/videos/a-garden-that-does-more-than-just-look-pretty/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949246	331	2.859375	3
The Climate of Carmel Valley Vineyards The Differences in Carmel Valley Climate Accounts for the Varietal Diversity of the Region Carmel Valley is cooler and and recieves more rainfall than Salinas. This has a major impact on the different varietals planted as well as the style of wines produced in these neighboring regions. Most vineyards in the Carmel Valley AVA are planted at relatively high elevations. These vines are exposed to quite a bit of wind and sun. Coastal parts of the valley are the least protected from wind and fog from the Pacific Ocean. Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Riesling are widely planted in these cooler areas. The southeastern part of the valley is quite sheltered and is warmer. This part of the AVA tends to producer fuller bodied wines. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chenin Blanc, and Sauvignon Blanc are grown in warmer parts of the valley. Joullian Vineyards makes one of the best examples of Sauvignon Blanc from the region. The Carmel River runs west through the AVA from the mountains. > Carmel Valley Wineries	<urn:uuid:0ec81bd5-47e1-43f0-97d2-58ea412beb0a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.calwineries.com/explore/regions/monterey-county/carmel-valley/climate	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.927658	241	2.734375	3
Home > Flag Etiquette American Flag Etiquette The Flag of the United States of America Nothing evokes such strong emotion as seeing the flag, either a ceremony honoring a great event or draped over a coffin as a sign of mourning for a hero or loved one. Its unfurled banner, which symbolizes the love and pride that we have as a nation, is a poignant reminder of America's greatness and our fortune to live in a country which values freedom above all else. It signifies the commitment made by our fallen comrades who battled bravely to defend the honor of this sacred emblem - our American unity, our power, and our purpose as a nation, and it exemplifies the devotion of our leaders who continue to uphold its promise of liberty, justice and freedom for all. Our nation reveres the flag, not out of a sense of unquestioning worship but out of a deep sense of our national heritage. Strengthened by our noble deeds, splendid accomplishments, and untold sacrifices, the flag reflects America's pledge to uphold democracy and work for peace throughout the world. It is America's strength in honor, as dignified in the stars and stripes of the flag, which helps to establish the moral character of our national foundation. The flag, endearingly referred to as "Old Glory," represents all people of America. We, the people, are America. It is little wonder that the people of America are moved when saluting the flag is it passes by, reminding us that we are a part of this great land. We are "one nation under God." With Liberty and justice for All Even before the American Revolution, flags bearing the familiar red and white stripes, which symbolize the unity of the original 13 colonies of America, began to appear. These stripes were later combined with the British Union Jack to produce the Continental flag that flew over George Washington's headquarters during the siege of Boston. Almost a year passed after the Declaration of Independence was signed before a new flag was adopted by the Congress. But variations in the flag were persistent, and changes continued during much of the 19th century. The Flag Act of 1818 fixed the number of horizontal stripes at 13, and gave the President the authority to determine the star arrangement. The now-familiar stars and stripes were not carried into battle by the United States Army until the Mexican War. Finally, in 1912, an executive order was established which defined the design of the flag, including the star arrangement. Later, when Alaska and Hawaii entered the Union, stars representing those states were added to the flag, adapting the traditional horizontal arrangement. American involvement in the Spanish-American War, World War I, and World War II stimulated patriotic sentiments and interest in the flag. In 1942, Congress established rules and customs concerning the flag and the Pledge of Allegiance. The years since World War II have seen the refinement of various laws and regulations concerning the flag. Today, it has become an accepted part of the decoration of most public buildings and a symbol regarded as appropriate to almost any setting where citizens gather. Pledge to the Flag After first appearing in a copy of the Youth's Companion in 1892, as a celebration of the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America, the pledge to the flag received the official recognition of Congress on June 22, 1942. The phrase, "under God," was added to the pledge by Congress on June 14, 1954, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who said that "in this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country's most powerful resource in peace and war." When rendering the pledge of allegiance, persons should stand at attention, face the flag, and, if in uniform, salute, or otherwise place the right hand over the heart. Persons wearing the caps of veterans' service organizations, such as the Disabled American Veterans, are expected to salute. Others, such as Boy or Girl Scouts in uniform, should render respect to the flag in accordance with the traditions of the organization whose uniform they are wearing. Our National Anthem Again, this applies to those wearing veterans' organizations caps or the uniforms of other patriotic organizations. Displaying the Flag Army Flag Patches Reversed Civilians often wonder why is the Army Flag Patches reversed. The answer is: not all Army Flag Patches are reversed, but only those worn on the right shoulder. The reason has to do with proper display of the flag. The blue field of stars should always be in the highest position of honor. When viewing the flag on a wall, the highest position of honor is the upper left when displayed horizontally, and at the top (upper left) when displayed vertically. When displayed on a "moving object" like a person or vehicle, the highest position of honor is the front, and not the rear; so the field of blue should be displayed to the front. The same principle applies to the eagle rank of Colonels (or Navy Captains); the eagles' heads are always worn facing forward when worn on the uniform, as the forward-facing eagle is the position of honor within heraldry. In application, then, flags are displayed on moving vehicles with the blue-star field always displayed towards the front of the vehicle. In this way, the flag appears to be blowing in the wind as the vehicle travels forward (flags are always attached to their flag poles on the blue field side). If the flag were not reversed on the right hand side of the vehicle, the vehicle might appear to be moving backwards (or "retreating"). The next time you visit an airport, notice that the US-flagged aircraft also have a "reverse" flag painted on the right side of the aircraft. For flag patches worn on uniforms, the same principle applies: the blue star field always faces towards the front, with the red and white stripes behind. Think of the flag, not as a patch, but as a loose flag attached to the Soldier's arm like a flag pole. As the Soldier moves forward, the red and white stripes will flow to the back. As the proponent for standardization and authorization of heraldry items within the Department of Defense, the Institute of Heraldry addresses the apparent oddity of the reverse flag patch by stating, "When worn on the right sleeve, it is considered proper to reverse the design so that the union is at the observer's right to suggest that the flag is flying in the breeze as the wearer moves forward." Respect for the Flag When lowering the flag, make certain that no part of it touches the ground. It should be received by waiting hands and arms. To store the flag, ceremoniously fold it length wise in half, then repeat with the blue field on the outside. Finally, while one person holds it by the blue field, another then makes a triangular fold in the opposite end, continuing to fold it in triangles until only the blue shield shows. When a flag is in such a condition that it is no longer a fitting emblem for display, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. Flying Our Flag New Year's Day Other days the flag may be flown at half mast may be proclaimed by the President of the United States. Flag Retirement Ceremonies Americas & Americas Inc.	<urn:uuid:38f1202b-efaf-45b1-9cae-7cff3116c098>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.flagsoncars.com/etiquette.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935548	1,511	3.21875	3
The number of deaths linked to drunk passengers who wander off the platform and onto the tracks has steadily increased over the years. But a new study of these falls shows that many of them occur in the same way—and that there might be a few simple ways to prevent some of them. The study was carried out by West Japan Railway Company, which explains that since drinking increases in spring, it's focusing on how to prevent alcohol-related train deaths over the next month. In a synopsis reported by The Kobe Shimbun and translated by Spoon & Tamago, the company says it amassed data and video footage from hundreds of falls over the past two years that involved drunk passengers. According to JR West, these types of falls have increased by four times in the past decade—which is why it was interested in studying exactly how they occur. The assumption was that most falls occur while the victim is walking parallel to the tracks and fails to notice how close they are to the edge. But what the researchers found was that the vast majority of falls follow a totally different pattern. In 60 percent of falls, the victim gets up from a bench and makes a beeline straight forward onto the tracks. 30 percent of the time, the victim is already standing upright and simply falls into the tracks. "Only ten percent of drunks gradually drifted towards the ledge, while an outstanding majority briskly walked off the ledge as if they knew exactly where they were going," says Spoon & Tamago. Image: Spoon & Tamago The surprising results are helping the company rethink how it designs its platforms. To start with, it's making a very small—but potentially pretty important—tweak to platform seating. Instead of arranging it so that the passengers are facing the tracks, benches and seats are now oriented away from the rails. Rather than looking directly onto the tracks, seated passengers will face the platform length-wise. Image: Spoon & Tamago Since so many victims simply bolt upright and walk straight off the platform without realizing where they are, the company hopes that something as simple as giving them more space to walk will prevent many of these accidents. JR West also says that since railway employees only have a few brief seconds to identify potential victims over video surveillance, the change will give them more time to act before an accident might occur. Obviously, these accidents are tragic, but it's amazing that they haven't been analyzed more closely until now. The details of the world around us, right down to the position our chairs are in, can have outsized effects on our lives. It's just a matter of studying them. Lead image: Claudio Divizia Contact the author at kelsey@Gizmodo.com.	<urn:uuid:a91034d2-8a3a-4ce3-8547-fce1aba321d1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://gizmodo.com/a-simple-design-tweak-may-keep-drunk-people-from-fallin-1694496801	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972027	552	2.65625	3
Emergency Medical Services Q & A What is a Paramedic? Paramedics are licensed professionals who can perform tasks beyond that of an Emergency Medical Technician. Most commonly, paramedics are those who respond to medical emergencies out in the field for the purpose of stabilizing the victim's condition so s/he can be transported to medical facilities. These tasks include cardiac monitoring, intubations, and administering IV medications. Paramedics receive 18-24 months of difficult theoretical training and practice. After the formal training, they are also required to render hours of practice and to undergo certification. Paramedics desiring to specialize in specific fields can further their studies and pursue additional certification as required. What is Advance Life Support? An ALS unit is the highest level of pre-hospital care available. Our ALS teams of highly trained paramedics provide advanced medical assistance to the patients in transit when needed. They are authorized to perform medical treatments that EMTs cannot do for the patient. The historical development of advanced life support (ALS) programs throughout the world is rooted in the recognition that provision of ALS techniques to patients within the first few hours of trauma and medical emergencies can reduce death from preventable causes. The incidence of these deaths can be reduced if the patient is managed appropriately in the pre-hospital care phase and reaches definitive care within the first one to two hours of the event. Studies have also demonstrated the need for advanced life support in rural settings to potentially reduce the number of preventable deaths from motor vehicle accidents. Equipment – What is on our Advance Life Support Vehicles? Exeter Hospital Paramedics have been the first to bring many of the most advanced cutting edge technology to this area. Our ALS intercept vehicles carry tools and equipment similar to that, which is found in our hospital emergency department. The following are just a few items on our vehicles: - Glidescope – is an imaging device used by many anesthesiologists to assist in critical patients who require endotracheal intubation. - Lucas 2 – is a life saving device, which mechanically pumps a patient’s heart in cases of cardiac arrest. This technology is much more efficient and effective in saving victims when compared to CPR. - Masimo Rad 57 – is a tool that detects carbon monoxide and oxygen levels using a specially designed finger probe light system. - Lifepak 12 – is a cardiac monitor and defibrillator. This model used by Exeter ALS is outfitted to provide 12 Lead EKG analysis to detect myocardial infarctions and “capnography” to accurately detect respiratory problems. We carry more than forty different types of medications used in emergencies. Exeter ALS is one of the few services in New Hampshire to have the capability to sedate patients to facilitate emergency intubation. We are also one of the few services carrying the “Cyanokit” that is an antidote for cyanide poisoning. Cyanide has recently been targeted as the culprit causing cardiac damage and death in fire fighters and victims overcome by smoke from house fires.	<urn:uuid:35de9f52-4601-4893-9bc5-57653a33afc4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.exeterhospital.com/about-exeter/exeter-hospital-paramedics-als/paramedics-als-equipment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947144	630	2.703125	3
A research team from Hiroshima University and The Nippon Kayaku company has developed a new kind of organic semiconductor material that allows for high electron mobility yet remains stable even when exposed to air. It is versatile too. Being an organic material, it can be sprayed onto various substrates, including silicon, glass and plastic, or dissolved in a solvent and coated or printed. Dubbed DNTT, the material is synthesized in a three-step process starting with 2-naphthaldehyde, a commercially available polymer. Its electron mobility is three times faster than amorphous silicon, making it one of the speediest organic semiconductor materials. It is bio degradable, but does not go off if you leave it out the fridge. Whereas existing organic semiconductor materials readily degrade when exposed to air, requiring that devices be sealed to operate, DNTT retains its properties even after roughly 10 weeks of exposure. The research team sees this material being used to make thin-film transistors for flat-panel displays. Another application is in films that can be used for power supplies, wireless smart tags, e-paper and scanners that can be rolled up. Nippon Kayaku has licensed the technology from Hiroshima University and plans to supply samples of the new material to researchers and manufacturers.	<urn:uuid:ff7725f0-62ba-4080-ac3e-c5d073d8530b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.computerweekly.com/news/2240083760/Hiroshima-University-and-The-Nippon-Kayaku-develop-organic-semiconductor-material	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.920711	266	3.1875	3
Chapter 3 – normal myelinated nerve fibers In interpreting the age related structural alterations that affect myelinated nerve fibers of the central nervous system, it is helpful to understand the normal appearance of myelinated nerve fibers in electron micrographs. The axons of normal myelinated nerve fibers have a pale axoplasm in which there are both neurofilaments and microtubules, as well as occasional profiles of mitochondria and smooth endoplasm reticulum (Figs. 3.1 , 3.2, 3.3 and Fig. 3.3A). Surrounding the axons are the myelin sheaths, which occur in segmental lengths and are formed by oligodendrocytes. For descriptive purposes myelin sheaths can be considered to have three zones: 1. Separating adjacent lengths of myelin are the nodes of Ranvier, where the axons are bare. Transverse sections through nodes of Ranvier can be identified by the electron dense undercoating of the axolemma and a cytoplasm that commonly shows an increase in the frequency of profiles of microtubules (Figs. 3.3, Fig. 3.3A, and Fig. 3.4). It is at nodes of Ranvier that myelinated nerve fibers branch (Fig. 3.5). 2. Adjacent to the nodes of Ranvier are the paranodes, where the spiraled lamellae of myelin gradually terminate (Fig. 3.4). 3. Between the paranodes is the extensive intersegmental myelin sheath. The myelin sheaths in the central nervous system are formed by a pair of layers of the plasma membrane of the myelin- forming oligodendrocyte. The paired plasma membranes wrap around a length of the enclosed axon in a spiral fashion, with the outer surfaces of the paired plasma membrane being apposed to each other to form the intraperiod line of the mature sheath. During development the cytoplasmic surfaces of the paired plasma membrane are separated by oligodendrocyte cytoplasm, but as the sheath matures the cytoplasm is lost and the cytoplasmic surfaces of the plasma membrane become apposed to form the major dense line of the sheath. However, in the mature sheath some cytoplasm is retained in the inner and outer ends of the spiraled plasma membranes and in transverse sections of mature myelinated nerve fibers this cytoplasm is seen to be contained in the inner and outer tongue processes of cytoplasm (Fig. 3.3 and 3.3A). Obviously these tongues of cytoplasm are sections through ridges of cytoplasm that extend along the length of the segment of myelin and at some point the outer tongue is in continuity with a cell processes that connects the segmental length of myelin to the cell body of the parent oligodendrocyte. At the ends of the myelin segments are the paranodes, where the myelin sheath gradually becomes thinner as it approaches the node of Ranvier and the spiraled turns of myelin terminate. The inner turns of the spiraled lamellae of myelin terminate first and as they terminate, the major dense line opens up to contain a spiraled tunnel of cytoplasm which interconnects the inner and outer tongues of cytoplasm along the main length of the sheath. In longitudinal sections of the paranode the spiraled tunnel appears as a series of pockets of cytoplasm on each side of the axon (Fig. 3.4, arrows). Here the axolemma and the plasma membrane bounding the inner faces of the pockets of cytoplasm of the sheath come into close apposition so that they are separated by a gap of only 3nm (Figs. 3.6 and 3.7). This junctional complex between the two membranes is very distinctive and makes it very easy to recognize profiles of transverse sections through paranodes. Transverse section of the anterior commissure of a 16 year old monkey. In younger monkeys the myelin sheaths are compact and do not display significant distortion. Most of the profiles are sections through the internodal lengths of myelin, where there is a gap between the axolemma and the membrane on the inner face of the myelin sheath. At paranodes (paranodes: arrows) these two membranes come close together to form a seven layered complex, and at paranodes the thickness of the myelin sheath depends upon how close to the node of Ranvier the section is taken. Transverse section through a bundle of myelinated nerve fibers in the deep layers of primary visual cortex in a 25 year old monkey. As in the previous figure, the myelin sheaths are compact and sections through paranodes (paranodes: arrows) can be recognized by the close proximity of the axolemma and the plasma membrane on the inside of the myelin sheath. Transverse section through the corpus callosum of a 6 year old monkey. At this higher magnification the lamellae of the myelin sheaths are visible and in some cases the inner and outer tongues of cytoplasm of the sheaths are apparent. When these myelin sheaths are carefully examined and the spiraling of the lamellae followed from where the lamellae begins on the inside of the sheath at the inner cytoplasm tongue process and ends at the outer tongue process, it will be seen that in some cases the spiraling is clockwise and in other cases it is anticlockwise. Two paranodes are labeled, as well as a profile of a nerve fiber in which the plane of section passes through the junction between the paranode and the node. Myelin sheaths of the central nervous system are difficult to preserve and so splitting is not uncommon, especially in the thicker sheaths. A colorized version of the electron micrograph shown in Fig. 3.3. Myelinated axons- pale green; astrocytes- yellow: paranodes and nodes- dark green: oligodendrocyte process- red. A longitudinal section though a node of Ranvier of the myelinated nerve fiber in layer 4C of the primary visual cortex from a 27 year old monkey. At the node the axolemma has a dense undercoating. On each side of the node are the paranodes, where the myelin lamellae gradually terminate in a helical fashion, the inner lamellae terminating first. As the lamellae terminate the dense line of the sheath opens up to enclose a helix of cytoplasm, which in longitudinal sections appears as a series of pockets (arrows) on each side of the axon. As already noted, at paranodes the axolemma and the plasma membrane of the sheath come close together to form a junction. A myelinated nerve fiber from the primary visual cortex of a 27 year old monkey. The micrograph shows a myelinated nerve fiber branching at a node of Ranvier. Myelinated nerve fibers in layer 4 of area 46 in a 25 year old monkey. One of the nerve fibers is sectioned at the level of the internode and the two other nerve fibers are sectioned at the level of the paranode, as shown by the close proximity of the axolemma and the membrane on the inside of the myelin sheath. Obviously, paranode 2 is closer to the node of Ranvier than paranode 1. A myelinated nerve fiber in area 46 of a 25 year old monkey. The nerve fiber is sectioned at the level of the paranode as shown by the seven layered junction formed between the axolemma and the plasma membrane on the inside of the sheath (arrows).	<urn:uuid:5d537b16-e5da-4ddd-bada-34980dd767c0>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bu.edu/agingbrain/chapter-3-normal-myelinated-nerve-fibers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.902971	1,626	2.90625	3
Cayenne fruit is a hot chilli pepper that is also known as Guinea spice, aleva, or bird pepper. It gets its name from the city of Cayenne, the capital of French Guiana, but it may also come from the word ‘kian’ of the Tupi Indians. Cayenne belongs to the nightshade family along with potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers, and other flowering plants. The cayenne chile is hot, bright red in color and its size can be anywhere from two to five inches in length and around one and a half inches in diameter. It is available and can be cultivated all year round. In its powdered form, which is used to flavour dishes, it is known as red pepper. It is also used in making soups and sauces. It gets its spicy flavour from the chemical compound capsaicin. Medicine made from cayenne is mainly used to stimulate digestion by encouraging muscle movement of the intestines. Stomach acid declines with age, but cayenne helps to restore the acidity of stomach fluids for better digestion and absorption of food nutrients. Because of this, it is used to treat problems with digestion like upset stomachs, stomach pains, diarrhea, cramps, and intestinal gas. Aside from this, cayenne stimulates the circulation of the blood, particularly in the peripheral areas of the body. Because it can improve blood circulation, it is used for conditions of the heart and blood vessels, like excessive blood clotting and heart cholesterol. By stimulating blood flow to the skin, it can raise the body temperature and cause sweating. Sweating can help the body reduce fevers and sweating can also clear the sinuses, thereby providing relief from congestion of colds and sinusitis. Cayenne is also made into muscle rubs and joint liniments. It can be used topically to relieve muscle spasms. Some people apply it to the skin to relieve pain from shingles, rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoarthritis. Taking cayenne supplement may cause side effects like skin irritation and the feeling of burning and itching. Cayenne should not be used on sensitive skin and on the areas around the eyes. Shop for a wide range of Cayenne vitamins and supplements on NetPharmacy NZ at discounted prices.	<urn:uuid:737bbea2-95c0-4802-946a-bba55db0e285>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.netpharmacy.co.nz/cayenne?gender=860	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.924268	474	2.546875	3
The Filter File Java example code provides the following functionalities: Program accepts directory name and file extension from user and displays the files present in the directory. Program begins with import statement java.io.; package, which is required for any input/output operations. Classes Defined in the program: The constructor of the class takes file extension as parameter and then prefix it with "." and assign into the global variable ext. The OnlyExt class implements FilenameFilter interface, so we have to implement the abstract method accept( ) defined in the FilenameFilter interface. The accept( ) method tests if a specified file should be included in a file list. The FilterFiles contains the public static void main(String args), which is the entry point of our program. The program first accepts directory name and file extension from the user and creates the object of OnlyExt class passing file extension as constructor parameter. Here is the code of the program : Posted on: April 16, 2007 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles	<urn:uuid:6bff2fe9-66da-4442-85d8-87863561b028>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://roseindia.net/java/example/java/io/FilterFiles.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.794164	228	3.46875	3
An Algorithm for Joint Guidance and Power Control for Electric Vehicles in the Smart Grid A massive amount of energy consumption currently stems from the transportation sector. Therefore, improvements in power usage by commuting vehicles are being studied and becoming an increasingly popular research topic. In particular, there is a growing need to model the envisioned smart infrastructure, including charging stations, some of which might include energy storage devices and swappable, pre-charged batteries. For such new stations, power management is indeed crucial for operation costs, driver convenience, and overall smart grid efficiency. Information technology, communications and vehicle intelligence need to play a crucial role in this process.	<urn:uuid:ba7a82db-f596-4907-95df-d881651a3868>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.techrepublic.com/resource-library/whitepapers/an-algorithm-for-joint-guidance-and-power-control-for-electric-vehicles-in-the-smart-grid/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947213	128	2.65625	3
In a paper available at the online site of the journal Biology of Reproduction, a team of UCLA researchers reports for the first time that vitamin D induces immune responses in placental tissues by stimulating production of the antimicrobial protein cathelicidin. The study involved exposing cultured human trophoblast cells to the active form of vitamin D, leading to production of cathelicidin and an increased antibacterial response in the trophoblast cells. The team, headed by Dr. Martin Hewison, suspects that the ability of the placenta to synthesize cathelicidin varies widely among women. Their discovery suggests that placental innate immunity can be enhanced if pregnant women supplement their diets with vitamin D. Induction of cathelicidin production by vitamin D may help the placenta stave off infection by a variety of pathogenic organisms, including staphylococcus, streptococcus, and E. coli bacteria. Vitamin D may also enhance and sustain this bacterial killing by protecting placental trophoblast cells from infection-associated cell death. The significance of vitamin D in human reproduction has been recognized for the past 20 years, although its exact role has not been completely understood. This study presents a new mechanism for activation of innate immune responses in the placenta to protect it from infectious bacteria and sheds new light on the possible role of vitamin D in pregnancy and pregnancy-associated infection. \|Contact: Martin Hewison\| Society for the Study of Reproduction	<urn:uuid:d6e14553-7fed-4a3a-8974-84c4e2c26482>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Vitamin-D-found-to-fight-placental-infection-6106-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.895597	310	3.15625	3
A Biography of Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) Affection and disaffection (1780-1781)Some happy new events would have Hamilton singing a different tune in 1780. During winter camp at Morristown, Hamilton met and fell in love with Elizabeth Schuyler, whom he would marry at the end of the year. The Schyuler family was one of the wealthy Dutch dynasties of New York. Elizabeth's father, Major General Philip Schuyler, was acquainted with Hamilton and was delighted with the match, despite the fact that Hamilton was penniless and propertyless. Not inconsiderable was the fact that the marriage would be a mutually beneficial arrangement. Schuyler had a feeling that Hamilton would go far and was willing to give him a push if necessary; although it turned out that Hamilton ended up doing most of the pushing. In "Betsy" Hamilton found a loving and adoring wife, who proved a steadfast companion even in his darkest moments. When not busy with correspondence or courting his wife-to-be, Hamilton turned back to the business of building a better nation. During his tenure as aide-de-camp, Hamilton had formed important ties among New York politicians with whom he regularly corresponded. On the request of congressman James Duane, Hamilton wrote a lengthy missive on his "ideas of the defects of our present system, and the changes necessary to save us from ruin." Hamilton then enumerated the weaknesses of the current government, and offered a very forward-thinking solution: ". . .by calling immediately a convention of all the states with full authority to conclude finally upon a general confederation." The Philadelphia convention was still seven years away. The rest of the letter reveals a great chunk of what was to become Hamilton's official policies. Indeed, a study of his unofficial political musings prior to his taking office as Secretary to the Treasury show the unfolding of a consistent political plan for America based upon his experiences with the government of a weak confederation. Congress's inability to provide even the most basic of the army's needs proved the dire necessity for a more powerful government. The army, Hamilton observes "is now a mob . . . without cloathing, without pay, without provision, without morals, without discipline. We begin to hate the country for its neglect of us; the country begins to hate us for our oppressions of them." The poor state of the army comprises "three fourths of our civil embarrassments." Once again, he casts the eyes of the world on the doings of the American government. Hamilton then goes on to detail a financial plan for the country. Had his future political rivals read this letter, none of Hamilton's fiscal policies would have taken them by surprise. He suggests revenue sources--securing a foreign loan, a money tax on business, and a tax in kind on farmers. He expounds upon turning the public debt to the nation's advantage; creating an economy based on paper money; and dwells at length on the founding of a national bank which would be established by the investments of "monied men of influence" who would "relish the project and make it a business." Knowing full well how his plan would be received by the bulk of Americans, Hamilton opines: "There are epochs in human affairs, when novelty even is useful."	<urn:uuid:3b8b2d70-ba61-47b7-b6ac-0132d0f79fef>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/biographies/alexander-hamilton/affection-and-disaffection-(1780-1781).php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974168	684	3.46875	3

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