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Blacks Are Conditioned to Violence and Self-Destruction*
By Jay Thomas Willis
Senior Columnist and Political Analyst
The Mid-South Tribune and the Black Information Highway
(July 28, 2012)
The stage was set years ago, and is continuously being prepared for the type of violence we see in Black communities today. We have been conditioned over the years to violence and self-destruction. People seem to wonder why we have so much violence in Black communities, and say it must stop if we’re to ever have wholesome, viable, and functional communities. Few ask how we got this way, or more specifically the exact historical aspect of our confusion, chaos, and disorganization.
Shortly after the first outside group landed on the shore of Africa over 3,000 years ago we’ve been conditioned to violence and self-destruction. We indirectly learned this violence and self-destruction through learning to hate ourselves. We were treated in such a despised manner that we learned self-hate.
We were mistreated from the time others appeared on the African shores. There were many successive invasions that lasted to the time of the slave trade. Our culture was occupied, and we were taught that our culture was inferior. There was an attempt to change the way our basic institutions functioned. We were mistreated by other groups until the time of the slave trade. At that time we were so confused, disorganized, and chaotic by all those years of occupation by other cultures that we were vulnerable to the slave trade.
We were treated in such an uncivilized manner during our capture and transport to the New World that we further learned to despise ourselves. In slavery we were brutalized and sold at will. Men were separated from their families, used as studs, and treated as property rather than human beings. This continued until after slavery, when an even more insidious form of racism, discrimination, and prejudice became effective. Also we suffered lack of adequate educational systems, lack of job opportunities, and lack of being able to participate in economics and politics on an equal basis.
Blacks have lived with Black Codes, Jim Crow, and all manner of legal legislation to keep them disfranchised. Many suffered violence from the Ku Klux Klan, other groups, and ordinary citizens.
Some Blacks have internalized that their physical characteristics and mental capabilities were inferior; and seemingly tried harder to change their physical characteristic than mental abilities. We seem to try to change some of our physical characteristics, but we don’t seem to work hard at changing our intellectual abilities. It’s unusual that we would try to change something that’s impervious to change, and not try to work at what could actually be changed.
For example, we can get a better education, and improve our mental functioning over the generations, but we resist. It seems that we resist this notion of working harder and being more studious in school as acting white; while straightening our hair, getting blue-contact lenses, and reconstructive surgery on some of our physical features.
Our exposure in an alien society has taught us to have self-hate for our own physical characteristics. Consequently, we learned to despise things Black. Through having internalized this self-hate we’ve learned to dislike and strike out at everything that looks like us.
This self-hate desolates Blacks and leaves us self-destructive as well as destructive toward each other. This causes us to turn on ourselves and perpetuate all manner of inappropriate behavior on each other and the community. Blacks take everything thrown at them by other groups, and turn the hostility, anger, frustration, and devastation right back at each other.
Blacks have been conditioned away from taking their hostilities and aggression out on the legitimate object of their frustration. Therefore, other groups haven’t had to worry en masse about Black aggression against them. Though we commit murders, robberies, rapes, use drugs and alcohol, and involve ourselves in many other inappropriate behaviors; we mostly violate each other.
When we become defensive we attack each other instead of those responsible for our victimization. Those things we hate we attack when we’re angry, hostile or aggressive, and attempt to destroy them. If we attack the things we hate and hold hostility toward when we’re overly frustrated and angry, when we hate ourselves we’ll attack each other, suggested Amos Wilson, a late and great psychologist in his video, “A Blueprint for Black Power.”
We’ll channel that hostility, anger and hatred inward because that’s the thing we dislike most. Black self-hate then becomes a mechanism for Black self-destruction and Black self-defeat. The aim of our anger and aggressiveness becomes self and others who look like us. Others provoke our anger, but we get upset and strike out against each other.
Our conditioning has made us confused, disorganized, and chaotic about our position in the world. We’ve learned to not unify as a group, and to be alienated from one another.
We must keep in mind that if problems are allowed to build over an extensive period of time without meaningful intervention, they’ll exponentially increase. This is what causes some of the violence in the Black community. Problems have exploded out of control, and there’s so much confusion, chaos, and disorganization that violence is a predictable consequence.
Having inculcated and regenerated this self-hate for approximately 3,000 years has conditioned us to be destructive toward ourselves and each other. Consequently, we see the violence existing at such a high level in the Black community.
The situation won’t change unless we do something to change the historical and ever-present conditions that keep refueling the problem. They say to extinguish a fire one way to do so is to remove the source of the fuel.
We must reorient ourselves to our values and seek to find new ways of dealing with our frustrations, hostilities, and aggression.
We must also do like another group, and vow to discontinue this holocaust!
*The above is also on the Black Paper lane on the Black Information Highway and The Mid-South Tribune ONLINE. Mr. Willis is the author of twenty-three books, fifteen professional journal articles, a number of magazine articles, and over 300 newspaper articles. His books can be reviewed at www.jaythomaswillis.com . Email him at email@example.com or MSTnews@prodigy.net or BlackInfoHwy@prodigy.net . Also, travel on the Jay Thomas Willis lane on the Black Information Highway and The Mid-South Tribune ONLINE at www.blackinformationhighway.com . Black Papers are presented as thinking pieces and studies to stimulate dialogue and; therefore, do not necessarily reflect any editorial stand of the Black Information Highway and The Mid-South Tribune. Welcome, Travelers!
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Venezuelan Air Force
Fuerzas Aereas or Aviacion
Aviación Militar Bolivariana
In 2007 the name of the Venezuelan Air force was changed to Venezuela military Aviation. Presently it styles itself as the Aviación Militar Bolivariana. The 05 October 2009 approval by the National Assembly (AN) of 45 changes to the year-old Organic Law of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces included the deletion of "national" in the names of the Army, Navy and Air Force, but leaving the moniker "Bolivarian" from the 2008 reform. With a "Bolivarian" orientation instead of a "National" view, Chavez could deploy Venezuelan forces to other "Bolivarian" states in ALBA. Conversely, non-Venezuelans from ALBA countries could serve in the "Bolivarian Army."
The air force is organized into four operational commands: air, air defense, logistics, and personnel. By 2005 The air force had 125 combat aircraft and 31 armed helicopters, as well as 15 reconnaissance aircraft, 3 electronic countermeasures aircraft, 23 liaison aircraft, and 57 training aircraft.
The National Armed Forces of the Bolivian Republic of Venezuela are an ideal representation of a smaller country’s military taking efforts to establish itself on theglobal scene as a regional power, attempting to gain respect. Since 2005, the government took the first steps towards building a credible air defense by purchasing 24 advanced Su-30 fighter aircraft. In addition to the newly acquired fighters, Venezuela contracted with Russia to purchase advanced surface-to-air-missile (SAM) systems, further attempting to fortify their defenses. Although Venezuela represents minimal threat to the sovereign United States proper, their anti-American rhetoric has grown, as hass their strategic alliance with Iran, bringing to question the future potentialfor conflict in the area.
Besides the basic technology that was included on their aircraft platforms, Venezuela does not expand its aircraft lethality or survivability with additional equipment. Most of their military modernization and technological investment, outside of the basic equipped air defenses, benefits their Army, including updated personnel carriers, tanks, sniper rifles, night vision goggles and top-of-the-line portable man-carried SAMs. Additionally, their Air Force is limited in tactics and training, beyond the basic doctrine sold by the Russians.
Venezuela’s location along the northern coast of South America has a coastline of roughly 600NM. This represents a significant border to defend with minimal forces. Even with every one of their 3rd and 4th generation fighters operational, their ability to protect their sovereign airspace is nearly zero. But not all assets are immediately available for a multitude of reasons including long-term maintenance overhaul, non-mission capable due to awaiting parts, aircraft configured for testing, training or other non-mission related duties. It is safe to approximate that Venezuela is challenged to muster 70% of their aircraft for an immediate conflict.
The origin of the Venezuelan Air Force began on December 10th, 1920, when Colonel David Lopez Enriquez and advisers from the French company FARMAN, opened the Venezuelan Military Aviation School. The National Executive at the time, concerned about the strength and modernization of the National Armed Forces in the post-war period, contracted with the Republic of France to help build Venezuelan air power. France provided not just material, but flight instructors and technicians. The first planes, the Caudron single-engine G-3 (1920) and later, the twin-engine G-4 hydroplane (1922), were put into service at the Marine Aviation school of Punta Palmita on Lake Valencia.
The fleet was soon expanded to include the American Curtiss, the 110 HP Italian Macchi, the 220 HP Italian Salmson, and two Farman 130 HP F-40 Hydroplanes. Initially, Venezuelan Aviation was aided by the contribution and experience of three aeronautical missions: the French (1921 tp 1929); the Germans (1930 to 1933), and the Italians (1938 to 1940). The German mission introduced the Junkers Bremen, one of which, the "Bolivar," was used on December 17th, 1930, in the first Venezuelan international flight to Columbia to mark the centennial death of the Liberator Simon Bolivar.
The Italian Aeronautical Mission significantly boosted Venezuelan aviation with the arrival of Colonel Ivo de Bittembeschi, a bombing instructor, and the Major Oscar Molinari, a flight combat instructor. Both men played considerable roles in the developement of these two areas of Venezuelan military aviation.
The first American Aeronautical Mission arrived in Venezuela on January 13, 1944. The intent of the Americans was to make an evaluation of the personnel, equipment, and facilities, since much of the Venezuelan inventory had deteriorated for lack of spare parts due to World War II. The military aviation was reorganized and the Service of Aeronautics was assigned to the main department of Aviation, which fell under the offices of the Army and the Navy. On June 22nd, 1946, a stellar date for the Venezuelan Air Force, the Revolutionary Military junta government that come into power following the events of October 18, 1945, decreed law No. 349, which established the Venezuelan Air Force and assigned it equal ranking with the Army and the Navy within the Military Armed Forces of the Nation.
On October 10th, 1947, Ministerial No. 342 of the National Executive was issued and signed by the Minister of Defense, Colonel Carlos Delgado Chalbaud. It reorganized the newly created "Venezuelan Air Force" and the document is considered the birth certificate of the present structure of the air force, as it specified in detail the first plan of organization for the rising institution. In the same year, Major Félix Román Moreno Huérfano, the first Commander-in-Chief of Aviation, organized the first Post of the Inter-American Military Airmail. In addition, the technical services of Meteorology and Communications were created, as well as that of Aeronautical Health, and the Carlota air base was established in Caracas.
Starting from the period of 1960 to today, the FAV began the process of spreading out and de-centralizing FAV operations. This then enabled the activation of the airbases Captain Landaeta Gil at Barquisimeto (1964), Captain Luis del Valle Garcia in Barcelona (1965), General Francisco de Miranda in Caracas (1966), General Rafael Urdaneta in Maracaibo (1971), Major Buenaventura Vivas Guerro in Santo Domingo (1972), Captain Manuel Rios in Carrizales (1973), Colonel Teofilo Luis Mendez in Puerto Ordaz (1979) and General Jose Antonio Paez in Puerto Ayacucho. Together, they serve as logistic-operational support for the weapon systems for aerial monitoring of the Republic's territorial and marine space. The Air Force's military command was officially headquartered at the General Francisco de Miranda airbase on December 5th, 1970, and has remained there to the present day.
The logistic capabilities and operations of the Air Force were strengthened with the purchase of the advanced trainer Rockwell T2-D Buckeye and the addition of the Beechcraft Systems King Air 90 and Super King Air 200 for liaison purposes. Support for the Office of the Presidency is provided by the Boeing 737 and Gulstream II systems. For aerial acrobatic demonstrations, the FAV accquired the Pitt System airplane decorated with the insignia of "The Hawks," the Venezuelan acrobatic flight team.
The undeniable predominance of the application of technology and electronics of other branches of science has made possible the horizontal and vertical integration of said technology, and resulted in revolutionary advances in design, production and flight ability. The end product's operational capacity is truly surprising. The advances do not include just military aviation battle survival systems and support of the aeronutical armament plants, but also they have optimized civil, business, and general aviation as well.
In 1990 the ranks of the air force included some 5,000 personnel, very few of whom were conscripts. The service, headed by the Commander of the Air Forces, was organized into three commands: the Air Combat Command, the Air Logistics Command, and the Air Training Command. Combat aircraft were organized into three attack groups: one bomber group and two special operations groups. The bomber group included one squadron equipped with Mirage fighter-bombers and based in Palo Negro; two squadrons, based in Barquisimeto and Barcelona, equipped with CF-5s; and two F-16 squadrons, also based in Palo Negro. Two squadrons of heavier bombers, British-made Canberras, were based in Barquisimeto and Barcelona.
The Air Logistics Command controlled three transport groups, including the Presidential Squadron based in Caracas. The logistics command also owned reconnaissance aircraft and transport helicopters. The primary transport aircraft were the American-made C-130H and C-123.
The Air Training Command included Air Training Group Number 14, which was attached to the Military Aviation School at Maracay. The primary training craft were the T-34, the T-2D, and the EMB-312 Tucano. The six F-16B two-seat trainers were attached to the fighter squadrons.
The air force required its officer candidates to complete a four-year course of study at Maracay before receiving their commissions. The air force also had a number of specialist schools as well as its own Command and Staff School for advanced military studies. Air force officer insignia were silver up through captain and gold for higher ranks, worn on a blue shoulder board. Enlisted rank insignia consisted of chevrons worn on the sleeve, blue with black or gold markings for the air force.
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Definition of frontage
n. - The front part of an edifice or lot; extent of front.
The word "frontage" uses 8 letters: A E F G N O R T.
No direct anagrams for frontage found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after frontage (in bold), or to aefgnort in any order:
s - frontages x - xenograft
Words within frontage
not shown as it has more than seven letters.
List all words starting with frontage, words containing frontage or words ending with frontage
All words formed from frontage by changing one letter
Other words with the same letter pairs: fr ro on nt ta ag ge
Browse words starting with frontage by next letter
Previous word in list: front
Next word in list: frontages
Some random words: sell
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- Virginia Johnson
- Autumn chrysanthemums of beautiful color,
With dew in my clothes I pluck these flowers.
I float within wine to forget my sorrow,
To leave far behind thoughts of the world.
Alone, I pour myself a goblet of wine;
When the cup is empty, the pot pours for itself.
As the sun sets, all activities cease;
Homing birds, they hurry to the woods singing.
Haughtily, I whistle below the eastern balcony
I've found again the meaning of life.
From Poetry of Tao Qian
A Noble Past
The name chrysanthemum was coined by 18th-century Swedish scientist Linnaeus from the Greek language-—the words meaning "gold flower." Chrysanthemums do come in gold, also called bronze, but buyers today will also find them in white, purple, lavender, red, pink, yellow, magenta, and even green.
Grown in gardens for more than a millennium in China before its introduction to Europe, the flower has a special place in that country's culture. The flower is symbolic of nobility and was favored by the poet Tao Qian. The ancient Chinese named a city for it—Ju-Xian. Along with the bamboo, orchid, and plum flower, the chrysanthemum is considered one of "the four noble gentlemen" plants of China and is often a subject of art and poetry.
The flower was introduced to Japan in the 8th century. The emperor adopted it as his badge, and soon the phrase, "the Chrysanthemum Throne" was used to describe his seat of power. There is a yearly festival of happiness that celebrates the flower.
The joyfulness of the brilliantly colored blossoms is only one aspect of the flowers' cultural significance. In Korea and Japan, white chrysanthemums symbolize death; in China they symbolize grieving. Likewise in certain European countries such as Poland and France, white chrysanthemums are most often seen at funerals.
The Chinese weren't the only ones to find artistic inspiration in a spray of chrysanthemums. American author John Steinbeck wrote his short story, "The Chrysanthemums," tells of a farm woman's desire to experience something beyond the realm of her hardworking, everyday life.
The National Chrysanthemum Society has divided these flowers into 13 classes, based on how the petals present. Class 11, for example, is a type called the Spider. Their florets are long and tubular with ends that may hook or prong. They look much like an exploding firework. Class 6 is composed of the Pompons. Small, tight balls of florets do indeed closely resemble an ornamental pompon. Class 8, the Anemones, are commonly available in farmers' markets as are Class 4, the Decoratives.
A Flower with Many Uses
One variety of chrysanthemums, often called the garland chrysanthemum, has culinary uses. The delicate greens can be added to a stir-fry, and the lovely flowers are also edible. Chrysanthemum tea is made from the flower's buds of a particular species, Chrysanthemum morifolium or Chrysanthemum indicum. The tea is believed by traditional practitioners to be helpful in treating a variety of medical problems.
Recently, scientists at NASA have discovered that growing chrysanthemums can reduce indoor air pollution. Chrysanthemums are also grown to produce insecticide. Pyrethrins, the active components, are produced in the flowers' seed cases. This kind of insecticide is usually biodegradable and considered safer than some synthetic varieties.
So, you've succumbed to the temptation of easily adding brilliant color to your home by purchasing a pot or two or five from a local retailer. You've put them in prettier pots or massed them in mulch. But, once the season is over, what do you do with them?
Your mums will need to be moved indoors when there is danger of hard frost. Keep them protected in a cool, sunny place. They can be replanted in the ground come springtime when the danger of frost is gone. Mums like water as well as sunlight, but not too much. Wait until the soil is dry to a depth of two inches before watering. Hardy mums purchased in the fall can be planted outside in the spring, but it's really rolling the dice to try to plant them in the fall. There simply isn't enough time for them to establish themselves. When you plant, remember that they have shallow roots and should not be planted too deeply. A soapy water wash can help with insect infestations. If the plants do establish themselves well through the season and are truly hardy, they will still need protective mulch to help them survive the winter.
If you want to cultivate your own mums, bringing them into bloom yourself, you'll need to get started early next year. Think how lovely they would be for Easter, Passover, or Mother's Day. Pinch them back, and they should bloom again by fall. Most catalog suppliers will ship plants between March and June.
For additional information on the mysteries of chrysanthemum cultivation including lateral removal and disbudding, check King's Mums Growing Tips page.
More on Mums
- The Growing and Marketing of Fall Mums: How You Can Turn Your Backyard into a Money-Making, Growing Machine! by Don Langevin
- Feeling ambitious? This library book gives you the low-down on all sorts of chrysanthemums and much practical advice for starting a beautiful part-time business.
- How to Multiply Your Chrysanthemums
- Mums need to be divided every few years to keep them healthy. This article gives tips on how to do just that.
- The National Chrysanthemum Society, USA
- Information on classification and cultivation of mums. Check out their journal articles for more on history and varieties. They host an annual convention.
- Old Dominion Chrysanthemum Society
- ODCS is the local affiliate of the National Chrysanthemum Society. They host an annual show.
- What Will Chrysanthemums Think of Next?
- Tips for training chrysanthemums into lovely "trees."
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(March 5) --Touted as "the missing link" between humans and early primates, a 47-million-year-old fossil appears to be an ancestor to lemurs instead, a newly released study says. The debate, however, seems far from over, and it illuminates the often tricky relationship between science and the media. http://www.aolnews.com/science/article/ ... 2F19383401
Last spring, when Norwegian paleontologist Jorn Hurum and his colleagues announced the unveiling of "Ida," an unusually complete prehistoric primate fossil, it was portrayed in newspaper and television reports as a blockbuster discovery nothing short of an "eighth wonder of the world" that would offer a look at one of mankind's earliest evolutionary ancestors.
No small part of that excitement was due to Hurum himself, who had provided media outlets with a teasing press release ahead of the official announcement at New York's American Museum of Natural History that heralded the fossil as "a revolutionary scientific find that will change everything."
Jennifer Graylock, jpistudios.com
Some scientists doubt that this fossil, dubbed Ida, is from an early ancestor of humans, as paleontologist Jorn Hurum contends.
The hype surrounding Darwinius masillae, the scientific name given to Ida, preceded the publication of Hurum's research in a peer-reviewed journal. "Normally, you have the paper first, lots of scrutiny by other scientists and then the media enters the picture," Blythe Williams, a visiting professor of paleontology at Duke University, told AOL News.
Williams and three colleagues, writing in a paper published this week in the Journal of Human Evolution, found no evidence that Ida represents a missing link.
In the weeks leading up to Ida's May 19 museum debut, the media frenzy intensified. A&E purchased the rights to make a documentary about Ida, and ABC News signed a deal for an exclusive interview with Hurum to appear on "Good Morning America," "Nightline" and "World News With Diane Sawyer." Little Brown & Co. bought the publishing rights, and, according to The New York Times, pre-shipped 110,000 copies of the book, which, like A&E's film, is titled "The Link."
New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg and British television nature host David Attenborough attended the ceremony at the American Museum of Natural History, which was sponsored by the History Channel.
"Any pop band is doing the same thing," Hurum told the Times about the public relations campaign. "Any athlete is doing the same thing. We have to start thinking the same way in science."
Discovered in Germany, the fossil was bought by Hurum for $1 million 2007. Ida seemed poised to solve several outstanding evolutionary mysteries, and most of the guests assembled at the American Museum of Natural History seemed sold on its promise.
"Now people say, 'OK, we are primates. Show us the link.' The link they would have said up to now is missing -- well, it's no longer missing," Attenborough said at the event.
Meanwhile, other paleontologists were finally getting their first look at Hurum's paper on Ida, which was released for publication in the journal PloS One to coincide with the media blitz.
The first big challenge came from Erik Seiffert, a fossil hunter at New York's Stony Brook University. Seiffert had uncovered a 37-million-year-old fossil in Egypt remarkably similar to Ida that he said showed that Darwinius masillae was more akin to an extinct ancestor of lemurs and lorises than it was to a monkey or a man.
"Our analysis and results have convinced us that Ida was not an ancestor of monkeys, apes or humans, and if anything, has more relevance for our understanding of lemur and loris origins," Seiffert told The Guardian. Seiffert published his findings in the October issue of Nature.
At the time, Hurum defended his research. "We expected a challenge like this, and it's interesting it has taken five months for the first attack to come," he told The Guardian.
But another paleontologist perplexed by Hurum's claims was Blythe Williams. "The problems with the manuscript jumped out immediately," Williams said. "Yes, Darwinius masillae is, indeed, a very complete, 47-million-year-old fossil. But that doesn't mean it overthrows the incredibly extensive body of research that we have already built up."
Within two weeks of reading Hurum's paper, Williams and her colleagues penned their own point-by-point rebuttal to Hurum's work and reached the same conclusion as Seiffert.
"Many lines of evidence indicate that Darwinius has nothing at all to do with human evolution," said Chris Kirk, associate professor of anthropology at the University of Texas at Austin and one of the new paper's authors.
Williams believes that Hurum's team selectively chose which data to include. "The animals they used in their study were living ones. So they ignored many of the fossil records that we have," she said.
But this latest study will probably not be the final salvo over the controversial fossil. "It's a relatively small community of scientists," Williams said. "And I understand that Hurum has already begun writing a formal response."
Filed under: Nation, Science
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HOW DO I KNOW IF MY FRIEND NEEDS HELP?
IS THIS AN EMERGENCY?
- your friend is so impaired that they are at risk of harming themselves or someone else,
- they are in emotional turmoil and confusion, not thinking clearly, not perceiving things clearly, or behaving bizarrely
Immediate action is required! See emergency for the next steps to take.
IT IS NOT AN EMERGENCY BUT I AM CONCERNED
If it is not an emergency, how do you know that help is really needed? Everyone gets distressed at times. When are normal friendship and gentle advice probably not enough?
More help is needed when your friend is
- Withdrawing from friends or activities
- Chronically missing classes
- Major sleep or appetite change
- Deteriorating hygiene and overall self-care
- Declining academic performance
- Irritability; frequent arguments and conflicts
- Binge drinking or drug use
- Self-injurious behavior
- Excessive worry, anxiety, fear, or panic
- Feelings of hopeless, worthlessness, and/or thoughts of suicide
- Loss of energy, motivation, interests
- Risky sexual activity
- Mood swings
- Expression of thoughts about dying or suicide
WHAT CAN I DO?
Speak up. Find or make a time, and express your concerns. It shows you care!
Use “I” statements. Without judging your friend, express how you feel. Be specific: “I’m concerned about your drinking lately.” “I’m worried about how sad you seem.” “I want to be able to offer you my support.”
Listen. Once you’ve expressed your feelings, encourage your friend to talk. Then really listen.
Clarify. Reflect back what you are hearing. Help clarify the problem.
Offer your support. For now and in the future.
Brainstorm. Help your friend look for ways forward, and ways you can be helpful.
Help them expand their support network. Urge your friend to talk to other friends and family, and to try some of the college’s resources. Counseling Services is the ideal place to start.
Don’t take it on alone. You may not feel qualified to help your friend with their problems. Learn about resources on campus such as counseling, health services, mentoring, and spiritual guidance. Counseling Services can educate you about these resources, and guide you in helping your friend. And please consider talking with us about getting you some support. Helping others can be stressful.
Stay in touch. Don’t speak up once and then let it drop. Even if your friend is not receptive at first, mention your concerns again.
HOW TO REFER A FRIEND TO COUNSELING SERVICES
If your friend continues to struggle or otherwise seems stuck, recommend that they “just try one visit” to Counseling Services and emphasize that services are confidential. It doesn’t commit them to counseling. They can just see how it feels, see what the counselor recommends, and then think about it. Tell them to check out our website. You might even offer to accompany them, if that would help.
HOW DO I REPORT A CONCERNING PERSON TO THE COLLEGE
For guidelines regarding reporting a concerning person go to the Office of the Dean of Students website,
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| 0.931098
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Pultusk, Poland Yizkor Book
Project Name. Translation of the Pultusk, Poland Yizkor Book
Stewart K. Bernstein
JewishGen Yizkor Book Project Manager Lance Ackerfeld
The Israel Pultusk Organization published The Pultusk Memorial Book, Pultusk: sefer zikaron, in 1971, with combined Yiddish and Hebrew text, totaling 683 pages. A 592-page Hebrew-only version was published in 2007. An English translation of the Index and Necrology is online the JewishGen Yizkor Book Project site, http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/pultusk/pultusk.html This project will support the translation of the entire book.
Jewish genealogists seeking to trace their roots in this town constitute the primary audience for the material. However, the material has the potential to be of broader interest to scholars specializing in Jewish history and society in this region.
Yizkor books are unique sources of information on once vibrant towns, primarily in central and eastern Europe, whose Jewish populations were destroyed in the Holocaust. Written after World War II by émigrés and Holocaust survivors, yizkor books contain narratives of the history of the town, details of daily life, religious and political figures and movements, religious and secular education, and gripping stories of the major intellectual and Zionist movements of the 20th century. The necrologies and lists of residents are of tremendous genealogical value, as often the names of individuals who were taken to extermination camps or shot in the forests are not recorded elsewhere. Usually written in Hebrew or Yiddish, these important books are not accessible to most users, who cannot read these languages. Thus, the translation of these books into English unlocks this information to many more researchers all over the world.
An English translation of Pultusk: Sefer Zikaron will offer English readers historical information and personal recollections and insights into the rich and often tragic history of Pultusk's once thriving Jewish community, whose Jewish presence dates back to 1483. Despite the atrocities the Jews of Pultusk endured from the hands of an endless list of invaders, they adhered to Jewish practice and ritual. The tragic end of a Jewish presence in this once vibrant and socially-conscious community was eradicated by the 1939 Nazi occupation. At war's end, 75-80 percent of Pultusk's memorable Jewish community, roughly 7,000, had been exterminated.
This proposed English translation will be done by a professional translator. The Index and Necrology have already been completed. The project coordinator will select the order of chapters to be translated, and will work closely with the translator to insure a grammatically correct and idiomatic translation. Specific tasks the project coordinator will perform include: proofreading, editing, and preparing the work for submission to the Yizkor Book Project.
Estimated Cost: $14,500-$17,000
Copyright © 1999-2016 by JewishGen, Inc.
Updated 15 Aug 2009 by LA
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.jewishgen.org/JewishGen-erosity/projectdesc/yb_pultusk.html
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Conservation Reserve Program: relationships between agricultural commodity output prices, input costs, and slippage in Kansas
The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) was established by the Food Security Act of 1985 for the purpose of retiring environmentally sensitive cropland for a period of ten to fifteen years. The initial focus of the program was to reduce on-site soil erosion and excess crop production, however the program benefits were later expanded to include water quality and wildlife habitat among others. The overall success of the CRP has been questioned due to the occurrence of slippage. The term ‘slippage’ as it relates to the CRP occurs when producers plant newly cultivated land or fallow acres, offsetting acreage that is retired through enrollment in the reserve program. The goal of this study is to measure the degree to which slippage has affected the CRP within the state of Kansas; and to analyze the relationship between agricultural commodity output prices and input cost with respect to county level slippage rates.
Annual slippage calculations for all one-hundred and five counties within Kansas for the period of 1995-2005 reveal significant spatial disparity, with the vast majority of slippage occurring in the western two-thirds of the state. Annual fluctuations in slippage rates varied both regionally and at the county level. Maximum annual slippage was seen in the northwest, with slippage rates in excess of 100 percent; thus the CRP was entirely ineffective in regards to reducing overall land in production. Minimums were located primarily in the southeast and included slippage values below zero percent; indicating a reduction in acreage beyond that of the CRP.
To analyze the relationship between agricultural commodity output prices and input costs with CRP slippage, a multivariate regression model was used. The regression analysis ultimately showed a significant lack of fit within the model, indicating the need for additional predictor variables in order to account for variations in CRP slippage rates. Although the model does indicate the presence of a minor relationship between the selected variables of agricultural commodity output prices and input costs with CRP slippage rates, further analysis is needed to identify additional county level variables impacting slippage.
School:Kansas State University
School Location:USA - Kansas
Source Type:Master's Thesis
Keywords:conservation reserve program slippage geography 0366
Date of Publication:01/01/2009
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<urn:uuid:f92eac94-ecf6-4a18-aede-df26bac5226f>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.openthesis.org/documents/Conservation-Reserve-Program-relationships-between-524827.html
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"An original and provocative reinterpretation of the emergence of public art and art institutions in eighteenth-century Britain."—caa.reviewsBetween the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745 and the American Declaration of Independence, London artists transformed themselves from loosely organized professionals into one of the most progressive schools of art in Europe. In British Art and the Seven Years' War Douglas Fordham argues that war and political dissent provided potent catalysts for the creation of a national school of art. Over the course of three tumultuous decades marked by foreign wars and domestic political dissent, metropolitan artists—especially the founding members of the Royal Academy, including Joshua Reynolds, Paul Sandby, Joseph Wilton, Francis Hayman, and Benjamin West—creatively and assiduously placed fine art on a solid footing within an expansive British state.
"Essential reading. . . . A rich book with many insights for historians and art historians alike."—American Historical Review
London artists entered into a golden age of art as they established strategic alliances with the state, even while insisting on the autonomy of fine art. The active marginalization of William Hogarth's mercantile aesthetic reflects this sea change as a newer generation sought to represent the British state in a series of guises and genres, including monumental sculpture, history painting, graphic satire, and state portraiture. In these allegories of state formation, artists struggled to give form to shifting notions of national, religious, and political allegiance in the British Empire. These allegiances found provocative expression in the contemporary history paintings of the American-born artists Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley, who managed to carve a patriotic niche out of the apolitical mandate of the Royal Academy of Arts.
Douglas Fordham teaches art history at the University of Virginia.
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<urn:uuid:d350e8c0-fd2d-4eff-bca3-711d4252aa9e>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14789.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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| 0.910336
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Definition of Psoriasis, inverse
Psoriasis, inverse: Also called flexural psoriasis, a form of psoriasis found in the armpits, groin, under the breasts and in other flexion creases (skin folds) such as those around the genitals and buttocks. This form of psoriasis appears as smooth areas of skin that are red and inflamed but do not have the scaling associated with plaque psoriasis (the most common type of psoriasis). Inverse psoriasis is more frequent and severe in people who are overweight because it is in the skin folds where it is particularly prone to irritation from rubbing and sweating.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary
Last Editorial Review: 6/9/2016
Medical Dictionary Definitions A - Z
Search Medical Dictionary
- Tips for Psoriasis Skin Care
- Learn Psoriasis Flare-up Triggers
- Can You Make Living With Psoriasis Easier?
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<urn:uuid:314f7fe8-a17c-4b69-81b1-92a05ee475d8>
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http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=20682
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| 0.898775
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| 2.84375
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limits to bacterial heat resistance?
chris.michiels at agr.kuleuven.ac.be
Thu Aug 17 04:12:37 EST 1995
How heat resistant can I make an E. coli (or other bacterial) culture by
consecutive rounds of selection, i.e. regrowing survivors of a partial
What about bacterial spores? Can their heat resistance be boosted?
What is the probability and the risk of such selections taking place
during (mild) thermal food processing, and of more heat resistant
pathogens entering the food chain? Or would such variants necessarily be
cripple and have attenuated virulence?
Opinions and references to relevant studies in the literature, please?
Lab Food Microbiology
Kard. Mercierlaan 92
More information about the Microbio
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<urn:uuid:ff580493-accc-4264-b0fe-3932131ccb0d>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.bio.net/bionet/mm/microbio/1995-August/002882.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.821529
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Angelina Emily Grimké
b.20 Feb 1805 Charleston, Charleston, South Carolina, United States
d.26 Oct 1879 Hyde Park, Suffolk, Massachusetts, United States
Facts and Events
Angelina Emily Grimké Weld (February 20, 1805 – October 26, 1879) was an American political activist, abolitionist, women's rights advocate, and supporter of the women's suffrage movement. While she was raised a southerner, she spent her entire adult life living in the North. The time of her greatest fame was between 1836, when a letter she sent to William Lloyd Garrison was published in his anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator, and May 1838, when she gave a courageous and brilliant speech to abolitionists gathered in Philadelphia, with a hostile crowd throwing stones and shouting outside the hall. The essays and speeches she produced in that two-year period were incisive arguments to end slavery and to advance women's rights.
Drawing her views from natural rights theory (famously set forth in the Declaration of Independence), the Constitution, Christian beliefs in the Bible, and her own experience of slavery and racism in the South, she argued for the injustice of denying freedom to any man or woman, and was particularly eloquent on the problem of racial prejudice. When challenged for speaking in public to mixed audiences of men and women in 1837, she, along with her sister Sarah, fiercely defended women's right to make speeches and more generally be fully political beings.
Grimké married Theodore Weld, a prominent abolitionist, in May 1838. They lived in New Jersey, with her sister Sarah Grimke, and raised three children, supporting themselves by running two schools, the latter located in the Raritan Bay Union utopian community. After the Civil War ended, the Grimke-Weld household moved to Hyde Park, Massachusetts, where they spent their last years. Angelina and Sarah were active in the Massachusetts Woman Suffrage Association in the 1870s.
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<urn:uuid:2648e13b-a0d6-482e-ab42-2be68128b4e6>
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http://www.werelate.org/wiki/Person:Angelina_Grimk%C3%A9_(1)
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| 0.968563
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“Anger is an acid that can do more harm to the vessel in which it is stored /
Than to anything on which it is poured.” – Mark Twain
You know what it feels like to hold a grudge. Your stomach churns. Your muscles tense. Your mind clouds with anger, resentment, and maybe even notions of revenge. And the longer it goes, the darker your thoughts become.
Though that bitterness can be understandable – and even justifiable – it comes with a price. Studies show that depression, anxiety, cardiovascular issues, immune system problems, sexual dysfunction, and a higher risk of stroke are all connected to letting hostility fester. As Twain says, it’s an acid that harms your body.
But you can stop the damage with one simple act: forgiveness.
The act of forgiving – of truly letting go – creates a healthier body and mind. Research has found that when you forgive, you instantly reduce your blood pressure and lessen your destructive feelings. In the days and weeks that follow, you may experience:
“It’s not always easy, but if you think of what we want in life, we want to be healthy, we want to be at peace, we want to be loved,” says Everett Worthington, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University and a pioneer in forgiveness research. “If I forgive, it promotes all of those.”
What is Forgiveness?
According to Dr. Worthington, there are two kinds of forgiveness. Decisional forgiveness is largely behavioral, and directed toward the person who has done us wrong: “We make a decision about how we’re going to act toward someone.” It’s reconciliation, or an outward smoothing of a situation that can lead to a deeper forgiveness, but doesn’t always.
Emotional forgiveness, on the other hand, is, “emotionally replacing negative emotions like resentment, anger, bitterness, and hostility, with other, positive emotions…like empathy and sympathy, and compassion, and maybe even love.” It’s not revenge, reconciliation, or simply forgetting something has happened. It’s acknowledging your pain, and then letting it go. Your mental and physical well-being are affected, and even determined, by emotional forgiveness.
When it comes to personal relationships, emotional forgiveness is crucial to getting along, as well as each partner's long-term health. “If I’m forgiving of what my partner does to hurt me, then she is more likely to be forgiving of me,” says Dr. Worthington. In fact, one University of Miami study found that reciprocity was “strongly linked to well-being,” while another report published in the journal Personal Relationships discovered that “conciliatory behavior” actually lowered the blood pressure of both parties during arguments.
Your ability to forgive yourself is another factor in healthy relationships. “If someone’s holding a grudge against themselves,” says Dr. Worthington, “that tends to produce regret, remorse, sorrow, shame, and guilt. So it’s a different set of emotions, but one that can take a toll.”
How Can I Forgive?
What if we find we can’t absolve someone? Ultimately, we must understand there are no benefits of holding on to anger. “I think we always should try to forgive. It’s not only good for us, but it’s a good thing to do," says Dr. Worthington., "Ask yourself, 'Why do I want to carry this grudge around?'”
How well do you get along with your grandchild and other family members? Want to know if your personalities mesh?Find out here.
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<urn:uuid:e646e889-9211-4d3e-a5fc-1853366b18ca>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.grandparents.com/health-and-wellbeing/emotional-wellbeing/how-to-forgive
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| 0.947682
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Pilot Scale Constructed Wastewater Treatment Wetland
This fact sheet introduces the concept of artificially created wetlands, known as "constructed" or "treatment" wetlands, which are created as a method for treating wastewater. The technology, role of vegetation, and design variables are considered. References are also provided.
- The Water Center
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<urn:uuid:df85ef9a-10da-4980-88a8-ac93c29191a0>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/handle/1773/17075
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en
| 0.952944
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Cancers can arise from a region of cells with a "field defect", cells that appear normal but that have an underlying molecular defect. The molecular basis for the field defect is easy to understand when tumors develop from cells that all have similar genetic abnormalities, such as those that occur in patients who are genetically predisposed to a cancer or those who undergo an exposure to a carcinogen such as tobacco smoke. However, how the field defect may arise in most sporadic cancers in unclear.
In colorectal cancer, the DNA repair gene O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) is often methylated--that is, the gene's promoter region has methyl groups added to it, which inactivate the gene. Jean-Pierre J. Issa, M.D., of the University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, and colleagues hypothesized that MGMT promoter methylation could be one of the characteristics of the field defect in colorectal cancer, so they studied MGMT promoter methylation in the tumor, adjacent mucosa, and nonadjacent mucosa of 95 colorectal cancer patients and in the colon mucosa of 33 subjects without cancer.
MGMT promoter methylation was found in 50% to 94% of colorectal tumors, depending on the method of detection, and normal-appearing colon mucosa up to 10 cm away from the tumor had detectable MGMT methylation. In addition, the authors detected MGMT methylation in the normal colon mucosa of several subjects who did not have cancer.
"Because a loss of MGMT protein function is a plausible predisposing factor for cancer through the increased occurrence of mutations? our data indicate that MGMT pro moter methylation may qualify as a marker of the field defect in colorectal cancer," the authors write. In addition, "given the high lifetime risk of colorectal tumor development in the U.S. population, it is reasonable to propose testing to determine whether healthy persons with MGMT promoter methylation in normal colorectal mucosa are at higher risk of developing a colon tumor than those without such methylation."
In an editorial, Edward Giovannucci, M.D., Sc.D., of the Harvard School of Public Health, and Shuji Ogino, of Brigham and Women's Hospital, both in Boston, review the concept of the field defect (also called the field effect or field cancerization). They also raise several questions about how these findings may affect related areas of research, such as approaches to chemoprevention and "whether the reversal of DNA methylation in precancerous cells may prevent the development of new primary cancers in the same organ," they write.
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<urn:uuid:a86850a8-b73b-4337-8db5-f77810cd5e32>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news/Change-in-gene-may-be-underlying-molecular-defect-in-some-colorectal-cancers-1348-1/
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en
| 0.953153
| 557
| 2.609375
| 3
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I was discussing how to make a freezer slow freeze food with somebody and asked them a question, they then gave me the below reply however I don't understand it properly. Can somebody please explain what he is sayting.
Question: I believe you said the rate at which the meat will freeze will depend upon the 'size and load' of the freezer. I thought the temperature of the freezer alone e.g. -5c would be enough to ensure slow freezing regardless of size and load of freezer. Can you explain if this is not the case and if so how, technically speaking, the freezers size and load affect the rate of freezing? I note you said that a normal freezer may achieve slow freezing at -5c wheareas a deep freezer may achieve it at -10c.
Reply: Temperature alone will assure it only if the capacity of the freezer is very high. If the load is high in a refrigerator situation, it will not be able to maintain the -5C. It can warm even to + tempeatures in order to cool down the product. The rate of freezing depends on the rate of heat removal and hence they are dependent on the cooler capacity and product load. By increasing one over the other you can make it depend either on the cooler capacity or product load.
By cooler capacity is he referring to the size capacity e.g. this freezer has a 100litre capacity or is he referring to the engine capacity e.g. this freezer can freeze 2kg of food in 24 hours? Which is it and can you explain how increased capacity(over the product load) cause slow freezing? Also if temperature determines the final equilibrium temperature of the food, why does he say 'temperature will assure it only of the capacity is very high;.
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<urn:uuid:2f4edab6-8806-45a8-bcd2-e6f8f05c2390>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/76821/please-clarify-how-freezer-size-and-load-affects-rate-of-freezing
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.939068
| 361
| 3.21875
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It has been long known that neutrinos are among the most vague and lightweight fundamental particles. But, a recent galaxy survey has helped to determine the mass of the neutrino even more.
An analysis performed by researchers shows that neutrinos are about half as massive as was estimated previously. The results are published in the journal Physical Review Letters.
The new lower mass estimate of the neutrino was acquired by a 3-dimensional survey of over 700,000 galaxies that are called MegaZ DR7. The distributions of the galaxies in the MegaZ map seem to be consistent with a neutrino mass estimate that is reduced in the upper limit.
There are still restrictions on the map provided information, however, partly due to there being three varieties of neutrinos (electron, muon and tau) and each likely having different masses.
So, the result of the MegaZ map can just estimate the sum of all three neutrino type masses. The combined mass of the three neutrino varieties is less than 0.28 electron volts according to the galactic distribution of the map.
It is quite clear that that neutrinos have some mass by the detection of sun inbound neutrinos as well as lab experiment neutrinos, even if the survey doesn't offer a lower limit of neutrino masses.
Story material is from the American Physical Society, via EurekAlert!
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<urn:uuid:41db89f2-11bf-4cde-a5e9-5024fae49d0d>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.examiner.com/article/neutrinos-are-possibly-half-as-massive-as-previously-thought-study-finds
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en
| 0.958725
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| 3.546875
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Chapter XXXIX.—Constantines Entry into Rome.
Having then at this time sung these and suchlike praises to God, the Ruler of all and the Author of victory, after the example of his great servant Moses, Constantine entered the imperial city in triumph. And here the whole body of the senate, and others of rank and distinction in the city, freed as it were from the restraint of a prison, along with the whole Roman populace, their countenances expressive of the gladness of their hearts, received him with acclamations and abounding joy; men, women, and children, with countless multitudes of servants, greeting him as deliverer, preserver, and benefactor, with incessant shouts. But he, being possessed of inward piety toward God, was neither rendered arrogant by these plaudits, nor uplifted by the praises he heard: 3136 but, being sensible that he had received help from God, he immediately rendered a thanksgiving to him as the Author of his victory.
Compare Prolegomena under Character, and also for other accounts of the universal joy under Life.
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<urn:uuid:3be469f1-070b-4cdc-8753-e914a20b8d0c>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/ecf/201/2010424.htm
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en
| 0.980688
| 227
| 2.53125
| 3
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The right to life is enshrined in Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The right is enshrined in Article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights:
1. Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life.
2. In countries which have not abolished the death penalty, sentence of death may be imposed only for the most serious crimes in accordance with the law in force at the time of the commission of the crime and not contrary to the provisions of the present Covenant and to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgement rendered by a competent court.
3. When deprivation of life constitutes the crime of genocide, it is understood that nothing in this article shall authorize any State Party to the present Covenant to derogate in any way from any obligation assumed under the provisions of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
4. Anyone sentenced to death shall have the right to seek pardon or commutation of the sentence. Amnesty, pardon or commutation of the sentence of death may be granted in all cases.
5. Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age and shall not be carried out on pregnant women.
6. Nothing in this article shall be invoked to delay or to prevent the abolition of capital punishment by any State Party to the present Covenant.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child contains this right in Article 6:
1. States Parties recognize that every child has the inherent right to life.
2. States Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and development of the child.
It is also contained in Article 11 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families:
1. No migrant worker or member of his or her family shall be held in slavery or servitude.
2. No migrant worker or member of his or her family shall be required to perform forced or compulsory labour.
3. Paragraph 2 of the present article shall not be held to preclude, in States where imprisonment with hard labour may be imposed as a punishment for a crime, the performance of hard labour in pursuance of a sentence to such punishment by a competent court.
4. For the purpose of the present article the term "forced or compulsory labour" shall not include:
(a) Any work or service not referred to in paragraph 3 of the present article normally required of a person who is under detention in consequence of a lawful order of a court or of a person during conditional release from such detention;
(b) Any service exacted in cases of emergency or clamity threatening the life or well-being of the community;
(c) Any work or service that forms part of normal civil obligations so far as it is imposed also on citizens of the State concerned.
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities contains this right in Article 10:
States Parties reaffirm that every human being has the inherent right to life and shall take all necessary measures to ensure its effective enjoyment by persons with disabilities on an equal basis with others.
The right is also contained in Article 4 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights:
Human beings are inviolable. Every human being shall be entitled to respect for his life and the integrity of his person. No one may be arbitrarily deprived of this right.
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<urn:uuid:239efc47-24c2-440b-a260-112579ba84da>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.claiminghumanrights.org/right_to_life_definition.html
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en
| 0.940626
| 724
| 2.828125
| 3
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Assessment made on 01 Jan 2001
ClassificationAgriculture (Primary theme)
Policy issue: Has agriculture balanced its inputs and outputs of nutrients?
The run-off of plant nutrients into Europe's rivers and seas is one of modern agriculture's most persistent environmental problems. It triggers eutrophication - a massive growth spurt in water plants which robs the water of its oxygen and makes life for other organisms impossible. In marine waters the key nutrient is nitrogen, while fresh waters are more vulnerable to phosphorus.
A "nutrient surplus" occurs when not all the fertilizers and animal manure applied to the land are absorbed by the plants or removed during harvest. In the EU, the nutrient surplus runs to 7.1 million tonnes every year - and over 95% of it is at high enough levels to trigger eutrophication.
The total nitrogen surplus has not changed since 1990. Moreover, more than a quarter of this surplus comes from less than 10% of the regions examined by the EEA. Focusing efforts on these regions, which are mainly located in Denmark, Brittany, on the North Sea coast, and in the Rhine's water catchment area, could therefore produce significant results.
For references, please go to www.eea.europa.eu/soer or scan the QR code.
This briefing is part of the EEA's report The European Environment - State and Outlook 2015. The EEA is an official agency of the EU, tasked with providing information on Europe's environment.
PDF generated on 29 Jun 2016, 01:23 PM
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[JURIST] The government of Spanish Prime Minister Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero [BBC profile] is planning to introduce a new law that will clear victims' names and "correct" trial records in an effort to bring justice to victims of former Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco [Wikipedia profile]. Some 55,000 people were killed during Franco's 36-year regime. Officials plan to reveal the text of the Law of Historical Memory on Friday, three days after the 70th anniversary of the civil war that brought Franco to power.
Though the government has kept a tight lid on the law, the proposal is expected to compensate victims for land seized by the government, increase pension benefits for victims and establish processes to identify those buried in unmarked graves. Spanish political parties agreed to not to speak about the Spanish civil war [Wikipedia backgrounder] after Franco died in 1975 in an effort to facilitate a peaceful transition to democracy. Victims groups had sought judicial recognition that Franco's regime was illegitimate [DPA report], but the law is not expected to include such a provision. EFE has more. The UK Guardian has additional coverage. El Pais has local coverage.
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What about the pandemic risk?
It is likely that most people, especially those who do not have regular contact with pigs, do not have immunity to swine influenza viruses that can prevent the virus infection. If a swine virus establishes efficient human-to human transmission, it can cause an influenza pandemic. The impact of a pandemic caused by such a virus is difficult to predict: it depends on virulence of the virus, existing immunity among people, cross protection by antibodies acquired from seasonal influenza infection and host factors.
RECOMMENDED PRODUCTS:VIRACARE is designated to help with the symptomatic relief of minor aches and pains, sneezing, sore throat, congestion, cough and nasal discharge resulting from the common cold and influenza.Furthermore, VIRACARE also helps provide for a faster recovery, boosts the immune system, and increases resistance against viral and bacterial infections. [>>READ MORE....]
Is there a human vaccine to protect against swine influenza?
There are no vaccines that contain the current swine influenza virus causing illness in humans. It is not known whether current human seasonal influenza vaccines can provide any protection. Influenza viruses change very quickly. It is important to develop a vaccine against the currently circulating virus strain for it to provide maximum protection to the vaccinated people. This is why WHO needs access to as many viruses as possible in order to select the most appropriate candidate vaccine virus.
What medicines are available for treatment?
There are two classes of such medicines, 1) adamantanes (amantadine and remantadine), and 2) inhibitors of influenza neuraminidase (oseltamivir and zanamivir).
Most of the previously reported swine influenza cases recovered fully from the disease without requiring medical attention and without antiviral medicines.
Some influenza viruses develop resistance to the antiviral medicines, limiting the effectiveness of treatment. The viruses obtained from the recent human cases with swine influenza in the United States are sensitive to oselatmivir and zanamivir but resistant to amantadine and remantadine.
Information is insufficient to make recommendations on the use of the antivirals in treatment of swine influenza virus infection. Clinicians should make decisions based on the clinical and epidemiological assessment and harms and benefits of the treatment of the patient2. For the ongoing outbreak of the swine influenza infection in the United States and Mexico, national and local authorities are recommending use oseltamivir or zanamivir for treatment of the disease based on the virus’s susceptibility profile.
What should I do if I am in regular contact with pigs?
Even though there is no clear indication that the current human cases with swine influenza infection are related to recent or ongoing influenza-like disease events in pigs, it would be advisable to minimize contact with sick pigs and report such animals to relevant animal health authorities.
Most people are infected through prolonged, close contact with infected pigs. Good hygiene practices are essential in all contact with animals and are especially important during slaughter and post-slaughter handling to prevent exposure to disease agents. Sick animals or animals that died from disease should not be undergoing slaughtering procedures. Follow further advice from relevant national authorities.
Swine influenza has not been shown to be transmissible to people through eating properly handled and prepared pork (pig meat) or other products derived from pigs. The swine influenza virus is killed by cooking temperatures of 160°F/70°C corresponding to the general guidance for the preparation of pork and other meat.
SOURCE: World Health Organization
- What is swine influenza (flu)?
- What are the implications for human health?
- Where have human cases occurred?
- How do people become infected?
- Is it safe to eat pork and pork products?
- Which countries have been affected by outbreaks in pigs?
- What about the pandemic risk?
- Is there a human vaccine to protect against swine influenza?
- What medicines are available for treatment?
- What should I do if I am in regular contact with pigs?
- How can I protect myself from getting swine influenza from infected people?
- What should I do if I think I have swine influenza?
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Bail Bond FAQ's
Select A Bail State
What is A Bail Bond?
Frequently Asked Questions
Bail Bonds Arrest thru Arraignment Process
The term Bail could be used in several distinct forms: (1) It may indicate the security-cash or bond-given for the appearance of the defendant. (2) It may also mean the bondsman (i.e., the person who acts as surety (signer on the bail bond) for the defendant's appearance, and into whose custody the defendant is released). (3) As a verb, it may refer to the release of the defendant (he was bailed out). The first meaning is the most common and should be employed for clarity.
Admission to bail is an order from a competent court that the defendant be discharged from actual custody upon bail. The discharge on bail is accomplished by the taking of bail (i.e., the acceptance by the court or magistrate of security-either an undertaking or deposit-for the appearance of the defendant before a court for some part of the criminal proceeding).
Bail is evidenced by a bond or recognizance, which as a rule becomes a record of the court. The bond is in the nature of a contract between the state on one side and the defendant and his sureties on the other. The agreement basically is that the state will release the defendant from custody the sureties will undertake that the defendant will appear at a specified time and place to answer the charge made against him. If the defendant fails to appear, the sureties become the absolute debtor of the state for the amount of the bond.
An undertaking is a permissible type of bail security. The taking of bail consists of a competent court accepting an undertaking of sufficient security for the appearance of the defendant, according to the terms, or the surety will pay a specified sum to the state. Corporate sureties are commonly used, and the court will accept an admitted surety insurer`s bail bond power of attorney if executed by the insurer`s licensed bail agent and issued in the insurer`s name by an authorized person.
In most State systems the defendant, or any other person, may deposit the sum mentioned in the bail order or bail schedule. Cash is accepted, and it is the practice for each court to adopt a written policy permitting acceptance of checks or money orders, upon conditions that tend to assure their validity, in payment of bail deposits. Some courts have a maximum amount over which a personal check will not be accepted. Depending upon the jurisdiction, government bonds may be accepted. Please note some jurisdictions will set a bail order requiring a corporate surety bond. This means that you can only post bail thru a surety bail bondsman.
The judge or a magistrate may stay the release of a defendant if a peace officer or prosecutor files a sworn declaration demonstrating probable cause to believe the source of the consideration, etc. was feloniously obtained, or the judge or magistrate has probable cause to believe the source was feloniously obtained. This order is commonly known as a Nebbia Hearing or Bail Sufficiency Hearing. If probable cause exists, the defendant then bears the burden by a preponderance of evidence to prove that no part of the source was so obtained. A defendant who prevails must be released on issuance of a bail bond as specified.
The purpose of bail is to assure the attendance of the defendant, when his or her appearance is required in court, whether before or after conviction. Bail is not a means of punishing a defendant, nor should there be a suggestion of revenue to the government.
Although the right to bail has constitutional recognition in the prohibition against excessive bail, bail is not always a matter of right. However, with certain exceptions a defendant charged with a criminal offense shall be released on bail. Persons charged with capital crimes when the facts are evident or the presumption of guilt great, are excepted from the right to release on bail. However, a defendant charged with a capital crime is entitled to a bail hearing in the trial court to determine whether the facts are evident or the presumption great. A capital crime is an offense that a statute makes it potentially punishable by death or life imprisonment, even if the prosecutor / government has agreed not to seek the death penalty. It is presumed that the risk of flight of the defendant is too great when he or she is facing death or life in prison without the possibility of parole.
Bail can be denied in certain non-capital cases based upon a finding of substantial likelihood of harm to others. When the facts are evident or the presumption of guilt is evidently great, bail may be denied in the following instances: In felony cases involving acts of violence, or felony sexual assault offenses on another person, if the court finds on clear and convincing evidence that there is a substantial likelihood that the release of the accused would result in great bodily harm to others. In a felony case, if the court finds on clear and convincing evidence that the accused has threatened another with great bodily harm, and that there is a substantial likelihood that the accused would carry out the threat if released. The requirement of findings based on clear and convincing evidence implies that a hearing will be held on the issue. If there is existence of a substantial likelihood of public harm or danger to the community it would be determined on the basis of the specific circumstances of the case, the testimony of witness' and prior history of the defendant. The decision to grant or deny bail is subject to review on a court petitioned motion by the defendant.
The amount of the bail is first and foremost within the scope and discretion of the judge or magistrate, with only two general limitations: First: The purpose of bail is not to penalize or punish the defendant, but only to secure the appearance of the accused, and it should be set with that in mind. Second: Excessive bail, not warranted by the circumstances or the evidence at hand. Is not only improper but a violation of constitutional rights. In fixing the amount of the bail, the court takes into consideration the seriousness of the charge, the defendant's previous criminal record, and the probability of the defendant appearing at the trial or hearing.
Additionally, if public safety is an issue, the court may make an inquiry where it may consider allegations of injury to the victim, danger to the public and/or to the defendant him/her self, threats to the victim or a witness, the use of a deadly weapon, and the defendant's use or possession of controlled substances. A judge or magistrate setting bail in other than a scheduled or usual amount must state on the record the reasons and address the issue of threats made against a victim or a witness. The court must also consider evidence offered by the detained person regarding ties to the community and ability to post bond. The bail amount set by the court must be within the minimum range amount of bail that would reasonably assure the defendant's appearance. NOT the Maximum!
When the bail has served its purpose, the surety will be exonerated (i.e., released from the obligation). Exoneration normally occurs when the proceeding is terminated in some way or on the return of the defendant to custody. After conviction, the defendant appears for sentence. If sentenced to jail confinement or imprisonment the defendant is committed to the custody of the sheriff, and the liability of the surety/s' is discharged. Please note that if
A defendant who is convicted and given probation, is released from custody and the bail bond must be exonerated as a matter of law.
A professional bail bondsman is a bail bondsman who pledges his or her own property / security to guarantee the bail bond to the state. A surety bail bondsman utilizes the financial strenght and backing of an admitted insurance company. A surety bail bondsman is also able to post federal court and immigration bail bonds, where a professional bail agent is not.
Inmate GPS Tracking is the real-time, wireless identification of a defendant's location and their surrounding areas. ELMO or Electronic GPS monitoring is a tool that bail bond companies use to track high risk defendants. The courts are also more and more utilizing Elmo systems when setting special conditions of release on bond. At Bail Yes our Integrated Electronic Monitoring Platform offers a full range of interchangeable electronic monitoring tools and communication technologies, enabling operators to integrate one or more monitoring devices and software modules onto a single platform. For more information on Bail Yes GPS electronic monitoring services and a full description of services contact us today.
We Always Say
YES BAIL BOND!
Let us help you today!
Main Cities and States Serviced:
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INDIAN EASEMENTS ACT, 1882
(Act No. 5 of Year 1882)
An Act to define and amend the law relating to easements and licences
WHEREAS it is expedient to define and amend the law relating to Easements and Licences. It is
hereby enacted as follows: PRELIMINARY
1. Short title - This Act may be called the Indian Easements Act, 1882.
Local extent: It extends to the territories respectively administered by the Governor of Madras in
Council and the Chief Commissioners of the Central Provinces and Coorg.
Commencement: It shall come into force on the first day of July, 1882.
2. Saving -Nothing herein contained shall be deemed to affect any law not hereby expressly
repealed; or to derogate from(a) any right of the government to regulate the collection, retention and distribution of the water of
rivers and streams flowing in natural channels, and of natural lakes and ponds, or of the water
flowing, collected, retained or distributed in or by any channel or other work constructed at the
public expense for irrigation;
(b) any customary or other right (not being a licence) in or over immovable property which the
government, the public or any person may possess irrespective of other immovable property; or
(c) any right acquired, or arising out of a relation created, before this Act comes into force.
3. Construction of certain references to Act XV of 1877 and Act IX of 1871-All references in any
Act or Regulation to sections 26 and 27 of the Indian Limitation Act, 1877 or to sections 27 and
28 of Act No. IX of 1871, shall, in the territories to which this Act extends, be read as made to
sections 15 and 16 of this Act.
CHAPTER I: OF EASEMENTS GENERALLY
4. "Easement" defined
An easement is a right which the owner or occupier of certain land possesses, as such, for the
beneficial enjoyment of that land, to do and continue to do something, or to prevent and continue
to prevent something being done, in or upon, or in respect of certain other land not his own.
Dominant and servient heritages and owners: The land for the beneficial enjoyment of which the
right exists is called the dominant heritage, and the owner or occupier thereof the dominant
owner; and land on which the liability is imposed is called the servient heritage, and the owner or
occupier thereof the servient owner.
Explanation : In the first and second clauses of this section the, expression "land" includes also
things permanently attached to the earth; the expression "beneficial enjoyment" includes also
possible convenience, remote advantage, and even a mere amenity; and the expression "to do
something" includes removal and appropriation by the dominant owner, for the beneficial
enjoyment of the dominant heritage, or any part of the soil of the servant heritage, or anything
growing or subsisting thereon.
(a) A, as the owner of a certain house, has a right of way thither over his neighbour B?s land for
purposes connected with the beneficial enjoyment of the house. This is an easement.
(b) A, as the owner of a certain house, has the right to go on his neighbours B?s land, and to take
water for the purposes of his household out of a spring therein. This is an easement.
(c) A, as the owner of a certain house, has the right to conduct water from B?s stream to supply
the fountains in the garden attached to the house. This is an easement.
(d) A, as the owner of a certain house and farm, has the right to graze a certain number of his
own cattle on B's field, or to take, for the purpose of being used in the house, by himself, his
family, guests, lodgers and servants, water or fish out of C's tank, or timber out of D's wood, or to
use, for the purpose of manuring his land, the leaves which have fallen from the trees on E?s
land. These are easements.
(e) A dedicates to the public the right to occupy the surface of certain land for the purpose of
passing and re-passing. This right is not an easement.
(f) A is bound to cleanse a watercourse running through his land and keep it free from obstruction
for the benefit of B, a lower riparian owner. This is not an easement.
5. Continuous and discontinuous, apparent and non-apparent easements
Easements are either continuous or discontinuous, apparent or non-apparent.
A continuous easement is one whose enjoyment is, or may be, continual without the act of man.
A discontinuous easement is one that needs the act of man for its enjoyment.
An apparent easement is one the existence of which is shown by some permanent sign which,
upon careful inspection by a competent person, would be visible to him.
A non-apparent easement is one that has no such sign.
(a) A right annexed to B?s house to receive light by the windows without obstruction by his
neighbour A. This is a continuous easement.
(b) A right of way annexed to A?s house over B?s land. This is a discontinuous easement.
(c) Rights annexed to A's land to lead water thither across B's land by an aqueduct and to draw
off water thence by a drain. The drain would be discovered upon careful inspection by a person
conversant with such matters. These are apparent easements.
(d) A right annexed to A's house to prevent B from building on his own land. This is a nonapparent easement.
6. Easement for limited time or on condition
An easement may be permanent, or for a term of years or other limited period, or subject to
periodical interruption, or exercisable only at a certain place, or at certain times, or between
certain hours, or for a particular purpose, or on condition that it shall commence or become void
or voidable on the happening of a specified event or the performance or non-performance of a
7. Easements restrictive of certain rights
Easements are restrictions of one or other of the following rights (namely):(a) Exclusive right to enjoy-The exclusive right of every owner of immovable property (subject to
any law for the time being in force) to enjoy and dispose of the same and all products there of and
(b) Rights to advantages arising from situation-The right of every owner of immovable property
(subject to any law for the time being in force) to enjoy without disturbance by another the natural
advantages arising from its situation.
Illustrations of the rights above referred to
(a) The exclusive right of every owner of land in a town to build on such land, subject to any
municipal law for the time being in force.
(b) The right of every owner of land that the air passing thereto shall not be unreasonable polluted
by other persons.
(c) The right of every owner of a house that his physical comfort shall not be interfered with
materially and unreasonably by noise or vibration caused by any other person.
(d) The right of every owner of land to so much light and air as pass vertically thereto.
(e) The right of every owner of land that such land, in its natural condition, shall have the support
naturally rendered by the subjacent and adjacent soil of another person.
Explanation: Land is in its natural conditions when it is not excavated and not subjected to
artificial pressure, and the "subjacent and adjacent soil" mentioned in this illustration means such
soil only as in its natural condition would support the dominant heritage in its natural condition.
(f) The right of every owner of land that, within his own limits, the water which naturally passes or
percolates by, over or through his land shall not, before so passing or percolating, be
unreasonably polluted by other persons.
(g) The right of every owner of land to collect and dispose within his own limits of all water under
the land which does not pass in a defined channel and all water on its surface which does not
pass in a defined channel.
(h) The right of every owner of land that the water of every natural stream which passes by,
through or over his land in a defined natural channel shall be allowed by other persons to flow
within such owner's limits without interruption and without material alteration in quantity, direction,
force or temperature; the right of every owner of land abutting on a natural lake or pond into or
out of which a natural stream flows, that the water of such lake or pond shall be allowed by other
persons to remain within such owner's limits without material alteration in quantity or temperature.
(i) The right of every owner of upper land that water naturally rising in, or falling on such land, and
not passing in defined channels, shall be allowed by the owner of adjacent lower land to run
(j) The right of every owner of land abutting on a natural stream, lake or pond to use and
consume its water for drinking, household purposes and watering his cattle and sheep, and the
right of every such owner to use and consume the water for irrigating such land, and for the
purposes of any manufactory situate thereon, provided that he does not thereby cause material
injury to other like owners.
Explanation : A natural stream is a stream, whether permanent or intermittent, tidal or tideless, on
the surface of land or underground, which flows by the operation of nature only and in a natural
and known course.
CHAPTER II: THE IMPOSITION, ACQUISITION AND TRANSFER OF EASEMENTS
8. Who may impose easements
An easement may be imposed by any one in the circumstances, and to the extent, in and to
which he may transfer his interest in the heritage on which the liability is so imposed.
(a) A is a tenant of B?s land under a lease for an unexpired term of twenty years, and has power
to transfer his interest under the lease. A may impose an easement on the land to continue during
the time that the lease exists or for any shorter period.
(b) A is tenant for his life of certain land with remainder to B absolutely. A cannot, unless with B?
consent, impose an easement thereon which will continue after the determination of his life
(c) A, B and C are co-owners of certain land. A cannot, without the consent of B and C, impose
an easement on the land or on any part thereof.
(d) A and B are lessees of the same lessor, A of a field X for a term of five years and B of a field
Y for a term of ten years. A's interest under his lease is transferable; B's is not. A may impose on
X, in favour of B, a right of way terminable with A's lease.
9. Servient owners
Subject to the provisions of section 8, a servient owner may impose on the servient heritage any
easement that does not lessen the utility of the exiting easement. But he cannot, without the
consent of the dominant owner, impose an easement on the servient heritage which would lessen
(a) A has, in respect of his mill, a right to the uninterrupted flow thereto, from sunrise to noon, of
the water of B's stream. B may grant to C the right to divert the water of the stream from noon to
PROVIDED that A?s supply is not thereby diminished.
(b) A has, in respect of his house, a right of way over B?s land. B may grant to C, as the owner of
neighbouring farm, the right to feed his cattle on the grass growing on the way:
PROVIDED that A?s right of way is not thereby obstructed.
10. Lessor and mortgagor
Subject to the provisions of section 8, a lessor may impose, on the property leased, any
easement that does not derogate from the rights of the lessee as such, and a mortgagor may
impose, on the property mortgaged, any easement that does not render the security insufficient.
But a lessor or mortgagor cannot, without the consent of the lessee or mortgagee, impose any
other easement on such property, unless it be to take effect on the termination of the lease or the
redemption of the mortgage.
Explanation: A security is insufficient within the meaning of this section unless the value of the
mortgaged property exceeds by one-third, or, if consisting of buildings, exceeds by one-half, the
amount for the time being due on the mortgage.
No lessee or other person having a derivative interest may impose on the property held by him as
such an easement to take effect after the expiration of his own interest, or in derogation of the
right of the lessor or the superior proprietor.
12. Who may acquire easements
An easement may be acquired by the owner of the immovable property for the beneficial
enjoyment of which the right is created, or on his behalf, by any person in possession of the
One of two or more co-owners of immovable property may, as such, with or without the consent
of the other or others, acquire an easement for the beneficial enjoyment of such property.
No lessee of immovable property can acquire, for the beneficial enjoyment of other immovable
property of his own, an easement in or over the property comprised in his lease.
13. Easements of necessity and quasi easements
Where one person transfers or bequeaths immovable property to another(a) if an easement in other immovable property of the transferor or testator is necessary for
enjoying the subject of the transfer or bequest, the transferee or legatee shall be entitled to such
(b) if such an easement is apparent and continuous and necessary for enjoying the said subject
as it was enjoyed when the transfer or bequest took effect, the transferee or lessee shall, unless
a different intention is expressed or necessarily implied, be entitled to such easement;
(c) if an easement in the subject of the transfer or bequest is necessary for enjoying other
immovable property of the transferor or testator, the transferor or the legal representative of the
testator shall be entitled to such easement; or
(d) if such an easement is apparent and continuous and necessary for enjoying the said property
as it was enjoyed when the transfer or bequest took effect, the transferor, or the legal
representative of the testator, shall, unless a different intention is expressed or necessarily
implied, be entitled to such easement.
Where a partition is made of the joint property of several persons,(e) if an easement over the share of one of them is necessary for enjoying the share of another of
them, the latter shall be entried to such easement; or
(f) if such an easement is apparent and continuous and necessary for enjoying the share of the
latter as it was enjoyed when the partition took effect, he shall, unless the different intention is
expressed or necessarily implied, be entitled to such easement.
The easements mentioned in this section, clauses (a), (c) and (e) are called easements of
Where immovable property passes by operation of law, the persons from and to whom it so
passes are, for the purpose of this section, to be deemed, respectively, the transferor and
(a) A sells B a field then used for agricultural purposes only. It is inaccessible except by passing
over A?s adjoining land or by trespassing on the land of a stranger. B is entitled to a right of way,
for agricultural purposes only, over A?s adjoining land to the field sold.
(b) A, the owner of two field, sells one to B, and retains the other. The field retained was, at the
date of the sale, used for agricultural purposes only, and is inaccessible except by passing over
the field sold to B. A is entitled to a right to way, for agricultural purposes only, over B?s field to
the field retained.
(c) A sells B a house with windows overlooking A's land which A retains. The light which passes
over A?s land to the windows is necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the
sale took effect. B is entitled to the light, and A cannot afterwards obstruct it by building on his
(d) A sells B a house with windows overlooking A?s land. The light passing over A?s land to the
windows is necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect.
Afterwards A sells the land to C. Here C cannot obstruct the light by building on the land, for he
takes it subject to the burdens to which it was subject in A?s hands.
(e) A is the owner of a house and adjoining land. The house has windows overlooking the land. A
simultaneously sells the house to B and the land to C. The light passing over the land is
necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect. Here A impliedly
grants B a right to the light, and C takes the land subject to the restriction that he may not build so
as to obstruct such right.
(f) A is the owner of a house and adjoining land. The house has windows overlooking the land. A,
retaining the house, sells the land to B, without expressly reserving any easement. The light
passing over the land is necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the sale took
effect. A is entitled to the light, and B cannot build on the land so as to obstruct such light.
(g) A, the owner of a house, sells B a factory built on adjoining land. B is entitled, as against A, to
pollute the air, when necessary, with smoke and vapours from the factory.
(h) A, the owner of two adjoining houses, Y and Z, sells Y to B, and retains Z. B is entitled to the
benefit of all the gutters and drains common to the two houses and necessary for enjoying Y as it
was enjoyed when the sale took effect, and A is entitled to the benefit of all the gutters and drains
common to the two houses and necessary for enjoying Z as it was enjoyed when the sale took
(i) A, the owner of two adjoining building, sells one to B, retaining the other. B is entitled to a right
to lateral support from A's building, and A is entitled to a right to lateral support from B?s building.
(j) A, the owner of two adjoining buildings, sells one to B and the other to C. C is entitled to lateral
support from B's building, and B is entitled to lateral support from C?s building.
(k) A grants lands to B for the purpose of building a house thereon. B is entitled to such amount of
lateral and subjacent support from A?s land as is necessary for the safety of the house.
(l) Under the Land Acquisition Act, 1870, a railway company compulsorily acquires a portion of
B's land for the purpose of making a siding. The company is entitled to such amount of lateral
support from B's adjoining land as is essential for the safety of the siding.
(m) Owing to the partition of joint property, A becomes the owner of an upper room in a building
and B becomes the owner of the portion of the building immediately beneath it, A is entitled to
such amount of vertical support from B's portion as is essential for the safety of the upper room.
(n) A lets a house and grounds to B for a particular business. B has no access to them other than
by crossing A's land. B is entitled to a right of way over that land suitable to the business to be
carried on by B in the house and grounds.
14. Direction of way of necessity
When a right to a way of necessity is created under section 13, the transferor, the legal
representative of the testator, or the owner of the share over which the right is exercised, as the
case may be, is entitled to set out the way; but it must be reasonably convenient for the dominant
When the person so entitled to set out the way refuses or neglects to do so, the dominant owner
may set it out.
15. Acquisition by prescription
Where the access and use of light or air and for any building have been peaceably enjoyed
therewith, as an easement, without interruption, and for twenty years,
and where support from one person's land or things affixed thereto, has been peaceably received
by another person's land subjected to artificial pressure, or by things affixed thereto, as an
easement, without interruption, and for twenty years,
and where a right of way or any other easement has been peaceably and openly enjoyed by any
person claiming title thereto, as an easement and as of right, without interruption, and for twenty
the right to such access and use of light or air, support, or other easement, shall be absolute.
Each of the said periods of twenty years shall be taken to be a period ending within two years
next before the institution of the suit wherein the claim to which such period relates is contexted.
Explanation I: Nothing is an enjoyment within the meaning of this section when it has been had in
pursuance of an agreement with the owner or occupier of the property over which the right is
claimed, and it is apparent from the agreement that such right has not been granted as an
easement, or, if granted as an easement, that it has been granted for a limited period, or subject
to a condition on the fulfilment of which it is to cease.
Explanation II: Nothing is an interruption within the meaning of this section unless where there is
an actual cessation of the enjoyment by reason of an obstruction by the act of some other than
the claimant, and unless such obstruction is submitted to or acquiesced in for one year after the
claimant has notice thereof, and of the person making or authorising the same to be made.
Explanation III: Suspensions of enjoyment in pursuance of a contract between the dominant and
servient owners is not an interruption within the meaning of this section.
Explanation IV: In the case of an easement to pollute water the said period of twenty years begins
when the pollution first prejudices perceptibly the servient heritage.
When the property over which a right is claimed under this section belongs to government, this
section shall be read as if, for the words "twenty years" the words "thirty years" were substituted.
(a) A suit is brought in 1883 for obstructing a right of way. The defendant admits the obstruction,
but denies the right of way. The plaintiff proves that the right was peaceable and openly enjoyed
by him, claiming title thereto, as an easement, and as of right, without interruption, from lst
January, 1862 to lst January, 1882. The plaintiff is entitled to judgement.
(b) In a like suit the plaintiff shows that the right was peaceable and openly enjoyed by him for
twenty years, the defendant proves that for a year of that time the plaintiff was entitled to
possession of the servient heritage as lessee thereof and enjoyed the right as such lessee. The
suit shall be dismissed, for the right of way has not been enjoyed "as an easement" for twenty
(c) In a like suit the plaintiff shows that the right was peaceably and openly enjoyed by him for
twenty years. The defendant proves that the plaintiff on one occasion during the twenty years had
admitted that the user was not of right and asked his leave to enjoy the right. The suit shall be
dismissed, for the right of way has not been enjoyed "as of right" for twenty years.
Comment: As far as the question of opening of new windows is concerned, it is open to
the defendants to use their property in any manner permitted by law; and hence they
cannot be restrained from opening new windows, as no customary right of privacy
appears to have been pleaded or proved. This position is not disputed by the plaintiffs. It
is, however, equally clear that, if the defendants open any new windows, the plaintiffs are
fully entitled to block the same by raising the height of their walls and the defendants are
not entitled to break or damage the said walls or any portion thereof so as to remove the
obstruction to their new windows. Smt. Anguri v. Jiwan Dass AIR 1988 SUPREME
16. Exclusion in favour of reversioner of servient heritage
Provided that, when any land upon, over or from which any easement has been enjoyed or
derived has been held under or by virtue of any interest for life or any term of years exceeding
three years from the granting thereof, the time of the enjoyment of such easement during the
continuance of such interest or term shall be excluded in the computation of the said lastmentioned period of twenty years, in case the claim is, within three years next after the
determination of such interest or term, resisted by the person entitled, on such determination, to
the said land.
A sues for a declaration that he is entitled to a right to way over B's land. A proves that he has
enjoyed the right for twenty-five years; but B shows that during ten of these years C had a lifeinterest in the land; that on C?s death B became entitled to the land; and that within two years
after C?s death he contested A?s claim to the right. The suit must be dismissed, as A, with
reference to the provisions of this section, has only proved enjoyment for fifteen years.
17. Rights which cannot be acquired by prescription
Easements acquired under section 15 are said to be acquired by prescription, and are called
None of the following rights can be so acquired(a) a right which would tend to the total destruction of the subject of the right, or the property on
which, if the acquisition were made, liability would be imposed;
(b) a right to the free passage of light or air to an open space of ground;
(c) a right to surface-water not flowing in a stream and not permanently collected in a pool, tank
(d) a right to underground water not passing in a defined channel.
18. Customary easements
An easement may be acquired in virtue of a local custom. Such easements are called customary
(a) By the custom of a certain village every cultivator of village land is entitled, as such to graze
his cattle on the common pasture. A having become the tenant of a plot of uncultivated land in the
village breaks up and cultivates that plot. He thereby acquires an easement to graze his cattle in
accordance with the custom.
(b) By the custom of a certain town no owner or occupier of a house can open a new window
therein so as substantially to invade his neighbour?s privacy. A builds a house in the town near
B?s house. A thereupon acquires an easement that B shall not open new windows in his house
so as to command a view of the portions of A?s house which are ordinarily excluded from
observation, and B acquires a like easement with respect to A?s house.
19. Transfer of dominant heritage passes easement
Where the dominant heritage is transferred or devolves, by act of parties or by operation of law,
the transfer or devolution shall, unless a contrary intention appears, be deemed to pass the
easement to the person in whose favour the transfer or devolution takes place.
A has certain land to which a right of way is annexed. A lets the land to B for twenty years. The
right of way vests in B and his legal representatives so long as the lease continues.
CHAPTER III: THE INCIDENTS OF EASEMENTS
20. Rules controlled by contract or title
The rules contained in this Chapter are controlled by any contract between the dominant and
servient owners relating to the servient heritage, and by the provisions of the instrument or
decree, if any, by which the easement referred to was imposed.
Incidents of customary easements : And when any incident of any customary easement is
inconsistent with such rules, nothing in this chapter shall affect such incident.
21. Bar to use unconnected with enjoyment
An easement must not be used for any purpose not connected with the enjoyment of the
(a) A, as owner of a farm Y, has right of way over B's land to Y. Lying beyond Y, A has another
farm Z, the beneficial enjoyment of which is not necessary for the beneficial enjoyment of Y. He
must not use the easement for the purpose of passing to and from Z.
(b) A, as owner of a certain house, has a right of way to and from it. For the purpose of passing to
and from the house, the right may be used, not only by A, but by the members of his family, his
guests, lodgers, servants, workmen, visitors and customers; for this is a purpose, connected with
the enjoyment of the dominant heritage. So, if A lets the house, he may use the right of way for
the purpose of collecting the rent and seeing the house is kept in repair.
22. Exercise of easement-confinement of exercise of easement
The dominant owner must exercise his right in the mode which is least onerous to the servient
owner, and, when the exercise of an easement can without detriment to the dominant owner be
confined to a determinate part of the servient heritage, such exercise shall, at the request of the
servient owner, be so confined.
(a) A has a right of way over B's field. A must enter the way at either end and not at any
(b) A has a right annexed to his house to cut thatching grass in B?s swamp. A, when exercising
his easement, must cut the grass so that the plants may not be destroyed.
23. Right to alter mode of enjoyment
Subject to the provisions of section 22, the dominant owner may, from time to time, alter the
mode and place of enjoying the easement, provided that he does not thereby impose any
additional burden on the servient heritage.
Exception-The dominant owner of a right of way cannot vary his line of passage at pleasure, even
though he does not thereby impose any additional burden on the servient heritage.
(a) A, the owner of a saw-mill, has a right to a flow of water sufficient to work the mill. He may
convert the saw-mill into a corn-meal:
PROVIDED that it can be worked by the same amount of water.
(b) A has a right to discharge on B?s land the rain-water from the eaves of A's house. This does
not entitle A to advance his eaves if, by so doing, he imposes a greater burden on B?s land.
(c) A, as the owner of a paper-mill, acquires a right to pollute a stream by procuring in the refuseliquor produced by making in the mill paper from rags. He may pollute the stream by pouring in
similar liquor produced by making in the mill paper by a new process from bamboos:
PROVIDED that he does not substantially increase the amount, or injuriously change of the
(d) A, a riparian owner, acquires as against the lower riparian owners, a prescriptive right to
pollute a stream by throwing saw dust into it. This does not entitle A to pollute the stream by
discharging into it poisonous liquor.
24. Right to do acts to secure enjoyment
The dominant owner is entitled, as against the servient owner, to do all acts necessary to secure
the fully enjoyment of the easement; but such acts must be done at such time and in such
manner as, without detriment to the dominant owner, to cause the servient owner as little
inconvenience as possible; and the dominant owner must repair, as far as practicable, the
damage (if any) caused by the act to the servient heritage.
Accessory rights : Right to do acts necessary to secure the full enjoyment of an easement are
called accessory right.
(a) A has an easement to lay pipes in B's land to convey water to A's cistern. A may enter and dig
the land in order to mend the pipes, but he must restore the surface to its original state.
(b) A has an easement of a drain through B's land. The sewer with which the drain communicates
is altered. A may enter upon B's land and alter the drain, to adapt it to the new sewer:
PROVIDED that he does not thereby impose any additional burden on B's land.
(c) A, as owner of a certain house, has a right of way over B's land. The way is out of repair, or a
tree is blown down and falls across it. A may enter on B's land repair the way or remove the tree
(d) A, as owner of a certain field, has a right of way over B's land. B renders the way impassable.
A may deviate from the way and pass over the adjoining land to B:
PROVIDED that the deviation is reasonable.
(e) A, as owner of a certain house, has a right of way over B's field. A may remove rocks to make
(f) A has an easement of support from B's wall. The wall gives way. A may enter upon B's land
and repair the wall.
(g) A has an easement to have his land flooded by means of a dam in B's stream. The dam is half
swept by an inundation. A may enter upon B's land and repair the dam.
25. Liability for expenses necessary for preservation of easement
The expenses incurred in constructing works, or making repairs, or doing any other act necessary
for the use or preservation of an easement, must be defrayed by the dominant owner.
26. Liability for damage from want of repair
Where an easement is enjoyed by means of an artificial work, the dominant owner is liable to
make compensation for any damage to the servient heritage arising from the want of repair of
27. Servient owner not bound to do anything
The servient owner is not bound to do anything for the benefit of the dominant heritage, and he is
entitled, as against the dominant owner, to use the servient heritage in any way consistent with
the enjoyment of the easement; but he must not do any act tending to restrict the easement or to
renders its exercise less convenient.
(a) A, as owner of a house, has a right to lead water and send sewage through B's land. B is not
bound, as servient owner to clear the watercourse or scour the sewer.
(b) A grants a right of way through his land to B as owner of a field. A may feed his cattle on
grass growing on the way:
PROVIDED that B's right of way is not thereby obstructed; but he must not build a wall at the end
of his land so as to prevent B from going beyond it, nor must he narrow the way so as to render
the exercise of the right less easy than it was at the date of the grant.
(c) A, in respect of his house, is entitled to an easement of support from B's wall. B is not bound,
as servient owner to keep the wall standing and in repair. But he must not pull down or weaken
the wall so as to make it incapable of rendering the necessary support.
(d) A, in respect of his mill, is entitled to a watercourse through B's land. B must not drive stakes
so as to obstruct the watercourse.
(e) A, in respect of his house, is entitled to a certain quantity of light passing over B's land. B must
not plant trees so as to obstruct the passage to A's windows of that quantity of light.
28. Extent of easements
With respect to the extent of easements and the mode of their enjoyment, the following provisions
shall take effect:Easement of necessity: An easement of necessity is co-extensive with the necessity as it existed
when the easement was imposed.
Other easements : The extent of any other easement and the mode of its enjoyment must be
fixed with reference to the probable intention of the parties, and the purpose for which the right
was imposed or acquired.
In the absence of evidence as to such intention and purpose:(a) Right of way-A right of way of any one kind does not include a right of way of any other kind;
(b) Right to light or air acquired by grant- The extent of a right to the passage of light or air to
certain window, door or other opening, imposed by a testamentary or non-testamentary
instrument, is the quantity of light or air that entered the opening at the time the testator died or
the non-testamentary instrument was made;
(c) Prescriptive right to light or air- The extent of a prescriptive right to the passage of light or air
to a certain window, door or other opening is that quantity of light or air which has been
accustomed to enter that opening during the whole of the prescriptive period irrespectively of the
purposes for which it has been used;
(d) Prescriptive right to pollute air or water- The extent of a prescriptive right to pollute air or water
is the extent of the pollution at the commencement of the period of user on completion of which
the right arose; and
(e) Other prescriptive rights- The extent of every other prescriptive right and the mode of its
enjoyment must be determined by the accustomed user of the right.
29. Increase of easement
The dominant owner cannot, by merely altering or adding to the dominant heritage, substantially
increase an easement.
Where an easement has been granted or bequeathed so that its extent shall be proportionate to
the extent of the dominant heritage, if the dominant heritage is increased by alluvion, the
easement is proportionately increased, and if the dominant heritage is diminished by diluvion, the
easement is proportionately diminished.
Save as aforesaid, no easement is affected by any change in the extent of the dominant or the
(a) A, the owner of a mill, has acquired a prescriptive right to divert to his mill part of the water of
a stream. A alters the machinery of his mill. He cannot thereby increase his right to divert water.
(b) A has acquired an easement to pollute a stream by carrying on a manufacture on its banks by
which a certain quantity of foul matter is discharged into it. A extends his works and thereby
increase the quantity discharged. He is responsible to the lower riparian owners for injury done by
(c) A, as the owner of a farm, has a right to take for the purpose of manuring his farm; leaves
which has fallen from the trees on B's land. A buys a field and unites it to his farm. A is not
thereby entitled to take leaves to manure this field.
30. Partition of dominant heritage
Where a dominant heritage is divided between two or more persons, the easement becomes
annexed to each of the shares, but not so as to increase substantially the burden on the servient
PROVIDED that such annexation is consistent with the terms of the instrument, decree or
revenue proceeding (if any) under which the division was made, and in the case of prescriptive
rights, with the user during the prescriptive period.
(a) A house to which a right of way by a particular path is annexed is divided into two parts, one
of which is granted to A, the other to B. Each is entitled, in respect of his part, to a right of way by
the same path.
(b) A house to which is annexed the right of drawing water from a well to the extend of fifty
buckets a day is divided into two distinct heritages, one of which is granted to A, the other to B. A
and B are each entitled, in respect of his heritage, to draw from the well fifty buckets a day; but
the amount drawn by both must not exceed fifty buckets a day.
(c) A, having in respect of his house an easement of light, divides the house into three distinct
heritages. Each of these continues to have the right to have its windows unobstructed.
31. Obstruction in case of excessive user
In the case of excessive user of an easement the servient owner may, without prejudice to any
other remedies to which he may be entitled, obstruct the user, but only on the servient heritage:
PROVIDED that such user cannot be obstructed when the obstruction would interfere with the
lawful enjoyment of the easement.
A, having a right to the free passage over B's land of light to four windows, 6" x 4", increases their
seize and number. It is impossible to obstruct the passage of light to the new windows without
also obstructing the passage of light to the ancient windows. B cannot obstruct the excessive
CHAPTER IV: THE DISTURBANCE OF EASEMENTS
32. Right to enjoyment with out disturbance
The owner or occupier of the dominant heritage is entitled to enjoyment the easement without
disturbance by any other person.
A, as owner of a house has a right of way over B?s land. C unlawfully enters on B's land and
obstructs A in his right of way. A may sue C for compensation, not for the entry, but for the
33. Suit for disturbance of easement
The owner of any interest in the dominant heritage, or the occupier of such heritage, may institute
a suit for compensation for the disturbance of the easement or of any right accessory thereto:
PROVIDED that the disturbance has actually caused substantial damage to the plaintiff.
Explanation I : The doing of any act likely to injure the plaintiff by affecting the evidence of the
easement, or by materially diminishing the value of the dominant heritage, is substantial damage
within the meaning of this section and section 34.
Explanation II: Where the easement disturbed is a right to the free passage of light passing to the
openings in a house, no damage is substantial within the meaning of this section unless it falls
within the first Explanation, or interferes materially with the physical comfort of the plaintiff, or
prevents him from carrying on his accustomed business in the dominant heritage as beneficially
as he had done previous to instituting the suit.
Explanation III: Where the easement disturbed is a right to the free passage of air to the opening
in a house, damage is substantial within the meaning of this section, if it interferes materially with
the physical comfort of the plaintiff, though it is not injurious to his health.
(a) A places a permanent obstruction in a path over which B, as tenant of C?s house, has a right
of way. This is substantial damage to C, for it may affect the evidence of his reversionary right to
(b) A, as owner of a house, has a right to walk along one side of B's house. B builds a verandah
overhanging the way about ten feet from the ground, and so as not to occasion any
inconvenience to foot passengers using the way. This is not substantial damage to A.
34. When cause of action arises for removal of support
The removal of the means of support to which a dominant owner is entitled does not give rise to a
right to recover compensation unless and until substantial damage is actually sustained.
35. Injunction to restrain disturbance
Subject to the provisions of the Specific Relief Act, 1877 (1 of 1877), sections 52 to 57 (both
inclusive), an injunction may be granted to restrain the disturbance of an easement(a) if the easement is actually disturbed-then compensation for such disturbance might be
recovered under this Chapter;
(b) if the disturbance is only threatened or intended-when the act threatened or intended must
necessarily, if performed, disturb the easement.
36. Abatement of obstruction of easement
Notwithstanding the provisions of section 24, the dominant owner cannot himself abate a
wrongful obstruction of an easement.
CHAPTER V: THE EXTINCTION, SUSPENSION AND REVIVAL OF EASEMENTS
37. Extinction by dissolution of right of servient owner
When, from a cause which preceded the imposition of an easement, the person by whom it was
imposed ceases to have any right in the servient heritage, the easement is extinguished.
Exception: Nothing in this section applies to an easement lawfully imposed by a mortgagor in
accordance with section 10.
(a) A transfers Sultanpur to B on condition that he does not marry C. B imposes an easement on
Sultanpur. Then B marries C. B?s interest in Sultanpur ends, and with it the easement is
(b) A, in 1860, let Sultanpur to B for thirty years from the date of the lease. B, it 1861 imposes an
easement on the land in favour of C, who enjoys the easement peaceably and openly as an
easement without interruption for twenty-nine years, B?s interest in Sultanpur then ends, and with
it C?s easement.
(c) A and B, tenants of C, have permanent transferable interests in their respective holdings. A
imposes on his holding an easement to draw water from a tank for the purpose of irrigating B?s
land. B enjoys the easement for twenty years. Then A?s rent fall into arrear and his interest is
sold. B?s easements is extinguished.
(d) A mortgages Sultanpur to B, and lawfully imposes an easement on the land in favour of C in
accordance with the provisions of section 10. The land is soled to D in satisfaction of the
mortgage debt. The easement is not thereby extinguished.
38. Extinction by release
An easement is extinguished when the dominant owner releases it, expressly or impliedly, to the
Such release can be made only in the circumstances and to the extent in and to which the
dominant owner can alienate the dominant heritage.
An easement may be released as to part only of the servient heritage.
Explanation I: An easement is impliedly released(a) where the dominant owner expressly authorises an act of a permanent nature to be done on
the servient heritage, the necessary consequence of which is to prevent his future enjoyment of
the easement, and such act is done in pursuance of such authority;
(b) where any permanent alteration is made in the dominant heritage of such a nature as to show
that the dominant owner intended to cease to enjoy the easement in future.
Explanation II: Mere non-user of an easement is not an implied release within the meaning of this
(a) A, B and C are co-owners of a house to which an easement is annexed. A, without the
consent of B and C, releases the easement. The release is effectual only as against A and his
(b) A grants B an easement over A?s land for the beneficial enjoyment of his house. B assigns
the house to C. B then purports to release the easement. The release is ineffectual.
(c) A, having the right to discharge his eavesdroppings into B?s years, expressly authorises B to
build over this year to a height which will interfere with the discharge. B builds accordingly. A?s
easements is extinguished to the extent of the interference.
(d) A, having an easement of light to a window, build up that window with bricks and mortar so as
to manifest an intention to abandon the easement permanently. The easement is impliedly
(e) A, having a projecting roof by means of which he enjoys an easement to discharge
eavesdroppings on B?s land permanently alters the roof, so as to direct the rain-water into a
different channel and discharge it on C?s land. The easement is impliedly released.
39. Extinction by revocation
An easement is extinguished when the servient owner, in exercise of power reserved in this
behalf, revokes the easement.
40. Extinction on expiration of limited period or happening of dissolving condition
An easement is extinguished where it has been imposed for a limited period, or acquired on
condition that it shall become void on the performance or non-performance of a specified act, and
the period expires or the condition is fulfilled.
41. Extinction on termination of necessity
An easement of necessity is extinguished when the necessity comes to an end.
A grants B a field inaccessible except by passing over A's adjoining land. B, afterwards
purchases a part of that land over which he can pass to his field. The right of way over A's land
which B has acquired is extinguished.
42. Extinction of useless easement
An easement is extinguished when it becomes incapable of being at any time and under any
circumstances beneficial to the dominant owner.
43. Extinction by permanent change in dominant heritage
Where by, any permanent change in the dominant heritage, the burden on the servient heritage is
materially increased and cannot be reduced by the servient owner without interfering with the
lawful enjoyment of the easement, the easement is extinguished unless(a) it was intended for the beneficial enjoyment of the dominant heritage, to whatever extent the
easement should be used; or
(b) the injury caused to the servient owner by the change is so slight that no reasonable person
would complain of it; or
(c) the easement is an easement of necessity.
Nothing in this section shall be deemed to apply to an easement entitling the dominant owner to
support of the dominant heritage.
44. Extinction on permanent alteration of servient heritage by superior force
An easements is extinguished where the servient heritage is by superior force so permanently
altered that dominant owner can no longer enjoy such easement:
PROVIDED that, where a way of necessity is destroyed by superior force, the dominant owner
has a right to another way over the servient heritage; and the provisions of section 14 apply to
(a) A grants to B, as the owner of a certain house, a right to fish in a river running through A?s
land. The river changes its course permanently and runs through C?s land. B?s easements is
(b) Access to a path over which A has a right of way is permanently cut off by an earthquake. A?s
right is extinguished.
45. Extinction by destruction of either heritage
An easement is extinguished when either the dominant or the servient heritage is completely
A has a right of way over a road running along the foot of a sea-cliff. The road is washed away by
a permanent encroachment of the sea. A's easement is extinguished.
46. Extinction by unity of ownership
An easement is extinguished when the same person becomes entitled to the absolute ownership
of the whole of the dominant and servient heritages.
(a) A, as the owner of a house, has a right of way over B?s field. A mortgages his house, and B
mortgages his field to C. Then C forecloses both mortgages and becomes thereby absolute
owner of both house and field. The right of way is extinguished.
(b) The dominant owner acquires only part of the servient heritage; the easement is not
extinguished, except in the case illustrated in section 41.
(c) The servient owner acquires the dominant heritage in connection with a third person; the
easement is not extinguished.
(d) The separate owners of two separate dominant heritages jointly acquire the heritage which is
servient to the two separate heritage; the easements are not extinguished.
(e) The joint owners of the dominant heritage jointly acquire the servient heritage, the easement
(f) A single right of way exists over two servient heritages for the beneficial enjoyment of single
dominant heritage. The dominant owner acquires only one of the servient heritages. The
easement is not extinguished.
(g) A has a right of way over B?s road. B dedicates the road to the public. A?s right of way is not
47. Extinction by non-enjoyment
A continuous easement is extinguished when it totally ceases to be enjoyed as such for an
unbroken period of twenty years.
A discontinuous easement is extinguished when, for a like period, it has not been enjoyed as
Such period shall be reckoned, in the case of a continuous easement, from the day on which its
enjoyment was obstructed by the servient owner, or rendered impossible by the dominant owner;
and, in the case of a discontinuous easement, from the day on which it was last enjoyed by any
person as dominant owner:
PROVIDED that if, in the case of a discontinuous easement, the dominant owner, within such
period, registers, under the Indian Registration Act, 1877 (3 of 1877), a declaration of his intention
to retain such easement, it shall not be extinguished until a period of twenty years has elapsed
from the date of the registration.
Where an easement can be legally enjoyed only at a certain place, or at certain times, or between
certain hours, or for a particular purpose, its enjoyment during the said period at another place, or
at other items, or between other hours, or for another purpose, does not prevent its extinction
under this section.
The circumstance that, during the said period no one was in possession of the servient heritage,
or that the easement could not be enjoyed, or that a right accessory thereto was enjoyed, or that
dominant owner was not aware of its existence, or that he enjoyed it in ignorance of his right to do
so, does not prevent its extinction under this section.
An easement is not extinguished under this section(a) where the cessation is in pursuance of a contract between the dominant and servient owners;
(b) where the dominant heritage is held in co-ownership, and one of the co-owners enjoys the
easement within the said period; or
(c) where the easement is necessary easement.
Where several heritages are respectively subject to rights of way for the benefit of a single
heritage, and the ways are continuous, such rights shall, for the purposes of this section, be
deemed to be a single easement.
A has, as annexed to his house, rights of way from the high road thither over the heritages X and
Z and intervening heritage Y. Before the twenty years expire, A exercises his right of way over X.
His rights of way over Y and Z are not extinguished.
48. Extinction of accessory rights
When an easement is extinguished, the rights (if any) accessory thereto are also extinguished.
A has an easement to draw water form B?s well. An accessory thereto, he has a right of way over
B?s land to and from the well. The easement to draw water is extinguished under section 47. The
right of way is also extinguished.
49. Suspension of easement
An easement is suspended when the dominant owner become entitled to possession of the
servient heritage for a limited interest therein, or when the servient owner becomes entitled to
possession of the dominant heritage for a limited interest therein.
50. Servient owner not entitled to require continuance
The servient owner has no right to require that an easement be continued; and notwithstanding
the provisions of section 26, he is not entitled to compensation for damage caused to the servient
heritage in consequence of the extinguishment or suspension of the easement, if the dominant
owner has given to the servient owner such notice as will enable him, without unreasonable
expense, to protect the servient heritage from such damage.
Compensation for damages caused by extinguishment or suspension : Where such notice has
not been given, the servient owner is entitled to compensation for damage caused to the servient
heritage in consequence of such extinguishment or suspension.
A, in exercise of an easement, diverts to his canal the water of B's stream. The diversion
continues for many years, and during that time the bed of the stream partly fills up. A then
abandons his easement, and restores the stream to its ancient course. B's land is consequently
flooded. B sues A for compensation for the damage caused by the flooding. It is proved that A
gave B a month?s notice of his intention to abandon the easement, and that such notice was
sufficient to enable B, without unreasonable expense, to have prevented the damage. The suit
must be dismissed.
51. Revival of easements
An easement extinguished under section 45 revives (a) when the destroyed heritage is, before
twenty years have expired, restored by the deposit of alluvion; (b) when the destroyed heritage is
a servient building and before twenty years have expired such building is rebuilt upon the same
site; and (c) when the destroyed heritage is a dominate building and before twenty years have
expired such building is rebuilt upon the same site and in such a manner as not to impose a
greater burden on the servient heritage.
An easement extinguished under section 46 revives when the grant or bequest by which the unity
of ownership was produced is set aside by the decree of a competent court. A necessary
easement extinguished under the same section revives when the unity of ownership ceases from
any other cause.
A suspended easement revives if the cause of suspension is removed before the right is
extinguished under section 47.
A, as the absolute owner of field Y, has a right of way thither over B's field Z. A obtains from B a
lease of Z for twenty years. The easement is suspended so long as A remains lessee of Z. But
when A assigns the lease to C, or surrenders it to B, right of way revives
CHAPTER VI: LICENCES
52. "Licence" defined
Where one person grants to another, or to a definite number of other persons, a right to do, or
continue to do, in or upon the immovable property of the grantor, something which would, in the
absence of such right, be unlawful, and such right does not amount to an easement or an interest
in the property, the right is called a licence.
53. Who may grant licence
A licence may be granted by anyone in the circumstances and to the extent in and to which he
may transfer his interests in the property affected by the licence.
54. Grant may be express or implied
The grant of a licence may be express or implied from the conduct of the grantor, and an
agreement which purports to create an easement, but is ineffectual for that purpose, may operate
to create a licence.
55.Accessory licences annexed by law
All licences necessary for the enjoyment of any interest, or the exercise of any right, are implied
in the constitution of such interest or right. Such licences are called accessory licences.
A sells the trees growing in his land to B. B is entitled to go on the land and take away the trees.
56. Licence when transferable
Unless a different intention is expressed or necessarily implied, licence to attend a place of public
entertainment may be transferred by the licensee; but, save as aforesaid, a licence cannot be
transferred by the licensee or exercised by his servient or agents.
(a) A grants B a right to walk over A's field whenever he pleases. The right is not annexed to any
immovable property of B. The right cannot be transferred.
(b) The government grants B a licence to erect and use temporary grain-sheds on government
land. In the absence of express provision to the contrary, B's servants may enter on the land for
the purpose of erecting sheds, erect the same, deposit grain therein and remove grain therefrom.
57. Grantor?s duty to disclose defects
The grantor of a licence is bound to disclose to the licensee any defect in the property affected by
the licence, likely to be dangerous to the person or property of the licensee, of which the grantor
is, and the licensee is not, aware.
58. Grantor?s duty not to render property unsafe
The grantor of a licence is bound not to do anything likely to render the property affected by the
licence dangerous to the person or property of the licence.
59. Grantor?s transferee not bound by licence
When the grantor of the licence transfers the property affected thereby, the transferee is not as
such bound by the licence.
60. Licence when revocable
A licence may be revoked by the grantor, unless(a) it is coupled with a transfer of property and such transfer is in force;
(b) the licensee, acting upon the licence, has executed a work of a permanent character and
incurred expenses in the execution.
61. Revocation express or implied
The revocation of a Licence may be express or implied.
(a) A, the owner of a field, grants a licence to B, to use a path across it. A with intent to revoke the
licence, locks a gate across the path. The licence is revoked.
(b) A, the owner of a field, grants a licence to B to stack hay on the field. A lets or sells the field to
C. The licence is revoked.
62. Licence when deemed revoked
A licence is deemed to be revoked(a) when, from a cause preceding the grant of it, the grantor ceases to have any interest in the
property affected by the licence;
(b) when the licensee releases it, expressly or impliedly, to the grantor or his representative;
(c) where it has been granted for a limited period, or acquired on condition that it shall become
void on the performance or non-performance of a specified act, and the period expires, or the
conditions is fulfilled;
(d) where the property affected by the licence is destroyed or by superior force so permanently
altered that the licensee can no longer exercise his right;
(e) where the Licensee becomes entitled to the absolute ownership of the property affected by
(f) where the licence is granted for a specified purpose and the purpose is attained or abandoned,
or becomes impracticable;
(g) where the licence is granted to the licensee as holding a particular office, employment or
character, and such office, employment or character ceases to exist;
(h) where the licence totally ceases to be used as such for an unbroken period of twenty years,
and such cessation is not in pursuance of a contract between the grantor and the licensee;
(i) in the case of an accessory licence, when the interest or right to which it is accessory ceases
63. Licensee?s rights on revocation
Where a licence is revoked, the licensee is entitled to a reasonable time to leave the property
affected thereby and to remove any goods which he has been allowed to place on such property.
64. Licensee?s rights on eviction
Where a licence has been granted for a consideration, and the licensee, without any fault of his
own, is evicted by the grantor before he has fully enjoyed, under the licence, the right for which
he contracted, he is entitled to recover compensation from the grantors.
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College and university presidential inaugurations have a rich history full of color and pageantry. Here is a quick guide to the symbols and garments evident during the inauguration of Richard L. McCormick as the 19th president of Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.
University Gonfalon: The gonfalon is a banner displaying Rutgers’ coat of arms. It is borne at the head of all university processions by a senior faculty member known as the gonfalonier. The coat of arms is divided in quarters, each representing in armorial bearings the founding and growth of the university. The upper right quarter bears the arms of the House of Orange and recognizes the Dutch settlers who founded Queen’s College under the aegis of the Dutch Reformed Church. The upper left quarter contains the armorial devices of English King George III and Queen Charlotte. George III granted the Charter of 1766 to establish Queen’s College. The lower right quarter contains the Great Seal of New Jersey. The lower left bears the coat of arms of Col. Henry Rutgers, a benefactor of Queen’s College. The name of Queen’s College was changed to Rutgers College in his honor in 1825.
University Gonfalonier: The gonfalon in the inaugural procession is carried by Paul Panayotatos, professor of electrical and computer engineering, School of Engineering, Rutgers-New Brunswick. As gonfalonier, Panayotatos serves as head marshal of the procession. He is chair of the University Senate and is also ex officio faculty representative to the Rutgers Board of Governors.
University Mace: The mace, an ornamental staff symbolizing the president’s authority, is borne by Mildred Schildkamp, secretary of the university, and carried before the president in academic processions. The design of the Rutgers mace incorporates signs of the institution’s traditions and present status as New Jersey’s state university. The head of the mace bears the university’s coat of arms and its seal worked in colored enamel and gold on silver, all surmounted by a facsimile of the crown of Queen Charlotte, for whom the university was originally named “Queen’s.” The long shaft is made of stained wood and silver on which are engraved intertwining ivy leaves, symbolizing learning; red oak leaves, representing New Jersey’s state tree; and violets, the state flower.
The Rutgers Seal: The University Seal is an adaptation of that of the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands, an ancient seat of learning, whose Latin motto surrounding a sunburst is “ Sol iustitiae nos illustra” -- “Sun of righteousness, shine upon us”-- based on two biblical texts, Malachi 4:2 and Matthew 13:43. Queen’s College, forerunner of Rutgers College, modified the Utrecht seal to read “Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra”-- embracing the Western world, meaning “Sun of righteousness, shine upon the West also.”
The boards of governors and trustees approved a revised design for the University Seal in 1997 that includes the words “Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey” and adds the 1766 founding date.
Academic Regalia: The wearing of academic costumes dates to the oldest universities in the world. Medieval scholars, it was believed, wore robes and hoods for warmth in their unheated buildings. When American universities decided to adopt academic dress, they established a code of regulations that is still followed today.
The code makes it possible to distinguish recipients of bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees, and to recognize, as well, the institution that granted them. The bachelor’s gown has pointed sleeves and is worn closed. The master’s gown, worn either open or closed, has oblong sleeves, the front part of which frequently is cut away at the elbow. The doctor’s gown is also worn either open or closed and has bell-shaped sleeves. Hoods vary in size according to degree, with the largest reserved for those having a doctorate. All hoods are lined in silk in the academic color or colors of the institution that conferred the degree.
At Rutgers, members of the board of governors and board of trustees, as well as those who hold a doctoral degree from the university, wear the Rutgers gown, which is scarlet with black velvet front panels framed on the outer edge with gold cord braid. The velvet panels are embroidered with a crown and the year 1766 at the neck, signifying the university’s founding as one of the original colonial colleges under King George III of England.
Graduates of Cook College traditionally wear green academic robes, symbolizing the agricultural and environmental elements of the college’s mission.
Athletic Center: The university’s large athletic facility
on the Livingston campus in Piscataway annually hosts Rutgers’ commencement
exercises. The 8,500-seat arena, which is used for the university’s
basketball program, was opened in the fall of 1977. In 1986, it was named
by the university’s Board of Governors in memory of Louis Brown,
an Edison resident and a 1936 alumnus of Rutgers College. Brown, who
owned an industrial glove wholesale distributorship in Woodbridge, was
an avid sports fan who “loved and believed in Rutgers,” a
university official said. He died in 1984, leaving $1 million in his
will to Rutgers. Brown had earlier donated $150,000 to the university
to fund a locker room at Rutgers Stadium.
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Countries of the World
Area Handbook Series
From the Library of Congress: Online book-length studies of 100 countries "describing and analyzing their political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions; people, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their interests, their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward their social system and political order."
Political Science Resources: Foreign Politics (U. Michigan)
Includes comprehensive political sources, individual country politics, elections and military information.
Background Notes - U.S. State Department
Contains sections on: government, economy, history, people, political conditions and foreign relations.
NationMaster.com - A central data source and way to graphically compare nations, generate maps and graphs with statistics.
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A Behavioral Approach to Pediatric Drowning Prevention 1966 to 2010
1. As a result of this activity, the audience will be able to identify the risk factors associated with pediatric drowning scenarios.
2. As a result of this activity, the audience will be able to educate the parent’s of their pediatric patients about effective drowning prevention strategies.
1. To recognize that drowning and near drowning represent very significant tragedies in the United States.
2. To learn the components of a behavioral approach for a more effective drowning prevention strategy.
3. To recognize the role of health care providers in drowning prevention.
4. To understand the “best practices” for existing comprehensive drowning prevention strategy efforts.
5. To be able to identify a local program of instruction within the six current types of aquatic educational exposures for infants and young children in the United States.
Recommended CitationBarnett, Ph.D., Harvey, "A Behavioral Approach to Pediatric Drowning Prevention 1966 to 2010" (2010). Department of Pediatrics Faculty Papers. Paper 29.
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Newly discovered proteins associated with cystic fibrosis
FORT LAUDERDALE, FL (Nov. 3, 2006) _ Researchers have found a highly unusual distribution of two proteins in the lungs and airways of people with cystic fibrosis, a discovery that could be a step in determining how the disease progresses. The proteins, first uncovered as a result of the human genome project, are thought to play a role in the body's immune system.
The discovery is preliminary, but intriguing: Finding out more about the proteins could help sort out the immune system's role in cystic fibrosis, a genetic disease that attacks the lungs and other organs and dramatically shortens life expectancy.
The study "Comparative expression of SPLUNC1, SPLUNC2 and LPLUNC1 in normal and diseased lungs," was carried out by Lynne Bingle of the University of Sheffield School of Clinical Dentistry, Sheffield, United Kingdom, and Colin Bingle, University of Sheffield Medical School, Sheffield. They will present the study at a meeting of The American Physiological Society, "Physiological Genomics and Proteomics of Lung Disease," on Nov. 3. The meeting takes place Nov. 2-5 in Fort Lauderdale.
"Our results show unique expression domains for (the proteins) within the airways and suggest that alterations in expression of these putative innate immune molecules may be associated with lung disease," the authors wrote.
Recently discovered proteins
"We've shown these proteins to be expressed in places like the upper airways, nose and mouth, where many bacteria and infectious agents are found," Bingle said. These tiny molecules are thought to be part of the first line of the body's defenses against infectious agents, Bingle said.
The human genome project localized the PLUNC (palate, lung and nasal epithelium clone) gene to chromosome 20. A genetic locus in this region directs the production of a family of at least 10 proteins. Some of the proteins are short, referred to as "SPLUNCs," while others are long, referred to as "LPLUNCs."
Researchers have found that these proteins locate in specific places in the bodies of healthy people. Because these proteins are found in different areas, researchers speculate that they may have slightly different functions and may fight different infectious agents.
Investigation with cystic fibrosis
People with cystic fibrosis have a faulty gene, which normally controls the movement of salt into and out of cells and this controls the movement of water, too, Bingle explained. In a patient with cystic fibrosis, there is too little salt and water on the outside of cells lining the airways. This means that the normally thin protective layer of mucus becomes thick and very difficult to move.
It is very difficult for the patient to cough up the thick mucus, so the airways get clogged. The trapped mucous becomes a haven for infectious agents, which leads to long-term infection, inflammation and scarring. Most patients will eventually need lung transplants in order to survive, she said.
In this study, the researchers compared the tissue of 21 cystic fibrosis patients -- all of whom had end stage disease and were scheduled for a transplant -- to healthy tissue. The healthy tissue was obtained from 10 patients undergoing surgical removal of a lung tumor. The researchers used the healthy portion of lung tissue which is usually excised along with the tumor.
The study looked at tissue samples from the lung's upper airway, just below the trachea, and from lower down in the airway, in the peripheral lung, where gas exchange takes place.
This lower region of the lung has small airways as well as the gas-exchange tissue. They used a staining technique to find SPLUNC1, SPLUNC2 and LPLUNC1.
In normal lungs:
SPLUNC1 is found predominantly in the upper airways, rarely in the smaller airways and is absent in the gas-exchange tissue of the peripheral lung.
- LPLUNC1 is found in both the small airways and in the upper airways
- SPLUNC2 is found in the mouth, but not in the lungs
The study found that the presence of SPLUNC1 is "massively increased in the small airways of the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis," Bingle said. "It is really difficult to find SPLUNC 1 in similar airways from the normal lung."
LPLUNC1 also increases significantly in the small airways of people with cystic fibrosis compared to normal tissue, Bingle noted. It is normal to have LPLUNC1 in this region, but people with cystic fibrosis have a much greater amount of it here.
The study found no differences in SPLUNC2 between the diseased and normal lungs. SPLUNC2 appears to be exclusively expressed in the mouth.
A step in the fight against cystic fibrosis
These findings could become a way to prevent cystic fibrosis related lung damage, most of which occurs because of the constant infections these people suffer, Bingle said. The body's immune reaction to the infection also damages the lungs, "so knowing how these immune reactions happen could help doctors prevent them or harness them to fight the infection before it becomes established," she said.
The media can attend this fascinating conference, or request an interview with Dr. Bingle, by contacting Christine Guilfoy, at [email protected] or at (301) 634-7253. For reporters who cannot attend, arrangements can be made in many cases for telephone interviews with scientists. Please go to http://www.the-aps.org/meetings/aps/ftlauderdale/index.htm for more about the program.
The American Physiological Society was founded in 1887 to foster basic and applied bioscience. The Bethesda, Maryland-based society has 10,500 members and publishes 14 peer-reviewed journals containing almost 4,000 articles annually.
APS provides a wide range of research, educational and career support and programming to further the contributions of physiology to understanding the mechanisms of diseased and healthy states. In 2004, APS received the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics and Engineering Mentoring.
Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.
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A hospital is a health facility where patients receive care, by trained doctors, nurses and other professionals. Hospitals are more unionized than other healthcare facilities, and some workers in hospitals, such as nurses, are mostly unionized in large states including California and Washington, and are increasing their percentage of unionization in other states including Florida. Most physicians at hospitals are now their employees, in contrast with a decade ago, and it is increasingly difficult to obtain a second opinion by an independent physician in private practice.
- 1 Ancient
- 2 Medieval
- 3 Modern times
- 4 Latin America
- 5 Hygiene
- 6 Missionaries
- 7 Early American hospitals
- 8 19th century
- 9 Expanded role
- 10 Costs and insurance
- 11 Best rated
- 12 Further reading
- 13 References
- 14 See also
In ancient history, hospitals were institutions where the sick of the community could be brought for treatment; typically they were connected with religion. One Greek sanctuary was dedicated to Aesculapius (Asclepius), the Greek god of medicine, as early as 1134 BC. Aesculapia, as such institutions came to be called, spread throughout Greece.
In India, around 600 BC, the Buddha established a medical network of physicians on the village level, and hospitals for the crippled, the ill, and pregnant women.
Emperor Constantine in 335 AD closed the Greek and Roman aesculapia and encouraged the building of Christian hospitals. They were operated by monasteries (of men) and convents (of women) but were located outside the church buildings themselves. They focused on providing care for the poor, the old, and orphans. The main therapy was rest.
The Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, founded in 660 AD, is the oldest hospital still in use. The advent of the Crusades after 1100 led to the growth of hospitia, rest places for Crusaders and other travelers. Built next to monasteries, they provided food, lodgings, and medical care to pilgrims and other travelers.
In medieval Europe, many hospitals were founded by Christian religious orders such as the Knights of St. John.
In Florence, Italy, the most active period for hospital foundation beginning in the mid-thirteenth century was linked to population growth. Specialized hospitals served a variety of different groups, such as women, religious pilgrims, the old, the destitute, etc. As civic authorities worried more and more about contageous diseases and epidemics, the priority shifted to the medical treatment of the sick poor. Most new hospitals were created by philanthropic local bankers and businessmen, but the city oversaw hospitals, perceiving them as socially useful institutions both for assisting and for controlling the poor. The number, size, and facilities of Florence's hospitals, and the beauty of their buildings, became a source of frequently expressed civic pride.
After 1600 European hospitals were generally either an expansion of the local almshouse, or a place to isolate the ill during epidemics of smallpox, typhus, and plague.
The Royal Indian Hospital of Mexico City was established in 1553 by King Charles V. Hospital records provide important details concerning the problems of diseases, epidemics, and public health issues in Mexico City. Serving as many as 2,500 patients per month, doctors at the hospital treated the majority of patients for smallpox, venereal disease, tuberculosis, and rabies. Physicians prescribed Aztec herbs and remedies along with standard medical treatments that included quarantine and bloodletting.
No concept of hygiene existed before the 19th century. The Hôtel-Dieu, for example, housed up to six patients in the same bed, with no attempt made to isolate those with contagious diseases.
Until the discovery of the anesthetic agents ether, (1842) and chloroform (1847), only the simplest, most urgent operations could be attempted. Mortality from infection was very high in the procedures that were performed, until Joseph Lister introduced antiseptic techniques in the operating rooms of England in 1865. English pioneer nurse Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War (1854 to 1856), and the nursing school in London that she founded, transformed nursing into a skilled profession requiring formal training. Her graduates went on to found their own schools throughout the English-speaking world.
Christian missionaries throughout Asia and Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries made modern medical care a high priority, opening many local clinics that sometimes grew into hospitals.
Early American hospitals
In 1639, three Augustinian nuns from Dieppe, France, established North America's first hospital, the Hôtel-Dieu in Quebec City. It was originally set up to care for (and isolate) the victims of a smallpox epidemic.
In the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States, almshouse infirmaries sometimes developed into public general hospitals (for example, Philadelphia General Hospital opened as the infirmary of an almshouse in 1732; Bellevue in New York began as the hospital ward of the public workhouse in 1736).
The Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, which opened in 1751 under the sponsorship of Benjamin Franklin and the physician Thomas Bond, was the first permanent British-American institution created solely for the care of the sick.
After the Revolution, general hospitals appeared in urban centers (New York Hospital, 1791; Massachusetts General in Boston, 1811). Following the pattern of the British voluntary hospitals, they were privately supported charitable institutions designed to provide short-term care for those who could not be nursed at home. Patients with incurable or terminal illnesses were sent to the public almshouse.
Special needs spawned various kinds of hospitals. In the early colonial days, communities often set up temporary pesthouses to isolate and care for the sick during epidemics; and after the middle of the 18th century when smallpox inoculation, the forerunner of vaccination, became accepted, private inoculation hospitals sprang up on the outskirts of towns. To care for the insane, custodial institutions developed, such as Eastern State Hospital at Williamsburg, Va., which opened in 1773. American Quakers played a prominent role in founding asylums for the mentally ill. To fill military needs, the federal government created temporary hospitals; the oldest permanent federally supported hospital system was the Marine Hospital Service legislated by an act of Congress in 1798.
Throughout the 19th century the American hospital scene included a mixture of city, state, and federally supported institutions and private philanthropic hospitals, the latter often established by ethnic, religious, or benevolent societies or Masonic groups. Hospitals devoted to the treatment of a single disease, organ, or age group evolved (for example, New York Eye Infirmary, established in 1820, and numerous tuberculosis sanatoriums).
Until the 1850s the private patient scarcely existed. The sick were cared for in their homes where the chances of recovery were greater than in crowded, unsanitary wards with little or no nursing care.
During the Ciivl War the U.S. Army created a very large network of hospitals. Mower General Hospital, constructed by the US Army in the Chestnut Hill district of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the largest general hospital created to serve Northern wounded during the Civil War. Built in 1862, the hospital was demolished in 1865. Three military hospitals built in the small Vermont cities of Brattleboro, Burlington, and Montpelier during the Civil War. They represent the expansion of general hospitals, as opposed to post hospitals that cared for soldiers near the battlefield, and the growing number of these hospitals in "remote" locations, away from Washington, D.C. Illustrations show their vast size and capacity. These hospitals provided rehabilitation and long-term care for physically and emotionally wounded soldiers and helped return them to active duty as soon as possible - which was particularly important when military strength dwindled in the latter years of the war.
The largest and best-known hospital in the Confederacy was the Chimborazo in Richmond, Virginia. Beginning in October 1861, wounded and sick soldiers were housed in pavilion-style buildings—America's first. Tents for the convalescent and slightly wounded raised capacity to eight thousand. The hospital was headed by James B. McCaw, a talented and resourceful Richmond physician and professor at the Medical College of Virginia. He directed a dedicated staff of physicians, stewards, and matrons. Designated an independent army post by the Confederate surgeon general, Chimborazo remained in continuous operation until the fall of Richmond in April 1865. About 78,000 patients were treated here with a death rate of slightly over 11% (the comparable Union figure was 10%). Several drug and treatment trials for the Confederate Medical Department were also conducted here.
About 21,000 women served in Union hospitals. One in ten was black; they worked as laundresses and cooks (rather than as nurses or matrons). Most Union hospitals were built in cities. Confederates used mostly makeshift facilities in private residences, and were operated by upper class women "matrons." For example, Juliet Opie Hopkins, the wife of a wealthy Alabama businessman, organized and ran three hospitals in Richmond, Virginia, despite chronic shortages of medicine and other necessary supplies. Despite the local nature of their service, Southern women generally met with more resistance than Northern ones from men who thought hospital work to be inappropriate for "ladies." It took the heroic reputations of Florence Nightingale and American Clara Barton make the role of the woman nurse generally acceptable.
After the war veteran's care became a major activity.
In 1873 nursing became professionalized when Bellevue introduced the first American nurses' training school, modeled on the Nightingale School in Britain. The first U.S. hospital survey, made by the U.S. Bureau of Education in 1873, showed that there were only 149 hospitals, one-third of which were for mental patients. The Progressive Movement promoted and funded hospitals, including those run by cities and those operated by religious groups. By 1920 the U.S. had 6,762 hospitals, a growth caused chiefly by changes in the hospital's function. The accelerating progress in medical science and specialization had introduced procedures that could not be performed at home.
Before the germ theory was accepted in the late 19th century, infection and infectious diseases were attributed to bad air and lack of sunlight, so hospital wards were built on a pavilion plan, (exemplified by the Johns Hopkins Hospital, which opened in 1889), with high ceilings and tall windows for good ventilation and light. The Nightingale ward, a long narrow room with twenty beds against each wall between tall windows, was in vogue until World War I. By the 1920s rising land values, advancing medical technology, and additional hospital functions caused the pavilion plan to be abandoned in favor of the vertical monoblock.
Gradually the public image of the hospital changed, so that instead of being the hospice for the sick poor, it became the diagnostic and treatment center for all classes. The number of private or semiprivate rooms steadily increased. St. Vincent's Hospital in New York, founded in 1849, was among the first to provide private rooms, but there was at first little demand (the original Hopkins plans provided for only twenty-six pay beds). Since the mid-20th century, private and semiprivate rooms have predominated and influenced hospital architecture. Other additions since the 1873 hospital survey were scientific laboratories and special therapy areas, which began to appear in 1889 when Lankenau Hospital in Philadelphia and the Johns Hopkins introduced bacteriological and chemical laboratories.
Ethnic and religious hospitals
Although they assisted in founding wartime hospitals during 1863-65, Alabama Baptist involvement in the medical field began in earnest in 1905. Their efforts came to fruition in 1922, when the Alabama Baptist Hospital in Selma and the Birmingham Baptist Hospital opened. Other hospitals followed throughout the rest of the 20th century.
Catholic bishops and orders of nuns asserted that hospitals should provide spiritual as well as surgical services. To tap the rising population of Catholic immigrants and counteract Protestant proselytizing, the Church created separate institutions, such as hospitals, and defined them along religious lines. Leaders sought women religious to staff these hospitals, in which they could preserve Catholic identity. Three major nursing orders emerged during 1865-1920: the Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet from St. Paul, Minnesota; the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word from San Antonio, Texas; and the Sisters of the Holy Cross from South Bend, Indiana.
For example, Lewiston, Maine's first public hospital became a reality in 1889 when the Sisters of Charity of Montreal, the "Grey Nuns," opened the doors of the Asylum of Our Lady of Lourdes. This hospital was central to the Grey Nuns' mission of providing social services for Lewiston's predominately French Canadian mill workers. The Grey Nuns struggled to establish their institution despite meager financial resources, language barriers, and opposition from the largely Protestant established medical community.
Chicago's rival Jewish communities built two major hospitals. The German Jews, many of them successful businessmen who arrived in the 1850s, built Michael Reese Hospital in the 1880s. Later the poorer Orthodox Jews from Russia established Maimonides Hospital (later renamed Mount Sinai) in 1912.
For three decades, the Taborian Hospital and the Friendship Clinic in Mound Bayou, Mississippi, provided quality medical care to thousands of poor blacks, without help from either the federal or state governments. Fraternal orders established both clinics in the 1940s as an alternative to Jim Crow humiliations. Ironically, segregation helped these establishments prosper by providing a ready market. By the 1960s, however, a combination of circumstances made this kind of "self-help" care unviable. Medicare and Medicaid, along with the demise of segregation, made it possible for poor Delta residents to choose health care facilities with more modern equipment. State regulations also became too burdensome for small, underfinanced facilities. Migration took its toll as well, as black families left the Delta for better opportunity in Memphis and Chicago.
Today, many hospitals, including religious ones, are part of a chain; they are owned by corporations, non-profit organizations, and government authorities. For example, the Bon Secours Health System is a non-profit organization operating Roman Catholic hospitals in seven states in the eastern U.S.
Childbirth and children
Before 1920, many women of all social classes delivered their babies at home. This continued into the 1940s in the rural South, where midwives handled the deliveries. However, as doctors became aware of the problematic spread of bacteria and germs, they realized they could not create a sterile environment in a house and began urging families to go to modern hospitals where they promised the women good treatment, excellent food, pain-free births, and excellent, professional attention from nurses.
The changing ideas about the treatment of children can be explored through the architecture of pediatric hospitals in Montreal and Toronto from 1875 to 2000. Hospital architecture reveals three distinct phases in the structuring of medical care spaces for children as patients. Late-19th- and early-20th-century children's hospitals remained bastions of older spatial attitudes toward health, while the post-World War I hospital was self-consciously modern, with an arrangement more scientific and institutional than its predecessor. Through references to other typologies, the postmodern hospital marks a return to the earlier attitude that children's health is a family affair.
X rays, discovered in 1895, were quickly adopted, making the hospital the workshop of medicine. With the introduction of aseptic techniques in the late 19th century, surgery advanced rapidly, with the uperior facilities of the hospital replacing the doctor's office. In 1918 the College of Surgeons sponsored a program of hospital standardization that set forth minimum requirements for properly equipped hospitals. In 1918 only 13% of hospitals won approval. Great gains were made in the 1920s so that by 1936, 72% met the standards.
Religion plays a significant role in most hospitals, even those without a particular religious theme. Hospitals of all types usually employ a hospital chaplain. The Gideons International places copies of the Holy Bible in most hospital rooms. Some hospitals without a religious theme were originally built by religious organizations. Atheists generally do not establish hospitals in free societies, and even if a hospital were established by an atheist, there are no "religious free" hospitals as it wouldn't be a profitable business practice to abolish religion in such facilities, and atheists are much too uncharitable to establish a non-profit facility. There are/were substandard atheist hospitals in communist dictatorships such as Cuba and the former Soviet Union.
Costs and insurance
The costs of hospital care were rising, and in 1933 the American Hospital Association recommended prepaid nonprofit hospital insurance (Blue Cross), initiating a new pattern of prepayment for health-related expenses. There was a massive growth of a private health industry in the United States during the 1940s-1950s, in contrast to the public health insurance programs implemented in Western Europe and Canada. Rising family income and tax policies encouraged a close link between employment and health insurance, thus promoting insurance. On the supply side, hospitals sought to stabilize fluctuating income through prepayment plans that later became Blue Cross. Doctors, although adamantly opposed to government insurance, formed Blue Shield plans. These two created a new supply of health insurance and demonstrated the viability of the private health insurance model, stimulating competitor companies and increasing consumer purchase of health insurance.
Political battles over the federal role in health financed continued, with the major change coming in 1965, when Lydon Johnson's "Great Society" created Medicare, that is low-cost hospital care for Social Security recipients. Actual costs of Medicare proved much higher than predicted, making it a major element of the federal budget.
The ongoing controversy about how much more hospitals charge self-paying or uninsured patients compared to patients having insurance or being in government programs like Medicare or Medicaid is referred to as hospital pricing.
After World War II the hospital began to assume a new role as community health center, for the outpatient department and the emergency room became a substitute for the rapidly vanishing general practitioner to whom families had formerly turned for help. At the same time, the increasing expensiveness of medical care stimulated attempts to economize by creating new forms of health delivery systems, such as health maintenance organizations, which build and operate their own hospitals to serve their prepaid members. By 1973 the 7,000, existing hospitals had grown much larger, with 1.65 million beds.
The annual U.S. news rating of hospitals gives the top dozen in 2009:
- 1 Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore
- 2 Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
- 3 Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles
- 4 Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland
- 5 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
- 6 New York-Presbyterian University Hospital, New York
- 7 UCSF Medical Center (University of California at San Francisco)
- 8 Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston
- 8 Duke University Medical Center, Durham NC
- 10 Hospital of the U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
- 10 U. of Washington Medical Center, Seattle
- 12 Barnes-Jewish Hospital/ Washington U., St Louis
- Goldin, Grace and John Thompson. Hospital: A Social and Architectural History (1975)
- Risse, Guenter B. Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals. (1999). 716 pp. standard scholarly history
- Rosenberg, Charles. The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (1987) 456 pp excerpt and text search
- Starr, Paul. The Social Transformation of American Medicine (1982) online edition
- Stevens, Rosemary. In Sickness and in Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century. (1989). 432 pp. excerpt and text search
- Vogel, Morris. The Invention of the Modern Hospital: Boston, 1870-1930 (1980).
- Abel-Smith, Brian. The Hospitals, 1800-1948: A Study in Social Administration in England and Wales (1967)
- Beardsley, E. H. "Good-Bye to Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Hospitals, 1945-70." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 1986 60(3): 367-386.
- Commission on Hospital Care. Hospital Care in the United States (1947), for 1940s
- Corwin, E.H.L. The American Hospital (1946), for the 1940s
- Finzsch, Norbert and Jütte, Robert, eds. Institutions of Confinement: Hospitals, Asylums, and Prisons in Western Europe and North America, 1500-1950. (1996). 369 pp.
- Henderson, John. The Renaissance Hospital: Healing the Body and Healing the Soul. (2006) 492 pp.
- Howell, Joel D. Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century. (1995). 341 pp.
- Jones, Colin. The Charitable Imperative: Hospitals and Nursing in Ancien Régime and Revolutionary France. (1989). 317 pp.
- Loudon, Irvine. Western Medicine: An Illustrated History (1997) online edition
- Nelson, Sioban. Say Little, Do Much: Nursing, Nuns, and Hospitals in the Nineteenth Century. (2001). 240 pp.
- Opdycke, Sandra. No One Was Turned Away: The Role of Public Hospitals in New York City since 1900. (1999). 244 pp.
- Orme, Nicholas and Webster, Margaret. The English Hospital, 1070-1570. (1995). 320 pp.
- Pickstone, John V. Medicine and Industrial Society: A History of Hospital Development in Manchester and Its Region, 1752-1946. (1985). 369 pp.
- Rice, Mitchell F. and Woodrow Jones Jr.Public Policy and the Black Hospital: From Slavery to Segregation to Integration (1994) online edition
- Rosner, David. A Once Charitable Enterprise: Hospitals and Health Care in Brooklyn and New York, 1885-1915 (1982).
- Schultz, Jane E. Women at the Front: Hospital Workers in Civil War America. (2004) 360pp.
- Carson, Carolyn Leonard. Healing Body, Mind, and Spirit: The History of the St. Francis Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. (1995). 246 pp.
- Castleman, Benjamin; Crockett, David C.; and Sutton, S. B. The Massachusetts General Hospital 1955-1980. (1983). 410 pp.
- Clapesattle, Helen. The Doctors Mayo (1941),
- Connor, J. T. H. Doing Good: The Life of Toronto's General Hospital. (2000). 342 pp.
- Green, Carol C. Chimborazo: The Confederacy's Largest Hospital. (2004) 200pp.
- Hendricks, Rickey and Foster, Mark S. For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990. (1994). 209 pp.
- Kraut, Alan M. and Deborah A. Kraut. Covenant of Care: Newark Beth Israel and the Jewish Hospital in America (2007) online edition
- Levey, Samuel et al. The Rise of a University Teaching Hospital, a Leadership Perspective: The University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, 1898-1995. (1996). 465 pp.
- Salvaggio, John. New Orleans' Charity Hospital: A Story of Physicians, Politics, and Poverty. (1992). 406 pp.
- Sibley, Marilyn McAdams. The Methodist Hospital of Houston: Serving the World. (1989). 241 pp.
- John S. Leiby, "The Royal Indian Hospital of Mexico City, 1553-1680." Historian 1995 57(3): 573-580.
- Nancy E. Boone and Michael Sherman, "Designed to Cure: Civil War Hospitals in Vermont". Vermont History 2001 69(1-2): 173-200. 0042-4161
- Jennifer Blair, "Baptists Minister Through Hospitals." Alabama Baptist Historian 2001 37(2): 66-69. 0002-4147
- Barbra Mann Wall, "Science and Ritual: The Hospital as Medical and Sacred Space, 1865-1920." Nursing History Review 2003 11: 51-68. 1062-8061
- Susan Hudson, "Les Soeurs Grises of Lewiston, Maine 1878-1908: An Ethnic Religious Feminist Expression." Maine History 2001-02 40(4): 309-332. 1090-5413
- Steven M. Schwartz, Strong Medicine. Chicago History 1999 28(1): 4-25. 0272-8540
- David T. Beito, "Black Fraternal Hospitals in the Mississippi Delta, 1942-1967". Journal of Southern History 1999 65(1): 109-140. 0022-4642
- Judith Walzer Leavitt, "'Strange Young Women on Errands': Obstetric Nursing between Two Worlds". Nursing History Review 1998 6: 3-24. 1062-8061
- Annmarie Adams and David Theodore, "Designing For 'The Little Convalescents': Children's Hospitals in Toronto and Montreal, 1875-2000." Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 2002 19(1): 201-243. 0823-2105
- Health Management Associates facility Charlotte Regional Medical Center employs Rev. Larry Pope
- Hospital Corporation of America facility employs Rev. Bob Carlson
- Sarasota Memorial Hospital, a county-run facility, employs more than one chaplain
- Melissa A. Thomasson, "From Sickness To Health: The Twentieth-Century Development of U.S. Health Insurance." Explorations in Economic History 2002 39(3): 233-253. 0014-4983
- see rankings March 22, 2009
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Parakeet Budgie and Keets that Glow in the Dark -
First off, parakeets do NOT GLOW IN THE DARK! To think that these poor little birds would turn into giant night-lights after dark would be silly! Just think of all those predators out roaming the night saying "Jeez, where do I find a tasty meal?" The predators would look up in the trees and see bunches of glowing little parakeets, and have a buffet.
Flourescent Budgie Feathers
The research done in the science journal called Nature by Katherine Arnold involved the breeding feathers of budgies - the ones around their head and neck. When budgies are out in the sun all day, those feathers absorb ultraviolet light from the sun - just like a blacktop of a driveway would absorb the sun's warmth and get warm. After dark, just as the driveway stays warm for a while and radiates that heat, the bird's feathers give off a flourescent glow. You can see that if you have a flourescent light. But of course your budgie would have had to have been in the sun for a few hours first!
Why do the bird's breeding feathers flouresce? It's a sign of a healthy bird, that they have enough breeding feathers to absorb the ultraviolet rays, and also a sign of a healthy bird that they were out in the sun for a long while. Parakeets need lots of sunlight to absorb the vitamins from it.
Ms. Arnold's research therefore was to put sunblock on a bunch of parakeets, so their feathers did NOT flouresce. She found that parakeets of the opposite sex - potential mates - began ignoring the birds that had been sunblocked! So parakeets use that glow to help them determine which birds are suitable for dating. Other birds of the same sex stayed friendly, so it wasn't a "you are a bad parakeet" thing. It was a "you are not a suitable partner to raise kids with" thing.
How do parakeets see this flourescence? Obviously they don't have flourescent lights out on the Australian plains of their homelands!! All advanced eyes have rods and cones in them that detect light and shapes and turn those into vision for our brains. While human eyes don't have cones that reach into the flourescent spectrum, parakeet eyes do have double cones that can see those wavelengths. So when a parakeet looks at another parakeet, that glow is one of the things they can see!
Cat / Parakeet Info Homepage
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a) Read the question well. It asks you for the final speed after breaking, not after accelerating from rest.
Can you try it again?
But that's still not the answer. You didn't include the distance covered while braking.
If you draw a quick sketch of the vt graph of the motion of the car, you get the area of a triangle and a trapezium to find. Try this part again too.
a) You didn't square the speed... wrong answer.
b) Where did you get that formula? The actual formula is
What you are using doesn't exist and might be close to but that's not it. Try again.
c) Uh... if it took t seconds to reach the highest point (obtained in part b), then it will take t seconds to fall down from the highest point... You don't need to calculate again.
Or you can use where s = 0, t becomes easy to find. Oh, I find that you need to use this equation after reading the next part.
d) Now that you know the time, find the final speed using:
8. For this one, if you don't know the cosine rule, you'll need to use Pythagoras' Theorem together with some trigonometric ratios.
Make a sketch. (This is very helpful in all sorts of problems)
When done, you'll find something like this:
You'll need to find x and y first, then use those values to find z, represented by the red broken line.
Then, you'll need to find the angle the red broken line makes with the horizontal line to get the direction C is from A.
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Women in Naval Aviation Exhibit Opens
The National Naval Aviation Museum will unveil a new exhibit that chronicles the history of women in naval aviation at 1 p.m., Thursday, March 21. The first women in naval aviation were World War I “yeomanettes” who performed administrative duties in Washington D.C. and naval facilities around the country. The official name of the new exhibit, “From Typewriters to Strike Fighters”, commemorates the path of women in naval service from the “yeomanettes” in 1917 to those women serving on the front lines today.
The new exhibit is a dynamic multimedia presentation featuring historic images, personal interviews and artifacts that chronicle the history of women in naval aviation. The centerpiece is a multi-screen video wall with excerpts of inspiring interviews of female naval aviators including the current Chief of Navy Reserve, members of the first all-female Navy E-2 Hawkeye combat crew, an Operation Iraqi Freedom Navy helicopter pilot, a Coast Guard search and rescue pilot, and the first female aviator to carrier qualify in a jet aircraft.
Navy Captain Henry J. Hendrix, PhD, the Director of Naval History, will formally open the exhibit. Museum Director, retired Navy Captain Bob Rasmussen, will be available for comments along with pioneering female naval aviators and female active duty personnel who participated in the exhibit through interviews or the donation of artifacts.
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More than 1000 babies with virtually no hearing are born in the US each year. Over 90% have hearing parents. Two extreme approaches to their language acquisition are: (a) They must attain oral language to stay part of their family; further, ASL is so much easier that it inhibits their gaining oral language and should be excluded; (b) given a functional visual system and a nonfunctional auditory system, the infant will learn ASL at the brain's pace and, as an adult, he/she will choose to be part of the Deaf culture, so English is de-emphasized. Both approaches are flawed. In the age-old battle between the oralists and the manualists, deaf children and their parents are the losers. For some time there has been the hope that technology will yield dramatic breakthroughs in aids for the deaf. It is suggested here that progress may well be made through intensive study of the neurology of language acquisition [Poizner et al., What the Hands Reveal about the Brain (MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1987)] and application of knowledge about bilingualism [F. Grosjean, Life with Two Languages (Harvard U. P., Cambridge, MA, 1987)].
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Pew, the internet research centre, has published a new report looking at teen social network usage. The full report, available to download here, is a fascinating read.
Perhaps most startling is the sheer dominance of Facebook, and also the rise of Twitter amongst teens. Only last week at PR Week’s PR and The Media conference we heard Radio 1’s Rod McKenzie declare Facebook as ‘dead among young people’ and that ‘no self-respecting young person would be on Facebook’. He referenced Tumblr, SnapChat and Keek as being en vogue. In fact both on number of accounts and most-used social networks, Facebook is trouncing everything else, with Twitter a well-earned second place with one quarter of teens using Twitter.
Taken from the summary of the Pew report:
- Teens are sharing more information about themselves on social media sites than they did in the past. For the five different types of personal information that we measured in both 2006 and 2012, each is significantly more likely to be shared by teen social media users in our most recent survey.
- Teen Twitter use has grown significantly: 24% of online teens use Twitter, up from 16% in 2011.
- The typical (median) teen Facebook user has 300 friends, while the typical teen Twitter user has 79 followers.
- Focus group discussions with teens show that they have waning enthusiasm for Facebook, disliking the increasing adult presence, people sharing excessively, and stressful “drama,” but they keep using it because participation is an important part of overall teenage socializing.
- 60% of teen Facebook users keep their profiles private, and most report high levels of confidence in their ability to manage their settings.
- Teens take other steps to shape their reputation, manage their networks, and mask information they don’t want others to know; 74% of teen social media users have deleted people from their network or friends list.
- Teen social media users do not express a high level of concern about third-party access to their data; just 9% say they are “very” concerned.
- On Facebook, increasing network size goes hand in hand with network variety, information sharing, and personal information management.
- In broad measures of online experience, teens are considerably more likely to report positive experiences than negative ones. For instance, 52% of online teens say they have had an experience online that made them feel good about themselves.
Below is the graphic charting the most often used social networks:
The report is a rich seam of information on future social media usage, not just the present state of youth internet, and well worth your time digesting in full.
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Fluoride Levels in Drinking Water
Fluoride occurs naturally in water. Natural fluoride levels above the currently recommended range for drinking water may increase the risk for severe fluorosis. In communities where natural levels exceed 2 parts per million, the CDC recommends that parents give children water from other sources.
Prompted by concerns that children may be getting too much fluoride, the Health and Human Services Department in January 2011 lowered its recommended level of fluoride in drinking water. And the Environmental Protection Agency is reviewing its rules on the upper limit of fluoride levels in drinking water.
Symptoms of fluorosis range from tiny white specks or streaks that may be unnoticeable to dark brown stains and rough, pitted enamel that is difficult to clean. Teeth that are unaffected by fluorosis are smooth and glossy. They should also be a pale creamy white.
Contact your dentist if you notice that your child’s teeth have white streaks or spots or if you observe one or more discolored teeth.
Since the 1930s, dentists have rated the severity of fluorosis using the following categories:
Questionable. The enamel shows slight changes ranging from a few white flecks to occasional white spots.
Very mild. Small opaque paper-white areas are scattered over less than 25% of the tooth surface.
Mild. White opaque areas on the surface are more extensive but still affect less than 50% of the surface.
Moderate. White opaque areas affect more than 50% of the enamel surface.
Severe. All enamel surfaces are affected. The teeth also have pitting that may be discrete or may run together.
In many cases, fluorosis is so mild that no treatment is needed. Or, it may only affect the back teeth where it can’t be seen.
The appearance of teeth affected by moderate-to-severe fluorosis can be significantly improved by a variety of techniques. Most of them are aimed at masking the stains.
Such techniques may include:
- Tooth whitening and other procedures to remove surface stains; note that bleaching teeth may temporarily worsen the appearance of fluorosis.
- Bonding, which coats the tooth with a hard resin that bonds to the enamel
Veneers, which are custom-made shells that cover the front of the teeth to improve their appearance; these are used in cases of severe fluorosis.
- MI Paste, a calcium phosphate product that is sometimes combined with methods like microabrasion to minimize tooth discoloration
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Whereas the research for this book's predecessor, Bloodline of the Holy Grail, was New Testament based, Genesis of the Grail Kings concentrates on Old Testament times, particularly on the early stories from the books of Genesis and Exodus.
As discovered in previous studies, the Gospel texts which have been in the public domain for centuries often bear little relation to the first-hand accounts of the era to which they relate.
The New Testament, as we know it, was contrived by the 4th-century bishops to support the newly manipulated Christian faith and, in just the same way, the Old Testament scriptures were designed to uphold the emergent Hebrew faith, rather than to represent historical fact.
The Bible explains that the Bloodline story began with Adam and Eve, from whose third son Seth evolved a line which progressed through Methuselah, Noah and, eventually, to Abraham who became the great patriarch of the Hebrew nation. The text relates that Abraham brought his family westwards out of Mesopotamia (present day Iraq) to the land of Canaan (Palestine), from where some of his descendants moved into Egypt. After many generations, they journeyed back into Canaan where, in time, David of Bethlehem became king of the newly defined kingdoms of Judah and Israel.
If viewed as it is presented in the scriptures, this is a fascinating saga, but there is nothing anywhere to indicate why the ancestral line of David and his subsequent heirs was in any way special. In fact, quite the reverse is the case; his ancestors are portrayed as a succession of wandering territory seekers, who are seen to be of no particular significance until the time of King David himself.
Their biblical history bears no comparison to, say, the contemporary pharaohs of ancient Egypt, but their significance, we are told, comes from the fact that Abraham and his descendants were designated as 'God's chosen people'. This, of course, leaves us wondering because, according to the Old Testament, their God led them through nothing but a succession of famines, wars and general hardship, rather than acting throughout as their merciful shepherd - an image which is only portrayed from time to time.
Given that the first group of these ultimately canonical books was written while the Jews were held captive in Mesopotamian Babylon in the 6th century BC, it is apparent that Babylon was where the original records were then held. In fact, from the time of Adam, through some nineteen said generations down to Abraham, the whole of Hebrew patriarchal history was Mesopotamian. More specifically, the history was from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia, where the ancient Sumerians did indeed refer to the grass-lands of the Euphrates delta as the Eden.
When researching for Bloodline of the Holy Grail, it was apparent that good sources for background information were the various Gospels and texts that were not selected by the bishops for inclusion in the canonical New Testament - the books that were strategically ignored. Similarly, there were books that were excluded from the Old Testament: the books of Enoch and Jubilees, for example.
A further work, to which attention is specifically drawn in the Old Testament books of Joshua and 2-Samuel, is the book of Jasher. But despite Jasher's apparent importance to the Hebrew writers, it was not included in the final selection. Also, the book of Numbers draws our attention to the book of The Wars of Jehovah, while in the book of Isaiah we are directed towards the book of The Lord. The very fact that these writings are mentioned in the Bible means that they must pre-date the Old Testament. Indeed, they are all cited as being important but, for one reason or another, the editors saw fit to exclude them when the canonical selection was made.
It has often been wondered why the biblical God of the Hebrews led them through trials, tribulations, floods and disaster when, from time to time, he appears to have performed with a quite contrary and merciful personality. The answer is that, although now seemingly embraced in a general context as the One God by the Jewish and Christian churches, there was originally a distinct difference between the figures of Jehovah and the Lord. They were, in practice, quite separate deities. The god referred to as Jehovah was traditionally a storm god - a god of wrath and vengeance, whereas the god referred to as the Lord emerges as a god of fertility and wisdom.
In early times, the prevailing Hebrew word for Lord was Adon, whereas the apparent personal name of Jehovah was not used at all. It came from the original Hebrew stem YHWH (Yahweh), which meant 'I am that I am - a statement said to have been made by God to Moses on Mount Sinai hundreds of years after the time of Abraham. However, the Bible also makes it clear that the God of Abraham was actually called El Shaddai, which means Lofty Mountain.
Jehovah was, therefore, not a name at all. The early texts refer simply to El Shaddai and to his opposing counterpart Adon. The Canaanites called these gods El Elyon and Baal, meaning precisely the same things: Lofty Mountain and Lord. In modern Bibles, the definitions God and Lord are used and intermixed throughout as if they referred to the same Jehovah character, but originally they did not. One was a vengeful god (a people suppressor), and the other was a social god (a people supporter). Additionally, in contrast to Bible teachings, the various traditions relate that these gods both had parents, wives, sons and daughters.
Throughout the patriarchal era, the emergent Hebrews endeavoured to support Adon the Lord but, at every turn, El Shaddai (the storm god Jehovah) retaliated with floods, tempests, famines and general destruction. Even at the time of the Captivity (around 586 BC), the Bible explains that Jerusalem was overthrown at Jehovah's bidding. Tens of thousands of Israelites were then taken hostage into Babylon simply because one of their past kings (a descendant of King David) had erected altars in veneration of Baal the Adon.
It was during the course of this Captivity that the Israelites finally conceded. They decided, after generations of Adon support, to succumb to the opposing god of wrath, developing a new religion out of sheer fear of his retribution. It was, in fact, at this time that the apparent name of Jehovah first appeared - little more than 500 years before the time of Jesus. Subsequently, the Christian Church took Jehovah on board as well, calling him simply God, and all the hitherto social concepts of Adon were totally discarded. The two religions were henceforth both faiths of fear, and even today their followers are classified as 'God fearing'.
This leaves us with the knowledge that, within an overall pantheon of gods and goddesses (many of whom are actually named in the Bible), there were two predominant and opposing gods. In different cultures they have been called El Elyon and Baal, El Shaddai and Adon, Ahriman and Mazda, Jehovah and Lord, God and Father - but these styles are not personal names; they are all titular definitions.
To discover the identities of these gods, we have to look no further than where they were first recorded as being operative. In this regard, ancient Canaanite texts (discovered in Syria in the 1920s) reveal that their respective courts were in the Tigris-Euphrates valley in Mesopotamian Sumer - above the Eden delta of the Persian Gulf.
Sumerian written records can be traced back to the 3rd millennium BC and they explain that the gods in question were brothers. In Sumer, the storm-god who eventually became known as Jehovah was called Enlil or Ilu-kur-gal (meaning Lofty One of the Mountain) and his brother, who became Adon the Lord, was called Enki - a very appropriate name because Enki means Archetype.
The texts inform us that it was Enlil who brought the Flood; it was Enlil who destroyed Ur and Babylon, and it was Enlil who constantly opposed the education and enlightenment of humankind. Indeed an early Syrian text relates that it was Enlil-Jehovah who obliterated the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah on the Dead Sea - not because they were dens of wickedness as is generally taught, but because they were great centres of wisdom and learning.
It was Enki, on the other hand, who (despite the vengeful wrath of his brother) granted the Sumerians access to the Tree of Knowledge and the Tree of Life. It was Enki who set up the escape strategy during the Flood, and it was Enki who passed over the time-honoured Tables of Destiny - the tablets of scientific law which became the bedrock of the early mystery schools in Egypt.
Many books mention the hermetic school of Pharaoh Tuthmosis III, who reigned about 1450 BC, but it is not generally known that the school he inherited was the original Court of the Dragon, founded by the priests of Mendes in about 2200 BC. It was later ratified by the 12th-dynasty Queen Sobeknefru as a sovereign and priestly Order, to be eventually passed from Egypt to the Kings of Jerusalem and the Black Sea Princes of Scythia. Around 600 years ago King Sigismund of Hungary reconstituted the Order, which exists today as the Imperial and Royal Court of the Dragon Sovereignty under the auspices of the House of Vere of Anjou.
The kings of the early succession (who reigned in Sumer and Egypt before becoming Kings of Israel) were anointed upon installation with the fat of the Dragon: the sacred crocodile. This noble beast was referred to in Egypt as the Messeh (from which derived the Hebrew verb 'to anoint') - and the Kings of this dynastic succession were referred to as Dragons or Messiahs (meaning Anointed Ones). In times of conflict, when the armies of different kingdoms were conjoined, an overall leader was chosen and he was called the Great Dragon (the King-of-kings) or, as we better know the name in its old Celtic form, the Pendragon.
An interesting aspect of the word 'kingship' is that it was identical with kinship - and kin means 'blood-relative'. In its original form kinship was kainship, and the first King of the Messianic succession was the biblical Cain (Kain), Head of the Sumerian House of Kish. On recognizing this, one can immediately see an early anomaly in the traditional Genesis story, for the historical line to David and Jesus was not from Adam and Eve's son Seth at all. It was from Eve's son Cain, whose recorded successors (although given little space in the Old Testament) were the first great kings of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Two more important features then come to light when reading the Bible with this knowledge in mind. Conventional teaching generally cites Cain as being the first son of Adam and Eve - but he was not; even the book of Genesis tells us that he was not. In fact, it confirms how Eve told Adam that Cain's father was the Lord, who was of course Enki the Archetype. Even outside the Bible, the writings of the Hebrew Talmud and Midrash make it quite plain that Cain was not the son of Adam.
So what else is wrongly taught about this particular aspect of history? The book of Genesis (in its English translated form) tells us that Cain was 'a tiller of the ground' - but this is not what the original texts say at all. What they say is that Cain had 'dominion over the earth', which is a rather different matter when considering his kingly status.
The Bible translators appear to have had a constant problem with the word Earth - often translating it to ground, clay or dust, instead of recognizing it as relating to The Earth. Even in the case of Adam and Eve, the translators made glaring errors. The Bible says, 'Male and female created he them, and he called their name Adam'. Older writings use the more complete word Adāma, which means 'of the Earth'. However, this did not mean they were made of dirt; it means (as the Anchor Hebrew Bible explains in precise terms) that they were Earthlings.
Around 6000 years ago, Adam and Eve (known then as Atābba and Kāva - and jointly called the Adāma) were purpose-bred for kingship by Enki and his sister-wife Nīn-khursag. This took place at a 'creation chamber' which the Sumerian annals refer to as the House of Shimtī (Shi-im-tī meaning 'breath - wind - life' ). Adam and Eve were certainly not the first people on Earth, but they were the first of the alchemically devised kingly succession. Nīn-khursag was called the Lady of the Embryo or the Lady of Life, and she was the surrogate mother for Atābba and Kāva, who were created from human ova fertilized by the Lord Enki.
It was because of Nīn-khursag's title, Lady of Life, that Kāva was later given the same distinction by the Hebrews. Indeed, the name Kāva (Ava or Eve) was subsequently said to mean 'life'. There is an interesting parallel here because, in Sumerian, the style Lady of Life was Nīn-tī (Nīn meaning Lady, and tī meaning Life). However, another Sumerian word, ti (with the longer pronunciation: 'tee') meant 'rib' - and it was by virtue of the Hebrews' misunderstanding of the two words, tī and ti, that Eve became incorrectly associated with Adam's rib.
Both Enki and Nīn-khursag (along with their brother Enlil - the later Jehovah) belonged to a pantheon of gods and goddesses referred to as the Anunnaki which, in Sumerian, means 'Heaven came to Earth' (An-unna-ki). In fact, the Grand Assembly of the Anunnaki (later called the Court of the Elohim) is actually mentioned in the Old Testament's Psalm No. 82, wherein Jehovah makes his bid for supreme power over the other gods.
According to the Dragon tradition, the importance of Cain was that he was directly produced by Enki and Kāva, so his blood was three-quarters Anunnaki, while his half-brothers, Hevel and Satānael (better known as Abel and Seth), were less than half Anunnaki, being the offspring of Atābba and Kāva (Adam and Eve). Cain's Anunnaki blood was so advanced that it was said that his brother Abel's blood was earthbound by comparison. It was related in the scriptures that Cain 'rose far above Abel', so that his brother's blood was swallowed into the ground - but this original description was thoroughly misinterpreted for the modern Bible, which now claims that Cain 'rose up against Abel' and spilled his blood upon the ground. This is not the same thing at all.
The story can now be progressed by considering the oldest Grant of Arms in sovereign history - an entitlement which denoted the Messianic Dragon bloodline for all time. The Sumerians referred to this insignia as the Gra-al, but biblical history refers to it as the Mark of Cain. This Mark is portrayed by the modern Church as if it were some form of curse, but it is not defined as such in the Bible. Genesis actually relates that, having got into an argument with Jehovah over a matter of sovereign observance, Cain feared for his life. Consequently, the Lord placed a mark upon Cain, swearing sevenfold vengeance against his enemies.
It has never been fully understood why Jehovah should decide to protect Cain when it was he who held the grievance against him. But the fact is that Jehovah did not make this decision; the mark was settled upon Cain by the Lord - and the Lord (the Adon) was not Jehovah but Cain's own Father, Enki.
Few people ever think to enquire about the supposed enemies of Cain as defined in Genesis. Who could they possibly have been? Where would they have come from? According to the Bible only Adam and Eve, along with their sons Cain and Abel, existed - and Cain had apparently killed Abel. Therefore, if one accepts the text as it stands, there was no one around to be Cain's enemy!
The Sumerian Gra-al, which biblical tradition calls the Mark of Cain, was an emblem dignified as the Cup of the Waters, or the Rosi-Crucis (the Dew Cup), and it was identified in all records (including those of Egypt, Phoenicia and the Hebrew annals) as being an upright, centred Red Cross within a Circle. Throughout the ages it was developed and embellished, but it has always remained essentially the same and is recognized as being the original symbol of the Holy Grail.
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OAKLAND, Calif. - Prompted by new concerns about Americas reliance on oil imports from the Middle East, many are revisiting the issue over whether to allow oil exploration in Alaskas Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). In response, many environmental groups, most notably the Audubon Society, have renewed their strong opposition to drilling in the ANWR.
In the fall 2001 issue of THE INDEPENDENT REVIEW, Professor Dwight R. Lee argues that if environmentalists owned ANWR, they would probably allow drilling, with the proceeds helping to further their mission of conservation. The Independent Institute shares the following excerpts from Lees article To Drill or Not to Drill: Let the Environmentalists Decide:
*[T]he Audubon Society owns the Rainey Wildlife Sanctuary, a 26,000-acre preserve in Louisiana. . . . [It] has allowed thirty-seven wells to pump gas and oil from the Rainey Sanctuary. In return, it has received royalties of more than $25 million. . . . One should not conclude that the Audubon Society has acted hypocritically by putting crass monetary considerations above its stated concerns for protecting wilderness and wildlife. (pp. 218-19)
*Because of private ownership . . . the Society has a strong incentive to consider the benefits as well as the costs of drilling on its property. Certainly, environmental risks exist, and the society considers them, but it also responsibly weighs the costs of those risks against the benefits as measured by the income derived from drilling. Obviously, the Audubon Society appraises the benefits from drilling as greater than the costs, and it acts in accordance with that appraisal. (p. 219)
*[T]he Nature Conservancy of Texas owns the Galveston Bay Prairie Preserve in Texas City, a 2,263-acre refuge that is home to the Attwaters prairie chicken, a highly endangered species. The conservancy has entered into an agreement . . . to drill for oil and natural gas in the preserve. (pp. 220-21)
*[E]nvironmentalists would immediately see the advantages of drilling in ANWR if they were responsible for both the costs and the benefits of that drilling. . . . The environmentalists might easily conclude that although ANWR is an environmental treasure, other environmental treasures in other parts of the country (or the world) are more valuable; moreover, with just a portion of the petroleum value of the ANWR, efforts might be made to reduce the risk to other natural habitats, more than compensating for the risks to the Arctic wilderness associated with recovering that value. (p. 221)
*Environmentalists are concerned about protecting wildlife and wilderness areas in which they have ownership interest, but the debate over any threat from drilling and development in those areas is far more productive and less acrimonious than in the case of ANWR and other publicly owned wilderness areas. (p. 222)
*[C]onsider seriously what [an environmental group] would do if it owned ANWR and therefore bore the costs as well as enjoyed the benefits of preventing drilling. . . . [T]he willingness of environmental groups such as the Audubon Society. . . .to allow drilling for oil on environmentally sensitive land they own suggests strongly that their adamant verbal opposition to drilling in ANWR is a poor reflection of what they would do if they owned even a small fraction of the ANWR territory containing oil. (p. 224)
Read Dwight R. Lees article in THE INDEPENDENT REVIEW, Vol. VI, No. 2, To Drill or Not to Drill: Let the Environmentalists Decide.
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3D Printing On the MoonKyle.Maxey
posted on November 29, 2012 |
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Looking up into a clear night sky, the moon glows with a stark white intensity. Although it’s covered with craters, which bring some definition to the otherwise monochromatic surface, the moon appears barren. It’s this difference that brings the Moon into stark contrast when compared to the Earth.
Scientists think that the Moon was created when a large object smashed into the Earth during the Late Heavy Bombardment. Although the moon was once a part of the Earth, it lacks the Earth’s diversity of materials. This lack of materials isn’t an issue if you’re just going to the moon for a quick jaunt. However, if you’re planning on staying for a bit, it becomes a problem.
As NASA and other private ventures begin to make plans for a possible permanent/semi-permanent return to the Moon, they’re realizing that they’re going to have to bring loads of materials with them on their journey. To cut down on the amount of materials that they’ll have to bring, additive manufacturing is being introduced as a possible solution.
But what’s that you say? We’d still have to bring plastics and metals to extrude from our 3D printers!
Well, that’s where Professor Amit Bandyopadhyay research comes into play.
Prof. Bandyopadhyay and his team at the Washington State University Materials Research Group were asked by NASA if they could figure out a way to take moon rocks and use them as the material to print 3D objects. NASA gave the team 10 pounds of raw lunar regolith simulant, basically a fake moon rock composed of the same material found in real lunar material.
The composition of raw lunar regolith material is somewhat complex, containing silicon, aluminum, calcium, iron and magnesium oxides. This multi-material composition led Prof. Bandyopadhyay to believe that his group might not be able to melt the material to create a viscous solution suitable for 3D printing. To the group’s surprise when then material was melted, it behaved similar to silica, and that meant it could be used for additive manufacturing.
Plans to return to the Moon are still far off, with the first possible missions arriving sometime around the year 2018. Prof. Bandyopadhyay knows this and has taken the long view on his team's research. "It is an exciting science fiction story, but maybe we'll hear about it in the next few years.” But he does add one caveat, "As long as you can have additive manufacturing set up, you may be able to scoop up and print whatever you want. It's not that far-fetched."
Bandyopadhyay and his group recently published their findings in the Rapid Prototyping Journal.
Video Courtesy of WSU
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Research found that young children who spend more time engaging in more open-ended, free-flowing activities display higher levels of executive functioning, and vice versa
Parents, drop your planners—a new psychological study released Tuesday found that children with less-structured time are likely to show more “self-directed executive functioning,” otherwise known as the “cognitive processes that regulate thought and action in support of goal-oriented behavior.”
Doctoral and undergraduate researchers at University of Colorado, Boulder, followed 70 children ranging from six to seven years old, measuring their activities. A pre-determined classification system categorized activities as physical or non-physical, structured and unstructured.
The resulting study, published in the journal Frontiers in Psychology, was led by Yuko Munakata, a professor in the psychology and neuroscience department at the university. Munakata measured self-directed executive functioning using a verbal fluency test, “a standard measure on how well people can organize direct actions on their own,” she said.
The test asked children to name as elements in a particular category, like animals, as they could. “An organized person will group the animals together, listing farm animals, then move on to the next grouping,” Munakata said. “An unorganized person will say ‘cat, dog, mouse’,” providing a disconnected list of animals, inhibiting further recollection.
The results indicated that children who spend more time engaging in less-structured activities display higher levels of executive functioning. The converse also proved true: Children in more structured activities displayed lower executive functioning abilities.
“Executive function is extremely important for children,” Munakata told EurekAlert!. “It helps them in all kinds of ways throughout their daily lives, from flexibly switching between different activities rather than getting stuck on one thing, to stopping themselves from yelling when angry, to delaying gratification. Executive function during childhood also predicts important outcomes, like academic performance, health, wealth and criminality, years and even decades later.”
Munakata added a disclaimer that the study merely proves correlation, not causation. “Right now we don’t know if kids self-directed executive functioning are shaping their time, or if their activities are shaping self-directed executive functioning.”
Causation is the next piece of the puzzle, and will undoubtedly be the focus of a future longitudinal study. Until then, parents looking for the perfect balance for their kids have something else to chew on.
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Story by Paul Grondahl
James Bradley started digging in the dirt as a boy growing up in Syracuse, searching for arrowheads, tools and other Native-American artifacts.
It became a lifelong pursuit. He published a scholarly volume, “Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois,” which grew out of his Ph.D. dissertation at Syracuse University.
Now he’s turned his expertise in archaeology and history of the contact between Europeans and Indians in New York to the Capital Region.
In a richly illustrated new book, “Before Albany,” Bradley has written a comprehensive volume geared to a general reader. He examines how Dutch colonists interacted with Mahican and Mohawk people when the drastically different cultures collided early in the 17th century at the fur trading outpost known as Beverwijck.
Bradley summarized decades of scholarly research. He transforms academic accounts of artifacts into lively stories behind the combs, pipes, plates, axes and beads uncovered at local digs and what they say about life in Dutch Colonial Albany.
“Unlike Jamestown and New England where the Europeans just took the land and pushed out the Indians, there was a long period of interaction and working side by side pretty successfully in Albany,” Bradley said.
The six decades in the 1600s when Dutch settlers lived near the Mohawks and Mahicans and engaged in trade with them were marked by mutual tolerance and robust commerce beneficial to both sides.
“This is a world-class story and I hope it helps instill pride in the people of the Capital Region,” said Bradley, 60, who lives in the Charlestown section of Boston. He commuted to Albany frequently for research over the past four years. His parents and two brothers live in the Capital Region.
“I felt this area was so underappreciated in terms of its history and archaeology,” Bradley said. “A lot of what happened in the Capital Region is absolutely fundamental to what America became.”
A focal point of Bradley’s book is Arent Van Curler, a relative of the patroon Kiliaen Van Rensselaer and business agent for Rensselaerswijck, the vast patroonship that includes present-day Albany and Rensselaer counties.
Bradley portrays Van Curler as an astute businessman who learned that trade flourished when he treated the Mohawks and Mahicans as competent adults deserving of respect and fairness rather than “noble savages” requiring constant upbraiding.
Van Curler’s association with the Indians ran deep. He fathered a Mohawk daughter in 1652 and settled Schenectady in 1662 on land he purchased from the Mohawks.
“Jim’s book reawakens recognition of Arent Van Curler’s significance to the development of the Dutch colony,” said Paul Huey, a scientist and archaeologist at Peebles Island in the state Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation and a key collaborator on the book.
Huey and Karen Hartgen helped Bradley gain access to, and a deeper understanding of, Colonial-era artifacts that the two of them had unearthed at numerous archaeological digs over the years in an around Albany.
“This book filled a void,” Huey said.
“It navigates above and below the surface of Albany and brings together the disciplines of documentary history and archaeology into a seamless whole,” said Charles Gehring, director of the New Netherland Project and translator of 17th-century Dutch records.
Gehring helped Bradley with the project. He considers the Albany book a welcome companion to Russell Shorto’s “The Island at the Center of the World,” which focuses on Manhattan.
Bradley enlisted the assistance of philanthropist and preservationist Matthew Bender IV, who contributed money to the project and steered the author to other Capital Region donors. The book was published by the State Museum.
“Jim took a lot of scholarly data and academic material and made it interesting and readable,” Bender said.
“Before Albany” represented a return to his boyhood passion for Bradley, who worked for the Massachusetts Historical Commission and was director of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology at Phillips Academy in Andover, Mass. before starting his own archaeological consulting company, ArchLink.
Bradley is descended from local Colonial Dutch settlers, the Voorhees family, on his mother’s side.
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by Leslee Gensinger
You wouldn’t just step into a kitchen to make a meal without a strategy or plan for that meal. The same goes for the Discussion Board assignment. Planning and organization is the key to getting the recipe right. If you’d like to go from good to great with your Discussion Board assignments, follow these few simple steps:
Read the instructions--It’s easy to fall into a mindset that you “know how” to write a Discussion Board and that you don’t need to look at the grading rubric. However, each class can have small variations that could have big impact on your assignment and grade. Use the rubric as a checklist when writing your post to make sure elements are covered. This includes the basics like formatting, grammar and punctuation, deadlines, and length.
Follow the recipe--Each weekly module assignment will have specific items that you should address in the Discussion Board. These parameters help you keep your research and reading from being too broad. The parameters also provide key words and phrases to help you in your search for strong references. If you stick to these topics, you won’t be sidetracked by the mountains of available research.
Use quality ingredients--Did you know that “wiki” stands for “what I know is…?” Wikipedia, while a great read, can be moderated by anyone who has access to the website. This is why we discourage this, and anything like it, as a resource. Instead use the Liberty University online library and other scholarly search engines to find journal articles and research written by authors whose credentials can be verified. This will ensure that your post is made up of the highest quality research available.
Cook for the whole family--Remember, while your discussion board post is a graded assignment for your class, it is also the course interaction for online students. It is the point where we get to “hear” each other’s voice, understand one another’s perspective, and learn from our peers. Make your post such that others will want to read and respond. Using different writing styles to address your audience will bring the information and research to life!
Save the leftovers--If in your research you found articles or information that you could not fit into your assignment, be sure to save it for future posts. This allows you to cut down on time spent with future research and allows you to build on your knowledge, refer back to what you have learned, and create a foundation for future success.
Discussion Board posts are the main course in online learning. They can make or break the learning that you get out of the class. Make sure that you invest in them, use them to develop your writing, critical thinking and analytical skills, and get the most out of your program. If you take the time to really learn from them and your classmates, all the rest is icing on the cake.
Leslee Gensinger is the Director of Training and Quality Assurance for Liberty University Online. In addition to working for LUO for the past 9 years, she is also working on completing her MA in Management and Leadership online with LU. She has learned, the hard way sometimes, that good quality work is rarely done at the last minute.
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Pre-school and school-aged children who spent more time watching television got less sleep according to a study published in JAMA Pediatrics.
Sleep is important and prior research has suggested that television viewing can cause irregular sleep habits. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommended in 2009 that children under 2 years avoid exposure to any media and that for older children time be limited to one to two hours per day.
The authors examined the association between hours of television viewing and sleep in 1,713 children in Spain through parent-reported sleep duration.
Children who watched TV for 1.5 hours or more a day had shorter sleep duration at baseline. Children who reported increased TV viewing over time (from less than 1.5 hours per day to 1.5 or more hours per day) reported a reduction in sleep at follow-up visits.
"Further prospective studies are required to confirm these findings and to investigate the mechanisms that may underline the possible association."
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What Are the Symptoms of Autism? Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are
characterized by social-interaction difficulties, communication challenges and a ...
People with autism have some varying core symptoms in the areas of social
interactions and relationships.
The signs and symptoms of autism vary widely, as do its effects. Some autistic
children have only mild impairments, while others have more obstacles to ...
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by: ... Some children with
autism appear normal before age 1 or 2 and then suddenly ... Other Symptoms:.
Nov 3, 2015 ... Learn the symptoms and signs of autism. Common symptoms and signs include
behavioral disturbances, repetitive movements, and ...
Nov 5, 2015 ... What are the symptoms and signs of autism in children and adults? Impairment of
social interaction and communication.
Dec 18, 2013 ... The symptoms of one person with autism can be very different from the symptoms
of another person with autism. Health care providers think of ...
Feb 26, 2015 ... Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are a group of developmental disabilities that
can cause significant social, communication and behavioral ...
Early Symptoms - little girl in dress The characteristic behaviors of autism
spectrum disorder may be apparent in infancy (18 to 24 months), but they usually
Jun 3, 2014 ... Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) &mdash Comprehensive overview covers
symptoms, causes and treatment of autism and other disorders that ...
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Dogs work their magic in autism therapy
Hope Reach Clinic incorporates help of some canine friends in teaching verbal skills to clients
Published: Wednesday, January 23, 2013 at 3:15 a.m.
Last Modified: Monday, January 21, 2013 at 7:22 p.m.
WOODRUFF – ‘Fetch,” the boy timidly whispered.
On command, Tucker, a 4-year-old golden retriever, sprang into action. He ran through a play tunnel, snatched the blue tennis ball with his mouth, and ran back toward the 6-year-old, with his head up, tail wagging.
The boy smiled; seeing the dog respond to his voice made him shake in excitement.
Dogs are great companions; they are often called “man's best friend.” At Hope Reach Clinic in Woodruff, they are that and so much more.
The friendly canines are used as therapy for autistic children, who are often nonverbal and have trouble communicating or expressing what they want. The dogs are a learning tool, said Lisa Lane, director of the nonprofit organization that provides in-home and in-school treatment in Greenville, Spartanburg, Pickens, Anderson, Union, and Cherokee counties.
“Instead of using flashcards to teach a child to say commands, we are using a dog,” she said.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 1 in 88 children are identified with autism spectrum disorder, which are defined as a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges.
The 12 children who participate in the Hope Unleashed Program at Hope Reach Clinic can learn verbs such as running, jumping, sitting and actually see what each word means.
“And they learn that language means something,” Lane said. “If they say something, what they say will impact what happens.”
The program has been offered for three years. The therapy dogs are dropped off each day by Dogs for Autism, a Greenville-based nonprofit that breeds, raises and trains service and therapy dogs The group's mission is to enhance lives and increase independence for children with autism and their families through the use of trained dogs.
Some of the children at Hope Reach don't respond well to the dogs.
“A lot of autistic kids don't like the unexpected,” Lane said. “Some of the kids are scared.”
But for those who work well with the therapy dogs, Hope Reach Clinic has seen great results.
Josiah, 6, was in the middle of a therapy session on a recent Wednesday when a furry visitor, Tucker, accompanied by his trainer Michelle Rowe, appeared in the doorway.
Josiah stood up, his mouth wide open with excitement. With a smile across his face, he approached the dog and began petting his back.
“He gets so excited,” said Caitlyn Culp, Josiah's therapist.
Once outside, Josiah interacted with the dog. He picked out which color tennis ball he wanted to throw by clicking the appropriate color on an iPad.
“The iPad is fine to use, but we want him to actually be able to initiate language,” Lane said. “Finding something for our kids with autism that they are motivated enough to ask for is a huge struggle.”
Dogs for Autism, Lane adds, is a great motivating tool.
Josiah would say “fetch” and Tucker would retrieve the ball and bring it back to him. Then, Josiah would say “treat” and feed his tail-wagging buddy a dog biscuit.
“Just for him to be paying attention to the dog is great,” Lane said. “So many kids with Autism just don't pay attention to their environment.”
Josiah couldn't help but smile as he continued to play fetch with the dog.
“And happiness is a worthwhile goal to pursue as well,” Lane said.
Reader comments posted to this article may be published in our print edition. All rights reserved. This copyrighted material may not be re-published without permission. Links are encouraged.
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We’ve been comparing two theories: stochastic mechanics and quantum mechanics. Last time we saw that any graph gives us an example of both theories! It’s a bit peculiar, but today we’ll explore the intersection of these theories a little further, and see that it has another interpretation. It’s also the theory of electrical circuits made of resistors!
That’s nice, because I’m supposed to be talking about ‘network theory’, and electrical circuits are perhaps the most practical networks of all:
I plan to talk a lot about electrical circuits. I’m not quite ready to dive in, but I can’t resist dipping my toe in the water today. Why don’t you join me? It’s not too cold!
Last time we saw that any graph gives us an operator called the ‘graph Laplacian’ that’s both infinitesimal stochastic and self-adjoint. That means we get both:
That’s sort of neat, so it’s natural to wonder what are all the operators that are both infinitesimal stochastic and self-adjoint. They’re called ‘Dirichlet operators’, and at least in the finite-dimensional case we’re considering, they’re easy to completely understand. Even better, it turns out they describe electrical circuits made of resistors!
Today let’s take a lowbrow attitude and think of a linear operator as an matrix with entries . Then:
is self-adjoint if it equals the conjugate of its transpose:
is infinitesimal stochastic if its columns sum to zero and its off-diagonal entries are nonnegative:
An operator that’s both self-adjoint and infinitesimal stochastic is called a Dirichlet operator.
What are Dirichlet operators like? Suppose is a Dirichlet operator. Then its off-diagonal entries are , and since
its diagonal entries obey
So all the entries of the matrix are real, which in turn implies it’s symmetric:
So, we can build any Dirichlet operator as follows:
Choose the entries above the diagonal, with to be arbitrary nonnegative real numbers.
The entries below the diagonal, with , are then forced on us by the requirement that be symmetric: .
The diagonal entries are then forced on us by the requirement that the columns sum to zero: .
Note that because the entries are real, we can think of a Dirichlet operator as a linear operator . We’ll do that for the rest of today.
Now for the fun part. We can easily draw any Dirichlet operator! To this we draw dots, connect each pair of distinct dots with an edge, and label the edge connecting the th dot to the th with any number .
This contains all the information we need to build our Dirichlet operator. To make the picture prettier, we can leave out the edges labelled by 0:
Like last time, the graphs I’m talking about are simple: undirected, with no edges from a vertex to itself, and at most one edge from one vertex to another. So:
Theorem. Any finite simple graph with edges labelled by positive numbers gives a Dirichlet operator, and conversely.
We already talked about a special case last time: if we label all the edges by the number 1, our operator is called the graph Laplacian. So, now we’re generalizing that idea by letting the edges have more interesting labels.
What’s the meaning of this trick? Well, we can think of our graph as an electrical circuit where the edges are wires. What do the numbers labelling these wires mean? One obvious possibility is to put a resistor on each wire, and let that number be its resistance. But that doesn’t make sense, since we’re leaving out wires labelled by 0. If we leave out a wire, that’s not like having a wire of zero resistance: it’s like having a wire of infinite resistance! No current can go through when there’s no wire. So the number labelling an edge should be the conductance of the resistor on that wire. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
So, our Dirichlet operator above gives a circuit like this:
Let’s see if this cute idea leads anywhere. Think of a Dirichlet operator as a circuit made of resistors. What could a vector mean? It assigns a real number to each vertex of our graph. The only sensible option is for this number to be the electric potential at that point in our circuit. So let’s try that.
In quantum mechanics this would be a very sensible thing to look at: it would be gives us the expected value of the Hamiltonian in a state . But what does it mean in the land of electrical circuits?
Up to a constant fudge factor, it turns out to be the power consumed by the electrical circuit!
Let’s see why. First, remember that when a current flows along a wire, power gets consumed. In other words, electrostatic potential energy gets turned into heat. The power consumed is
where is the voltage across the wire and is the current flowing along the wire. If we assume our wire has resistance we also have Ohm’s law:
If we write this using the conductance instead of the resistance , we get
But our electrical circuit has lots of wires, so the power it consumes will be a sum of terms like this. We’re assuming is the conductance of the wire from the th vertex to the th, or zero if there’s no wire connecting them. And by definition, the voltage across this wire is the difference in electrostatic potentials at the two ends: . So, the total power consumed is
This is nice, but what does it have to do with ?
The answer is here:
Theorem. If is any Dirichlet operator, and is any vector, then
Proof. Let’s start with the formula for power:
Note that the sum includes the condition , since we only have wires going between distinct vertices. But the summand is zero if , so
Expanding the square, we get
The middle term looks promisingly similar to , but what about the other two terms? Because , they’re equal:
And in fact they’re zero! Since is infinitesimal stochastic, we have
and it’s still zero when we sum over . We thus have
But since is real, this is -2 times
So, we’re done. █
An instant consequence of this theorem is that a Dirichlet operator has
for all . Actually most people use the opposite sign convention in defining infinitesimal stochastic operators. This makes , which is mildly annoying, but it gives
which is nice. When is a Dirichlet operator, defined with this opposite sign convention, is called a Dirichlet form.
Maybe it’s a good time to step back and see where we are.
So far we’ve been exploring the analogy between stochastic mechanics and quantum mechanics. Where do networks come in? Well, they’ve actually come in twice so far:
1) First we saw that Petri nets can be used to describe stochastic or quantum processes where things of different kinds randomly react and turn into other things. A Petri net is a kind of network like this:
The different kinds of things are the yellow circles; we called them states, because sometimes we think of them as different states of a single kind of thing. The reactions where things turn into other things are the blue squares: we called them transitions. We label the transitions by numbers to say the rates at which they occur. In stochastic mechanics these are nonnegative real numbers; in quantum mechanics they’re complex.
2) Then we looked at stochastic or quantum processes where in each transition a single thing turns into a single thing. We can draw these as Petri nets where each transition has just one state as input and one state as output. But we can also draw them as directed graphs with edges labelled by numbers:
Now the dark blue boxes are states and the edges are transitions!
Today we looked at a special case of the second kind of network: the Dirichlet operators. For these the ‘forward’ transition rate equals the ‘reverse’ rate , so our graph can be undirected: no arrows on the edges. And for these the rates are determined by the rest, so we can omit the edges from vertices to themselves:
And the result can be seen as an electrical circuit made of resistors! So we’re building up a little dictionary:
Stochastic mechanics: is a probability and is a transition rate (probability per time).
Quantum mechanics: is an amplitude and is a transition rate (amplitude per time).
Circuits made of resistors: is a voltage and is a conductance.
This dictionary may seem rather odd. But that’s good: if it weren’t odd, it wouldn’t give us any new ideas.
While odd, it’s actually well-known. We’ve been looking at the discrete version, where we have a finite set of states. But in the continuum, the classic example of a Dirichlet operator is the Laplacian . And then we have:
is fundamental to stochastic mechanics.
is fundamental to quantum mechanics.
is fundamental to electrostatics.
Briefly speaking, electrostatics is the study of how the electric potential depends on the charge density . The theory of electrical circuits made of resistors can be seen as a special case, at least when the current isn’t changing with time.
I’ll say a lot more about this… but not today! If you want to learn more, this is a great place to start:
This free online book explains, in a really fun informal way, how random walks on graphs, are related to electrical circuits made of resistors. To dig deeper into the continuum case, try:
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Saturday, September 11, 1999 Published at 15:51 GMT 16:51 UK
Family discover new dinosaur
The Stegosaurus roamed the earth over 100m years ago
Scientists have revealed that a fossilised bone from a hitherto unknown dinosaur has been found on a Scottish isle.
A holidaying family found the fossilised elbow joint of a previously unknown member of the stegosaur family in sandstone on the Isle of Skye.
After two years of research, scientists have revealed the bone belonged to one of the herbivores which roamed the earth 175 years ago.
It was the first bone of its kind to be found and was discovered by private banker Colin Aitken, 37, who was holidaying on the isle in 1997.
The discovery has been hailed as "very significant" by experts in paleaontology.
The ultra radius bone dates back to the mid-Jurassic period when the Isle of Skye was part of the North American continent.
It has further confirmed the importance of Skye as an important research site.
Dougie Ross, who is Curator of the Staffin Museum on the isle, said there have been significant discoveries on Skye every year since 1994.
He said: "It would appear this bone had come from a close relative of the Stegosaurus.
"This is certainly a very significant discovery and that description, I am confident, would be given by the major institutions."
The Curator of Palaeontology at the Hunterian Museum, Neil Clark, carried out research and dating work on the find over 18 months.
He told the Times newspaper: "This is the first bone ever found in the world of this particular dinosaur. It is unique.
"When you think that there are 800 different types of dinosaur, to find a new one is tremendously exciting."
Mr Aitken, who was on a camping holiday with his family on Skye in May 1997, had decided to take his children "fossil hunting" on a beach because he heard fossils had been found there.
When he turned over a block of yellow sandstone he saw a black bone, which measured about 10ins.
Mr Aitken was unable to carry the stone and get his children home so he left it there.
The family returned to Edinburgh because of bad weather but Mr Aitken had not forgotten about the discovery.
He informed the Staffin Museum who found the stone. Although the long bone had gone, museum staff recovered the elbow joint.
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Canada's ranking in international child health indexes would dramatically improve if measurements were standardized, according to a new study by researchers from the University of British Columbia, Dalhousie University, McGill University, the University of Calgary, and the Public Health Agency of Canada, working with the Canadian Perinatal Surveillance System and funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).
The study, published today in the British Medical Journal, shows the surveys on perinatal, infant and child mortality rates conducted by the United Nations Children's Fund and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) are biased because many countries fail to register all babies, especially those born very small or too early.
"The contemporary rankings of industrialized countries by infant mortality and related indices are extremely misleading," says lead author Dr. K.S. Joseph, a professor in UBC's Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the School of Population and Public Health and a scientist at the Child & Family Research Institute.
"Appropriate steps should be taken to standardize birth registration and related data quality issues if we are to fully understand infant health status in industrialized countries," Dr. Joseph adds.
Using 2004 data from Australia, Canada, Europe and the United States, the researchers compared fetal, neonatal and infant mortality rates. Comparisons were also made using data for 2007 from Australia, Canada and New Zealand.
The researchers' review revealed wide variations in birth registration procedures, even in industrialized countries, resulting in comparisons that rewarded countries that only register infants who survived, or who had a reasonable chance of survival.
The highly publicized, poor OECD ranking of Canada and the U.S. is almost entirely attributable to the selective registration in other countries of extremely preterm infants who survive, and the systematic under-registration of those who don't," says Michael Kramer, one of the study's authors and until recently the Scientific Director of CIHR's Institute of Human Development, Child and Youth Health. "It is also important to note that this is not necessarily a reflection of the quality or access to health care for pregnant women in Canada and the United States. Correcting for this problem, as is recommended by the World Health Organization, will show our country performs extremely well."
Canada currently ranks 18th among OECD nations, with the United States placing 22nd. If corrected neonatal mortality rates calculations are applied, however, Canadian and U.S. would rank improved 12th and 11th, respectively. Further, only 1 of 11 countries that ranked ahead of Canada and only 2 of the 10 countries that ranked ahead of the U.S. had mortality rates that were significantly lower. Similar findings were obtained in rankings based on fetal and infant death rates.
The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) is the Government of Canada's health research investment agency. CIHR's mission is to create new scientific knowledge and to enable its translation into improved health, more effective health services and products, and a strengthened Canadian health care system. Composed of 13 Institutes, CIHR provides leadership and support to more than 14,100 health researchers and trainees across Canada. Visit http://www.
UBC Faculty of Medicine provides innovative programs in the health and life sciences, teaching students at the undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate levels. Its faculty members received $295 million in research funds, 54 percent of UBC's total research revenues, in 2010-11. For more information, visit http://www.
The Child & Family Research Institute conducts discovery, clinical and applied research to benefit the health of children and families. It is the largest institute of its kind in Western Canada. CFRI works in close partnership with the University of British Columbia, BC Children's Hospital and Sunny Hill Health Centre for Children, BC Women's Hospital & Health Centre, agencies of the Provincial Health Services Authority, and BC Children's Hospital Foundation. CFRI has additional important relationships with BC's five regional health authorities and with BC academic institutions Simon Fraser University, the University of Victoria, the University of Northern British Columbia, and the British Columbia Institute of Technology. For more information, visit http://www.
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Have you ever wondered what the inside of the Nauvoo temple looked like? I thought it would be interesting to take you on a tour of this temple. Let's go back in time and suppose we have been invited to tour the temple in 1846:
To enter the temple from the west, we climb eight or ten steps to the entrance hall or foyer. On the left and right we can see circular stairways, one of which we will use to descend into the basement.
In the basement, which is used exclusively for baptisms, there are five rooms on the north, and others at the end of the structure. Some are probably used for the clerks who record the baptisms performed. The other rooms are dressing rooms. These rooms have floors which slope toward the center of the building, so that water dripping from wet clothing would find its way into the central drainage system. This drainage system consists of a tunnel of stone masonry, more than a foot square which takes the water to the southeast, and ends up in a ravine
All the basement floors and hallways are paved with red brick. Outside of these side rooms are two or more stone steps which we descend to a central lower level where the baptismal font is located in a depression at the center of the basement. The marble-based font rests on the back of twelve stone oxen, four at each side and two on each end. Their heads, shoulders and forelegs are projecting out from under the font. Originally, there was a temporary font located here which was oval shaped and constructed of pine, resting on twelve oxen which had been carved from pine planks and glued together. The original font was sixteen feet long, east to west, and twelve feet wide, seven feet above the floor and four feet deep. The moulding of the base was beautiful carved wood in antique style, and the sides were finished with panel work. There are stone steps leading up and down into the basin in the north and south sides, guarded by side iron railings. We walk 30 feet to the east of the font and find a well, thirty feet deep, with a pump that supplies the baptismal water. The April 6th, 1846 church conference was held in this large basement room because workmen were painting the upper rooms.
We next ascend one of the circular stairways, back up to the main floor and enter the main assembly hall which has a series of pulpits at the east and west ends with four rising sets of seats. Above the upper seats is a large inscription in gold letter, "The Lord is our sacrifice." There are also seats that are used by the choir and the band. The woodwork and walls are exquisitely finished. Here are held public gatherings, solemn assemblies, and church conferences. It reminds us of the assembly rooms in the Kirtland Temple. The hall has an arched, plastered ceiling which leaves space on the north and the south sides for offices with windows. These rooms were originally intended to be ordinance rooms, however later the attic was used for this purpose. Each mezzanine room is lighted by the first row of circular windows. The rooms are plastered, carpeted, and curtained.
Leaving this hall, we ascend the circular stairs to the second floor. We notice on the walls of the stairway, fixtures for oil lamps. On one occasion, President Young had the lights taken out of the stair case, as troops were trying to get into the temple. We continue up and find ourselves in a room similar in size and furnishings as the hall beneath it. Here, the furnishings are simpler. This room is used for overflow meetings and for instruction. Offices are also located along the outside walls in a mezzanine of this floor.
We now climb to the third floor, or attic, enter a reception room, and find a number of rooms used for preparation and dressing. There are four rooms: two "wardrobes" where the brethren and sisters change into their temple clothing, a "sitting room" where couples wait for ordinances to begin, and a "pantry" where temple workers and those receiving their endowments kept their lunches.
The rooms on the north were used by the sisters, and the rooms on the south by the brothers. On this floor, endowments, sealings, and marriages for eternity were performed. The main room 88 x 22 feet is divided into sections. There are five arches going north to south attached to the ceiling that together with canvas partitions provide a way to divide the main room. The arches are cross beams to support the roof. A "double row of composite columns" supported the crossbeams. In the ceiling we see six octagonal sky lights made of colored or painted glass.
There are also six small rooms on each side of the main room about 14 x 14 feet. Five rooms on the south are assigned to members of the Quorum of the Twelve and the Presidents of the Seventy. Five rooms on the north are assigned to the other quorums. Their ceilings are low, the incline of the gabled roof prevents a man of six feet from standing erect by the exterior wall. Each room has a door with a massive lock and on the outside wall a "beautiful circular window." These rooms were used for meetings, prayers, and ordinances.
When we enter the main room, from a double door at the west end, immediately inside the room is a canvas hallway, approximately five feet wide and nineteen feet long. There are doorways, draped openings in the canvas walls, on either side of the hallway. Each door leads to an examination room. The sisters' room is on the north and the brethren's on the south. This area is furnished with a few chairs and small tables, where the clerks record the names of persons. The examination rooms lead directly to two "preparation" side-rooms.
These two side rooms, smaller than the other ten are located in the north west corner (sisters), another in the south west (brothers). In each of these rooms is found a stove which provided heat and was used to warm the water used in washings, a small wooden tub and a stool. These rooms are "considerably shaded nearly to twilight." In one of the north side rooms, on February 9, 1846, a fire broke out and burned for a half hour, burning a portion of the roof. It was ignited by an overheated stovepipe used to dry clothing. A bucket brigade was quickly formed and axes were set to work and tore up the roof. Water was thrown on the burning parts which soon were extinguished. During the fire, troops tried to storm the temple but were prevented by Brigham Young.
We return to the canvas alley. On each side of the alley are small rooms partitioned off, which are the "creation rooms," which don't have any furniture in them. From these rooms is a third partitioned area which is nicely decorated with shrubs and trees in pots and boxes to represent the Garden of Eden. The plants, consisting of evergreens, shrubs and flowers, are arranged into aisles and walkways. One plant is draped with raisins and grapevines. This room is "shaded, at least as dark as twilight." In the center of the room we see an altar.
We then enter a fourth partitioned room on the north side which is dark, darker than all the others, representing the world. We then step into an alley about 4 feet wide to a partitioned room opposite (on the south) which represents the terrestrial kingdom. In this room is also an altar.
The remaining large room on the east is the Celestial Room, also called the Council Chamber. This room is adorned with a number of beautiful mirrors, painting and portraits. The walls are all painted white. On the east wall at the end is a large twenty-and-a-half-feet in span, semi-circular gothic window and the portraits of Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, Orson Pratt, Willard Richards, John Taylor and George A. Smith. The room occupies three spaces between two arches (cross beams). On the east side of the arch, closest to the east wall are a number of portraits including the portrait of Lucy Mack Smith. On the west side of this arch are the portraits of other church leaders and their wives. On the east side of the second arch in the center stands a brass clock, over which is a wonderful portrait of Hyrum Smith, with other portraits also hanging on the arch. There are also a number of maps. A large map of the world hangs on the north side wall. There also stood a marble clock against this wall. There are three maps of the United States and a plot of the City of Nauvoo hanging on the west side of the second arch. On the south wall hangs another large map of the United States, besides a number of large mirrors and paintings.
In the center of the Celestial Room are two beautiful tables and four soft sofas. There is a small table opposite the large window on the east end of the room on which stands the Celestial and Terrestrial Globes. There are also two large iron stoves in the room used for heating, and a number of handsome chairs.
All the rooms on this level are nicely carpeted and have a splendid and comfortable appearance. The room is breath-taking and we feel as Joseph Fielding did, that we have truly "gotten out of the world."
This Celestial Room was used for purposes that are somewhat foreign to us. Meetings were periodically held in the room since the lower floors were not completed yet. One meeting held as many as 200 people, overflowing in the side rooms and some partitions were removed to accommodate the numbers. The sacrament was administered to, hymns were sung including "The Spirit of God," "The Morning Breaks," and "Adam Ondi Ahman." Sermons and instruction were given, prayers were offered, and sometimes people spoke in tongues. Probably most foreign to us is that at times the furniture was moved aside and holy dances were held, the whole floor covered with dancers. A violin, hornpipe and flute were used for music. We need to understand that many of the Saints literally lived in the temple during the cold winter months when they worked tirelessly performing ordinances while persecution was raging outside the walls of this holy building. President Young declared, "This temple is a holy place...when we dance, we dance unto the Lord." On one occasion a wedding supper was prepared and eaten in the Garden Room. On that evening, the men were permitted to sleep on the carpeted Celestial Room floor and the women in the side rooms. So this Celestial Room, while very holy, was the center of much holy activity. Strict rules were in place regarding who could enter it and when.
Unfortunately, the engineering of the floor severely underestimated the amount of weight that would be put on it, with hundreds of people. They soon noticed that the floor began to sag, and would sway, cracks appeared in the plastered walls, and some of the side doors wouldn't shut anymore, so they had to put a stop to the crowded meetings on this attic level. On February 22, 1846, most likely on the lower level, during a meeting, the floor settled down to the tressels, about one inch, which caused much fright and confusion. Some people jumped up to the windows and began to smash them. Several windows were smashed and people jumped out.
We walk to the far south-east end of the Celestial Room and enter through a door to Brigham Young's room. Brigham Young selected this room for his office because he felt that as the intense light of the sun in the northern hemisphere comes from the southeast, so also the southeast corner of a temple represented the strongest source of revealed light. This is a sacred room in which many important and sacred council meetings were held. It was the Holy of Holies. Sacred prayers were offered to the Lord here and marriages performed. This room was used by President Young as an office and council room. During the winter months he also slept over night many evenings in this room.
In the center of this room we see an altar. The altar is about 2 1/2 feet high, 2 1/2 feet long, one foot wide with a rising platform about 8 or 9 inches high extending out about a foot, forming a convenient place to kneel upon. The top of the altar and the kneeling place are covered with cushions of scarlet damask cloth. The sides of the body of the altar are covered with white linen.
We leave Brigham's room (also called room number one), returning to the Celestial Room, and then we enter the next room to the west. This is Heber's room. It was also used for many important council meetings and we notice that this room includes a stair case going down, which was used as a back entrance for business that needed to be transacted with the brethren.
We return to the far west end of the floor, and finally, we climb above this floor in the tower, and emerge on the roof. We find ourselves at the base of the hexagonal tower, rising in four terraces, whose spire rises to a height of 165 feet above the ground. We can see, and hear the ringing at times of the Nauvoo Bell, hanging in the tower, which rings on the hour. (It is the same bell that stands on Temple Square in Salt Lake City.) Atop the spire, we can see a horizontal flying angel with a trumpet to his lips. During the time when the temple was dedicated, this roof was seen to be illuminated during the night. It appeared to be on fire, but it did not consume anything. Another person thought the belfry was on fire. Some apostates tried to explain this away by saying that men were roaming around the roof carrying candles to fool the people.
We go back into the tower and climb up to view out the top windows in the tower. Many visitors to Nauvoo were permitted to climb the tower to see out these windows. The view here is breath taking. The whole valley of the Mississippi for miles is exposed to view on the north and the south, where the prairie lands of Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri are seen to the east and west, overlooking the few hills lying near the shore of the Mississippi.
(c) Copyright David R. Crockett 1995. All rights
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Last month, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and the International Energy Agency (IEA) published a road map that calls for strong national policies as well as actions to develop commercially viable carbon capture and storage technologies to reduce global CO2 emissions from the cement industry.
The cement roadmap outlines a possible transition path for the industry to make continued contributions towards a halving of global CO2 emissions by 2050. It estimates that the cement industry could reduce its direct emissions 18% from current levels by 2050.
The report also mentioned a number of low-carbon or carbon-negative cements currently being developed by start-up companies such as Novacem, Calera, and Calix who are expecting to build pilot plants in 2010/11. The report also mentioned geopolymer cement as another technology that have already been commercialized in small-scale facilities, but have not yet been used in large-scale applications.
Geopolymer cement utilises waste materials from the power industry (fly ash, bottom ash), the steel industry (slag), and from concrete waste, to make alkali-activated cements. This process was reportedly developed in the 1950s.
Novacem’s cement, meanwhile, is based on magnesium silicates rather than limestone (calcium carbonate) as is used in Ordinary Portland Cement. Novacem estimates that for every tonne of ordinary Portland cement replaced by Novacem cement, around 0.75 tonne of CO2 could be captured and stored indefinitely in construction products.
Calera’s cement is a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates, and calcium and magnesium hydroxides produced by bringing sea-water, brackish water or brine into contact with the waste heat in power station flue gas, where CO2 is absorbed, precipitating the carbonate minerals. Last December, Calera and Bechtel Power Corporation formed an alliance to develop and construct facilities using Calera’s carbon capture technology.
Australia-based Calix owns a minerals processing technology called Flash Calcination, where its cement is produced in a reactor by rapid calcination of dolomitic rock in superheated steam. The CO2 emissions can be captured using a separate CO2 scrubbing system.
Another cement company from Mexico, Cemex, announced last month its strategies to tackle climate change. Cemex made a commitment to reduce CO2 emissions per metric ton of product 25% from the 1990 levels by 2015.
In cement production, the company said it is using a smaller percentage of the energy intensive ingredient clinker in their end product by substituting clinker with alternative materials such as by-products from other industries, primarily fly ash from coal-fired power stations and blast furnace slag from the steel industry.
Cemex is also involved in carbon capture projects and has even received a $1.1m grant from the US Department of Energy (DOE) last October to develop technology for capturing and storing carbon dioxide emissions at one of CEMEX’s US cement plants.
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Comprehensive DescriptionRead full entry
CommentsWith the exception of the weedy Ranunculus abortivus (Small-Flowered Buttercup), this is probably the most common buttercup (Ranunculus spp.) in Illinois. It is possible to confuse Swamp Buttercup with similar species, especially Ranunculus hispidus (Hispid Buttercup), Ranunculus carolinianus (Carolina Buttercup), and the introduced Ranunculus repens (Creeping Buttercup). Unlike Swamp Buttercup, the stems of Hispid Buttercup have abundant spreading hairs and they are usually more erect. Carolina Buttercup is supposed to have longer achenes (3.5–5.0 mm. in length) than the preceding two species, however its status as a separate species is debatable. Some authorities consider Swamp Buttercup and Carolina Buttercup to be different varieties of Ranunculus hispidus (Duncan & Duncan, 1999; Yatskievych, 2000), although Mohlenbrock (2002) doesn't. The leaves of Creeping Buttercup are less deeply cleft and they are often splotched with pale green or white patterns. In addition, its achenes are less flattened than those of Swamp Buttercup.
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The American Society for Biochemistry & Molecular Biology has drawn up guidelines for a new curriculum in undergraduate education. The complete recommendation can be found at Recommended Curriculum for a Program in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology in the Journal Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education (BAMBED).
Under the list of "Skills that biochemistry and molecular biology students should obtain by the time they have finished their undergraduate program," there are a number of motherhood type statements. One of them is "Ability to assess primary papers critically." We've been discussing these required skills for the past few months. I've questioned the wisdom of teaching undergraduates how to critically evaluate the scientific literature because I think it's a skill that only comes after a lot of experience in the discipline.
There are many confusing papers out there and it's difficult to decide what's right and what's wrong. We can give students our opinion but that's not the same as teaching them how to critically evaluate a paper.
Here's an example of how difficult it is to read the scientific literature. A recent paper by John Stiller (2007) promotes the idea that plants are more closely related to animals than fungi. Here's the abstract.
Evolutionary relationships among complex, multicellular eukaryotes are generally interpreted within the framework of molecular sequence-based phylogenies that suggest green plants and animals are only distantly related on the eukaryotic tree. However, important anomalies have been reported in phylogenomic analyses, including several that relate specifically to green plant evolution. In addition, plants and animals share molecular, biochemical and genome-level features that suggest a relatively close relationship between the two groups. This article explores the impacts of plastid endosymbioses on nuclear genomes, how they can explain incongruent phylogenetic signals in molecular data sets and reconcile conflicts among different sources of comparative data. Specifically, I argue that the large influx of plastid DNA into plant and algal nuclear genomes has resulted in tree-building artifacts that obscure a relatively close evolutionary relationship between green plants and animals.This position is contrary to a whole lot of work that has been published over the past several decades. I don't think very much of this paper and neither do John Logsdon of Sex, Genes & Evolution [Promoting Plants at the Expense of Fungi?] and Ryan Gregory of Genomicron [Discovery wants to "demote" fungi]. Read their blogs to see why we're skeptical about this paper.
How do you explain this to undergraduates? How can you teach them to critically evaluate such a paper when, on the surface, it seems perfectly reasonable and the data seems sound? I submit that most of us work within a model of how we think the history of life has developed over millions of years. That model is based on reading hundreds of papers and getting a "feel" for the data. Some papers are rejected and some are given more credence and this is based on all kinds of intangibles—including the reputation of the authors. Can undergraduates be taught such a thing? I don't think so.
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Surrealism & Duchamp is Moderna Museetís next instalment in the dialogue between Duchamp and other artists in the Museumís collection.
1920s and 1930s surrealism is one of the principal movements in modernist art and literature. The surrealists eschewed rational reality and Ė inspired by Sigmund Freudís psychoanalysis Ė embraced irrationality and the hidden, darker sides of the human mind. The show features unique works by Salvador DalŪ, Joan Mirů, Meret Oppenheim, Giorgio de Chirico, Hans Arp, Dorothea Tanning, Max Ernst and others. In addition to famous paintings and sculptures, visitors can discover surrealist objects, films and photographs, which were new artistic media in the 1920s.
Moderna Museet Website
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The manual developed and published by the American Psychiatric Association, containing the list of diagnoses of psychiatric illnesses and the criteria that should be used to arrive at each specified diagnosis. The 4th edition of this manual (DSM-IV) was published in 1994, and a revised version (DSM-IV-TR) was released in 2000. It has been criticized because it may have too many rather arbitrary and artificially narrow categories and because it assigns “disease labels” to conditions that many social scientists and other experts outside the field of psychiatry regard as normal behavioral variations. For example, the sorrow accompanying bereavement is given the label “depression” (implying that it requires psychiatric treatment) if it continues for more than 2 months. For details, see http://www.appi.org/book.cfm?id=2025.
Subjects: Public Health and Epidemiology — Social Work.
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Once considered a culinary delicacy, Diamond-backed terrapins are now listed as “near-threatened” by the IUCN. And some habitats in their extensive range – such as brackish marshes near the Gulf of Mexico – are at risk from oil pollution.
Recently I connected with Dan Palmer, Supervisor of Aquarists at Marineland’s Dolphin Conservation Center in Florida, to learn more about the Diamond-backed terrapin species and the observed behaviors of their long-time aquarium resident, Petey.
Dan shared with me that “the story I got about our acquisition of Petey was that a little boy had brought his turtle to a turtle race, where he was informed that his possession of the animal was not lawful. Petey was deemed non-releasable because of her orientation to people. She was brought to Marineland to be cared for. Petey was given a male name because the child could not tell the sexes apart. I believe I have been caring for Petey 12-15 years.”
As exemplified by Petey’s leg, this species has large, webbed rear feet that lend to their skillful swimming, literally “propelling them through water,” according to expert Dan. “And while holding larger foods in their beaks, their sharp nails are used to tear food into bite-sized pieces.” Female Diamond-backed terrapins are larger than their male counterparts, but have much shorter nails.
Diamond-backed terrapins breathe air and can endure a variety of habitat conditions and water temperatures. When feeding in shallow waters, they have been observed surfacing approximately every 20 minutes. Dan noted that northern Diamond-backed terrapin varieties “bury themselves in the mud for the winter and don’t take another break until spring. It is thought that under normal conditions they [terrapins] can go 1-3 hours [without surfacing]. This is important because thousands die beneath under attended crab traps every year.”
When threatened, a Diamond-backed terrapin can pull mostly into its shell, but not entirely, leaving it vulnerable to predators like dogs, raccoons and foxes. It is not uncommon to find terrapins with missing appendages or crushed shells.
Dan explained that “as in most turtle species the bulk of natural predation takes place in the young… The major predator of adult turtles is man. The females are most susceptible to predation when they come out on land to lay eggs. As appropriate nesting sites near shoreline are lost – habitat destruction, degradation as in bulkheads, revetments, landscaping, roadways, etc. – the turtles have to travel farther in this vulnerable non-aquatic state to find nesting sites. Often causeways are areas during the nesting season to find these animals crushed who otherwise would have a 50 year life expectancy.”
Recreational activities – such as off-roading – are also a potential threat to nesting turtles. When visiting a Diamond-backed terrapin habitat, ensure you are not disrupting nesting turtles, as females will abandon a nest if she feels threatened. This terrapin species is also sensitive to air pollution.
The oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is just another complicated layer to the list of terrapin threats. As this species live and nest in marshes where fresh and salt water mix, wild Diamond-backed terrapin populations are in danger in Cedar Point Marsh and other locations vulnerable to the oil spread.
Photo Credits: Jodi Kendall, taken of Petey at Marineland‘s Dolphin Conservation Center.
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On the Horizon: Inhaled Insulin May Help Type 2 Diabetes
June 10, 2000 (San Antonio) -- If you're a diabetic and dream of a needle-free future -- keep on dreaming ... for a while, at least. That's the word from a group of experts who spoke Saturday at the American Diabetes Association's (ADA's) annual meeting. Although several companies have inhaled insulin products waiting in the wings for government approval, the inhalers (which are like the ones used by people with asthma) come in only a few sizes, and some experts are concerned about the long-term effects on the lungs.
Because a typical dose of inhaled insulin is about 10 times as large as an injected dose, it may not be possible to achieve the ultra-tight glucose control required in type 1 diabetes. For this reason, Stephen C. Duck, MD, who co-chaired the ADA session, tells WebMD that inhaled insulin should be seen first and foremost as a therapy for type 2 therapy.
"Cautious excitement is in order," he says, "but this may be wonderful for people with type 2 disease," says Duck, an associate professor of pediatrics at Northwestern University Medical School in Chicago.
Because the lungs were not intended as a way to get insulin into the body, investigators will want to carefully examine the long-term effects of using them that way. This will be particularly important now that a long-acting inhaled insulin is being studied, Duck says. Long-acting insulin is used to boost the effects of standard, shorter-acting insulin between doses.
The long-acting formula has only been looked at in animals, says Rick Batycky, PhD. He is a researcher for Advanced Inhalation Research, the company that makes the drug. His research team found that the slow-acting inhaled insulin worked in rats for about 8 hours after they inhaled it. They soon plan to study long-acting inhaled insulin in people, he says.
Short-acting formulas of inhaled insulin are farther along in development, and some are getting close to government approval. One is under development by Profil Research, says Tim Heise, MD, general manager at Profil. In a small trial to make sure the drug is safe, he says, 18 healthy volunteers inhaled the drug, which then reached its peak in about 30 minutes This is the same time it takes injectable short-acting insulin to work.
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History Of Skiing Early Skis
A selection of articles related to history of skiing early skis.
Original articles from our library related to the History Of Skiing Early Skis. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on History Of Skiing Early Skis.
- History of the Egyptian Religion, part I: Early Dynastic Period
- I - Predynastic - Early Dynastic Period. The temples were in essence the *Home of the God* and thus a place where only Pharaoh as the Son of God and those he appointed as his deputies, could meet with the god. This goes all the way back to Archaic and...
Religions >> Egyptian
- Indian History Rewritten
- The Indian civilisation, considered to be the product of clash and subsequent inter mixture of the white-skinned civilised invaders and the dark savages native to India, has been rightly questioned in recent years, and the mischievously fabricated history of...
History & Anthropology >> Indic / Vedic
- History of Magick
- I. Early Magick One tradition holds that Witchcraft began more than 35 thousand years ago, when the last great sheets ice began their journey across Europe. Legend holds that small groups of hunters followed the free-running game and bison across the tundra....
Saga of Times Past >> History & Anthropology
- The Truth Behind the History of the Necronomicon
- I don't think there are many people out there who haven't heard of the Necronomicon and the dreadful things connected with it. We've all heard the theories about how it is a Satanist tool; actual copies of the book are bound in human skin and how you risk...
Deities & Heros >> Chthulu
- History of the Egyptian Religion, part IV: Middle Kingdom
- First Intermediate - Middle Kingdom (ca 2181 -1786 bc.) The powers that built the solar temples of the 5th dynasty and the pyramids of the 6th dynasty weakened towards the end of the Old Kingdom, perhaps as a result of eroding economics, leaving the King less...
Religions >> Egyptian
History Of Skiing Early Skis is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, History Of Skiing Early Skis books and related discussion.
Suggested Pdf Resources
- Why Skiing Was Moved to Spout Springs 2/2/1956: First Ski Season
- on your statement that you moved the skiing activities from the Bowl to Spout ... 1 This brief history of early activities at the Spout Springs Ski Area, located on the ...
- A History of the Ski Industry in the United States and Switzerland: An
- years, although the development of the alpine ski resort has been a relatively modern phenomenon. The earliest ski resorts began as extensions of summer time ...
- A short history of ski jumping.
- sporting activities which the Lapps velopment of ski jumping cannot be ... that early stage attracted several thou- held in 1894 on the Tauherberg near.
- Jackson's Town Hill: Snow King Ski Area - Teton County
- Page 4. History of the Snow King Ski Area. Early history.
- Timeline of Maine Skiing - the New England Ski Museum
- earliest unequivocal record of the use of skis in the Northeast… ... E. John B.
Suggested News Resources
- Preserving ski history: NELSAP's Jeremy Davis to give talk on lost local areas
- "During college, at a ski history banquet in 1998, I had met (then-NESM president) Glenn Parkinson, who had written a chapter on lost ski areas in his book, 'First Tracks: Stories from Maine Skiing.
- Stroem Sweeps As Skiers Finish Second At NCAA Championships
- The race was extremely fast, in part due to CU freshman Petter Reistad who got out in front early and set the pace; he was in the lead at the first 5k split in 12:31.
- Mountain of History: Ski patrol in Stowe
- Others have also dropped their claim once presented with Stowe's story. It would appear that during the early 1930s the Schenectady Wintersports Club (SWC) established the first recognizable ski patrol in America.
- Roundtop Mountain Resort closing early
- 6, the latest opening in the resort's history. Many employees, like Deb Gutacker, were forced to the sidelines and now have to leave early.
- Early Spring: Good or Bad?
- Holiday valley and other ski areas got a late start to begin with, when the first measurable snowfall didn't arrive until late December and even then only measured a few inches. ... History tells us we may not be out of the winter woods entirely.
Suggested Web Resources
- A Short History of Skis | International Skiing History Association
- Norheim and his friends formed a small pioneer group of early skiers who improved the ski as they developed the first dynamic turns in downhill running, from ...
- First Skiers - A History of Skis - National Geographic Magazine
- A History of Skis. More ». After the last ice age, Stone Age hunters began strapping long pieces of wood to their feet to travel farther and faster over snow in ...
- History of skiing - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Main article: Ski § History. Asymmetrical skis ... to modern ski waxing.
- Skiing - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- File:Ski-kampioen Jan Boon demonstreert op Duinrell.ogv ... it may have been practiced as early as 600 BC in what is now China.
- BBC - Travel - Where did skiing come from?
- Dec 22, 2010 The history of skiing spans from the Cro-Magnon man to the chairlift. Find out ... " The metal ski, invented early in the 1950s, made it easier for ...
Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site.
History Of Skiing Early Skis Topics
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Back to Home Page or Contents Page or Hinduism or Index
Vijana (Sanskrit, "knowing") in Hinduism means knowledge that penetrates ritual and sacrifice and understands its meaning or significance. It is therefore the highest state of consciousness in which the meditator sees Brahman, not just in the condition of samadhi, but also in the whole of everything. This is described in the Vedanta as "seeing Brahman with open eyes."
In Buddhism (Pali,
vinnana) this term designates the fifth of the five skandhas;
perception, as it is contrasted with jnana ("understanding").
Its importance was enhanced in the Vijanavada (Yogscara) because it is the
basis for the "storehouse
consciousness" (alaya-vijana), which contains the seeds
of all dharmas (constituents of manifestation).
Bowker, John, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions,
New York, Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 1022
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On 3 March 1916 Congress purchases sixteen coastal submarines which would become the "O" class (O-1 thru 10) and modified "O" class (O-11 thru 16) at a cost of $550,000 each. The harbor defense requirements of the "N" class were withdrawn; requirements were for 14 knots surface speed, radius of 3,150nm at 11 knots. Electric Boat was contracted to build O-1 thru 10 and Lake to build O-11 thru 16. The first two, O-1 and O-2 were built at Portsmouth and Puget Sound Navy Yards. These were laid down 1916-17 and joined the service between May and November 1918.
These were the first US submairnes with reliable diesel engines and incorporated significantly enhanced habilitability improvements, for example, every man had his own berth and locker. Evaporators were first incorporated on the "O" boats as well though they were rarely used since they wasted battery power.
Early submarine classes such as E, H, K, L, M, N, O, and R, known as "pig boats" or "boats" because of their unusual hull shape and foul living conditions, ranged in displacement from 287 to 510 tons. The fastest "boats" achieved top surface speeds of 14 knots under diesel power. During World War I, US submarines were divided into two groups according to mission. Boats of the N and O classes, as well as some of the E type, patrolled American coasts and harbors in a defensive role. Some K, L, O, and E class boats conducted offensive, open-sea operations from the Azores and Bantry Bay in Ireland. They supported the Allied effort to maintain open sea lanes along the European coast and in the approaches to the British Isles.
O-5 (SS-66) was rammed by United Fruit steamer Abangarez in Limon Bay and sank in less than a minute, with the loss of 3 men. She was raised and sold for scrap in December 1924. The remainder of the Electric Boat built boats were decommissioned May to July 1931 and all but O-1 were recommissioned to train submarine crews during World War II. O-1 was scrapped in 1938. Refurbished and recommissioned in April 1941, O-9 was conducting deep submergence tests off Portsmouth NH when she failed to resurface. The remaining "O" boats were decommissioned in 1945 and scrapped.
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Presidents are people, too! Get to know all 43 presidents with this fun and challenging word-scramble activity.
This government crossword will help your young citizen understand the roles and responsibilities of local and state governments. Try our government crossword.
A wonderful way for your future voter to express his freedom and flex his writing skills is by penning a letter to a leader.
Jump into the lyrics of the U.S. national anthem with a reading comprehension worksheet. Kids read the song, and then draw a picture to illustrate it.
Help your fourth grader learn about the legislative process with this worksheet, which challenges him to follow the path of a law in the making.
Take a fun approach to learning about the Bill of Rights! Find the words relating to the Bill of Rights in this word search exercise.
Introduce fifth graders to the three branches of the government with this fun and simple worksheet! Write each word under the branch it best represents.
Election season is here, so pull out the crayons and let your future voter dive into the world of politics.
Teach your kids about the U.S. government with a lesson on the Constitution.
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41 months is the equivalent of 1,248 days, and can certainly be considered a long time. That’s how long Mount Nittany Medical Center’s Intensive Care Unit (ICU) has gone without a central line associated blood-stream infection, and that’s something to celebrate.
A central line associated blood-stream infection, referenced by the acronym CLABSI, is a confirmed infection in the blood stream that stems from the insertion of a central line, and can be highly deadly. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately 41,000 patients contract CLABSIs every year in hospitals.
So how has Mount Nittany Medical Center achieved such success? In 2010, the Medical Center participated in “On the CUSP: Stop BSI,” a national initiative to eliminate healthcare-associated infections—with a focus on CLABSI prevention—through use of a Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program (CUSP).
The overarching goal of CUSP projects is creating efficiencies and a culture of safety within a healthcare organization. One of the biggest and arguably well-known healthcare-associated infections is the blood stream infection, hence the Medical Center choosing to take on the CLABSI project.
Through the CUSP/CLABSI project, Medical Center employees began focusing on ways to control blood stream infections in the ICU caused by central lines. A central line is a long flexible tube that is inserted into a main vein through the arm, neck, chest, or in rare cases the groin, to provide the patient with fluids, medication, nutrition, or blood products.
“We already had a framework in place for preventing infections when we began working on this project,” said Marlene Stetson, coordinator, infection prevention and control, Mount Nittany Medical Center. “We had not had a CLABSI since June of 2010, but we knew there were additional safeguards for preventing future infections.”
The team began by having the staff trained and educated on CLABSI prevention. Then, the team created a catheter pre-insertion checklist. Because there are different types of catheters and different ports to begin a central line, the checklist helped ensure that the right equipment was being used on the right patient at the right time.
“We did this by developing what we call ‘line boxes.’ Each type of central line has its own box that has the insertion kit right inside of it. These boxes are prepared ahead of time with everything that’s needed for central line insertions. This makes it a safe and streamlined process when a patient requires a central line,” said Stetson.
In addition to the line boxes, a new disinfecting cap is also being used. This orange cap, called a “swab cap” is a newer type of technology that actively disinfects the central line port, aiding in infection prevention. These caps, coupled with state-of-the-art catheters, have helped to prevent CLABSIs at the Medical Center within their 12-bed ICU for 41 months.
Prevention of CLABSIs is imperative, as central line infections can add days to a patient’s length of stay, require extra time and resources in care coordination, and necessitates constant monitoring.
While staff members are trained to monitor central lines for any sign of infection, it’s important for patients to understand the complexities of having a central line. Patient should take notice if their dressings are becoming moist or if the integrity of the site has been compromised.
“It’s also important that patients speak openly with their physician about their central line. It’s perfectly acceptable to ask why the central line is necessary and how long it will be in place. And if a patient has to go home with a central line still in place, they must understand the importance of keeping the site clean,” Stetson said.
With continued diligence and a strong, open relationship between patients and staff, CLABSIs can remain preventable. For more information on how Mount Nittany Health is preventing infections, visit mountnittany.org. For more information about the CUSP project, please visit onthecuspstophai.org.
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By Paul Reynolds
World Affairs correspondent, BBC News website
The 60th anniversary of the end of the Second World War in Europe is being marked not just with commemorations - in Russia there are moves to rehabilitate Stalin and in Germany a debate has developed about how far Germans were victims as well as perpetrators.
Stalin's war role is being played up by Russian revisionists
Two generations after the war, reputations are being re-evaluated, memories are being re-assessed and history is being re-written.
It was on 15 April 1945 that the Red Army launched its assault on Berlin. Germany signed its final surrender on 7 May.
The council in the western Russian city of Oryol, which itself suffered badly during the war, has called for Stalin's name to be restored to streets and for monuments and statues to him to be re-erected.
"The 60th anniversary of victory obliges us to support widespread calls to restore historical justice with respect to the historical role played by the commander-in-chief Josef Stalin," a resolution said.
One regional official was quoted by the newspaper Izvestia as denying that Stalin was behind the purges that killed and imprisoned millions.
"It is not a simple issue. Stalin was not really responsible for the repressions. In all official documents the orders are from the NKVD [the predecessor of the KGB], military tribunals. A system of repression existed and functioned by itself," she said.
There is also a movement in favour of restoring the name Stalingrad to the city where the German advance in the southern Soviet Union was halted. It was renamed Volgograd by Nikita Khrushchev, who led the anti-Stalin criticism after the dictator had died.
Veterans who fought there had hoped the old name would be restored in time for the anniversary of the German surrender in 2003, but accepted that the procedure would be "unpredictable" because Stalin was still a "controversial figure."
These suggestions appear to be motivated in part by nostalgia for a strong leader at a time when post-communist Russia is still suffering economically and feels marginalised on the world stage.
In Germany, the debate is about the extent to which German guilt should be applied to the population as a whole.
"Germany has faced up to its past, but since 2002 there has been some backsliding, " said British historian Antony Beevor, author of books on the siege of Stalingrad and the fall of Berlin.
"The process is called 'normalisierung' and it is slightly alarming though it is not universal in Germany. It started in reaction to the way in which guilt was rammed down the throats of generations which came after the war.
"Compared to Austria, however, one should keep a balance over Germany. Austria has presented itself in an astonishing way as the first victim of Nazism. And Japan has refused to face up to anything."
Berlin saw one of the bloodiest battles in history
Antony Beevor pointed to a couple of books in Germany that were very important in this re-assessment. Crabwalk by Gunter Grass described the loss of civilians on a refugee ship torpedoed by the Russians while trying to escape from Danzig in January 1945. Der Brand (The Fire) by Jorg Friedrich dealt with the carpet-bombing of German cities and called on Britain to acknowledge that it, too, had committed war crimes.
These books opened up the issue of Germans being victims, something not much discussed by the immediate post-war writers. Indeed, not long before he died in 2001 the German writer W G Sebald, who lived in England, complained about this. He suggested that even the survivors had participated in this silence.
The issue of whether the air war "could be strategically or morally justified," he wrote in Air War and Literature, "was never the subject of open debate in Germany after 1945, no doubt mainly because a nation which had murdered or worked to death millions of people in its camps could hardly call on the victorious powers to explain. It is also possible that quite a number of those affected by the air raids, despite their grim but impotent fury in the face of such obvious madness, regarded the great firestorms as a just punishment".
No longer. The current German film Downfall, about the last days of Hitler and his entourage in the Berlin bunker, is part of the normalisierung phenomenon. It has gone down well in Germany, perhaps because it shows heroism by some German officers, including SS officers (as well as an appealing and brave young boy) in the face of the advancing Red Army.
Germany is remembering its Nazi past like never before
Hitler, brilliantly played by Swiss-born Bruno Ganz, is humanised, though, in my opinion, not romanticised. He is shown both as a charismatic and at times even courteous leader (who can command the affections of Eva Braun) as well as a ranting maniac who rails against Jews and traitors.
"Four or five years ago, this film would have had a different reaction in Germany," said Antony Beevor.
"The problem is that film is a dangerous way of portraying history. The priorities of cinema are different. There has to be a comparison of characters, so some unpleasant people like SS General Wilhelm Monke are shown as better than they were. "
SS soldiers under Monke were responsible for a massacre of about 100 British prisoners near Dunkirk in 1940. In the film, he is simply shown as a noble defender of the last Berlin redoubt.
"The other issue is that you do not see cause and effect in the film. You see the claustrophobia of the bunker but see nothing of the civilian suffering which Hitler's madness brought about," said Beevor.
As for Russia, he said: "A whole orchestra of drums is being banged in a quite extraordinary way for the 60th anniversary celebrations of what is still called the Great Patriotic War. There is no doubt that the Soviet Union suffered the worst casualties of the war but nobody is prepared to face up to the dark side of Stalinism or indeed communism.
"There is a rehabilitation of Stalin to a large degree. I am surprised that Volgograd has not already been renamed."
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Join Date: Aug 2009
Location: dallas, tx
The 4 Greek Definition of LOVE!
Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word "love" is used. For example, Ancient Greek has the words philia, eros, agape, storge, and xenia. However, with Greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo having the same meaning as phileo.
Agape (ἀγάπη agápē) means love in modern-day Greek. The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a "pure," ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as "love of the soul."
Eros (ἔρως érōs) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body."
Philia (φιλία philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. It can also mean "love of the mind."
Storge (στοργή storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.
Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in Ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology—in particular, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
* Agape: In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
* Phileo: Also used in the New Testament, phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love."
* Two other words for love in the Greek language, eros (sexual love) and storge (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.
Christians believe that to Love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf. Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28–34). Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."
The Apostle Paul glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poem in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." (1 Cor. 13:4–7, NIV)
The Apostle John wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him. Whoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever does not believe stands condemned already because he has not believed in the name of God's one and only Son." (John 3:16–18, NIV)
John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." (1 John 4:7–8, NIV)
Saint Augustine says that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, “I was in love with love.” Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as “jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.” According to Saint Augustine, to love God is “to attain the peace which is yours.” (Saint Augustine's Confessions)
Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian C.S. Lewis wrote a book called The Four Loves.
Benedict XVI wrote his first encyclical on "God is love." He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others (agape) and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.
I know this may sound too religious, but I think it will help this forum regard the word "love" in a different way, because the English language is very poor in some other word's meanings. I hope this helps. Thanks!!!!
|Thread||Thread Starter||Forum||Replies||Last Post|
|What is YOUR Definition of Masculinity||madenatural||The Philosophy of a Natural||101||01-27-2010 07:31 PM|
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|Gina Cloud- W.O.M.A.N: A New Definition||Create||Sources of Inspiration||3||09-28-2009 05:28 AM|
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Cambarus bartonii dwell on the bottoms of streams, creeks, and small rivers and lakes. They construct burrows, sometimes called "chimneys". Their burrows can be simple hollows under stone or more intricate, with lateral passageways. Chimneys are found along the water's edge. Most of the structure is under water, but the top sticks out and resembles a chimney. Chimneys vary in size, the largest opening being about eight centimeters. (McMan, 1960)
Cambarus bartonii is a freshwater crustacean. On first inspection it looks rather "lobster-like". It has a sharp snout, and its eyes are on movable stalks. The thin, but tough exoskeleton is dark brown in color - sometimes with a slightly red tint. The exact shade depends on what the bottom substrate of the habitat looks like.
In terms of appendages, the most noticeable ones are its chelipeds. These appendages are attached to the thorax and are also referred to as the first walking legs. However, these appendages have claws and are used for protection and catching food, not walking. Cambarus bartonii also has four other pairs of walking legs attached to the thorax. The abdominal appendages of Cambarus bartonii are called swimmerets or pleopods, and they are much smaller than walking legs and not suitable for swimming. The male swimmerets are modified to transfer sperm packets to the female during reproduction and have a spatulate shape. What looks like a fan on the end of the abdomen is really many broad flat appendages called uropods. All of these appendages are attached on the ventral side of Cambarus bartonii, and they are all biramous. In general, the abdomen is large and usually extended; it can however, be flexed under the cephalothorax. The first abdominal segment is usually smaller than those posterior to it.
Cambarus bartonii has an open circulatory system. It possesses a diamond-shaped heart which lies just anterior to the abdominal segments on the dorsal midline. The heart is surrounded by a thin pericardial sac. Just anterior to the heart lie the gonads. The testes are white, and the ovaries orange. Along the dorsal midline of the cephalothorax lie the cardiac stomach and the pyloric stomach. Just posterior and laterally to the stomachs lies a large digestive gland. The ventral nerve cord lies beneath the internal organs, and the brain lies between and beneath the eyestalks. (Russel-Hunter, 1979; Vodopich and Moore, 1999)
Mating occurs most commonly in the spring and may also occur during the summer. Mating usually takes place at night because the chances of male and female encountering each other is nine times greater at night.
Reproduction involves pairing and can occur in two ways. The first is the deposit of sperm into a seminal receptacle in the female. This occurs when a sperm from the male flows down the grooves of the first pleopods and into the female receptacle. Sperm exits the male crayfish at the base of the fifth pair of walking legs through a pore. Eggs are released at the base of the third pair of walking legs. The other form of reproduction involves the transfer of a spermatophore, in which case fertilization is internal.
Either way, the fertilized eggs are retained for maturation on the pleopods of the female. They hatch on the pleopods and stay attatched to the mother until shortly after their second molt. A female carrying eggs is said to be "in berry" because the mass of eggs look like a berry. Females are most commonly "in berry" during May and June. (Roberts, 1994; Vodopich and Moore, 1999)
Cambarus bartonii walk slowly on the bottom of ponds, creeks or streams when searching for food. If threatened, they can shoot backwards to quickly escape danger. They accomplish this rapid backward motion by contracting powerful abdominal muscles. Cambarus bartonii use their chelipeds for protection and for finding food. Predators on C. bartonii include various bird and turtle species. Cambarus bartonii is most active at night because this is when it feeds. (Buchsbaum, et al., 1987)
Cambarus bartonii is a predator and a scavenger. It feeds on decaying organic remains but also catches small animals. Its main sources of food include snails, alga, insect larva, various types of worms, and tadpoles. It finds its food on the bottom of the water source it inhabits or in the soil near the water. (Banister and Campbell, 1985)
Crayfish are a huge industry for many countries, especially France and the United States. Each year between 400,000 - 800,000 Kg are consumed (880,000 to 1,960,000 lbs). There are also 2.6 million pounds of crayfish reared in artificial impoundments each year. This creates many jobs for people in the fishing industry.
Crayfish are good to eat and provide a source of protein. They are now eaten throughout the United States and many countries around the world.
The crayfish may have medicinal benefits as well. In Kenya, a microscopic blood fluke. a schistome, is causing infection in many people. The schistome burrows through skin and moves to the bladder and other major organs, causing much damage. Scientists have found that the schistome larva hatch in freshwater snails. They have also found that the crayfish has an appetite for these freshwater snails. Putting many crayfish (although it does not say which exact species would be used; most species have an appetite for snails) in these lakes may reduce the snail population, and in turn reduce the number of infections.
Cambarus bartonii digs in the soil along streams, ponds, and rivers. It helps with agriculture because the digging causes the soil to become richer in nutrients. In many rice farms, crayfish are the second crop because farmers bring them in after the rice has been harvested to help the soil gain many nutrients. The farmers then harvest the crayfish when it is rice season again. This is not a species specific benefit, because there are many rice farms around the world.
Crayfish are also used to monitor the environmental condition of streams and rivers. Specifically, one can analyze them for the presence of particular pollutants in their tissues. ("Crayfish", 1998; Banister and Campbell, 1985)
There are no known adverse effects of Cambarus bartonii on humans.
This species is not known to be endangered.
Stephanie Jenkinson (author), Southwestern University, Stephanie Fabritius (editor), Southwestern University.
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
particles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms. Detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers (organisms that decompose organic material).
animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature
mainly lives in water that is not salty.
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced, thus lowering the animal's energy requirements. The act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state, typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals.
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
specialized for swimming
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
active during the night
an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
breeding is confined to a particular season
remains in the same area
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
Living on the ground.
1998. Crayfish. World Book Encyclopedia. London: World Book Inc..
Banister, K., A. Campbell. 1985. Lobsters and Freshwater Crayfish. Pp. 236-239 in The Encyclopedia of Aquatic Life. New York: Equinox Ltd.
Buchsbaum, R., M. Buchsbaum, J. Pearse, V. Pearse. 1987. Animals Without Backbones. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Green, J. 1967. Crustaceans. Pp. 172-175 in The Larousse Encyclopedia of Animal Life. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
McMan, L. 1960. An Occurence of Chimney Construction by the Crayfish *Cambarus bartonii*. Ecology, 41: 383-385.
Roberts, T. 1994. Light, Eyestalk Chemical, and Certain Other Factors as Regulators of Community Activity for the Crayfish. Ecological Monographs, 14: p 376-378.
Russel-Hunter, W. 1979. A Life of Invertebrates. New York: McMillan Publishing Co Inc.
Vodopich, D., R. Moore. 1999. Biology Labratory Manual. Burr Ridge: W. H. Freeman and Company.
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This video is about nine minutes long, but it’s time well spent!
These are real kids and their reactions to seeing kids get bullied. Whether you agree or disagree, you can’t deny that what these kids have to say is compelling.
One comment in particular got my attention.
There was an assembly last year. Everyone was crying afterward because it was so like… Powerful… But nobody got the message.
As someone who provides anti-bullying school assemblies this grabbed my attention.
We take a unique approach to school assemblies. Most people preach at the kids. Right here is proof that it doesn’t work. Everyone cried a little, left, and continued as normal.
There’s a reason for this. It’s why our assemblies are radically different from what everyone else is doing.
A while back one of the leading psychology professors in the field of bullying spoke out.Here’s a key point from his article:
“Bullies, he said, have a strong need to dominate other people and some have a family background that creates the pattern. They also get “a certain amount of prestige” for being tough, aggressive kids who are able to control others. Bullies also have little empathy for others, particularly their victims, he said.”
“Dr. Olweus said earlier perceptions about bullies indicated that their behavior was rooted in low self-esteem. But he said his research has shown that bullies generally have very high levels of self-esteem and confidence.”
The realities of bullying are very clear to our kids. They don’t need hammered over the head about why bullying is bad.
All that does is make the targets of bullying feel worse and remind the bullies that they’re succeeding in making people hurt, sad, and afraid!
We Use a Different Tactic!
We make our assemblies FUN! Instead of making the kids feel bad, we make them feel good. We introduce a character, Gus the Rubber Chicken, and use his story as a springboard to talk about bullying behavior.
Our assembly has three main goals:
1.) Empower kids who are the targets of bullies to take a stand, realize that they don’t have to be victims, and take steps to resolve the problems.
2.) Teach kids what bullying behavior looks like. Prevent bullies from riding under the radar by saying they were “just joking” or that their target is being “too sensitive”.
3.) Reduce opportunities for bullying to occur by teaching kids how to control the bullies access to their life. (Examples of this include blocking the bully from their Facebook profile, making new friends, and sticking together in a group.)
We have a 45 minute opportunity to make a difference.
We can either spend that time trying to get a bully to change, or we can empower the targets of bullying to stand up and make a difference.
The people best equipped to change a bully’s behavior are their parents.
I don’t care how powerful your message is, you can’t get make someone make a major behavioral change in 45 minutes.
…But empowering their targets? That’s extremely feasible. That’s where we focus our attention.
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In Hinduism, Mahalakshmi is the supreme Mother Goddess and is believed to be the root of all creations. The popular Hindu Goddess Lakshmi who is the goddess of wealth, auspiciousness and fortune is only an attribute of Mahalakshmi. But today both Lakshmi and Mahalakshmi mean the same for majority of the people. Mahalakshmi as supreme mother goddess is similar to Durga and this form is mentioned in Tantric texts and is popular in western
Mahalakshmi is an attempt made by human mind to find the root of all creation and define the formless responsible for it. Scriptures like Lakshmi Tantra and Pancharatra mentions that she is Prakrti, Maya and Shakti. That which is animate and inanimate rise and fall in her.
But in Vaishnava tradition Mahalakshmi is the consort of Lord Vishnu and is the only way to reach Narayana (Vishnu) and attain Moksha – escape from the endless cycle of birth and death. In this form, she is the bountiful aspect of nature and she represents righteousness and compassion but is associated with Vishnu.
Vishnu here is the fatherly figure and Lakshmi is motherly figure. Forgiveness for sins committed (breaking Dharma) has to be given by Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi helps each devotee by pleading his/her case. This is the reason why great Vaishnava saints like Vedanata Desika mentions it is easy to approach Lord Vishnu through Goddess Lakshmi.
You may also like to read
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The Civil War Curriculum | Goal 7 | Middle School
1864-1865: Bringing the War to an End
By the Civil War Trust, Endorsed by History™
Grades: Middle School
Approximate Length of Time: 50 minutes
Goal: Students will be able to summarize the sequence of events that led to the end of the Civil War.
1. After receiving information on the election of 1864, students will discuss both Lincoln’s and McClellan’s views on the war and what the outcomes might be for each candidate.
2. Students will be able to create a timeline and map illustrating the sequence of events leading to the end of the war.
3. Students will summarize the Articles of Agreement from the Surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia.
4. Students will discuss the emotional response of soldiers in both armies during the surrender.
1. Bringing the War to an End PowerPoint
2. Lincoln & McClellan Cards
3. Chicago Platform
4. Baltimore Platform
5. What Do You Think? Notes Sheet
6. Timeline Worksheet and Map
7. Articles of Agreement
8. Articles of Agreement Teacher Version
1. Explain that at this point the situation is looking up for the United States, with victories at Vicksburg and Gettysburg; however, some people are tired of war and are looking for a way to end it soon.
2. Discuss how Lincoln has served one four-year term as president. How do you think the election is going to go? Do you think Lincoln will be reelected or will someone else become president? While Lincoln believes that it is important to keep fighting to bring the Southern states back into the Union, what do you think his opponent believes?
Print out the PowerPoint with notes prior to class. There are notes included with the slides that can be on the printed slides, but won’t be seen by your students during the presentation.
1. Hand out the Lincoln & McClellan Cards to students; there should be around the same number of Lincolns and McClellans.
2. Hand out the Baltimore Platform to all of the Lincolns and the Chicago Platform to all of the McClellans.
3. Begin Bringing the War to an End PowerPoint.
4. Have the students skim their given platforms, paying particular attention to the bolded text.
5. Put all of the Lincolns in one group and all of the McClellan in another.
6. Hand out the What Do You Think? Notes Sheet, and have students work together to gather their ideas for a debate, filling out the note sheet as they go.
7. Continue to follow Bringing the War to an End PowerPoint.
8. Hand out the Timeline Worksheet and Map, copied back to back.
9. Have students complete the Timeline Worksheet and Map.
10. As a class, read the Articles of Agreement and make notes under each item.
1. Read the last quotes from Chamberlain and Lee on the Bringing the War to an End PowerPoint.
2. As a group, discuss the final questions: Based on the quotes from Lee and Chamberlain, and the Articles of Agreement, how do you think the country feels about the Confederate forces at the end of the war? How do you think the Confederate soldiers feel at this point?”
Assessment in this Lesson:
1. Completed What Do You Think? Notes Sheet, with answers based on the platform reading.
2. Informal assessment through observation of group debate.
3. Completed timeline, map, and map question on the Timeline Worksheet & Map.
4. Informal assessment through note taking on the Articles of Agreement.
5. Oral response to final questions.
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“The sounds uttered by birds offer in several respects the nearest analogy to language,” Charles Darwin wrote in “The Descent of Man” (1871), while contemplating how humans learned to speak. Language, he speculated, might have had its origins in singing, which “might have given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions.”
Now researchers from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), along with a scholar from the University of Tokyo, say that Darwin was on the right path. The balance of evidence, they believe, suggests that human language is a grafting of two communication forms found elsewhere in the animal kingdom: first, the elaborate songs of birds, and second, the more utilitarian, information-bearing types of expression seen in a diversity of other animals.
“It’s this adventitious combination that triggered human language,” says Shigeru Miyagawa, a professor of linguistics in MIT’s Department of Linguistics and Philosophy, and co-author of a new paper published in Frontiers in Psychology.
The idea builds upon Miyagawa’s conclusion, detailed in his previous work, that there are two “layers” in all human languages: an “expression” layer, which involves the changeable organization of sentences, and a “lexical” layer, which relates to the core content of a sentence. His conclusion is based on earlier work by linguists including Noam Chomsky, Kenneth Hale, and Samuel Jay Keyser.
Based on an analysis of animal communication, and using Miyagawa’s framework, the authors say that birdsong closely resembles the expression layer of human sentences—whereas the communicative waggles of bees, or the short, audible messages of primates, are more like the lexical layer. At some point, between 50,000 and 80,000 years ago, humans may have merged these two types of expression into a uniquely sophisticated form of language.
“There were these two pre-existing systems,” Miyagawa says, “like apples and oranges that just happened to be put together.”
These kinds of adaptations of existing structures are common in natural history, notes Robert Berwick, a co-author of the paper, who is a professor of computational linguistics in MIT's Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems, in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science.
“When something new evolves, it is often built out of old parts,” Berwick says. “We see this over and over again in evolution. Old structures can change just a little bit, and acquire radically new functions.”
A new chapter in the songbook
The new paper, “The Emergence of Hierarchical Structure in Human Language,” was co-written by Miyagawa, Berwick, and Kazuo Okanoya, a biopsychologist at the University of Tokyo who is an expert on animal communication.
To consider the difference between the expression layer and the lexical layer, take a simple sentence: “Todd saw a condor.” We can easily create variations of this, such as, “When did Todd see a condor?” This rearranging of elements takes place in the expression layer and allows us to add complexity and ask questions. But the lexical layer remains the same, since it involves the same core elements: the subject, “Todd,” the verb, “to see,” and the object, “condor.”
Birdsong lacks a lexical structure. Instead, birds sing learned melodies with what Berwick calls a “holistic” structure; the entire song has one meaning, whether about mating, territory or other things. The Bengalese finch, as the authors note, can loop back to parts of previous melodies, allowing for greater variation and communication of more things; a nightingale may be able to recite from 100 to 200 different melodies.
By contrast, other types of animals have bare-bones modes of expression without the same melodic capacity. Bees communicate visually, using precise waggles to indicate sources of foods to their peers; other primates can make a range of sounds, comprising warnings about predators and other messages.
Humans, according to Miyagawa, Berwick, and Okanoya, fruitfully combined these systems. We can communicate essential information, like bees or primates—but like birds, we also have a melodic capacity and an ability to recombine parts of our uttered language. For this reason, our finite vocabularies can generate a seemingly infinite string of words. Indeed, the researchers suggest that humans first had the ability to sing, as Darwin conjectured, and then managed to integrate specific lexical elements into those songs.
“It’s not a very long step to say that what got joined together was the ability to construct these complex patterns, like a song, but with words,” Berwick says.
As they note in the paper, some of the “striking parallels” between language acquisition in birds and humans include the phase of life when each is best at picking up languages, and the part of the brain used for language. Another similarity, Berwick notes, relates to an insight of celebrated MIT professor emeritus of linguistics Morris Halle, who, as Berwick puts it, observed that “all human languages have a finite number of stress patterns, a certain number of beat patterns. Well, in birdsong, there is also this limited number of beat patterns.”
Birds and bees
Norbert Hornstein, a professor of linguistics at the University of Maryland, says the paper has been “very well received” among linguists, and “perhaps will be the standard go-to paper for language-birdsong comparison for the next five years.”
Hornstein adds that he would like to see further comparison of birdsong and sound production in human language, as well as more neuroscientific research, pertaining to both birds and humans, to see how brains are structured for making sounds.
The researchers acknowledge that further empirical studies on the subject would be desirable.
“It’s just a hypothesis,” Berwick says. “But it’s a way to make explicit what Darwin was talking about very vaguely, because we know more about language now.”
Miyagawa, for his part, asserts it is a viable idea in part because it could be subject to more scrutiny, as the communication patterns of other species are examined in further detail. “If this is right, then human language has a precursor in nature, in evolution, that we can actually test today,” he says, adding that bees, birds and other primates could all be sources of further research insight.
MIT-based research in linguistics has largely been characterized by the search for universal aspects of all human languages. With this paper, Miyagawa, Berwick, and Okanoya hope to spur others to think of the universality of language in evolutionary terms. It is not just a random cultural construct, they say, but based in part on capacities humans share with other species. At the same time, Miyagawa notes, human language is unique, in that two independent systems in nature merged, in our species, to allow us to generate unbounded linguistic possibilities, albeit within a constrained system.
“Human language is not just freeform, but it is rule-based,” Miyagawa says. “If we are right, human language has a very heavy constraint on what it can and cannot do, based on its antecedents in nature.”
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When it comes to kids using tablets, a tap, swipe or drag goes a much longer way than a pinch, double-tap or tilt. There are some gestures pre-school kids intuitively understand more than others when it comes to reading enhanced ebooks and children’s book apps on tablets, according to a new report from Sesame Workshop.
The report isn’t based on academic research but on Sesame’s history of studying how kids learn. Though the tablet era is not yet three years old (younger still than the ever-youthful Elmo), executives at Sesame have told Digital Book World that the company is engaged in studying how children learn on tablets, starting with the basics, like which gestures commonly used on touch screens makes sense to them.
“These best practices are a result of our research with preschoolers and their parents, said said Rosemarie Truglio, Ph.D., senior vice president of education and research at Sesame in a statement. “We design with parents and caregivers in mind and know that through joint media engagement children learn more and our content has a greater educational impact.”
Because of the newness of tablet experiences for children, there are two major problems that have long been tackled in the print world that Sesame and others are attacking in the digital world:
1. How do kids interact with the devices and digital content?
2. How educational are the digital reading experiences currently available — both compared to print experiences and to the ideal digital educational experiences?
At Sesame and other similar places, researchers are focused more today on the former than the latter, preferring first to address issues around how to make digital reading experiences that children can effectively interact with before figuring out how to help them learn.
The report released today listed tablet gestures that are intuitive for kids (tap, draw/move finder, swipe, drag and slide) and ones that are less intuitive (pinch, tilt/shake, multi-touch, flick/fling and double tap). It also addressed design issues, like visual layout and texts used. Download the complete PDF here.
Sesame is also a pioneer in researching how kids learn with digital content. Several studies on the topic have come out from the Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop, a nonprofit research and advocacy organization that promotes reading and literacy in children. In one, it was shown that while children prefer digital reading experiences over print, reading comprehension for certain enhanced ebooks is lower than their print counterparts. Another study showed that parents and children still prefer the experience of curling up with an old-fashioned print book together instead of with a tablet computer. In a recent report, the Center found that most educational apps only address very early literacy issues like letters and phonics, preferring to ignore the more complicated stuff like grammar.
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Myelodysplastic syndrome refers to a group of conditions that result from dysfunctional or malformed blood cells. The blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. Any defects in the bone marrow lead to the development of myelodysplastic syndrome.
There is no cure for myelodysplastic syndrome. The aim of the treatment for myelodysplastic syndrome is to alleviate and prevent the complications that result from the disorder. A few individuals affected by myelodysplastic syndrome may undergo a bone marrow transplant to prolong their lives.
Symptoms of myelodysplastic syndrome
The early stages of myelodysplastic syndrome may not elicit any signs and symptoms. However with the passage of time, the following symptoms may be experienced by the patients:
- Breathlessness or shortness of breath
- Abnormal or easy bleeding and/or bruising
- Excessive paleness as a result of anemia
- Persistent infections
- The area just below the skin may develop very tiny red spots due to bleeding
- A few people with myelodysplastic syndrome may eventually develop leukemia which is a cancer of the blood cells.
Types of myelodysplastic syndrome
As per the type of blood cells that are affected, i.e. white cells, red cells and/or platelets, myelodysplastic syndrome are classified into the following subtypes:
- Refractory cytopenia with unilineage dysplasia: A particular type of blood cells has a low count. When such an affected is observed under a microscope, it appears unusual
- Refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia: In this type, any two types of blood cells have an abnormal appearance. Additionally, less than one percent of such cells present in the blood are blasts or immature cells
- Refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts: There is low red blood cells count in this type of myelodysplastic syndrome. Also, such red cells have increased quantities of iron
- Refractory anemia with excess blasts — types 1 and 2: In these types of myelodysplastic syndrome any of the three forms of blood cells may appear irregular under a microscope and are low in count. There is also the presence of extremely immature blood cells or blasts in the bloodstream
- Myelodysplastic syndrome accompanying isolated del(5q) chromosome abnormality: The red blood cells are low in number. Also, individuals affected by this type of myelodysplastic syndrome have an explicit abnormality in their DNA.
- Myelodysplastic syndrome, unclassified: This type is rare and has low count of any one of the blood cell types. The platelets or the white blood cells may have an abnormal appearance when viewed via a microscope.
Causes of myelodysplastic syndrome
Myelodysplastic syndrome is generally caused when unknown factors disrupt the regulated and methodical manufacture of blood cells. Individuals affected by myelodysplastic syndrome have immature and faulty blood cells that do not develop normally. Instead, they die when in the bone barrow or after passing into the blood.
With the passage of time the healthy cells tend to become outnumbered by the defective, immature cells. This causes the many problems associated with myelodysplastic syndrome such as anemia, increased bleeding and infections
If the cause of myelodysplastic syndrome is not known, then it is easier to treat. Myelodysplastic syndrome caused due to exposure to chemicals or due to different types of cancer treatments like chemotherapy or radiation therapy is known as secondary myelodysplastic syndrome and is more difficult to treat.
The vulnerability to developing myelodysplastic syndrome increases due to the following risk factors:
- An increased age of above 60 years
- Exposure to heavy metals such as mercury and lead increase the risk to developing myelodysplastic syndrome
- Males are more susceptible to the condition as compared to women
- Prolonged exposure to tobacco smoke, industrial chemical and pesticides
Myelodysplastic Syndrome treatment
Myelodysplastic syndrome has no known cure. Most of the treatments are focused at alleviating the various symptoms of the disorder and at managing the various complications such as infections, bleeding, fatigue, etc.
Some of the treatments for myelodysplastic syndrome include the following:
- Blood transfusion is one of the methods that is employed to rejuvenate the count and number of the different blood cell types, i.e. red cells, platelets and white blood cells.
- There are various medications that may be prescribed to increase the count of healthy cells in the body. They include:
- There are drugs known as growth factors that aid the body in producing increased number of healthy cells. Some of these medications also aid the production of increased number of white blood cells, which in turn can help fight the many infections that may affect the body
- Immunosuppressants or medications that suppress the immune system are also prescribed
- Some medications can help the immature cells in the body to become mature. However, these drugs may not help all the patients of myelodysplastic syndrome and can instead aggravate the condition
- If a patient is affected by that type of myelodysplastic syndrome that is accompanied by a specific genetic abnormality, then medications like lenalidomide may be recommended.
- A bone marrow stem cell transplant is another option, wherein all the cells of the bone marrow are destroyed with potent chemotherapy. The cells are then replaced from a healthy donor via stem cell transplant procedure.
Myelodysplastic Syndrome life expectancy
Non-transplant patients live for more than ten years, the average is kept 3 to 5 years, though one can see long-time remission if bone marrow transplant is done successfully. The best prognosis is witnessed in case of refractory anemia and refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts. In case of RAEB-T, the life expectancy is less than 1 year. Most people die from overt leukemia, low blood count and unrelated disorders.
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DC Power Supply Units: HYelec
HYelec: Regulated power suppply (or bench power supply, laboratory power supply) is used for supplying a stable voltage to a circuit or device that must be operated within certain power supply limits. The output from the regulated power supply is always DC.
Powers by continuous current electronic devices and schemes by voltage from 0 to 30V and by current from 0 to 2A. Short circuit protection. LCD-display.
Powers electronic devices and schemes with 0 to 15 V and 0 to 2 A. Current and voltage values are controlled by voltmeter and amperemeter.
HY3010MR Power Supply=SINGLE OUTPUT/HIGH POWER SERIES. Output current: up to 10 A and output voltage: up to 30 V.
Indication: current/voltage 3-digit LED-displays.Short-circuit protection.
Powers electronic devices and schemes with direct voltage from 0 to 15 V and current from 0 to 2 A. LCD display
Two output channels 0-30 V and 0-3 A each. Protection against current and voltage overload on each output. Overload indication.
Dual LED display, short-circuit protection, output voltage 0-30 V
Two independent channels with voltage from 0 to 30V and with load current from 0 to 2A. Each channel is overload protected by current and by voltage. For output voltage or current doubling channels are connected in a sequential order or in parallel.
SINGLE OUTPUT device with the output current of up to 3 A and output voltage up to 50 V. Microprocessor control and protection against current and voltage overload.
Dual LED displays, 2 independent channels 0-30V, load current 0-5A.
Ensures power supply of electronic devices and schemes by continuous voltage from 0 to 30V and by current from 0 to 2 A. 3-digits red LED indicators. Short circuit protection.
Three independent output channels: two of them provide adjustible output of 0-3 A and 0- 30 V, while the 3rd has fixed output of 3 A, 5 V DC.
LED display,short-circuit protection, output voltage 0-30 V, provides with current up to 10 A
Power supply Mastech HY1503D provides electronic schemes and devices with power by continuous voltage in the range from 0 to 15 V and by current from 0 to 3A. Output voltage measuring accuracy constitutes less than 1 % ± 2 units, and current measuring – less than 2% ± 2 units.
The unit powers electronic devices and circuits with DC voltage between from 0 to 18V and DC current from 0 to 3A. 1 adjustable channel.
Provides electronic devices and schemes with direct voltage. For the two outputs the voltage is variable from 0to 30 V and the current is variable from 0 to 5 A, the third one output has fixed voltage 5 A and current 3A.
A unit powers electronic devices and circuits with DC voltage between from 0 to 36V and DC current from 0 to 3A. 1 adjustable channel.
The most powrful variant of SINGLE OUTPUT/HIGH POWER SERIES. Output up to 30 V and 20 A.
Voltage from 0 to 15 V and current from 0 to 5 A. 2 analogue indicating scales (voltmeter and amperemeter).
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://toolboom.com/en/Power-Supply-Units-HYelec
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|
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| 0.877304
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|
response to Pius XIIs encyclical Fidei donum (1957), Benedictine
and Cistercian monasteries began to make foundations in countries
where Christianity had only recently been introduced: the so-called
Young Churches. In order to provide support for
these new ventures the AIM Secretariat was created in 1960.
At that time the anagram stood for Aide à lImplantation
Monastique. It now stands for Alliance for International
As AIM became more aware of the problems facing these new monasteries,
it set up meetings for superiors. The first took place in Africa
(Bouaké 1964) and was followed by a meeting in Asia (Bangkok
1968). The Buddhist setting of the meeting in Bangkok helped
the monastics who gathered there come to a deeper understanding
of the necessity of dialogue with monastics of other religions.
The message that Paul VI sent them confirmed their conviction
and encouraged them to engage in this pursuit. In October 1973,
in Bangalore, India, Christian and non-Christian monastics came
together for the first time in history to talk with one another
about the most basic issue of the monastic life, namely, the
experience of God. The success of this meeting prompted Cardinal
Pignedoli, who was then Prefect of the Secretariat for Non-Christians,
to ask Abbot Primate Rembert Weakland to encourage Benedictines
to become involved in interreligious dialogue because, as he
put it, monasticism is the bridge between religions.
As a result, AIM organized two meetings between monks and specialists
in 1977, one in the United States (Petersham), and the other
in Europe (Loppem). These meetings led to the creation, in 1978,
of two sub-committees: NABEWD (North American Board for East-West
Dialogue), now known as MID
(Monastic Interreligious Dialogue), for North America; DIM/MID
for Europe (Dialogue Interreligieux Monastique, MID for German-speaking
countries.) Thus, what had been the work of individuals like
J. Monchanin, H. Le Saux, Bede Giffiths and Thomas Merton was
now given institutional status within the monastic world.
DIM/MID and NABEWD-MID established contacts between Christian
monasteries of the West and those in Asia, especially with Hindus
and Tibetan and Japanese Zen Buddhists. With the latter a program
of Spiritual Exchanges has been taking place ever
The gathering which took place in Assisi in 1986 provided a
great stimulus for dialogue, and the work of the European DIM
and the American NABEWD became too important for them to remain
mere sub-committees within AIM. Thus, in 1994 they were established
as a Secretariat similar to AIM, and, like it, common to both
the Benedictines and the Cistercians. As the movement of dialogue
continued to spread, national and regional centers were created,
whose activity is coordinated on the international level by
a General Secretary.
A broadening of perspectives has accompanied this organic development.
In the beginning the only dialogue envisaged was that between
monastics of different religions. However, even though Judaism
and Islam do not have any monastic institution, they are in
dialogue with Christian monastics. The dialogue of our brothers
in Atlas with Islam is a case in point. On the other hand, the
Asian religions are increasingly present in the West where they
have many devoted followers and a notable presence on university
faculties. Those Westerners who have been influenced by Asian
religions seek out Christian monastics and invite them to take
part in their colloquies. On various continents DIM/MID also
collaborates with other groups involved in interreligious dialogue.
This change of perspective led to the idea that monastic interreligious
dialogue can also mean engaging in dialogue as monasticsthat
is to say, as people searching for Godwith other searchers,
no matter what their status or their religion. Dialogue thought
of in this way strives to become a dialogue of religious experience.
Such dialogue takes place primarily in spiritual exchanges,
but it also includes others forms of dialogue that are in some
ways preliminary and preparatory.
|
<urn:uuid:82e1997a-a491-47b1-8762-e5f6d9b8cc66>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.urbandharma.org/bdharma2/bdharma/aboutmid.html
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|
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| 0.935382
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| 2.53125
| 3
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Is there a correct Biblical name for partaking of the body and blood of Jesus Christ as represented by bread and wine? Does the Bible label it as Jesus' last Passover? Or should it be called the Lord's Supper? Or, as some fellowships have done, called the commemorating of Jesus' last night on earth as taking communion?
Near the beginning of Jesus' last night he washes the feet of his disciples, including those of Judas his betrayer. After Judas leaves the room to consummate his betrayal, Christ takes a piece of unleavened bread and states that it now represents his body. Every year when his disciples remember his death it will symbolize the sacrifice of his flesh for our sins. Later, he takes one of the cups of Passover and designates that it will forever represent his shed blood and be a sign of God's new covenant with man.
Does a supper symbolize sacrifice?
Is the title "Lord's Supper" a proper term for the Christian ordinance of observing Christ's death? The only scripture from which one can derive this title is found in some Bible translations (KJV, etc.) of 1Corinthians 11.
20. Therefore, when you assemble together in one place, it is not to eat the Lord's supper. 21. For in eating, everyone takes his own supper first; now on the one hand, someone goes hungry; but on the other hand, another becomes drunken. 22. WHAT! Don't you have houses for eating and drinking? . . . Shall I praise you in this? I do not praise you!
23. For I received from the Lord that which I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus in the night in which He was betrayed took bread; 24. And after giving thanks, He broke it and said, "Take, eat; this is My body, which is being broken for you. This do in the remembrance of Me." 25. In like manner, He also took the cup after He had supped, saying, "This is the cup of the New Covenant in My blood. This do, as often as you drink it, in the remembrance of Me." 26. For as often as you eat this bread and drink this cup, you solemnly proclaim the death of the Lord until He comes. (1 Corinthians 11, HBFV)
The word translated 'supper' in verse 20 comes from the Greek word deipnon (Strong's Concordance #G1173). It means the chief or BIGGEST meal of the entire day (usually eaten in the evening) or a feast. Deipnon is translated as 'feast,' meaning a large meal, in Mark 6:21, 12:39, Matthew 23:6, Luke 14:12-24, 20:46, John 12:2 and other places.
At the time of Jesus most people ate only two meals a day: breakfast and dinner. The average Israelite ate foods such as bread, olives, oil, buttermilk, cheese, fruit, vegetables and on very rare occasions meat. Its easy to see that a big, hearty meal was needed after a full day of work in the fields, grinding grain, etc. - especially when the last time anything substantial was eaten was eight or more hours ago. This means Paul could NOT have been referring to a small piece of bread and wine (verses 23-26) as a SUPPER - whether it was the Lord's or anyone else!
So what was Paul saying? He was stating the purpose of the church coming together (verse 20) is NOT to eat a large meal, like the ones they would have at home, or even the meal Jesus ate with his disciples just before his arrest. Such a meal symbolizes nothing and was NOT singled out by Jesus for any special meaning or significance. The purpose of the special meeting (verse 20) is to partake of the simple symbols Christ himself designated and emphasized - unleavened bread and a little wine (verses 23-26) - as a means of commemorating and proclaiming his death.
Was it Communion?
Many in the Protestant world use the term 'communion.' It's one and only connection related to commemorating Christ's sacrifice, found in a few Bible translations, is in 1 Corinthians 10.
10:16 The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? (KJV)
The Greek word translated as "communion" is koinonia (Strong's Concordance #G2842), which means "fellowship" or "social intercourse." This verse is simply describing what the wine and bread represent - a connection or relationship with fellow believers and with Christ - and is not meant to be some title or designation of the two symbols. A more accurate translation of verse 16 of 1Corinthians 10 reads,
16. The cup of blessing that we bless, is it not the fellowship of the blood of Christ? The bread that we break, is it not the fellowship of the body of Christ? (HBFV)
There exists no basis in the Bible for using the terms "Lord's Supper" and "Communion" when referring to what occurred during Jesus' last night on planet earth. When believers eat unleavened bread and drink a small amount of wine each year in commemorating Jesus' sacrifice, they partake of HIM. The correct and truthful phrase for this solemn occasion is 'the Passover' or more properly 'the Christian Passover.'
God's Annual Feast Days
|Overview of the |
|Did Jesus have a |
Passover or supper?
| Day of |
| Passover and Feast |
of unleavened bread
|The Day |
|Feast of Tabernacles |
Last Great Day
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Glossary of Printing Techniques
1. DAUMIER’S PRINTINGS
To see a video on the process of lithography, go to YOUTUBE
The process of lithography involves several steps: First, the drawing is executed onto a lithographic stone. Then, one to three copies are printed on silky white paper or on ivory paper. These prints are called “avant la lettre” (“before the letter”, before text, or artist’s proof). These were the ones most sought after by Daumier’s friends and collectors. If the proof was satisfactory, the “lettre” was added: the caption, the title, the number of the print etc.
Printing, paper qualities
A series was then printed on thick white paper. These proofs were called “sur blanc” and were sold either individually or bound together as an album for collectors and subscribers. Passeron, in his 1968 exhibition in Blois, France, estimates that approximately 50 prints on sur blanc (wove paper) were carefully printed separately to appear apart from the newsprint as special editions or single collectors’ copies. The sur blanc is usually of a far better quality than newsprint. On very rare occasion, the printer used China paper. These extremely delicate prints were beautifully executed in very small numbers. Nearly all of them were mounted on wove paper to give the thin China paper a better support. All of these prints are considered very rare.
After these preliminary prints, the stone was used to print the 2-3’000 copies for the newspaper edition. For more exact information on the quantities sold, please consult the newsprint section of this website, where information about the CHARIVARI is covered.
Test proofs, Copyright, Censor
Once the censorship system was introduced, the "avant la lettre" print was replaced by two or three copies on fine paper (“papier mince”), the so-called “test proofs”. One of them was sent to the copyright office, another one to the censor (once the text had been added), and the third one remained with the printer. The censor usually approved or disapproved of the text within the same day (by writing “oui” or “non” on the proof) , after which the printer gave his approval in handwriting and filed it (for later reference in case he had to prove that it had passed the censor). Each approved lithograph was then registered individually in log-books, with a registration number, date of deposition, title and, if available, name of publisher and artist. Only then the printing process could begin. (Pierre Cabanne, Vilo 1999). We are showing various proofs, avant la lettre prints, and prints with handwritten captions by Daumier or the texter in the DAUMIER REGISTER ©, the digital Daumier work catalogue on the Internet.
In general it may be assumed that the majority of Daumier’s prints were executed as follows:
Topics and captions
According to research by AdhĂ©mar, the topics to be treated in the day's print were usually suggested to Daumier by an editorial board which met in the morning to discuss the political situation of the day. They agreed on the theme to be illustrated by the artists. We know that in the case of Daumier, Vernier and Gavarni this procedure was more or less strictly adhered to, while Cham on the other hand was responsible himself for the artistic ideas as well as for the captions of the lithographs he supplied to the paper. Unlike Cham, who wrote his own texts, Daumier almost never supplied the caption himself. This work was usually done by the writers in Aubert’s printing shop. We have indication about one of these journalists, Albert Wolf, who received 5 francs for each text, however we also found lower salaries paid to other writers. Other important text writers were the journalists Biais, Cler and Jaime. In the DAUMIER REGISTER © we show photographs of various proofs, avant la lettre prints, and prints with handwritten captions by Daumier or the caption writer.
It sometimes happened that several artists supplied similar lithographs on the same political theme. The editor in chief would then decide which print was to be published. The ones not used were set aside for publication at a later date. This explains why some early numbers on lithographic stones appeared months later, sometimes in a different context.
The stones were delivered to the artist on a weekly basis. The artist then made his drawings onto the stone and numbered the stones (most of them) for reference purposes. Unfortunately, the numbering of the stones was sometimes inconsistent. It does however allow us in most cases to understand around which date a drawing was made, independently of its actual publication date, and to what series it might initially have belonged to. Once the stones were used, the drawing was erased and the stone could be used again.
Once the a stone was selected for publication, a few trials proofs (sur blanc) were made and forwarded to the text editors (like Jaime, Biais, Albert Cler etc). These journalist would sometimes write the text on the front or back page or add a handwritten note on a piece of paper, which would be attached to the print. Sometimes the artists were able to do their own correction of the prints and a correspondence emanated between editor and artist, showing crossed out first proposals, counterproposals and correction.
Once the text was agreed upon, two or three trial proof copies with text were printed (sur blanc), and at least two were sent to the censor for approval.(except before 1835 and between 1848 and 1852). The printer would sign a copy stating that the print is conform. The censor’s office was staffed with civil servants, who in case of doubt had get approval by their head of department at the ministry of the interior. Some of these rare prints can be seen in the DAUMIER REGISTER ©, the digital Daumier work catalogue on the Internet. If the censor did not agree with the caption, the print was sent back and the editor was allowed to change the text and re-submit the print. If the print was rejected, it was (irregularly) filed by the censor in a register. However most of these prints have been destroyed.
Once a print was accepted, a copy of it was entered in the “depot legal” and each approved lithograph was registered with a number, deposition date, title, name of the publisher and artist. During the period of the Second Empire, when censorship did not exist, the prints were immediately printed on newspaper sheets, which already held the Government’s tax stamp.
Above two images courtesy of GreatCaricatures.com
The format of the Charivari usually consisted of four pages: The front page showed a political essay by one of the paper’s editors. The second page covered local topics. The third page was always reserved for the caricature, and once the format was increased, the text from the first page was continued on the lower third of the third page. The last page was either fully or partially used for advertisement.
The initial subscription price for the Charivari amounted to 72 francs per year for subscribers in the Paris area, while ten years later the price had dropped to 60 francs. It took many years until the paper was finally available in grocers shops, in the beginning one could only subscribe to it or read it in public reading rooms. The readers came mainly from the middle class bourgeoisie.
We can estimate that about half a percent to one percent of Daumier prints have been censored. One must also remember that after the text had been rejected by the censor, the printer had the right, to change it in such a way that no infringement would take place. The print would thus appear with an “adjusted” text, acceptable to the regime.
The entire period of censorship can be divided into various sections:
It is often assumed that the stamps (timbre Royal) visible on prints by Daumier are censorship approval stamps. It should be remembered however that the censorship question of a print had already been cleared before it’s publication. The censor had previously seen and rejected or approved the print. In both cases the prints were registered at the depot legal for future reference.
Papers containing political lithographs or engravings were subject to a stamp tax. This implied that the paper had to be printed on stamped, government approved paper ONLY. (art 6-13). Some of these stamps periodically even showed the value of the stamp. One can understand this also as some kind of censorship, since the government would tax each edition, thus knowing the exact numbers of issues distributed by the publishing house. Apart from this tax the editor had to supply a high bond BEFORE he was allowed to start publishing. The bond served as a guarantee and was confiscated by the Government in case of infringements and non compliance.
Over the period of changing forms of Government the “Timbre Royal” was renamed “Timbre National” and later abolished when a new tax on advertisement appeared.
These artists worked during Daumier’s time at Aubert publishing company:
E. de Beaumont
Bertall (A d’Arnoux)
Cham ( Amédée de Noé)
Gavarni (S.H.G. Chevalier)
Gill ( A.G. de Guines)
Grandville ( J.I.I.GĂ©rare
Stop (P.G.B.L. Morel-Retz)
Print by HADOL (Charivari of January 2, 1867): Daumier and his colleagues at the Charivari. The title of the caricature is "Carte de Visite du Charivari". Daumier is in the first row, second from left.
2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON LITHOGRAPHY
The draft is drawn directly to the polished, or grained, flat surface of a lithographic stone, (in the beginning on Bavarian limestone) with a greasy crayon or sharp feather and ink. It is then chemically fixed with a weak solution of acid and gum Arabic. In printing, the stone is flooded with water, which is absorbed everywhere except where repelled by the greasy ink. Oil-based printer's ink is then rolled on the stone, which in turn is repelled by the water soaked areas and accepted only by the drawing. A piece of paper is laid on the stone and it is run through the press with light pressure. The final print shows neither a raised nor embossed quality but lies entirely on the surface of the paper. The design may be divided among several stones, properly registered, to produce through multiple printings a lithograph in more than one color.
A transfer lithograph (French: “autographie”) uses the same technique, but the design is drawn on specially prepared transfer paper with a lithographic crayon and is later mechanically transferred to the stone.
A zincography is the same as a lithograph, but using a zinc plate instead of a stone.
Here is an example of a lithographic stone:
This stone is part of a private collection in Switzerland. The previous owner was Z. Bruck. The stone is registered by L. Delteil under Nr 3247. It was used for print in “Le Boulevard” in 1862, and for the special edition of “Souvenirs d’Artistes”, a large size sheet with sur blanc prints.
The size of this lithographic stone is 27,7 x 33 cm x 3,5 cm.
For more information on "Lithography" go to WIKIPEDIA
or watch this interesting
short video: Printmaking Processes: Lithography.
FIRMIN GILLOT (Brou 1820-Paris 1872) received his patent for “zincography” on March 21,1850. To honor the significance of this inventor, the former rue de la Grotte in Paris was named after Firmin Gillot in 1951 by Pierre de Gaulle.
The common name used for this process was “Gillotage” or “Paniconography”. This new system made it possible to engrave any type of drawing, text included, on a zinc plate by use of a fatty ink. An acid was then added to the parts not covered by ink. The resulting zinc relief could be used almost infinitely.
This procedure practically represents the basis of modern photogravure, which started to be successful around the same time. Obviously, the production costs were reduced considerably with this new process. About 270 prints by Daumier were produced in this method. They appeared mainly in the Journal Amusant ( 1864-66) and in the Charivari ( 1870-1872).
It is quite important to make a distinction between the “original” lithographs, drawn from the soft stone, and the “gillotage” produced by Gillot, Marchandeau, Yves et Barret, and Lefman. Some of the prints have been signed by their printers accordingly:
Daumier never drew on a zinc plate, but on a lithographic stone. From the stone, a lithographic proof was produced. Usually a handwritten text was added on a separate piece of paper for the printer.
Once the text was approved, the cliché for the zincography was composed. Finally the zincography or gillotage was produced.
The difference in quality between a lithograph and a gillotage can be quite amazing: DR 3925 by Daumier is here shown as a lithographic proof sample
and in the following picture as a gillotage
In most zincographies the printers placed their marks onto the print (see picture). However where this is missing, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between lithograph or zincography. When looking at our example given above, the distinction becomes apparent: a lithography will always be more clear and direct, while a gillotage loses the half tones and details supplied by the stone lithography.
With the development of photolito, the perception changed entirely and a new chapter in printing took its course……
4. DAUMIER'S WOOD ENGRAVINGS
DAUMIER disliked wood-engraving. As practiced during his lifetime, it was frankly and simply a reproductive process: the artist drew on a wood block: skilled technicians, by cutting away with exquisite care a thin layer of wood around and between the penciled lines, put the drawing into relief, so that it could be printed.
The concept of an artist using wood-engraving as a creative medium, and cutting the block with his own hands, did not come into general practice until years later. Theodore de Banville tells in his Souvenirs (Paris, 1883) of this hatred of Daumier's for wood-engraving: "He said that he was tired and bored with drawing on wood, and wanted to have nothing more to do with it, that the lithographic crayon alone followed his thoughts, while the lead pencil was stubborn and wouldn't obey him; that finally he had come to look with horror upon this kind of drawing, where nine times out of ten one is betrayed and dishonored by the engraver."
Yet some of Daumier's finest drawings were made on wood. They now exist in no other form than impressions taken from the engraved block, so that we are forced to consider the vignettes as originals, once removed from Daumier. We regret, with Daumier, the inefficiency of wood-engraving as a reproductive process. But it was the only way by which drawings could be printed together with type until photo-engraving was perfected at the end of the century.
The vastly superior process of lithography required a different kind of press than that used for type, and thus books illustrated with lithographs were much more expensive to produce than those which contained wood-engravings. Towards the end of his life Daumier became much interested in a crude form of photo-engraving, Gillotype, and seemed to revel in the camera's precision, for the illustrations so reproduced are among the most freely drawn of his mature style.
Were Daumier working today, undoubtedly his drawings would be reproduced by the perfected photomechanical process used for reproducing newspaper caricatures, and they would be appreciated as drawings, not as photo-engravings. In the same way the illustrations which he made for books were appreciated in their day as drawings, and not as wood-engravings. That is how Baudelaire looked at them. In his “Curiosites esthétiques” (Paris, Calmann-Levy, 1928) he wrote: "Daumier scattered his talent in a thousand directions. Commissioned to illustrate a rather poor medico-poetic publication, the “Némésis médicale” [by François Fabre, Paris 1840], he made some superb drawings”.
In all, Daumier did about a thousand illustrations on wood; most of them appeared, usually with the work of other artists, in little pocketsize essays with titles containing the words "Physiology" or "Physiognomy," and which to judge from their number, must have been very popular in the 1840s.
They were serio-comical studies, documentary in a sense, of Parisian types, customs and manners; among the subjects treated we find Parisian cafes, school boys, rich men, lawyers, doctors, musicians, poets, tailors, money-lenders, old maids, hunters and lovers. The most ambitious illustrated book of the period, “Les Français peints par eux-memes”, is virtually but a col-lection of similar booklets, published in 422 installments, and forming eight volumes, which were brought to nine by the supplementary “Le Prisme”. It is attractive to see in this type of illustrated book, with its emphasis on people and their activities, the forerunner of the picture magazine, which has taken so important a place in modern journalism; and it will not be overlooked that in 1843 the magazine “L'Illustration” was founded.
Yet interesting as these publications are to the social historian, the majority have but slight literary or artistic value, and would be forgotten were it not for the fact that some of them were illustrated by Gavarni, Daumier, Grandville (that almost forgotten artist, admired - so the rumor goes -by Walt Disney) and a host of lesser names. (Beaumont Newhall Source: Parnassus, Vol. 10, No. 5, Oct., 1938, pp. 12-13; 32).
To see a video on the process of wood engravings go to
* * * * *
THE WOODCUTS OF DAUMIER
Picked up one at a time during a series of years and individually of such comparatively slight importance that few have justified more than the merest passing mention in the BULLETIN, there has gradually been brought together in the Print Room a little group of books illustrated with woodcuts by Daumier that is not without its very real interest for such people as take the nineteenth-century woodcuts seriously as works of art. As a medium for book illustration, the woodcut after having held the floor in the fifteenth century and rivaled engraving in the sixteenth, declined almost to obscurity in the seventeenth and eighteenth, but came back once more into its own in the nineteenth century. Adapting itself so easily to caricature, the century in France is marked by the drawings upon wood of such notable delineators of life and manners as Grandville, Victor Adam, Traviès, Emy, Gavarni, Monnier, and one of the greatest of all illustrators and caricaturists, Honoré Daumier.
It is surprising that so few of the many who have recorded the works of Daumier have given much space to his woodcuts, all being concerned for the most part with his paintings or with the lithographs which appeared in the two Paris dailies, La Caricature and Le Charivari, by which he earned his daily bread. Yet in the medium of the woodcut Daumier was surely at his best. Dropping for the moment the political ferment of the day with its attending choleric attack upon some high dignitary of the law or, at Philipon's request, upon Louis-Philippe himself, Daumier took his material from life about him in the Paris streets and suburbs. Intimate and friendly, for all the touch of malice behind them, the little vignettes decorating the pages of Les Français peints par eux-mêmes, Museum Parisien, La Grande Ville, Némésis Medicale, and Le Prisme (1840-1842) have a spontaneity and freedom that must necessarily have been lost in the daily grinding out of the famed lithographs. Their greatness lies in something more than such attributions of quality as good drawing, technique, brilliancy, and other phrases of print description. Finding drama in the most casual goings and comings of the people about him, Daumier, drawing his social caricatures with an uncompromising hand, shows an amazing, almost psychic penetration into the very soul of the many layers of society of the time. Caustic, satirical, with startling directness he seems so easily to catch the spirit of each of his types. The complacent, wealthy bourgeois, stuffy city official, and unctuous bill-collector are just that-nothing more. He depicts the struggles of the lower classes for existence and with each other with an unsurpassed eloquence.
Daumier has put his finger upon all the bathos and pathos in ordinary living.
Ineffably amusing is the cut from Le Monde Illustré of the family walking through the Egyptian galleries of a museum and, as all three gaze up at a wall-relief depicting a row of animal-headed deities the wife exclaiming, "No, the Egyptians were not beautiful."
Through a series of incidents created by Daumier and afterwards used to illustrate Paul de Kock's La Grande Ville, one can follow the daily life of the bourgeois Parisian from his rising in the morning, his toilet, his way to business or morning promenade, the pause at noon in the garden of the Palais Royal to set his watch by the report from the little cannon, through his afternoon amusements in the Champs Elysées and Bois de Boulogne, to the evening at the theatre and his retiring. In sharp contrast to this smug, well-fed middle class, there are in the same volume the lodging-house inmates at four sous the night. The drawing of the shabby little man sitting on his mattress, back against the wall and smoking his clay pipe, his hat and slippers on the floor beside him while all around him sleep the other "guests," is nothing short of masterly! Riimann in his catalogue sentimentally speaks of these illustrations as the "Sunshine and Rain in Life." In the Némésis Medicale, Daumier helps the author, François Fabre, to take a fling at the whole medical profession from the worthy M. D.'s and sages-femmes to the charlatans on their soapboxes. He depicts crowds swarming into the gates of an Orthopedic Institute, the gruesome ravages of a cholera-morbus epidemic, and the strutting father having the strangely shaped head of his infant prodigy examined by a phrenologist. Will he tell the fond parent that it is not an indication of genius as he has supposed but probably criminal tendencies? And so Daumier goes on through his astounding medley of types.
Sympathetically, almost tenderly it seems at times, he produces with amazingly simple treatment his powerful studies of physiognomies. With what whimsicality he has drawn the two street musicians in Le Monde Illustré or the poet writing in bed in his attic or the groups of art-lovers in the galleries and auction rooms.
Although of the last century, Daumier cannot be held to his period. Not only did he exert a powerful influence upon his contemporaries and immediate followers, for example, Millet and Delacroix, but he continues to be a fertile source of inspiration. He is too great to be anything but eternal and universal. The illustrations of these little books have as much appeal as though they were done by one of our present-day cartoonists.
Take the drawing for Le Bourgeois Campagnard by Frédéric Soulie-the little man in carpet slippers, rake in hand, looking over his spectacles, could easily be one of the droves of commuters in New Jersey or Westchester measuring the sprouts in his own garden against those in his neighbors'. If one replaces the topper by a felt or straw hat in another illustration, one has a man of the twentieth century sitting with his wife on the ridge of a hill gazing out upon rolling fields and turning over in his mind-even as you and I-whether or not life in the country would be as peaceful as this one afternoon of an excursion from town.
Historically these little vignettes are of an importance that is out of all proportion to their size, as can be seen by any one who has looked into the origins of the contemporary revival of the woodcut in France. The modern movement owes its impulse to Lepère, probably, more than to any other one or many men, and as has been pointed out, he found much of the inspiration for his technical innovations in the woodcuts, which Daumier designed in the late thirties of the last century.
It is even believed by a few who are acquainted with the material that nothing done on the wood since the days of DĂĽrer and Holbein is of greater merit, or possessed of stronger lasting qualities. That such an opinion should be possible only goes again to show that the nineteenth century still remains the least known of all centuries in the world of prints.
(The Woodcuts of Daumier. Author: Margaret H. Daniels. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Jan., 1926), pp. 16-19. Published by: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
5. GLOSSARY OF FINE ART TERMINOLOGY
The Museum of Modern Art in New York gives an excellent introduction to printing techniques.Click here to see the short slide show. (opens in a new window)
Three Major Print-Making Processes
Intaglio - The process of incising a design beneath the surface of hard metal or stone. Plates are inked only in the etched depressions on the plates and then the plate surface is wiped clean. The ink is then transferred onto the paper through an etching press. The printing is done with a plate bearing an image in intaglio and includes all metal-plate etching and engraving processes. The reverse of this process is known as relief printing.
Planographic - The process to print impressions from a smooth surface rather than from creating incised or relief areas on the plate. The term was devised to describe lithography.
Relief - All printing processes in which the non-printing areas of the block or plate are carved, engraved, or etched away. Inks are applied onto the protected surface and transferred onto the paper. The reverse process is known as intaglio printing.
Common Print-Making Technologies
Aquatint - Printing technique capable of producing unlimited tonal gradations to re-create the broad flat tints of ink wash or watercolor drawings by etching microscopic crackles and pits into the image on a master plate, typically made of copper or zinc. The majority of Spanish artist Goya's (1746-1828) graphic works were done using this technique.
Blind - Printing using an un-inked plate to produce the subtle embossed texture of a white-on-white image, highlighted by the shadow of the relief image on the un-inked paper. This technique is used in many Japanese prints.
Collagraph - Printing technique in which proofs are pulled from a block on which the artwork or design is built up like a collage, creating a relief.
Drypoint - Printing technique of intaglio, engraving in which a hard, steel needle incises lines on a metal plate, creating a burr that yields a characteristically soft and velvety line in the final print.
Engraving - Printing technique in which an intaglio image is produced by cutting a metal plate or box directly with a sharp engraving tool. The incised lines are inked and printed with heavy pressure.
Etching - Printing technique in which a metal plate is first covered with an acid-resistant material, then worked with an etching needle to create an intaglio image. The exposed met-al is eaten away in an acid bath, creating depressed lines that are later inked for printing. This technique was thought re-, have been developed by Daniel Hopfer (1493-1536). Etching surpassed engraving as the most popular graphic art during the active years of Rembrandt and Hercules Segher in the 17th century, and it remains one of the most versatile and subtle printing techniques today.
Iris or Giclée - A computerized reproduction technique in which the image and topology are generated from a digital file and printed by a special ink let printer, using ink, acrylic or oil paints. Giclée printing offers one of the highest degree of accuracy and richness of color available in any reproduction techniques.
Linocut is printed from linoleum, usually backed with wood for reinforcement. The printed surface has less texture than in a woodcut because of the supple nature of linoleum. The material takes all types of lines, but is most suited to large designs with contrasting tints.
Lithography - Printing technique using a planographic process in which prints are pulled on a special press from a flat stone or metal surface that has been chemically sensitized so that- ink sticks only to the design areas, and is repelled by the non-image areas. Lithography was invented in 1798 in Solnhofen, Germany by Alois Senefelder. The early history of lithography is dominated by great French artists such as Daumier and Delacroix, and later by Degas, Toulouse-Lautrec, Picasso, Braque and MirĂł.
Mezzotint - (mezzo= half ; tinta= tone), a reverse engraving process used on a copper or steel plate to produce illustrations in relief with effects of light and shadow. The surface of a master plate is roughened with a tool called a rocker so that if inked, it will print solid black. The areas to be white or gray in the print are rubbed down so as nor to take ink. It was widely used in the 18th and 19th centuries to reproduce portraits and other paintings, but became obsolete with the introduction of photo-engraving.
Monotype - One-of-a-kind print made by painting on a sheet of metal or glass and transferring the still-wet painting to a sheet of paper by hand or with an etching press. If enough paint remains on the master plate, additional prints can be made, however, the reprint will have substantial variations from the original Image. Monotype printing is not a multiple-replica process since each print is unique.
Offset Lithography - A special photo-mechanical technique in which the image to be printed is transferred to the negative plates and printed onto papers. Offset lithography is very well adapted to color printing.
Serigraphy (Silkscreen) - A printing technique that makes use of a squeegee to force ink directly on to a piece of paper or canvas through a stencil creating an image on a screen of silk or other fine fabric with an impermeable substance. Serigraphy differs from most other printing in that its color areas are paint films rather than printing-ink stains.
Woodcut - Printing technique in which the printing surface has been carved from a block of wood. The traditional wood block is seasoned hardwood such as apple, beech, or sycamore. A modern trend, however, is to use more inexpensive and easily attainable soft woods such as pine. Woodcut is one of the oldest forms of printing. It was first used by the Chinese in the 12th century and later in Europe toward the end of the 14th century.
In the picture you can see a wood block, belonging to a private collection in Switzerland. It is a drawing by Daumier entitled “Au buffet de l’Exposition des Beaux-Arts: Amour de l’Art et de la Côtelette” of June 20, 1868, for « Le Monde Illustré ».
Wood Engraving is made from the end-grain surface of blocks. This surface has no grain and can afford great precision and detail.
Common Art Print Terms
Acid-free Paper or Canvas - Paper or canvas treated to neutralize its natural acidity in order to protect fine are: and photographic prints from discoloration and deterioration.
Canvas Transfer - Art reproduction on canvas which is created by a process such as serigraphy, photomechanical, or giclee printing. Some processes can even recreate the texture, brush strokes, and aged appearance of the original work of art.
Color-variant Suite - A set of identical prints in different color schemes.
Impression - Fine art made by any printing or stamping process.
Limited Edition - Set of identical prints numbered in succession and signed by the artist. The total number of prints is fixed or "limited" by the artist who supervises the printing him(her)self. All additional prints have been destroyed.
Monoprint - One-of-a-kind print conceived by the artist and printed by or under the artist's supervision.
Montage (Collage) - An artwork comprising of portions of various existing images such as from photographs or prints, and arranged so that they join, overlap, or blend to create a new image.
Multiple Originals - A set of identical fine prints in which the artist personally conceived the image, created the master plates, and executed or supervised the entire printing process. Example: etching.
Multiple Reproductions - A set of identical fine prints reproducing the image of an original artwork created by a non-printing process. Example: serigraph of an oil on canvas.
Open Edition - A series of prints or objects in an art edition that has an unlimited number of copies. Original print - One-of-a-kind print in which the artist personally conceived the image, created the master plates, and executed the entire printing process.
Provenance - Record of ownership for a work of art, ideally from the time it- left the artist's studio to its present location, thus creating an unbroken ownership history.
Remarque - Small sketch in the margin of an art print or additional enhancements by the artist on some or all of the final prints within an edition.
Restrike - Additional prints made from a master plate, block, lithographic stone, etc. after the original edition has been exhausted.
Proofs are prints authorized by the artist in addition to the limited signed and numbered edition. The total size of an art edition consists of the signed and numbered prints plus all outstanding proofs. If a set of proofs consists of more than one print, numbers are inscribed to indicate the number of the prints within the total number of the particular type of proof, (e,g., AP 5/20 means the fifth print in a set of 20 identical. prints authorized as artist's proofs). Proofs are generally signed by the artist as validation of the prints.
Artist's proof - Print intended for the artist's personal use. It is a common practice to reserve approximately ten percent of an edition as artist's proofs, although this figure can be higher. The artist's proof is sometimes referred to by its French name, Ă©preuve d'artiste (abbreviated E.A.). Artist's proofs can be distinguished by the abbreviation AP or E.A., commonly on the lower left corner of the work.
Cancellation proof - Final print made once an edition series has been finished to show that the plate has been marred/mutilated by the artist, and will never be used again to make more prints of the edition.
Hors Commerce Proof - Print identical to the edition print intended to be used as samples to show to dealers and galleries. Hors Commerce (abbreviated H.C.) proofs may or may not be signed by the artist.
Printer's proof - Print retained by the printer as a reference. Artists often sign these prints as a gesture of appreciation.
Trial proof - Pre-cursor to a limited edition series, these initial prints are pulled so that the artist may examine, refine, and perfect the prints to the desired final state. Trial proofs are generally not signed.
Common Abbreviations used in Art
2nd ed - Second edition: prints of the same image as the original edition but altered in some way (as in change of color, paper, or printing process).
2nd st. - Second state. prints of proofs which contain significant changes from the original print.
AP - Artist's proof.
Del - (Latin, deleavit) He (she) drew it. Generally inscribed next to the artist's signature.
E.A. - (French, Ă©preuve d'artiste) An artist's proof.
Exe or Imp - (Latin, excudit) He (she) executed it. The meaning is synonymous with (Latin, impressit) he(she) printed it.
H.C. - (French, hors commerce) Prints from an edition intended to be used as samples to show to dealers and galleries.
Inc. or Sculp - (Latin, incidit) He(she) cut it. The meaning is synonymous with (Latin, impressit) he(she) carved it. These abbreviations refer to the individuals who engraved the master plate.
Inv, or Invent - (Latin, invenit) He(she) designed it. Generally inscribed next to the artist's signature.
Lith. or Lithe - "Lithographed By". Usually follows the name of the printer of the lithograph.
Pinx. - (Latin, pinxit) He(she) painted it. Generally inscribed next to the artist's signature.
PP - Printer's proof .
TP - Trial proof.
Albumen - The most popular photographic print f~rom 1855 to 1890. Albumen positive prints are made on paper coated with frothy egg white and salt solution and sensitized with silver nitrate solution. The print is then finalized by exposure to sunlight through a negative.
Carbon Print - The first permanent photographic printing process used between 1866 to 1890. Made in three different tones: black, purple-brown, sepia. It is made by using 3 layers of stable pigment in registration on top of each other and requires a minimum of 12 hours to create a single print. Carbon prints are highly sought after and rare.
Cibachrome - A positive print process known for its sharpness, rich color saturation, and permanence. Unless interpositives are made, these prints are made from slides and transparencies, never from color negatives.
Daguerreotype - The first practical photo process invented in 1838 in which an image was formed on a copper plate coated with highly polished silver. Following exposure, the image is developed in mercury vapor, resulting in a unique image on metal that cannot be used as a negative for replication.
Dye Transfer - A high-quality color photographic printing technique involving the transfer of dyes from three separately prepared images onto a single sheet of paper in exact registration. Though costly, this process produces prints with sharp registration, rich color saturation and great longevity.
Evercolor Pigment Transfer - developed by Evercolor using four layers of separate color transfer, cyan, magenta, yellow, and black, in registration to create prints. This very costly process creates very realistic and sharp images which attain three dimensional quality when displayed. Prints done in this process are highly sought after and rare.
Fujicolor Print - Developed by Fuji Film of Japan, Fujicolor prints have the best color gamut and extreme longevity. It was developed originally for 1 hour processing. When used with the light jet printer, this process achieves amazing color saturation, contrast control and extreme sharpness.
Photogravure (Gravure) - Started around 1879, a print process using copper plates. The plate is sometimes chrome plated to insure sharpness and continuous tones throughout the edition. This is a very complex and exacting photo process which produces great longevity.
Photomontage - A composite image made by joining together portions (or all) of more than one photograph to synthesize a unique image.
Plate - Usually a glass or metal sheer coated with light-sensitive emulsion that: is intended to receive the image through the aperture of the lens of a camera when inserted into the camera.
Platinum Print (Platinotype) - A print formed by exposing a negative in contact with payer that has been sensitised with iron salts and a platinum compound. This process is highly prized for its unique cones, high color saturation, exceptional details and beautiful papers. It is a highly permanent and costly process.
Silver Gelatine - A high-quality, black-and-white photographic printing technique in which a natural protein is used as a transparent medium to hold light-sensitive silver halide crystals in suspension, binding them to the printing paper or film, yet allowing for penetration of processing solutions. Made famous by photographers like Weston and Adams, these prints require incredible skill to achieve the rich black and white contrasts while maintaining the subtle grey tones and amazing details throughout the image. Popular from 1920s to present.
Holograph - Holograph comes from the Greek words "holo", meaning whole and "graph", meaning message. The combination means "the whole message" which is exactly what the holograph gives the viewer. A Holograph is a "reflective holograph" requiring only an ordinary uncoated light bulb on one side of the film plate to become a magical window displaying three dimensional visions of objects. These objects shift position and perspective exactly as they would if they were really there, where they only appear to be.
(Glossary of fine art terminology: With kind permission of HERNDON FINE ART, Albuquerque, New Mexico)
For more information on "printing technology" go to WIKIPEDIA
6. Daumier Ă la BNF
Glossaire par Monique Moulène
La technique lithographique
Image multipliable obtenue par tirage à partir d’un support gravé ou dessiné, tel qu’une planche de bois, une plaque de métal, ou une pierre lithographique. Cette matrice, encrée et passée sous une presse, s’imprime sur une feuille de papier ou sur un autre support. Le terme s’applique à toutes les techniques : bois, taille-douce, lithographie.
Procédé inventé entre 1796 et 1798 par l’allemand Aloys Senefelder (1771-1834). Après la gravure en relief ou en creux, la lithographie est une technique d’impression à plat (ou planographique). Elle est fondée sur la répulsion naturelle de l’eau face à un corps gras. Sur une pierre calcaire polie et plus ou moins grainée, on dessine à la plume ou au crayon. Le gras de l’encre ou du crayon est fixé sur le support grâce à un apprêt chimique de sa surface à l’aide d’une solution acidulée et de gomme arabique. Sous la presse à imprimer l’encre grasse d’imprimerie est acceptée face à la trace grasse du dessin et rejetée partout ailleurs où la pierre est seulement mouillée.À la place de la pierre, le support peut être une plaque de zinc. Le résultat obtenu est alors une zincographie.
Gillotage ou panicographie
Procédé de photogravure créé en 1850 par Firmin Gillot (1820-1872). À partir d’un dessin au trait réalisé sur une pierre lithographique, dont le cliché est reporté sur une plaque de zinc mordue à l’acide et encrée à plusieurs reprises, il permet d’obtenir une matrice utilisable en typographie, en même temps que le texte. À ses débuts, ce procédé, d’un usage délicat, est seulement utilisé pour la reproduction de dessins ou gravures au trait. Il sera amélioré par Charles Gillot, fils du précédent, pour être appliqué à tous les dessins en utilisant des effets de trame.
270 estampes de Daumier ont été produites selon cette méthode, publiées essentiellement dans Le Journal amusant (1864-1866) et Le Charivari (1870-1872).
La description de l’épreuve
Exemplaire imprimé à partir d’une matrice. Des épreuves peuvent être réalisées tout au long du travail. Elles portent différents qualificatifs :– épreuve d’état : tirée en cours de travail, elle permet au graveur d’apporter des corrections ;– épreuve avant la lettre ou avant-lettre : ne comportant que la figure, avant toute inscription écrite sur ou sous l’estampe ;– épreuve avec lettre ; – épreuve annotée : comportant des annotations manuscrites. Le tirage des épreuves est effectué sur différents supports en fonction de leur destination.
Différents papiers peuvent être utilisés pour le tirage d’une estampe en fonction de l’effet escompté.Le processus de tirage des estampes de Daumier comporte plusieurs étapes.Les épreuves d’essai :– 1er état avant la lettre : les premiers tirages sont effectués à 1, 2 ou 3 exemplaires sur un papier blanc, assez fort, avant la lettre, à titre d’essai. Une épreuve est donnée au journaliste chargé de rédiger la légende ;– 2e état avec la lettre : tirées à 1, 2 ou exceptionnellement 3 exemplaires sur papier mince, ces épreuves sont destinées à la correction éventuelle de la légende, au certificat de tirage (on parle d’épreuve certifiée conforme au tirage ou d’épreuve en certificat de tirage) et au visa de la censure. Les épreuves définitives. Si la censure a donné son accord, on procède au tirage définitif sous deux formes :– les épreuves sur blanc, épreuves de qualité, tirées à un petit nombre d’exemplaires (20 à 150 épreuves selon les sujets), parfois réunies en albums pour des souscripteurs ou des collectionneurs, sont rares (surtout après 1860) ;– les épreuves destinées à la publication dans les journaux (tirées à 2 000 ou 3 000 exemplaires) ; on parle par exemple d’épreuves du Charivari ou d’épreuves en Charivari.
Une étape dans le tirage d’une estampe avant une modification. Chaque correction apportée, même minime, fait passer l’estampe d’un état à un autre, numéroté 1er état, 2e état, etc.
Dans l’œuvre de Daumier, il s’agit d’épreuves coloriées. Les couleurs, à base de blanc d’œuf et de gomme arabique, ne sont pas apposées par Daumier, mais par des coloristes selon un modèle de coloris qui leur sert de guide. On doit à Édouard Bouvenne plusieurs modèles de coloris pour le coloriage de lithographies de Daumier.
Inscriptions imprimées en marge de l’estampe, à l’exclusion de la signature ou du monogramme de l’artiste et de toute information manuscrite. Il peut s’agir d’un titre, d’une explication, d’une date, d’une devise, d’une dédicace ou du nom de ceux qui ont participé à la réalisation de l’estampe.Les participations des auteurs sont présentées de manière codée :– «sc » ou « sculp» (= sculpsit) désigne le graveur en taille-douce ou sur bois ;– «fec. » ou « fecit » désigne l’auteur de la gravure ;– «lith. » ou « lithogr. » désigne le lithographe ou l’imprimeur-lithographe ;– «del. » (= delineavit) désigne l’auteur du dessin qui a servi de modèle pour la gravure, mais aussi le lithographe ;– «inv. » (= invenit) désigne l’auteur de la composition gravée, peintre ou dessinateur ;– «pinx » (= pinxit) désigne le peintre, auteur de la composition modèle de l’estampe ;– «imp. » ou « impr. » ou « impr. lith. » désigne l’imprimeur, souvent suivi de l’adresse ;– «exc. » (= excudit) désigne l’éditeur. Au XIXe siècle on trouvera plutôt «Ed. …» ou «Maison …» ;– «procédé…» désigne un procédé photomécanique.La lettre chez Daumier comporte en général le nom de l’imprimeur et de l’éditeur, le titre de la série au-dessus du motif ainsi que le numéro, la légende de la pièce, souvent assez longue, qui sert de titre d’usage. Les principaux imprimeurs des lithographies de Daumier sont, dans l’ordre chronologique : Ratier, Delaporte, Delaunois, Becquet, Bénard, Junca, Aubert, Bertauts, Trinocq, Destouches, Walter. Par le nombre de pierres imprimées, Aubert l’emporte largement pour la première moitié de la carrière de Daumier (avant 1851) et Destouches pour la seconde.
Texte, écrit ou gravé, pour donner un titre et éventuellement expliquer le sens du motif.Les légendes des œuvres de Daumier, en général assez longues, sont rédigées par des journalistes comme Jaime, Biais, Huart, par Philipon ou, plus rarement, par Daumier lui-même.
Signature et monogramme
Outre les signatures des différents participants désignés par les termes latins dans la lettre, on trouve couramment, dans le motif, la signature de l’artiste lui-même ou son monogramme composé généralement de ses initiales.Daumier a utilisé plusieurs signatures et monogrammes (le plus souvent «h. D»). Il a aussi utilisé le pseudonyme «Rogelin», pour une caricature de Louis-Philippe, en forme de poire, en 1832
La diffusion des estampes
Rétablie par un décret de Napoléon en 1810, la censure sera supprimée (1819, 1824, 1828, 1830, 1848) et rétablie (1820, 1827, 1830, 9 septembre 1833, 1852) alternativement durant le XIXe siècle, jusqu’à son abolition, en 1881, par la loi qui établit la liberté complète de la presse. Avant publication donc, une épreuve d’essai avec la lettre était présentée à la censure qui donnait sa réponse dans la journée. Si l’approbation était donnée, par la seule mention « oui », l’imprimeur reportait à la main l’autorisation et enregistrait la pièce. Le tirage pouvait alors commencer pour publication.
En vertu de la loi sur le dépôt légal, un ou plusieurs exemplaires de tout imprimé mis publiquement en vente ou en distribution doit être déposé à la Bibliothèque nationale. Cette disposition s’applique à l’estampe depuis 1632. Les pièces déposées sont donc enregistrées à la date du dépôt et conservées au Cabinet des estampes, devenu depuis département des Estampes et de la Photographie, de manière inaliénable comme l’atteste l’estampille apposée sur chaque pièce.
Liste complète des œuvres d’un artiste, décrites précisément, numérotées. Ces catalogues servent de référence pour l’étude de l’œuvre. Une première esquisse de catalogue raisonné des œuvres de Daumier est réalisée par Arsène Alexandre dès 1888. D’autres viennent ensuite pour l’œuvre lithographique : par Champfleury en 1878, puis Loys Delteil en 1906 avec des rééditions en 1926 et 1969, enfin par Dieter et Lilian Noack sur un support électronique en 2004. Le catalogue raisonné des gravures sur bois a été établi par Eugène Bouvy en 1933 ; le catalogue des dessins et peintures par Karl Eric Maison.
Catalogue descriptif des œuvres d’un artiste au sein d’une collection. L’œuvre de Daumier est décrit, en particulier, dans l’Inventaire du fonds français après 1800, t. V, rédigé par Jean Adhémar, conservateur au Cabinet des estampes de la Bibliothèque nationale, en 1949.
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COURTESY ILLUSTRATION / UH INSTITUTE FOR ASTRONOMY
This painting by artist Karen Teramura shows how the four-star system studied by University of Hawaii astronomer Evgenya Shkolnik may have looked when it was first formed, possibly billions of years ago.
Isle scopes help find 4-star system
Two telescopes on the summit of Mauna Kea have contributed to the discovery of four nearby stars rotating around each other in a tight pattern like a dumbbell.
University of Hawaii astronomer Evgenya Shkolnik discovered the odd grouping 166 light-years away in 2006 using the giant Keck I telescope. She did two follow-up studies using the mid-sized Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope.
Until 2006, astronomers thought BD -22°5866 was a single star, Shkolnik said. But she noticed that the light from the object was rapidly shifting back and forth from reddish to bluish.
Shkolnik realized that meant two stars were spinning around each other. Eventually she realized that there were two more stars, balancing the other two at the end of a gravitational dumbbell the size of the orbit of Jupiter. All four stars are about half the mass of the sun.
The first two stars take just five days to spin around each other. The other two take 55 days.
The whole dumbbell spins around and returns to its original position in nine years. Jupiter, in a similar orbit around the sun, needs nearly 12 years to complete an orbit.
How long this cosmic spin has been under way is not clear, but it could be several billion years, Shkolnik said.
While groupings of stars moving around each other are fairly common, only 1 in 2,000 consists of so many stars in such a relatively small space, she said.
Shkolnik's work was presented at a recent meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Austin, Texas.
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A modern driver for a device will find out the bus-resource configuration without you having to tell it anything. It may even set the bus-resources in the hardware using PnP methods. Some drivers have more than one way to find out how their physical device is configured. In the worst case you must hard-code the bus-resources into the kernel (or a module) and recompile.
In the middle are cases such as where you run a program to give the bus-resource info to the driver or put the info in a configuration file. In some cases the driver may probe for the device at addresses where it suspects the device resides (but it will never find a PnP device if it hasn't been enabled by PnP methods). It may then try to test various IRQs to see which one works. It may or may not automatically do this.
In the modern case the driver should use PnP methods to find the device and how the bus-resources have been set by the BIOS, etc. but will not actually set them. It may also look at some of the "files" in the /proc directory.
One may need to "manually" tell a driver what bus-resources it should use. You give such bus-resources as a parameter to the kernel or to a loadable module. If the driver is built into the kernel, you pass the parameters to the kernel via the "boot-prompt". See The Boot-Prompt-HOWTO which describes some of the bus-resource and other parameters. Once you know what parameters to give to the kernel, one may put them into a boot loader configuration file. For example, put append="...". into the lilo.conf file and then use the lilo command to get this info into the lilo kernel loader.
If the driver is loaded as a module, in many cases the module will find the bus-resources needed and then set them in the device. In other cases (mostly for older PCs) you may need to give bus-resources as parameters to the module. Parameters to a module (including ones that automatically load) may be specified in /etc/modules.conf. There are usually tools used to modify this file which are distribution-dependent. Comments in this file should help regarding how to modify it. Also, any module your put in /etc/modules will get loaded along with its parameters.
While there is much non-uniformity about how drivers find out about bus-resources, the end goal is the same. If you're having problems with a driver you may need to look at the driver documentation (check the kernel documentation tree). Some brief examples of a few drivers is presented in the following sections:
For PCI serial ports (and for ISA PnP serial ports after 2.4 kernels) the serial driver detects the type of serial port and PnP configures it. Unfortunately, there may be some PCI serial ports that are not supported yet.
For the standard ISA serial port with very old older versions of the kernel and serial driver (not for multiport cards) the driver probes two standard addresses for serial ports. It doesn't probe for IRQs but it just assigns the "standard" IRQ to the first two serial ports. This could be wrong.
For anything else the configuration file for the
program must be manually modified. See Serial-HOWTO for more
details. You use setserial to inform the driver of the IO address and
Setserial is often run from a start-up file. In newer versions there
is a /etc/serial.conf file (or /var/lib/setserial/autoconfig that you
"edit" by simply using the setserial command in the normal way and
what you set using
setserial is saved in the
configuration file. The
serial.conf file should be consulted
setserial command runs from a start-up file. Your
distribution may or may not set this up for you.
There are two different ways to use
setserial depending on the
options you give it. One use is used to manually tell the driver the
configuration. The other use is to probe at a given address and
report if a serial port exists there. It can also probe this address
and try to detect what IRQ is used for this port.
Even with modern kernels, setserial is sometimes needed if the driver fails to detect the serial port, or if you have very old hardware.
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- What are municipal waste combustors?
- What do these facilities burn?
- How do municipal waste combustors work?
- What wastes do these facilities generate?
- How are emissions from the combustion process controlled?
Also known as incinerators or waste-to-energy plants, these are facilities that burn municipal solid waste (commonly known as trash or garbage) at a very high temperature (approximately 2,500°F) to generate electricity or steam power. The combustion process reduces this material about 90 percent by volume and 75 percent by weight, so significantly less waste needs to be buried in landfills.
There are more than 100 municipal waste combustors in operation across the country. Seven of these facilities are located in Massachusetts and, together, they burn roughly 38 percent of the municipal solid waste generated across the state. Of the remainder, about 34 percent is recycled and 28 percent is either buried in modern lined landfills or exported to out-of-state disposal facilities.
Additional information about solid waste management trends and goals in Massachusetts can be found in the Solid Waste Master Plan.
Municipal waste combustors burn a wide range of household and commercial solid wastes. These include empty product packaging and containers; used clothing, consumer goods and office supplies; food scraps and other organic materials; and numerous other items.
Specifically banned from disposal in Massachusetts combustion facilities are bottles and cans, single-resin plastic containers, most grades of cardboard and paper, leaves and grass clippings, hazardous and medical wastes, cathode ray tube devices (i.e. televisions and computer monitors), large home appliances ("white goods") and lead acid car batteries.
Facility operators monitor incoming waste shipments for materials that are recyclable or toxic and may turn away loads that contain significant quantities of banned materials as well as wastes that are bulky or otherwise difficult to manage. Everyone in Massachusetts can play a role in reducing the volume and toxicity of waste going into municipal waste combustors by participating in local recycling programs and hazardous household product collections. To learn about opportunities in your town or city, see: Recycling in My Community
There are several proprietary technologies for generating power by burning trash, but all of them work in essentially similar ways.
Incoming trucks dump waste in an enclosed receiving area. From there, the trash is either fed directly into a furnace (a process known as "mass burn") or chopped into smaller pieces and sifted for recoverable metals (to create "refuse derived fuel" or RDF) before entering the combustion chamber.
An intense combustion process produces large quantities of super-heated steam in a boiler. Steam is sometimes a facility's main energy byproduct, but more often it is used to drive large turbine generators that produce electricity. A small fraction of this energy is used to power the facility, while the bulk of it is sold to energy customers, generally power distribution companies.
During combustion, ash drops into water-filled troughs that cool it off and wet it down, making it easier to handle. The ash residue is sifted to retrieve recoverable metals, which are typically recycled, and then is transported to a landfill that is approved for ash disposal.
Once cooled, gases from the combustion process travel through a series of air pollution control systems designed to remove acid gases, heavy metals, organic chemicals and particulate matter. The remaining gases and pollutants are released to the atmosphere through a stack and are known collectively as the facility's "emissions."
Municipal waste combustors generate several forms of waste: ash residue, which must be buried in landfills that are specifically approved to accept ash; wastewater from cooling and ash dewatering operations; and air emissions, which are the primary focus of this Web site.
Air emissions from a well operated and maintained combustion facility are generally much lower than the limits established by law to prevent significant risk to public health and the environment. Pollution controls, monitoring, and government inspections ensure that facilities are operating as cleanly as possible. At the same time, their emissions may still contain levels of pollutants that, when combined with air emissions from many other sources, may cause health and environmental impacts. These include:
- Acid gases, such as hydrogen chloride and sulfur dioxide, that contribute to acid rain and can cause or aggravate breathing problems;
- Chlorine-containing organic chemicals, including dioxins and furans, that are known or suspected to cause cancer and birth defects;
- Fly ash and soot particles, seen as smoke, that reduce visibility and can make it harder to breathe;
- Heavy metals, such as mercury and lead, that can affect the human brain, kidneys, liver and nervous system, as well as child development; and
- Nitrogen oxides (NOx), a chief ingredient of ground-level ozone ("smog"), that can cause or aggravate breathing problems.
The Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (MassDEP) regulates municipal waste combustors to ensure that their emissions remain below levels and concentrations that could pose significant risks to public health or the environment.
For additional information about the types of pollution MassDEP regulates and measures, their environmental and health effects, MassDEP's risk-based emission standards for various pollutants and the agency's ambient air monitoring network, see: Annual Air Quality Report
While the specific pollution controls used vary from plant to plant, all facilities are equipped with systems for reducing levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and various chemicals.
At all facilities, a scrubber neutralizes acid gases. Electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters or a combination of these systems trap fly ash and other particles. Carbon is also injected into combustion gases to further reduce concentrations of mercury and organic chemicals.
These control technologies combine to significantly reduce emissions of gases, heavy metals and soot so they will not exceed the limits established by MassDEP regulations and individual facility permits.
With state-of-the-art controls in place, combustion facilities emit considerably less toxic and smog-causing pollution than they did even a few years ago. It is important to note, however, that no combination of technologies available today can completely eliminate emissions from combustion
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Words formed when one letter is changed in amids
Letter 1 (A) changed: 1 word found:
Letter 2 (M) changed: 1 word found:
No words found when changing letter 3 (I).
Letter 4 (D) changed: 5 words found:
Letter 5 (S) changed: 2 words found:
A total of 9 words can be formed from amids by changing one letter.
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Q. I have heard that there is a bright spot in this cold, arctic weather pattern. The below-zero temperatures will kill off the emerald ash borer that has been destroying our neighborhood ash trees. Is that possible?
James from Poland
A. I am afraid that our period of arctic weather will not be enough to wipe out the invading emerald ash borer. A period of extended subzero temperatures might slow the spread of EAB, but only a regular, prolonged winter of subzero temperature such as that found in extreme northern Minnesota would be expected to significantly affect the advancement of EAB.
The EAB larvae found under the bark of infected ash trees enter a pre-pupal stage to over-winter. As winter approaches, the larvae excavate a deeper chamber at the end of their tunnel. They take on a compact appearance, with body segments somewhat telescoped together. At this point they are called pre-pupae and remain as such until spring.
This pre-pupal stage has been shown to be quite immune from damage by temporary periods of sub-zero temperatures. For example, in recent studies, logs containing pre-pupae were held at -18 F. Only about 40 percent were affected by the extremely cold conditions.
So, cold temperatures may limit the potential for spread or damage from EAB in northern Minnesota where stands of ash are extensive. The likelihood of an especially cold winter in northeastern Ohio having a noticeable effect on the advance of EAB is unlikely.
To take a look at the “cool” research on the survival of this invasive pest and a map of where it will be killed most years, check out this factsheet: http://go.osu.edu/eabcold.
This week’s answer is provided by Bill Snyder, program assistant for agriculture and natural resources in Mahoning County. Call the OSU Extension hotline at 330-533-5538 from 9 a.m. to noon Mondays and Thursdays to submit your questions.
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Multi-Purpose Logistics Module - MPLM. Inside the MPLM. The module carries sixteen International Standard Payload Racks.
Credit: NASA via Marcus Lindroos
American manned space station reusable supply module. Launched and returned to earth, 2001-2011. When the International Space Station (ISS) was redesigned again in 1993, it was decided to expand the original Mini-Pressurized Logistics Module design.
The new Multi-Purpose Logistics Module was twice as long and could carry 9000 kg of cargo to ISS. The European Space Agency also became a partner, since Alenia Spazio would use the same pressurized module and some thermal subsystems in the Columbus Orbiting Facility as well. In return, ESA provided three environmental control and life-support system units for use in the Multipurpose Logistics Module. The module carried sixteen International Standard Payload Racks.
Italy delivered the first 'Leonardo' Multi-Purpose Logistics Module to NASA in July 1998. Two more module -- 'Rafaelo' and 'Donatello' -- would also be delivered under the $300-million contract. Italian astronauts would receive greater use of the Station as well as crew training for two more ASI astronauts in return for the MPLM.
Article by Marcus Lindroos
More... - Chronology...
International Space Station American manned space station. Development from 1994. Assembled in orbit from 1998, with completion expected 2010. In 1987-1993 the Russians successfully assembled and operated the 124-metric ton Mir station. More...
US Space Stations Wernher von Braun brought Noordung's rotating station design with him from Europe. This he popularized in the early 1950's in selling manned space flight to the American public. By the late 1950's von Braun's team favoured the spent-stage concept - which eventually flew as Skylab. By the mid-1960's, NASA was concentrating on modular, purpose-built, zero-G stations. These eventually flew as the International Space Station. More...
Associated Manufacturers and Agencies
ESA European agency overseeing development of rockets and spacecraft. European Space Agency, Europe. More...
Alenia Italian manufacturer of rockets and spacecraft. Alenia Spazio, Italy. More...
Home - Browse - Contact
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Jeremiah is found, as "Jeremiah Brewer," on the 1790 U. S. Census at Alburgh, Vermont, with a household of 3 males over the age of 16, 2 males under 16, and 3 females. At the time, Alburgh was in Chittenden County, on the "tongue" of land that protrudes into Lake Champlain from the north. (Highgate is the town directly east of Alburgh). That Jeremiah was living on the "Vermont side of Alburgh" (nearest to Highgate) can be reckoned from a little known quirk of the 1790 census that was explained in an article by David Kendall Martin, "A 1790 Census Anomaly," published in the New England Historic and Genealogical Register, volume 152 (1998), pp. 69-81. In 1790, when the first U. S. Federal census was conducted, Vermont was not a state. It was still an independent Republic. The borders between the Republic of Vermont, the Eastern Townships of Canada, and New York State, were still in dispute in 1790 at the time the U. S. census was conducted. At this time, New York claimed the land on both sides of Lake Champlain, and part of what was to become Alburgh, Vermont, was considered by New York to be the town of Champlain in Clinton County, New York. In 1790, New York conducted it's recording of the households, including those living at Alburgh. The official boundaries were settled and Vermont became a state on 4 March 1791. Land east of Lake Champlain, previously claimed by New York, was now under the jurisdiction of the State of Vermont, which conducted it's "1790" census in 1791. The result of this is that some heads of households were recorded twice on the 1790 census, once by New York, and again by Vermont. Those heads who are found twice can be deduced to have been living on land west of what New York considered to be its eastern boundary. Since Jeremiah is only found once, in the 1790 census as taken by Vermont (actually taken in 1791), we know that the location at which Jeremiah originally settled, was east of New York's claimed boundary of 1790. In 1791, both towns were small. Only seventeen households were at Highgate, and while Alburgh was a bit larger, there were still only about 88 households.
|Alburgh, Vt., 1790 U.S. Census (NARA, image from Ancestry.com)|
|Highgate, Vt, 1790 U.S. Census (NARA, image from Ancestry.com)|
|Jeremiah Brower, petition for land at Clapham or Farnham, July 1795|
In October of the same year, Jeremiah Brower, and Isaac Brower, both of Vermont, signed the oath of allegiance (to the British Crown) at Missisquoi Bay. Who this Isaac Brower was has not been discovered, but he is listed immediately before Jeremiah, and they are followed by Peter Stinehour and George Stinehour. George and Peter Stinehour were father and son. Peter married Jeremiah Brower's daughter Sarah. The Stinehours came to Highgate from Dutchess County, New York and George is found on the 1790 (91) census at Highgate. (More on Isaac to follow in Part IV).
|Oath at Missisquoi Bay, 1795 (p.1)|
|Oath at Missisquoi Bay, 1795 (p.2)|
On 22 March 1796, Jeremiah Brower sold land in Alburgh to Oliver Barker of St. Armand, Lower Canada. The property is described as Lot no. 1 and contained 110 acres. It was bounded on the north by the province line, west by the Lake or Missisquoi Bay, south by the property of younger Wilson, and east by Lodwick Stiles. The deed was recorded in the Town Records of Highgate on 19 December 1801.
On the 1800 U. S. census, Jeremiah "Bruer" is enumerated at Highgate, Franklin Co., Vermont, with a household of 1 male under 10, 2 males 16-25, 1 male over 45, 1 female under 10, 2 females 10-15, 1 female 16-25, and 1 female over 45. It may be that this count describes a double family in that one of the males aged 16-25, and the female aged 16-25, may be Jeremiah's son Peter and his wife, who do not appear separately on the census. Both Jeremiah Brower, and Peter Brower, are recorded (in succession) on the General List at Highgate of 1800.
On 5 July 1800, both Jeremiah Brower and Jacob Brower, were admitted as associates at Barnston Twp., Lower Canada. Also admitted were George and Peter "Steinhower." (If this is correct, Barnston is within the present day town of Coaticook, Quebec, in the Coaticook RCM, far east of Highgate and north of present day Norton, Essex Co., Vermont. The original source was, but no longer is online. It cited Canada Archives Reel #C-2493).
The 1801 Grand List of Highgate records, in succession, the names of William Proper, Peter Brower, James Proper and Jeremiah Brower.
In 1803, Jeremiah Brower was granted land at Potten, Lower Canada. Potten is located on the Canada-Vermont border, a bit east of Highgate and directly north of the town of North Troy, Orleans Co., Vermont. On 4 September 1806, Jeremiah sold this land to Philip Ruiter of St. Armand, Lower Canada. This 1806 deed is the last record located for Jeremiah Brower. If his stated death in 1822 is correct, then he lived for another 16 years, yet he is not found on the 1810 or 1820 census records in Vermont or New York. It may be that he was living in Lower Canada (perhaps on the Clapham/Farnham land) during this period. His sons Peter and Jacob are both found in 1810 at Highgate, and Peter is there in 1820. None of the counts in any of these census records indicates that another adult male (other then the listed head) is living in the households.
(Additional source citations can be found on the BGD website. Part IV will focus on the family of Jeremiah Brower).
(To Part IV)
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IT'S GOING get hot this weekend, and with so many overseas visitors in Queensland it's important everyone takes suitable precautions to keep cool and healthy.
Temperatures higher than 40 degrees are expected in many areas during the day. The nights will also be hot.
Queensland Health Chief Health Officer Jeannette Young said it was important everyone looked after their health by staying cool and hydrated.
"Heat-related illness occurs when the body overheats and cannot cool itself down," Dr Young said.
"The effects of overheating on the body can vary from heat rash and cramps through to heat exhaustion or heat stroke."
Each year about 400 Queenslanders are treated at Queensland Health emergency departments for heat-related illness, with more than 60 per cent of cases occurring in the hottest months.
Dr Young said a number of measures could be taken to prevent heat-related illnesses, including:
- drink plenty of fluids - cool water is best. Don't wait until you are thirsty to drink but drink regularly throughout the day
- urine colour is a good guide to hydration - it should be clear to light straw-coloured, not dark or gold
- stay indoors in very hot weather, preferably in an air-conditioned building or ensure there is good air flow with fans and open windows
- public venues, such as air-conditioned shopping centres and pools, can provide refuge from the heat
- people can also stay cool by taking cool showers or baths, soaking their feet in a basin of water, or wetting a bandana or washer and wrapping it around their neck
- take time to adjust to the environment, pace yourself and limit strenuous outdoor activity.
Dr Young said certain groups of people were more prone to heat-related illnesses including the elderly, infants, overweight and obese people, pregnant and breastfeeding women and people with some pre-existing health conditions.
"Monitor family, friends and even neighbours who may be more prone to heat-related illness-check on them and make sure they are OK," she said.
She said everyone should be aware of what to do when people had heat-related illnesses.
"Heat exhaustion usually develops over a couple of days,'' Dr Young said.
"Symptoms may include muscle cramps, heavy sweating, paleness, dizziness, nausea or vomiting and fainting.''
She said heat stroke was the most serious heat-related illness and had the potential to be life threatening.
"Symptoms of heat stroke are similar to heat exhaustion but the person may also have an extremely high body temperature; red, hot, dry skin, but possibly some clamminess; a rapid pulse; headache and confusion.
"Cool the person down urgently with a cool shower, bath or sponge, or even spray them with cool water from a hose. Loosen their clothing and have them rest in a cool place.
"Provide cool non-alcoholic fluids, but only if you are confident they can swallow. Avoid drinks high in sugar.
"If heat stroke is suspected, then the person will need urgent medical attention. Or if the person has blood pressure or heart problems, also seek medical advice immediately.''
For further information on staying healthy and safe during hot weather, visit: www.health.qld.gov.au/disaster/heat/default.asp
Update your news preferences and get the latest news delivered to your inbox.
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The Clemency and Compassion of Mary
REFERRING to our Lady's great compassion for sinners, St. Bernard calls her the Promised Land flowing with milk and honey. And St. Leo tells us that, when he looks at her, he no longer sees God's justice but only His mercy, for Mary is full of the mercy of God.
She is like a fair olive tree in the field (Sir 24: 14). Only oil (a symbol of mercy) is extracted from the olive; only grace and mercy flow from the hands of Mary.
Why is the fair olive tree pictured as standing in the field, and not in some garden, enclosed with walls or hedges? So that all can see her plainly, and get to her without trouble, to secure the remedy for all their evils. 73
And what safer refuge can we find than the compassionate heart of Mary? There the poor find a home, the sick a cure, the afflicted consolation, the doubtful counsel, and the abandoned help. 74
We would be poorly off indeed if we had no Mother of Mercy to attend to us all the time and relieve us in our needs. Where there is no woman, a person mourns who is in want (Sir. 36:27 ----- Vulgate).
St. John Damascene comments: "This woman is no other than the Most Blessed Virgin Mary. Wherever she is not, the sick person groans."
It must be this way, since all graces are dispensed at Mary's prayer. Where there is no prayer from Mary --- there can be no hope of mercy, as our Lord gave St. Bridget to understand --- "Unless the prayers of Mary interposed, there could be no hope of mercy."
But perhaps you fear that Mary is not aware of our needs, or has no feeling for them. Ah no; she sees and feels them far better than we do ourselves.
There is not one among all the Saints who can ever feel for us in our miseries, of body and soul, like this woman, the Most Blessed Virgin Mary. 75
The Roman historian Suetonius relates that the Emperor Titus was so eager to help anyone who came to him that, when a day passed without an opportunity to grant a favor, he used to say with regret: "I have lost a day."
Probably it was only vanity that made Titus speak this way, or the desire for esteem, and not genuine charity at all. But if Mary , our Queen, had to pass a day without granting a grace, she could say what Titus said --- but from a genuine desire to serve us, because she is full of charity.
Indeed, Mary is more eager to grant us graces than we are to receive them. Therefore, no matter when we go to her, we find her hands filled with generous mercies. 76
When the Samaritans refused to receive Christ and His doctrines, St. James and St. John asked Him if they should command fire from Heaven to fall on them and co sume them. But our Lord replied: "You know not of what spirit you are" (Lk 9:55 ----- Vulgate).
Jesus as much as said: "I am so tender and merciful that I came from Heaven to save sinners, not chastise them, and you wish to see them lost. Fire indeed --- and chastisement! Speak no more of chastisement, for that is not My spirit."
So too in our Lady's case: her spirit is the same as her Son's, and we can never doubt but that she is all mercy. As she said to St. Bridget: "I am called the Mother of Mercy, and it was God's mercy that made me so merciful."
A great sign appeared in the sky, a woman clothed with the sun (Rv. 12: 1). St. Bernard says, "O Lady, thou hast clothed the sun, the Eternal Word, with human flesh, but He has clothed thee with His power and mercy . . . "
" Mary is so compassionate and kind that when sinners, no matter who they are, throw themselves on her charity, she does not investigate their merits, or consider whether they are worthy, but she hears and helps all."
Therefore, St. Idlebert remarks, she is called as beautiful as the moon (Song. 6: 10). She pours her light and favor on all sinners, even the most unworthy, as the moon sheds her radiance on all creatures.
And though the moon, says another writer, gets all her light from the sun, yet she completes her cycle of work quicker than the sun ----- that is, what it takes a year for the sun to do, the moon does in a month. So, according to St. Anselm, we often get our request more quickly by calling on Mary's name than by calling on the name of Jesus.
We may be afraid (as we said in another place) to go directly to Almighty God, because after all it is His infinite Majesty we have offended. But we should never be afraid of going directly to Mary, because we will find nothing in her to terrify us.
True, she is holy, immaculate, and the great Queen of the universe. But at the same time she is also flesh of our flesh, a child of Adam.
Always keep in mind that our Lady's protection is greater and more powerful than anything we can imagine. 77
How is it that the same God Who was so rigorous in punishment under the Old Law now shows such great mercy topersons guilty of far greater crimes? He does it all because of His love for Mary, and on account of her merits. 78
The world would have been destroyed long ago if it were not for Mary's intercession. 79
And now that we have the Son as Mediator with the Eternal Father, and the Mother with the Son, we have full access to God and can go to Him with absolute confidence, hoping for every good thing from Him.
For how can the Father refuse to hear the Son, when He shows Him His side and His wounds, the marks of the sufferings He bore for sinners? And how can the Son refuse to hear His Mother, when she shows Him the breast that nursed Him? 80
Consider the following instance of the great mercy of Mary. In the year 1604, in a city in Belgium, there were two young students who gave themselves up to a life of debauchery instead of following their studies.
One night they were at the house of an evil woman; but one of the two, who was named Richard, stayed only a short time and then returned home. While he was preparing to retire, he remembered that he had not yet said the few Hail Marys that were his daily practice.
He was very tired and half inclined to omit them; nevertheless, he forced himself through the routine, saying the words half asleep and with no particular devotion. Then he lay down and fell asleep.
Suddenly he was wakened by a violent knocking at the door. The door was closed, but the figure of a young man, hideously deformed, passed through it and stood before him.
"Who are you?" Richard cried. "You do not know me?" asked the other. "Ah yes, now I do," said Richard; "but how changed, with all the appearance of a devil!"
"Alas, unhappy creature that I am," said his companion, "I am damned! When I was leaving that house of sin, a devil came and strangled me. My body lies in the street; my soul is in Hell.
"And know this --- the same fate awaited you, except that the Blessed Virgin spared you for that little act of homage of the Hail Marys. If you are not a fool, profit by this warning which the Mother of God has sent." He then opened his mantle, showing the flames and serpents by which he was tormented, and disappeared.
Breaking into a flood of sobs and tears, Richard went down on his knees to give thanks to Mary his protectress. Then as he pondered how to change his life he heard the bell of the Franciscan monastery ringing for matins. "It is there," he said, "that God calls me to do penance."
He went immediately to the monastery and begged the Fathers to admit him. Since they knew his wicked life, they were hardly willing to do so. But sobbing bitterly, he told them all that had happened. And when two Fathers had been sent to the street and had found the strangled body, which was charred and blackened, they admitted him.
From that time on he led an exemplary life and at length went to preach the Gospel in India, and thence to Japan. There he had the happiness of giving his life for Jesus Christ, being burnt alive for the faith at Nagasaki on September 10, 1622.
Let us conclude with St. Bernard's beautiful and tender words:
"O Mary, thou art clement to
thee, compassionate to those who beseech thee, sweet to those who love
thee! "Thou art clement to the penitent, compassionate to anyone
for virtue, sweet to the perfect! "Thou art clement in working for us,
compassionate in giving grace, sweet in giving thyself!"
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All of us have a mental picture of what an oil well looks like.
For some it's huge Texas gushers from the early 20th Century, like Spindletop. For others, it's a massive drilling rig with its crew feverishly running around to keep the bit rotating.
Nearly everyone I ask, however, paints pictures of just the early stages of drilling and production. What they may not realize is there are three stages to the lifespan of every oil well: primary, secondary, and tertiary recovery.
The first is exactly what it sounds like. The oil is forced out of the well from the natural pressure present. Once the primary production hits its limit, that's when drillers go back into the well and use enhanced oil recovery techniques to boost production.
Some of the more infamous examples include the Cantarell oil field in Mexico. At one point, it was the world's second-largest. But like all oil fields do, production eventually started to decline in the early 1980s.
By 2000, Pemex began injecting nitrogen into the field, boosting production for a short time to 2.1 million barrels per day in 2004.
At some point, all companies face the decision of having to close a well. Either it doesn't produce oil anymore, or it's no longer economical to keep it flowing.
But why are the second and third stages of an oil well's life so important to us?
The Desert of U.S. Oil Production
With the mainstream media meticulously reporting on every new drop of oil being produced in the U.S., it's easy to confuse the real situation surrounding our domestic oil production.
For what it's worth, they're not completely wrong to tout the good news coming out of Texas and North Dakota. But the tremendous success we've had in tight oil formations across the U.S. isn't the whole story.
Unfortunately, most people prefer to simply turn a blind eye to it.
When I first learned how much we rely on these 'stripper wells,' however, I nearly fell out of my chair. Just take one glance at the Energy Information Administration's stats on U.S. well production and you'll understand:
Doesn't seem like a lot at first, does it? Don't worry, I was just as skeptical when I heard it. However, you can see above that there were more than 286,000 oil wells in the United States that were producing less than ten barrels per day in 2009 !
That year, these stripper wells made up 13.2% of our entire domestic oil output, and almost 80% of total wells in the country.
So how can you take advantage of this situation?
Second Chance for Oil Profits
Fact is, most people simply don't realize how much we rely on these stripper wells. They're content to listlessly sit by and wait for the next 'gusher' to be drilled.
When I brought it up with my colleague, Jeff Siegel, he was already three steps ahead of me.
“Let them have their success in those tight formations for now, because eventually it'll all come down to this," Jeff said.
“Besides, nobody understands how much crude we really have left down there. Go on, take a guess,” he asked with a knowing grin.
He laughed when I said a hundred billion barrels, “Try four times that amount... and that's on the low-end, too.”
His confidence was almost unnerving, but he was right. It isn't a secret that companies can only extract so much of the black crude from each field. The staggering part is how little they actually produce – in some cases it's less than 10% of the original oil in place.
In the case of these stripper wells, they're at the end stages of production. Enhanced oil recovery isn't some new phenomenon, either. Texas drillers, for example, have been using these recovery techniques for decades.
Why go after that remaining oil?
For a minute, let's put aside the fact that every additional barrel of oil we produce on our own means another barrel of OPEC oil that we don't have to buy.
Economic benefits will come from increasing our domestic production in the form of jobs, business activity, and more revenue. In 2007, about $30 million in tax revenue was lost to abandoning U.S. oil and gas wells. The EIA has stated that for every $1 million made by a stripper well, economic activity in the area increases by over $2 million.
Of course, the trick here is the same as in the other sectors of the oil and gas industry – it all comes down to efficiency. That is, companies need to continue improving these recovery methods.
Believe me, we're not going to leave hundreds of billions of barrels of black gold locked away underneath U.S. soil... and this is is how they'll get that oil out of the ground. You see, finding a way to increase oil recovery by as little as 5% would be extremely profitable for early investors.
On a nationwide scale, this company's technology will become invaluable to boosting U.S. oil production.
Until next time,
A true insider in the energy markets, Keith is one of few financial reporters to have visited the Alberta oil sands. His research has helped thousands of investors capitalize from the rapidly changing face of energy. Keith connects with hundreds of thousands of readers as the Managing Editor of Energy & Capital as well as Investment Director of Angel Publishing's Energy Investor. For years, Keith has been providing in-depth coverage of the Bakken, the Haynesville Shale, and the Marcellus natural gas formations — all ahead of the mainstream media. For more on Keith, go to his editor's page.
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In 1912, Prime Minister Herbert Henry Asquith introduced a “Government of Ireland Bill” that attempted to establish an Irish parliament with a popularly elected lower house and an appointed senate. A small delegation of Irish was to remain at Westminster to represent Ireland’s interest in the Empire. Although the bill was temporarily blocked by the House of Lords, alarmed Orangemen organized, with Sir Edward Carson, a wealthy lawyer, becoming their leading spokesman. The Irish-born playwright George Bernard Shaw summed up the feelings of those in Ulster:
Political opinion in Ulster is not a matter of talk and bluff as it is in England. No English Home Ruler has the faintest intention … of throwing actual paving stones at any English Unionist. The Ulsterman is not like that. He is inured to violence. He has thrown stones and been hit by them. He has battered his political opponent with fist and stick and been battered himself in the same manner.
Carson created an Ulster provisional government that would go into operation should home rule be instituted. He became the first to sign an Ulster Solemn League and Covenant by which signatories pledged
to stand by one another in defending for ourselves and our children, our cherished position of equal citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in Ireland.
Well over half of Ulster’s Protestant population signed the Covenant, some using their own blood. In England, two million people signed a British Solemn League and Covenant in support of Ulster Protestants. Threatening revolt if home rule was imposed, Ulster raised a body of 80,000 volunteers. Nationalists in the South created their own army.
The British feared civil war in Ireland, and so banned the importation of arms. But when Ulster Volunteers defied this ban, there were no penalties. When the South also imported arms, British troops intervened — or they attempted to do so. The unsuccessful British soldiers marched back from the seacoast to Dublin, where they were pelted with stones in the street. Opening fire, the soldiers killed 3 and injured more than 30. A cry for open rebellion gripped the South.
By 1914, Asquith and a majority of his cabinet wanted a solution through a formal partition of Ireland. In the North, Carson said he would accept partition if all nine Ulster counties remained under the jurisdiction of Westminster; five of the counties, however, had Catholic majorities. In the South, partition was rejected.
Ireland and World War I
The issue of partition was soon overshadowed by World War I. On August 3, 1914, Sir Edward Grey, the British foreign secretary, informed the House of Commons that Britain would enter the war. John Redmond — a spokesman for Southern Ireland — rose to declare that the South would join with Ulster to defend a common homeland: Britain. The House of Commons cheered and placed home rule on the statute books. But, to please the Ulstermen, a suspensory bill was added to postpone home rule for the duration of the war.
Irishmen in the South did not all cheer Redmond; they split on the issue of war. Arthur Griffith wrote,
Ireland is not at war with Germany. England is at war with Germany. We are Irish nationalists and the only duty we can have is to stand for Ireland’s interests…. If Irishmen are to defend Ireland they must defend it for Ireland, under Ireland’s flag, and under Irish officers. Otherwise they will only help to perpetuate the enslavement of their country.
Some saw the war as an opportunity. Padraig Pearse developed a view of revolution as redemption through which the Irish soul could be cleansed by blood. His fellow revolutionary, the Scottish-born socialist James Connolly, believed that an uprising in Dublin would spark the whole of Ireland. At the same time, nationalists tried to dissuade Irishmen from enlisting in the British army. The British ignored the revolutionary rhetoric but they jailed or deported leaders of the anti-recruiting campaign. British jails and internment camps became schoolrooms of radical Irish politics.
Meanwhile, the high death toll from war made the British public wonder why conscription was applied to Britain and not to Ireland. The new prime minister, David Lloyd George, answered,
What would be the result? Scenes in the House of Commons, possible rupture with America, which is hanging in the balance, and serious disaffection in Canada, Australia and South Africa. They would say, you are fighting for the freedom of nationalities. What right have you to take this nation by the ear and drag it into the war against its will?
Rebellion and revolution
Even without conscription, revolution in Ireland was inevitable. In 1915, the body of Jeremiah O’Donovan Rossa — a prominent nationalist who died in exile in America — was brought home for burial. Pearse delivered a grave-side oration:
They think that they have pacified Ireland. They think that they have purchased half of us and intimidated the other half. They think that they have foreseen everything, think that they have provided against everything; but the fools, the fools, the fools! They have left us our Fenian dead, and while Ireland holds these graves, Ireland unfree shall never be at peace.
Easter Sunday 1916 became the date for revolution. The Germans agreed to provide arms to the anti-British rebels. But when a German ship arrived offshore, the Irish failed to meet it. On the eve of the Easter rebellion, confusion split the IRB. At the last minute, the order for mobilization was countermanded; nevertheless, on Easter Monday, more than 1,500 rebels marched through Dublin and seized the General Post Office. The battle raged for six days, with an estimated 508 dead and 2,520 injured. The rebels surrendered on April 29.
As they were led off to jail, Dubliners cursed the rebels for causing violence, calling them “German dupes.” But the behavior of British troops turned public opinion. The British indiscriminately assaulted Dubliners and killed a prominent pacifist who had no connection to the uprising. Over a ten-day period, 15 rebel leaders were executed, including Connolly and Pearse. More than 2,000 nationalists were transported to British prisons, often without trial.
As the Irish claimed the rebels as martyrs, an Irish conscription bill passed the British House of Commons. The Irish MPs walked out of Parliament in protest; an anti-conscription pledge circulated throughout Ireland, backed by the Catholic Church, which collected protest signatures after mass. A general strike paralyzed Ireland, with the exception of Protestant Belfast. Conscription could not be enforced.
In the Irish general election of 1918 (which was part of the United Kingdom’s general election), Sinn Féin won 73 of 105 seats; 36 of the elected were in jail at the time. This was a defining moment in modern Ireland’s history. For one thing, America had been assured that the Sinn Féiners were a small group of radicals. Now, with a popular Sinn Féin victory, Irish-Americans deluged Democratic President Wilson with demands for justice in Ireland. But Wilson was negotiating a postwar settlement with the British and did not wish to complicate the delicate bartering. The Democrats lost most of their Irish-American support.
The newly elected Sinn Féiners formed the Dáil Éireann — the Irish Assembly — and held their first parliament on January 21, 1919 in Dublin. The Dáil, with its own courts and using its own funds, was declared to be Ireland’s rightful government, deriving its authority from the Easter Rebellion. The British raided the Dáil and arrested its democratically elected leadership. One leader, Éamon de Valera, was deported to England and prison but he returned to Ireland. In the following election, de Valera was declared president. The Irish election of 1920 was a public vote of confidence for the suppressed Irish government, with Belfast being virtually the only dissenting voice. Officials swore allegiance to the Dáil and, in turn, were often arrested. During January 1920 alone, more than 1,000 raids by the British forces were reported by the Daily Press.
In Ulster, there was an anti-Catholic drive and a predictable backlash. When the Catholic lord mayor of Cork was shot dead in his own bedroom, the coroner’s jury — handpicked by the police — returned a remarkable verdict of willful murder against the British prime minister, David Lloyd George. In August, the new mayor of Cork was arrested and went on a hunger strike. Seventy-four days later, he died. Irish prisoners throughout the penal system also went on hunger strikes to protest their arrest and demand treatment as political prisoners.
The Irish Republican Army
Meanwhile, Michael Collins emerged as a strong leader of the IRB. The Irish Republican Brotherhood had split from the Dáil and soon became known as the Irish Republican Army, or IRA. Committed to direct violence, the IRA began a campaign of terror, to which the Northern Protestants responded by attacking Catholics. The British met IRA terror with terror. The newly recruited forces for Ireland wore dark caps and khaki pants, earning them the name “Black and Tans.” It became commonplace for IRA prisoners to be tortured and sometimes killed, but the Black and Tans did not confine their attacks to the IRA. For example, in retaliation for the killing of 17 of their own, they burned down the center of the city of Cork. Afterward, the Black and Tans carried a half-burnt cork dangling from the ring of their revolvers: this made a silent statement — “We burned down Cork, we could burn this city as well.”
But world opinion gave Britain pause. Ireland was seen as a gallant little nation standing up to a big bully. Eager to please America in particular, Britain passed a Better Government of Ireland Bill which created a home-rule parliament for six Ulster counties and another parliament for the remaining 26 Southern counties; both governments would send MPs to Westminster. Ireland was to be officially partitioned. Ulster accepted; the South rejected the proposal. Southern elections returned 124 Sinn Féin candidates and when the British-sanctioned parliament opened on June 28, only four elected representatives and the Crown-nominated senators showed up; the sanctioned parliament sat for 15 minutes, then adjourned.
The next day, the suppressed Dáil met and authorized Irish Republican courts. The British responded harshly in the hope of imposing swift order; after all, British troops were needed in India, which was also in rebellion. In August 1920, the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act was passed, relieving British forces in Ireland of almost all legal restraint. They tortured prisoners, sabotaged industries, killed family members of rebels, and shot civilians, including children. In the late summer and autumn of 1920, no part of Ireland escaped the violence of what was called the Anglo-Irish War, or the Irish War of Independence. Again, world opinion forced the British to seek resolution.
Britain concluded a truce as a preliminary move toward treaty negotiations to be held in London. Returning from the negotiations, the Irish envoys presented the British offer to the Dáil. There were two stumbling blocks: official partition and an oath of allegiance to the Crown. The envoys brought a counterproposal back to Lloyd George, who bluntly replied,
I have here two answers, one enclosing the treaty, the other declaring a rupture, and, if it be a rupture, you shall have immediate war.
Exhausted, the envoys signed the treaty on December 6, 1921, without consulting President de Valera. In theory, all of Ireland was to be a united dominion — the Irish Free State or Saorstát Éireann — with the same status as other members of the British Empire, such as Canada. But Northern Ireland had the option to remain part of the United Kingdom, which it exercised. Ireland was now partitioned. Twenty-six counties became the Irish Free State — a dominion, not a republic — with a governor-general, a bicameral parliament, and a prime minister. The six northern counties of Ulster retained ties with Britain, with separate self-determination. In two of the six counties, Catholics formed a slight majority.
De Valera resigned as president and was replaced by Arthur Griffith. The Dáil ratified the treaty by a vote of 64 to 57, with opponents leaving in protest. Among the defectors were delegates from the IRA, which split into two factions: those who rejected the treaty and those who reluctantly accepted it as granting “the freedom to achieve freedom.” The British began to depart from their oldest colony, which they had occupied for almost 800 years.
This article was originally published in the July 2004 edition of Freedom Daily.
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As the number of Power Over Ethernet (PoE) powered device (PD) applications grows, market pressures are driving designers to lower the cost and complexity of the DC-DC converters that power them, while improving their performance. This paper provides simple circuit designs that meet those goals. It presents a discrete PD interface circuit that has been shown to work in University of New Hampshire Interoperability Consortium (UNH-IOC) tests. That circuit can be implemented with only a few low-cost components. It gives practical design hints and tips on designing a PD DC-DC converter stage. It also presents a galvanically isolated, Flyback DC-DC converter example.
Lastly, it addresses designing PDs to operate from alternate power sources, such as AC power adapters. Since PoE enabled PDs will become consumer commodity items, the simplicity, cost-effectiveness and performance of the circuits presented in this paper make them attractive for most PD applications.
The current specification and what it mandates
The specification that describes the delivery of power over CAT-5 Ethernet cabling is an amendment to part three of the main IEEE Ethernet specification. Specifically it is: IEEE 802.3af Part 3: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and Physical Layer Specifications Amendment: Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) Power via Media Dependent Interface (MDI). The first piece of information provided by the spec, that is relevant to PD circuit design, describes how the PSE can provide the power to the Ethernet cabling system (see Figure 1). The system on the left hand side of Figure 1 uses a PoE enabled switch/router to provide power--through the patch panel--to the PDs.
The system on the right hand side uses an older switch that does not provide power, so the power must be injected somewhere between the switch and the patch panel. Since the power is added at the starting “end” of the enabled switch, it is referred to as an “endpoint” system, versus a midspan, which injects the power somewhere in between the switch and the patch panel.
Figure 1. PSE power injection schemes: Endpoint (left) vs. Midspan (right)
Essentially, midspan PSEs are merely a way to allow PoE to be added to older systems without replacing the switch hubs (with newer, PoE enabled units). The current specification only allows power on two of the four wire pairs in the CAT-5 cable. As a general practice, Endpoint PSEs place their power onto the data pair of wires in the CAT-5 cable (see Figure 2), while midspan PSEs are restricted to using the spare pair of CAT-5 wires (see Figure 3 and 802.3af, pages 29 and 30). The specification also allows three different power connection options (802.3af, page 31), which determine the number and orientation of diodes found on a PD front-end.
Figure 2. Endpoint PoE configuration with PSE injecting power onto data pair
Figure 3. Midspan PoE configuration with PSE injecting power onto spare pair
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You are here
Thirsty plants phone home
Wireless advances have made running center pivots a remote-control chore. Now, technology that monitors crop conditions will make scouting fields a windshield task entirely. SmartCrop, a technology developed by the USDA's Agricultural Research Service (ARS), is now being sold commercially.
The original concept of remote-crop monitoring was the brainchild of James Mahan with the ARS center in Lubbock, Texas. Mahan realized that each plant species had a fairly narrow range of internal temperatures it preferred for best growth.
When leaf temperatures go above the upper limit of that range for too long, the plant needs water as much for cooling down as for quenching its thirst. In Texas, for example, Mahan found that cotton began to suffer from drought if cotton plant leaves stayed above 82°F. for more than 6½ hours.
To detect crop temperatures, Mahan placed infrared sensors in fields to sense leaf temperatures. Those sensors worked with wireless transmitters to relay temperatures to a base station with a cellular transmitter. Researchers went on to calculate the correct time-temperature thresholds for particular crops.
Mahan's breakthrough research has been adopted by Smartfield Inc., which has developed an entire array of sensors and related devices that allow farmers to take orders from the crops for irrigation.
The heart of Smartfield's system is SmartCrop, which employs infrared thermometers that are set in strategic locations in the field. These sensors measure plant canopy temperatures once every minute, reporting average readings every 15 minutes to a base station in the field. A single base station can support up to 60 sensors situated in multiple, adjacent fields. The base station, in turn, accumulates readings, then calls in temperature data to the company's CropInsight Web server using cell service.
Soil probes as well
Smartfield took Mahan's remote-sensing approach a step further with SmartProfile, which employs soil sensors to determine actual moisture conditions. An operator can opt to upgrade the base station with SmartWeather. This addition turns the base station into a fully functional remote wether station.
Another upgrade, SmartPivot, reports pivot location using GPS while also monitoring the sprinkler's water pressure. All these devices work with the same base station. Data is interpreted by CropInsight, which prepares reports that are accessed by subscribing farmers. This analysis can be tailor-fit to particular needs such as providing alerts for farmers predicting when cooling irrigation is needed or when soil moisture levels are reaching deficit levels.
806/798-9600 | www.smartfield.com
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Let the kids discover new scientific horizons with simple experiments at home.
Dallas, Texas (PRWEB) May 12, 2013
Spark scientific curiosity with static electricity experiments for kids. Kids Activities Blog answers the question what is static electricity in a simple way that even kids are able to understand the scientific reasons behind static.
A simple balloon experiment will do the trick in sparking new interest in the wonderful world of science. Kids will love to discover what it is all about with electrons.
Basically, electrons move around from atom to atom and object to object. When there is an excess amount of electrons, there is a negative charge. The extra electrons will move to an object with with a lessor or opposite charge. Kids can even hear a pop when the electrons move and may even see a spark. They will even feel a shock when the charge is neutralized.
To amaze the kids gather a couple of balloons, a sweater, assorted materials such as tissue paper, foam, aluminum foil, cardboard scrap, ribbons, pom poms and other materials. These will be used to stick to the balloon during the experiment.
Blow up the balloons and touch them against each gathered object. Let the kids observe that nothing happens. Then rub the balloon against the sweater and repeat. Now, the kids can observe that magically the materials will stick to the balloon. Even try running water down the charged balloon and observe what happens.
For detailed instructions and to get additional fun scientific experiments, check out Kids Activities Blog this week. Come get inspired to spark the kids' scientific minds.
About Kids Activities Blog
Kids Activities Blog is a website created by two moms (who collectively have 9 children), Rachel Miller and Holly Homer from June Cleaver Nirvana. It is their daily goal to inspire parents and teachers to play with kids. This interactive website publishes simple things to do with kids twice a day. Kids Activities Blog is a great tool for moms and teachers to find kid-friendly activities that create memories and sneak learning into the fun.
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Contact: Kenneth Klabunde
Kansas State University
How fireworks work: The 'bang!' behind the beauty
MANHATTAN, KAN. --Fireworks light up the night sky on Independence Day and have become as much a part of the July 4 ritual as American flags and cookouts. But behind the scenes, causing those dazzling explosions, is a combination of oxygen, metals and a whole lot of innovation.
Fireworks explosions begin at the molecular level, said Kenneth Klabunde, distinguished professor of chemistry at Kansas State University. Most metals are reactive with oxygen, which means they have a tendency to oxidize when exposed to air, he said. During oxidation, heat is released. The hotter it gets, the more reactive it becomes.
When a large chunk of a metal is exposed to oxygen, the outer surface oxidizes, protecting the inner metal from oxidation, Klabunde said. To avoid this, metals are ground into tiny particles before being packed into the firework. From there, it's all left to chemical reactions.
"It lights, goes up in the air, causes the rocket to blow apart and throws the metal into the air," Klabunde said. "When released, the metal particles start oxidizing and get so hot they give off light."
In more common fireworks, such as firecrackers or ladyfingers, that just create a flash of light and a loud pop, gunpowder comes into play.
"You want it to explode instantly, so you don't have time for air," Klabunde said.
Gunpowder, which is made of flammable materials such as carbon or coal, provides the needed oxygen for the oxidation of the metal particles, he said. The molecules have excess oxygen and become unstable if heated or jarred. When the fuse is lit, the molecules become unstable and give off oxygen that, in turn, reacts with the small metal particles, resulting in an explosion.
"You have two molecules that thermodynamically want to react," Klabunde said. "You just have to jar them, light a fuse or give them an electric shock."
Because the metals react with oxygen, fireworks lose their effectiveness when stored over long periods of time.
"Over time, oxygen from the air leaks in and slowly causes degradation," Klabunde said. To avoid this, fireworks are often stored under nitrogen or argon before distribution, he said.
But oxidation reactions occur in more than just fireworks -- they even occur in the human body. When people breathe, the oxygen from the air is used for chemical reactions in the body.
"We breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide," he said. "We are oxidizing the food we eat."
Oxidation reactions are also what make TNT explode and the space shuttle take off.
"Our civilization has learned to handle compound materials quite well even though we live in a sea of oxygen," Klabunde said.
Did you ever wonder what makes fireworks explode in a rainbow of colors? The answer: metals. When a metal burns, it emits photons that we see as light. Because different metals emit photons with different wavelengths as they burn, each metal produces its own individual color of light. So which metal makes which color?
Red - Strontium and lithium
Orange - Calcium
Gold - Incandescence of iron, charcoal or lampblack
Yellow - Sodium
Electric White - Magnesium or aluminum
Green - Barium plus a chlorine producer
Blue - Copper plus a chlorine producer
Purple - Strontium plus copper
Silver - Aluminum, titanium or magnesium powder or flakes
These metals can't do it alone. Most are in compound forms when burning in fireworks.
Information from K-State distinguished professor of chemistry Kenneth Klabunde and http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa062701a.htm
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As I lectured on the Great Mosque of Damascus in my Introduction to Islamic Art class a week ago, I thought: my students may not have a chance to see this masterpiece. It too could fall victim to the devastating violence underway in Syria. And just two days ago, on April 24, 2013, the early medieval minaret of the Great Mosque of Aleppo was reportedly collapsed due to shelling. (Before-and-after photo above from BBC.)
For an architectural historian of the Middle East, the last couple of years have been both exhilarating and devastating. The Arab Spring continues to unfold, transforming societies and spaces in unpredictable ways. On the one hand, public spaces in cities like Cairo are more vibrant than ever. Tahrir Square has become a household term associated with revolution and youth movements. On the other hand, in Syria, the Arab Spring has devolved into a violent conflict with no end in sight. The human cost is shocking: over 70,000 Syrians dead, and counting.
Why is it that cultural heritage is an inevitable target in any civil strife, war, or atrocity? As the human cost mounts in the conflict in Syria, cultural heritage has become collateral damage. Some sites have become theatres of war: like the citadel of Aleppo, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Some sites, deserted for centuries, are occupied again by refugees fleeing the conflict: The famous dead cities in Northern Syria, unique witnesses to the history of early Christianity. Late antique ruins and catacombs hardly provide the amenities of everyday life to traumatized displaced people. but they are a place to hide for a while.
And looters, both professional and amateur, are taking advantage of the breakdown of law and order to conduct “informal excavations” in archaeological sites or taking objects from museums. They are harvesting artifacts to sell on the black market.The region includes well established neworks of artifact smugglers. Syria is experiencing a version of what happened in Iraq: museums looted, archaeological sites plundered, a thriving black market. It has been reported that groups are selling antiquities on the black market to buy weapons.
It is very hard to document the damage to Syria’s cultural heritage accurately and comprehensively. Syrians are extremely proud of and attached to the ancient history of their country; many of them, amateur guerilla reporters and activists, have compiled a mass of raw data, video and information about the destruction of cultural heritage. Emma Cunliffe compiled a sobering report in May 2012. ICOM is in the process to compile a “Red List”, a list of artworks that have or may be looted, as a guide to Interpol.
What will happen? I stubbornly cling to the hope that Syrians and Syria will get past this conflict, they will rebuild and repair lives and monuments and social bonds. I hope, but in fact, no one knows.
I dread the point in this Spring where we will discuss the Citadel of Aleppo, that astonishing masterpiece of medieval military architecture perched on a hill layered with monuments from the most ancient periods of human habitation. I want to show my students the raw footage of the destroyed gates of the citadel, with the now-smashed victory inscription of Al-Zahir Ghazi, one of Saladin’s sons. Our students need to know how fragile the built environment is in conflict and war. We cannot look away.
| ||HEGHNAR WATENPAUGH is a historian of art and architecture of the Middle East at the University of California Davis. She is interested in cultural heritage, gender, and space. |
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Battle of the Bugs: Fighting Antibiotic ResistanceBy Linda Bren
Revised September 2005- Ever since antibiotics became widely available about 50 years ago, they have been hailed as miracle drugs--magic bullets able to destroy disease-causing bacteria.
But with each passing decade, bacteria that resist not only single, but multiple, antibiotics--making some diseases particularly hard to control--have become increasingly widespread. In fact, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), virtually all significant bacterial infections in the world are becoming resistant to the antibiotic treatment of choice. For some of us, bacterial resistance could mean more visits to the doctor, a lengthier illness, and possibly more toxic drugs. For others, it could mean death. The CDC estimates that each year, nearly 2 million people in the United States acquire an infection while in a hospital, resulting in 90,000 deaths. More than 70 percent of the bacteria that cause these infections are resistant to at least one of the antibiotics commonly used to treat them.
Antibiotic resistance, also known as antimicrobial resistance, is not a new phenomenon. Just a few years after the first antibiotic, penicillin, became widely used in the late 1940s, penicillin-resistant infections emerged that were caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). These "staph" infections range from urinary tract infections to bacterial pneumonia. Methicillin, one of the strongest in the arsenal of drugs to treat staph infections, is no longer effective against some strains of S. aureus. Vancomycin, which is the most lethal drug against these resistant pathogens, may be in danger of losing its effectiveness; recently, some strains of S. aureus that are resistant to vancomycin have been reported.
Although resistant bacteria have been around a long time, the scenario today is different from even just 10 years ago, says Stuart Levy, M.D., president of the Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics. "The number of bacteria resistant to many different antibiotics has increased, in many cases, tenfold or more. Even new drugs that have been approved are confronting resistance, fortunately in small amounts, but we have to be careful how they're used. If used for extended periods of time, they too risk becoming ineffective early on."
How Resistance Occurs
Bacteria, which are organisms so small that they are not visible to the naked eye, live all around us--in drinking water, food, soil, plants, animals, and in humans. Most bacteria do not harm us, and some are even useful because they can help us digest food. But many bacteria are capable of causing severe infections.
The ability of antibiotics to stop an infection depends on killing or halting the growth of harmful bacteria. But some bacteria resist the effects of drugs and multiply and spread.
Some bacteria have developed resistance to antibiotics naturally, long before the development of commercial antibiotics. After testing bacteria found in an arctic glacier and estimated to be over 2,000 years old, scientists found several of them to be resistant against some antibiotics, most likely indicating naturally occurring resistance.
If they are not naturally resistant, bacteria can become resistant to drugs in a number of ways. They may develop resistance to certain drugs spontaneously through mutation. Mutations are changes that occur in the genetic material, or DNA, of the bacteria. These changes allow the bacteria to fight or inactivate the antibiotic.
Bacteria also can acquire resistant genes through exchanging genes with other bacteria. "Think of it as bacterial sex," says David White, Ph.D., a microbiologist in the Food and Drug Administration's Center for Veterinary Medicine. "It's a simple form of mating that allows bacteria to transfer genetic material." The bacteria reproduce rapidly, allowing resistant traits to quickly spread to future generations of bacteria. "The bacteria don't care what other bacteria they're giving their genes to," says White. This means that resistance can spread from one species of bacteria to other species, enabling them to develop multiple resistance to different classes of antibiotics.
In 1999, 10 federal agencies and departments, led by the Department of Health and Human Services, formed a task force to tackle the problem of antimicrobial resistance. Co-chaired by the CDC, the FDA, and the National Institutes of Health, the task force issued a plan of action in 2001. Task force agencies continue to accomplish the activities set forth in the plan. The success of the plan--known as the Public Health Action Plan to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance--depends on the cooperation of many entities, such as state and local health agencies, universities, professional societies, pharmaceutical companies, health-care professionals, agricultural producers, and the public.
All of these groups must work together if the antibiotic resistance problem is to be remedied, says Mark Goldberger, M.D., director of the FDA's office responsible for reviewing antibiotic drugs. "This is a very serious problem. We need to do two things: facilitate the development of new antimicrobial therapy while at the same time preserve the usefulness of current and new drugs."
Preserving Antibiotics' Usefulness
Two main types of germs--bacteria and viruses--cause most infections, according to the CDC. But while antibiotics can kill bacteria, they do not work against viruses--and it is viruses that cause colds, the flu, and most sore throats. In fact, only 15 percent of sore throats are caused by the bacterium Streptococcus, which results in strep throat. In addition, it is viruses that cause most sinus infections, coughs, and bronchitis. And fluid in the middle ear, a common occurrence in children, does not usually warrant treatment with antibiotics unless there are other symptoms. (See "Fluid in the Middle Ear.")
Nevertheless, "Every year, tens of millions of prescriptions for antibiotics are written to treat viral illnesses for which these antibiotics offer no benefits," says David Bell, M.D., the CDC's antimicrobial resistance coordinator. According to the CDC, antibiotic prescribing in outpatient settings could be reduced by more than 30 percent without adversely affecting patient health.
Reasons cited by doctors for overprescribing antibiotics include diagnostic uncertainty, time pressure on physicians, and patient demand. Physicians are pressured by patients to prescribe antibiotics, says Bell. "People don't want to miss work, or they have a sick child who kept the whole family up all night, and they're willing to try anything that might work." It may be easier for the physician pressed for time to write a prescription for an antibiotic than it is to explain why it might be better not to use one.
But by taking an antibiotic, a person may be doubly harmed, according to Bell. First, it offers no benefit for viral infections, and second, it increases the chance of a drug-resistant infection appearing at a later time.
"Antibiotic resistance is not just a problem for doctors and scientists," says Bell. "Everybody needs to help deal with this. An important way that people can help directly is to understand that common illnesses like colds and the flu do not benefit from antibiotics and to not request them to treat these illnesses."
Following the prescription exactly is also important, says Bell. People should not skip doses or stop taking an antibiotic as soon as they feel better; they should complete the full course of the medication. Otherwise, the drug may not kill all the infectious bacteria, allowing the remaining bacteria to possibly become resistant.
While some antibiotics must be taken for 10 days or more, others are FDA-approved for a shorter course of treatment. Some can be taken for as few as three days. "I would prefer the short course to the long course," says Levy. "Reservoirs of antibiotic resistance are not being stimulated as much. The shorter the course, theoretically, the less chance you'll have resistance emerging, and it gives susceptible strains a better chance to come back."
Another concern to some health experts is the escalating use of antibacterial soaps, detergents, lotions, and other household items. "There has never been evidence that they have a public health benefit," says Levy. "Good soap and water is sufficient in most cases." Antibacterial products should be reserved for the hospital setting, for sick people coming home from the hospital, and for those with compromised immune systems, says Levy.
To decrease both demand and overprescribing, the FDA and the CDC have launched antibiotic resistance campaigns aimed at health-care professionals and the public. A nationwide ad campaign developed by the FDA's Center for Drug -Evaluation and Research emphasizes to health-care professionals the prudent use of antibiotics, and offers them an educational brochure to distribute to patients.
The FDA published a final rule in February 2003 that requires specific language on human antibiotic labels to encourage doctors to prescribe them only when truly necessary. The rule also requires a statement in the labeling encouraging doctors to counsel their patients about the proper use of these drugs.
Stimulating Drug Development
The FDA is working to encourage the development of new antibiotics and new classes of antibiotics and other antimicrobials. "We would like to make it attractive for the development of new antibiotics, but we'd like people to use them less and only in the presence of bacterial infection," says Goldberger. This presents a challenge, he says. "Decreased use may result in sales going down, and drug companies may feel there are better places to put their resources."
Through such incentives as exclusivity rights, the FDA hopes to stimulate new antimicrobial drug development. Exclusivity protects a manufacturer's drug from generic drug competition for a specific length of time.
The FDA has a variety of existing regulatory tools to help developers of antimicrobial drugs. One of these is an accelerated approval process for drugs that treat severely debilitating or life-threatening diseases and for drugs that show meaningful benefit over existing prescription drugs to cure a disease.
The FDA is also investigating other approaches for speeding the antimicrobial approval process. One approach is to reduce the size of the clinical trial program. "We need to streamline the review process without compromising safety and effectiveness," says Goldberger. "One of the things that we are trying to look at now is how we can substitute quality for quantity in clinical studies." It has been difficult to test drugs for resistance in people, says Goldberger. "Although these resistant organisms are a problem, they are still not so common that it is very easy to accumulate patients."
Scientists and health professionals are generally in agreement that a way to decrease antibiotic resistance is through more cautious use of antibiotic drugs and through monitoring outbreaks of drug-resistant infections.
But research is also critical to help understand the various mechanisms that pathogens use to evade drugs. Understanding these mechanisms is important for the design of effective new drugs.
The FDA's National Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR) is studying the mechanisms of resistance to antibiotic agents among bacteria from the human gastrointestinal tract, which can cause serious infections.
In addition, the NCTR has studied the amount of antibiotic residues that people consume in food from food-producing animals and the effects of these residues on human intestinal bacteria. This information led to a new approach for assessing the safety of antibiotic drug residues in people, which may be adopted by the FDA to help review drugs for food animals.
SOURCE: News Release, FDA. http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2002/402_bugs.html
Find out what women really need.
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Liberal arts students know that Joseph Conrad's famous novella, Heart of Darkness, was well ahead of its time, since it addresses issues that we face in today’s society. Originally published in 1899 as a three-part story in Blackwood's Magazine, and later as a book in 1902, Heart of Darkness tells the tale of Charles Marlow as he journeys to find the infamous ivory trader Mr. Kurtz along the Congo River.
When Heart of Darkness was published in 1902, it had a political impact and was frequently cited by the Congo Reform Movement. The novella brings up important questions about socio-economic class, racism, and imperialism. By 1998, Heart of Darkness was ranked 67th on the Modern Library's list of the 100 best novels in English of the twentieth century.
If you have recently started a liberal arts program, you will likely read Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, or at least see one of its modern adaptations. Read on to discover a few of the many works inspired by Conrad’s novel.
Modern Film Adaptations of the Classic Novel
One film adaptation recognized among many great books college students is Francis Ford Coppola's film Apocalypse Now, which is based on the Vietnam War. Filmed in 1979, the movie stars Martin Sheen, who plays US Army Captain Benjamin R. Willard. Willard receives orders to travel up-river and terminate the command of Colonel Walter E. Kurtz. Kurtz is played by Marlon Brando, and this is considered to be one of his most famous roles.
A documentary titled Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse was released in 1991. It was filmed to depict how the difficulties that Coppola and his film crew faced while making Apocalypse Now mirrored several themes found in the original book.
In 1993, another film adaptation was released starring Tim Roth as Marlow and John Malkovitch as Kurtz. The film bore the same name as Joseph Conrad’s novel and originally aired on TNT.
The Classic Work Adapted for Radio and Stage Plays
While pursuing a liberal arts education, you will learn that some of the earliest adaptations of Conrad's novel were created for radio and stage performance. In fact, similar productions have been made in recent years as well. Some of these include:
- Orson Welles made and starred in an adaptation of Heart of Darkness for a CBS Radio broadcast in 1938
- Australian playwright Larry Buttrose wrote and staged a theatrical version of the book titled Kurtz in 1991
- Tarik O'Regan composed an operatic adaptation of Heart of Darkness in 2011, at London's Royal Opera House
Other Adaptations that Liberal Arts Students Might be Familiar with
Within the past decade, Heart of Darkness made its way into playable media through video games. Game adaptations for various consoles and PC platforms that depict the storyline from the book include; Far Cry 2 (2008), Spec Ops: the Line (2012), and Victoria II: Heart of Darkness expansion pack (2013).
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Definitions for oreganoəˈrɛg əˌnoʊ, ɔˈrɛg-
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word oregano
oregano, marjoram, pot marjoram, wild marjoram, winter sweet, Origanum vulgare(noun)
aromatic Eurasian perennial
pungent leaves used as seasoning with meats and fowl and in stews and soups and omelets
A herb of the mint family, Origanum vulgare, having aromatic leaves.
The leaves of this plant used in flavouring food.
Oregano, scientifically named Origanum vulgare by Carolus Linnaeus, is a common species of Origanum, a genus of the mint family. It is native to warm-temperate western and southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region. Oregano is a perennial herb, growing from 20–80 cm tall, with opposite leaves 1–4 cm long. Oregano will grow in a pH range between 6.0 and 9.0 with a preferred range between 6.0 and 8.0. The flowers are purple, 3–4 mm long, produced in erect spikes. It is sometimes called wild marjoram, and its close relative O. majorana is known as sweet marjoram.
A type of herb.
Oregano is grown worldwide and used for a variety of purposes.
The numerical value of oregano in Chaldean Numerology is: 3
The numerical value of oregano in Pythagorean Numerology is: 3
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
Oregano is the spice of life.
Tomatoes and oregano make it Italian wine and tarragon make it French. Sour cream makes it Russian lemon and cinnamon make it Greek. Soy sauce makes it Chinese garlic makes it good.
Tomatoes and oregano make it Italian; wine and tarragon make it French. Sour cream makes it Russian; lemon and cinnamon make it Greek. Soy sauce makes it Chinese; garlic makes it good.
Images & Illustrations of oregano
Translations for oregano
From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary
- сушен риган, риганBulgarian
- orengaCatalan, Valencian
- oregano, dobromysl obecnáCzech
- oregano, almindelig merianDanish
- Oregano, Echter DostGerman
- پونه کوهیPersian
- origan, marjolaineFrench
- ハナハッカ, オレガノ, 花薄荷Japanese
- bergmynte, oregano, kungNorwegian
- orégano, orégãoPortuguese
- oregano, sovârfRomanian
- oregano, pamajoránSlovak
- vildmejram, oregano, kungsmyntaSwedish
- otu kekik, kekik, fare kulağıTurkish
Get even more translations for oregano »
Find a translation for the oregano definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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From Memorial Day to Labor Day the American flag will line our streets, lead parades and proudly wave outside our homes on Independence Day.
And each year people across the United States celebrate Flag Day on June 14th. Although it is not a legal holiday it is a day set aside to honor the flag and observe the anniversary of its adoption as our national flag.
We have all heard that Betsy Ross sewed the first American Flag from a sketch that George Washington gave her. No one knows if this actually true but it makes a good story!
We do know that June 14, 1777 the Continental Congress officially set the design of the American flag. It was decided that it should have 13 alternating red and white stripes, with 13 white stars on a blue field as there were 13 original states in the newly formed United States. As new states joined the union, a white star was to be added to the American flag on July 4th of the year after they joined.
Today the flag has 50 stars representing the 50 states and there are 13 stripes representing the 13 original states.
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1An inscribed or painted symbol considered to have magical power.
- He used to paint his sigils onto the speakers of radios - empowering the sound!
- There seems to be only so much power a sigil can summon, so to speak.
- He's also said to have created the Baphomet sigil, based on the inverted pentagram.
1.2 literary A sign or symbol.
Late Middle English: from late Latin sigillum 'sign'.
Words that rhyme with sigilstrigil, vigil
For editors and proofreaders
Definition of sigil in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.
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Q From Mia Shinbrot: There’s an old drinking song that goes like this: ‘There was a little man who had a little can, and he used to rush the growler. He stuck his head in the barroom door, and he heard somebody holler, “No beer today! No beer today! You can’t get beer on Sunday. No beer today! No beer today! Just bring around the can on Monday.” ’ I have long wondered what rush the growler means. I suspect it may be a Prohibition reference, but I don’t know what it means. Can you help?
A I can help to some extent. To rush the growler (sometimes to roll the growler and other forms) was to take a container to the local bar to buy beer. The growler was the container, usually a tin can. Brander Matthews wrote about it in Harper’s Magazine in July 1893: “In New York a can brought in filled with beer at a bar-room is called a growler, and the act of sending this can from the private house to the public-house and back is called working the growler”. The job of rushing the growler was often given to children.
It’s certainly older than the Prohibition era: the first reference to the expression appeared in print around 1883. Though one early example suggests it was originally low tramps’ slang, by about 1885 it had clearly become widely known around New York and had become acceptable in print. However, James Greenough and George Kittredge wrote in Words and Their Ways in English Speech in 1901 that, “A score of such references might make the reader forget that this most objectionable expression ever was slang, or had any offensive associations”. What offensive associations? A clue may be in the Atlantic Monthly for February 1899: “It sometimes seems unfortunate to break down the second standard, which holds that people who ‘rush the growler’ are not worthy of charity, and that there is a certain justice attained when they go to the poorhouse”. The Atchison Globe of 14 November 1884 has “I have heard that in New York people of the working-class, who live in tenement-houses, send out a pitcher for beer in the evening. They call it ‘working the growler.’ Here in Chicago the best people indulge in the degrading practice, I regret to say.” The magazine Puck commented in May 1885: “The old, old story. The happy home, loving parents, the growler, the fall and ruin”. So people who indulged in growler-rushing were thought by moralistic commentators to be on the slippery slope towards destitution and self-destruction.
You’re waiting, of course, for me to tell you where growler came from. The noise you hear is me shuffling my feet in embarrassment. Nobody knows for sure. There were several expressions of like type around at the same period, including chase the duck, roll the rock, and hurry the can. In each case, the last word referred to the container in which the beer was fetched. Gerald Cohen and Barry Popik argue on the basis of chase the duck that it and rush the growler evoke the image of a hunter sending his dog rushing to fetch downed prey, so that the growler in our expression is the dog. That slang term was then transferred to the can.
Not everybody agrees with this origin — for example, the existence of forms like roll the growler and roll the rock render it less easy to imagine a hunting context; Jonathon Green, in the Cassell Dictionary of Slang, suggests that the word might have referred to the growling noise the full can made as it was pushed across the bar; an early reference, in the Trenton Times for 20 June 1883 said “It is called the growler because it provokes so much trouble in the scramble after beer”. None of these ideas is by the nature of things easy to prove or disprove. Oddly, there is an almost contemporary British English expression, to work the growler, to hire a cab to take one on a pub-crawl; here the growler is certainly a type of cab, though why it was given that name is unclear. It is just conceivable that the British expression crossed the Atlantic and changed its sense a little, but that doesn’t explain the other expressions of similar type, which are certainly native to the US.
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Using a set of simple rules for moving and two knifelike feet, a robot in Germany has learned not only how to walk with a remarkably human gait but also how to ascend a ramp. To be sure, C-3PO and his cinema cousins have been tottering across movie screens for generations, and real-life walking robots are nothing new. But the strides made by RunBot, reported in the July issue of the journal Public Library of Science Computational Biology, mark the first time a real-life robot has walked with such grace.
Until now, walking robots like Honda’s Asimo, which has an advertised ability to run four miles per hour, have relied on heavy-duty computational power, calculating the angle of the knees and ankles every moment of every step. RunBot, developed in the lab of computational neuroscientist Florentin Wörgötter of the University of Göttingen, takes a simpler, more human approach. “Humans do not exert continuous control,” Wörgötter says. “During parts of the walking process, we just fall forward and catch ourselves on the next step.”
Wörgötter and his colleagues designed RunBot to walk almost automatically, with a simple set of control circuits analyzing data from sensors in the legs and making minor adjustments along the way—a process similar to that of human walking, some neuroscientists believe. Only when faced with an obstacle like a ramp does RunBot’s higher-level programming kick in to adjust its strides to walk over the new terrain.
It’s not just robots that stand to gain from RunBot’s breakthrough. Wörgötter wants to adapt his simple control circuitry for artificial human legs to provide amputees a more natural step.
Go to the next story: 64. Cloned Hamburger, Anyone?
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Mr McGregor has a magic potting shed. Overnight, the number of
plants in it doubles. He'd like to put the same number of plants in
each of three gardens, planting one garden each day. Can he do it?
Place the numbers from 1 to 9 in the squares below so that the difference between joined squares is odd. How many different ways can you do this?
Here is a chance to play a version of the classic Countdown Game.
Investigate the smallest number of moves it takes to turn these
mats upside-down if you can only turn exactly three at a time.
Imagine a wheel with different markings painted on it at regular
intervals. Can you predict the colour of the 18th mark? The 100th
What do the numbers shaded in blue on this hundred square have in common? What do you notice about the pink numbers? How about the shaded numbers in the other squares?
A game for two people, or play online. Given a target number, say 23, and a range of numbers to choose from, say 1-4, players take it in turns to add to the running total to hit their target.
Is it possible to place 2 counters on the 3 by 3 grid so that there
is an even number of counters in every row and every column? How
about if you have 3 counters or 4 counters or....?
If you have only four weights, where could you place them in order
to balance this equaliser?
This article gives you a few ideas for understanding the Got It! game and how you might find a winning strategy.
Try to stop your opponent from being able to split the piles of counters into unequal numbers. Can you find a strategy?
Can you complete this jigsaw of the multiplication square?
How have the numbers been placed in this Carroll diagram? Which
labels would you put on each row and column?
Arrange the four number cards on the grid, according to the rules,
to make a diagonal, vertical or horizontal line.
You have 4 red and 5 blue counters. How many ways can they be
placed on a 3 by 3 grid so that all the rows columns and diagonals
have an even number of red counters?
The number of plants in Mr McGregor's magic potting shed increases
overnight. He'd like to put the same number of plants in each of
his gardens, planting one garden each day. How can he do it?
In this activity, the computer chooses a times table and shifts it. Can you work out the table and the shift each time?
Can you see why 2 by 2 could be 5? Can you predict what 2 by 10
An environment which simulates working with Cuisenaire rods.
Start by putting one million (1 000 000) into the display of your
calculator. Can you reduce this to 7 using just the 7 key and add,
subtract, multiply, divide and equals as many times as you like?
Starting with the number 180, take away 9 again and again, joining up the dots as you go. Watch out - don't join all the dots!
A card pairing game involving knowledge of simple ratio.
Use the interactivity to play two of the bells in a pattern. How do
you know when it is your turn to ring, and how do you know which
bell to ring?
Hover your mouse over the counters to see which ones will be
removed. Click to remover them. The winner is the last one to
remove a counter. How you can make sure you win?
A collection of resources to support work on Factors and Multiples at Secondary level.
How can the same pieces of the tangram make this bowl before and after it was chipped? Use the interactivity to try and work out what is going on!
Try entering different sets of numbers in the number pyramids. How does the total at the top change?
Slide the pieces to move Khun Phaen past all the guards into the position on the right from which he can escape to freedom.
A game for 2 people that everybody knows. You can play with a
friend or online. If you play correctly you never lose!
There are nine teddies in Teddy Town - three red, three blue and three yellow. There are also nine houses, three of each colour. Can you put them on the map of Teddy Town according to the rules?
Exchange the positions of the two sets of counters in the least possible number of moves
This problem is based on a code using two different prime numbers
less than 10. You'll need to multiply them together and shift the
alphabet forwards by the result. Can you decipher the code?
A and B are two interlocking cogwheels having p teeth and q teeth respectively. One tooth on B is painted red. Find the values of p and q for which the red tooth on B contacts every gap on the. . . .
A tetromino is made up of four squares joined edge to edge. Can
this tetromino, together with 15 copies of itself, be used to cover
an eight by eight chessboard?
What are the coordinates of the coloured dots that mark out the
tangram? Try changing the position of the origin. What happens to
the coordinates now?
These formulae are often quoted, but rarely proved. In this article, we derive the formulae for the volumes of a square-based pyramid and a cone, using relatively simple mathematical concepts.
An interactive activity for one to experiment with a tricky tessellation
An interactive game for 1 person. You are given a rectangle with 50 squares on it. Roll the dice to get a percentage between 2 and 100. How many squares is this? Keep going until you get 100. . . .
Start with any number of counters in any number of piles. 2 players
take it in turns to remove any number of counters from a single
pile. The winner is the player to take the last counter.
A game for 2 players that can be played online. Players take it in turns to select a word from the 9 words given. The aim is to select all the occurrences of the same letter.
Investigate how the four L-shapes fit together to make an enlarged
L-shape. You could explore this idea with other shapes too.
A generic circular pegboard resource.
A game for 2 people that can be played on line or with pens and paper. Combine your knowledege of coordinates with your skills of strategic thinking.
A game for 2 players. Can be played online. One player has 1 red
counter, the other has 4 blue. The red counter needs to reach the
other side, and the blue needs to trap the red.
A game to be played against the computer, or in groups. Pick a 7-digit number. A random digit is generated. What must you subract to remove the digit from your number? the first to zero wins.
Use the interactivity to find all the different right-angled triangles you can make by just moving one corner of the starting triangle.
Triangle numbers can be represented by a triangular array of squares. What do you notice about the sum of identical triangle numbers?
The idea of this game is to add or subtract the two numbers on the dice and cover the result on the grid, trying to get a line of three. Are there some numbers that are good to aim for?
Here is a solitaire type environment for you to experiment with. Which targets can you reach?
Choose a symbol to put into the number sentence.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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https://nrich.maths.org/public/leg.php?code=5039&cl=2&cldcmpid=5950
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en
| 0.936286
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| 3.921875
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'Missile gap' was a term used frequently throughout the 1950s by Americans who believed that the Soviet Union had a huge advantage in the number of nuclear missiles it possessed over the USA, and that it could continue producing them 'like sausages', as in Khrushchev's claim. Along with its twin the 'bomber gap', it was largely responsible for the election of John Fitzgerald Kennedy in 1960. And, like the 'bomber gap', it was largely illusory.
Some people have attempted to simplistically explain the 'missile gap' as propaganda designed to increase defence spending. The propaganda is thought to have emerged mostly from Republicans and defence contractors, and to be part of a discourse that continues down to this day in favour of militarism in the United States. This theory about the origins of the 'missile gap' is an example of history being used - abused - for current purposes.
The source of the 'missile gap' theory was not propaganda, but ignorance. It was impossible for any knowing deception to be occuring for the mere reason that no-one in the United States really had a damn clue about Soviet missile production or its scale. The CIA had been much surprised by the first Soviet nuclear test, which occured eighteen months ahead of their estimate of when the Soviets would first be able to conduct a test (the window of possibility was years long).
Throughout the 1950s, many Americans were apprehensive about the growing technological prowess of the Soviet Union. Although it was believed to crush individualism and to have created a slave society, it was widely believed that this slave society found it much easier to concentrate on key defence industries. Although consumer goods were impossible to come by in the USSR and living standards were abysmal, the Soviet state was able to pump large quantities of resources into defence spending. So far, American theories about what was going on were correct. However, they hugely misjudged what the results were.
Although the Soviets were putting large quantities of resources into missile production, the results were nowhere near as impressive as imagined - even if the effect on Soviet quality of life was as dire. Soviet propaganda continued to claim that hundreds of missiles were being produced each year, when in reality the numbers were much smaller. However, until the late 1950s the USA had no way of knowing this. Before the era of arms control agreements and when dealing with an opponent whose gut response to everything was to lie, the US had no way of getting credible information. Its gut reaction was fear.
This was perfectly reasonable, insofar as it is the reaction we find throughout human history when anxiety is coupled with ignorance. The result is always exaggeration. Fearing the worse, many in the US began to assail the Eisenhower administration for being too soft on the Soviets and not increasing defence spending. These people included Democratic challenger John F. Kennedy when he campaigned for the Presidency in 1960.
However, by this stage, those at the top of the Eisenhower administration were beginning to catch wind of the truth. Throughout the 1950s, the CIA was increasing its ability to get information from within the Soviet Union. Overflights by U-2 RECON planes had mapped parts of the Soviet Union and the military installations thereupon, and had concluded that the fleets of strategic bombers thought to comprise the 'bomber gap' did not in fact exist. Similar conclusions were being drawn about the 'missile gap'.
The most important asset in the quest to debunk this myth was Oleg Penkovsky, a Soviet Colonel in the GRU (military intelligence) who was secretly passing a large quantity of material to the West, starting in the early 1960s. Trained in missile technology, Penkovsky was able to provide a wealth of information on Soviet capabilities in this area. His handlers never mentioned Western estimates of Soviet capabilities to him, but from what he told his handlers it is clear he would have been shocked to hear them. Thanks largely to his spying, Kennedy entered the Cuban Missile Crisis knowing there existed no large preponderance of missiles in the favour of the USSR.
The 'missile gap' teaches us a few things. Although a lot of moaning went on about espionage in the Cold War, especially from the Soviet side, it was desirable for both sides to know roughly the strategic position of the other. To profoundly misjudge the situation of the other, by for instance believing them to be producing a stupendous number of ballistic missiles, meant you would not see their actions in the right context. If Kennedy had entered the Cuban Missile Crisis still believing in the 'missile gap', he might have concluded that he had one last opportunity to make a stand. He may have made too firm a stand.
Misperception and misjudgement are very dangerous in international affairs. War has largely being eradicated from Europe through the use of confidence-building tools such as the Treaty on Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) which limits the size of armed forces and allows for mutual inspection. Fear evaporates in such an environment, and it is one that should be promoted around the world as much as possible. Closed, dictatorial societies cannot expect the free world to be unsuspicious of their activities when they make belligerent noises whilst engaging in questionable activities. If they truly have nothing to hide, they must open themselves up to prove it. Otherwise, fear and anxiety are bound to run away with themselves - justified or not.
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From the abstract:
This article argues that the rise of creativity-based originality in copyright law has strong ties to a previously little-examined episode in copyright history: the debate over legal protection for news in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Until the 1880s, the American news industry remained in a pre-copyright era, and played no part in copyright discourse. Newspaper editors followed a widespread custom of freely copying text from other newspapers. That custom was acknowledged and encouraged by a massive government subsidy in the form of free postage for newspaper copies that were being exchanged between editors. Newspaper owners never registered their papers before publication, and thus forsook copyright protection for them.
In the middle decades of 1800s, however, technological changes, foremost among them the introduction of the telegraph, radically changed the structure of the news industry. The telegraph provided newspapers with an opportunity to invest in more timely news; yet together with improvements in typesetting, printing, and transportation technology, it also created an appropriability problem. It shrank the lead-time advantage that newspapers traditionally had relied upon to realize the value of their investment in news, and also exposed them to competition from which they had previously been geographically isolated. At the same time, the new communications technologies led to the emergence of companies and large associations that dominated markets, often with the aid of anticompetitive practices. Prominent among these were the news industry organizations of the Associated Press and the Western Union.
Within this context, the Associated Press, Western Union and others began in the 1880s to press for legal protection of news reports, in both legislative and judicial arenas. Opposition to those efforts led to the first prominent articulations of the notion that facts are not created by authors, and are therefore not copyrightable subject matter. Paradoxically, that notion was then reinforced by proponents of legal protection for news, when they resolved to seek that protection outside of statutory copyright, in common law misappropriation, and made the tactical decision to argue that news was not copyrightable in order to avoid copyright preemption of their common law claims.
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<urn:uuid:7c468610-76e8-48f6-8b24-c9cee571e737>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://legalhistoryblog.blogspot.com/2009/04/brauneis-analyzes-transformation-of.html?m=0
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en
| 0.967639
| 422
| 2.640625
| 3
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|Nucleus · Nucleons (p, n) · Nuclear force · Nuclear structure · Nuclear reaction|
Binding energy is the energy required to disassemble a whole system into separate parts. A bound system typically has a lower potential energy than the sum of its constituent parts; this is what keeps the system together. Often this means that energy is released upon the creation of a bound state. This definition corresponds to a positive binding energy.
In general, binding energy represents the mechanical work that must be done against the forces which hold an object together, disassembling the object into component parts separated by sufficient distance that further separation requires negligible additional work.
At the atomic level the atomic binding energy of the atom derives from electromagnetic interaction and is the energy required to disassemble an atom into free electrons and a nucleus. Electron binding energy is a measure of the energy required to free electrons from their atomic orbits. This is more commonly known as ionization energy.
At the nuclear level, binding energy is the energy liberated when a nucleus is created from other nucleons or nuclei. This nuclear binding energy (binding energy of nucleons into a nuclide) is derived from the nuclear force (residual strong interaction) and is the energy required to disassemble a nucleus into free, unbound neutrons and protons it is composed of, so that the nucleons are far/distant enough from each other that the nuclear force can no longer cause the particles to interact. Mass excess is a related concept which compares the mass number of a nucleus with its true measured mass.
In bound systems, if the binding energy is removed from the system, it must be subtracted from the mass of the unbound system, simply because this energy has mass. Thus, if energy is removed (or emitted) from the system at the time it is bound, the loss of energy from the system will also result in the loss of the mass of the energy, from the system. System mass is not conserved in this process because the system is "open" (i.e., is not an isolated system to mass or energy input or loss) during the binding process.
Classically a bound system is at a lower energy level than its unbound constituents, and its mass must be less than the total mass of its unbound constituents. For systems with low binding energies, this "lost" mass after binding may be fractionally small. For systems with high binding energies, however, the missing mass may be an easily measurable fraction. This missing mass may be lost during the process of binding as energy in the form of heat or light, with the removed energy corresponding to removed mass through Einstein's equation E = mc2. Note that in the process of binding, the constituents of the system might enter higher energy states of the nucleus/atom/molecule, but these types of energy also have mass, and it is necessary that they be removed from the system before its mass may decrease. Once the system cools to normal temperatures and returns to ground states in terms of energy levels, there is less mass remaining in the system than there was when it first combined and was at high energy. In that case, the removed heat represents exactly the mass "deficit", and the heat itself retains the mass which was lost (from the point of view of the initial system). This mass appears in any other system which absorbs the heat and gains thermal energy.
As an illustration, consider two objects attracting each other in space through their gravitational field. The attraction force accelerates the objects and they gain some speed toward each other converting the potential (gravity) energy into kinetic (movement) energy. When either the particles 1) pass through each other without interaction or 2) elastically repel during the collision, the gained kinetic energy (related to speed), starts to revert into potential form driving the collided particles apart. The decelerating particles will return to the initial distance and beyond into infinity or stop and repeat the collision (oscillation takes place). This shows that the system, which loses no energy, does not combine (bind) into a solid object, parts of which oscillate at short distances. Therefore, in order to bind the particles, the kinetic energy gained due to the attraction must be dissipated (by resistive force). Complex objects in collision ordinarily undergo inelastic collision, transforming some kinetic energy into internal energy (heat content, which is atomic movement), which is further radiated in the form of photons—the light and heat. Once the energy to escape the gravity is dissipated in the collision, the parts will oscillate at closer, possibly atomic, distance, thus looking like one solid object. This lost energy, necessary to overcome the potential barrier in order to separate the objects, is the binding energy. If this binding energy were retained in the system as heat, its mass would not decrease. However, binding energy lost from the system (as heat radiation) would itself have mass, and directly represents the "mass deficit" of the cold, bound system.
Closely analogous considerations apply in chemical and nuclear considerations. Exothermic chemical reactions in closed systems do not change mass, but become less massive once the heat of reaction is removed, though this mass change is much too small to measure with standard equipment. In nuclear reactions, however, the fraction of mass that may be removed as light or heat, i.e., binding energy, is often a much larger fraction of the system mass. It may thus be measured directly as a mass difference between rest masses of reactants and (cooled) products. This is because nuclear forces are comparatively stronger than the Coulombic forces associated with the interactions between electrons and protons, that generate heat in chemistry.
Mass change (decrease) in bound systems, particularly atomic nuclei, has also been termed mass defect, mass deficit, or mass packing fraction.
The difference between the unbound system calculated mass and experimentally measured mass of nucleus (mass change) is denoted as Δm. It can be calculated as follows:
- Mass change = (unbound system calculated mass) − (measured mass of system)
- i.e., (sum of masses of protons and neutrons) − (measured mass of nucleus)
After nuclear reactions that result in an excited nucleus, the energy that must be radiated or otherwise removed as binding energy for a single nucleus to produce the unexcited state may be in any of several forms. This may be electromagnetic waves, such as gamma radiation, the kinetic energy of an ejected particle, such as an electron, in internal conversion decay, or partly as the rest mass of one or more emitted particles, such as the particles of beta decay. No mass deficit can in theory appear until this radiation or this energy has been emitted, and is no longer part of the system.
When nucleons bind together to form a nucleus, they must lose a small amount of mass, i.e., there is a change in mass, in order to stay bound. This mass change must be released as various types of photon or other particle energy as above, according to the relation E = mc2. Thus, after binding energy has been removed, binding energy = mass change × c2. This energy is a measure of the forces that hold the nucleons together, and it represents energy that must be supplied again from the environment, if the nucleus were to be broken up into individual nucleons.
The energy given off during either nuclear fusion or nuclear fission is the difference between the binding energies of the "fuel", i.e., the initial nuclide(s), and the fission or fusion products. In practice, this energy may also be calculated from the substantial mass differences between the fuel and products, which uses previous measurement of the atomic masses of known nuclides, which always have the same mass for each species. This mass difference appears once evolved heat and radiation have been removed, which is a given requirement for measuring the (rest) masses of the (non-excited) nuclides involved in such calculations.
- Chemical bond
- Electron binding energy
- Semi-empirical mass formula
- William Prout
- Virial mass
- Quantum chromodynamics binding energy
- "Nuclear Power Binding Energy". Retrieved 16 May 2015.
- IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "Ionization energy".
- Britannica Online Encyclopaedia - "nuclear binding energy". Accessed 8 September 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/65615/binding-energy
- Nuclear Engineering - "Binding Energy". Bill Garland, McMaster University. Accessed 8 September 2010. http://www.nuceng.ca/igna/binding_energy.htm
- Atomic Alchemy: Nuclear Processes - "Binding Energy". About. Accessed 7 September 2010. http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/binding_energy/binding_energy.html
- Krane, K. S (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.
- HyperPhysics - "Nuclear Binding Energy". C.R. Nave, Georgia State University. Accessed 7 September 2010. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/nucbin.html
- E. F. Taylor and J. A. Wheeler, Spacetime Physics, W.H. Freeman and Co., NY. 1992. ISBN 0-7167-2327-1, see pp. 248-9 for discussion of mass remaining constant after detonation of nuclear bombs, until heat is allowed to escape.
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<urn:uuid:d91d7049-7f1a-45d9-ad4b-e47e528183f3>
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en
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