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Editing Paths in Photoshop
Discover how to select vector paths in Photoshop, and how to alter path segments, edit anchor points, join and reopen paths, and transform paths.
Now you know how to create paths, we'll take a look at how you can change your path after you've made it. This way you can alter the shape of your path and "fine-tune" those lines and curves until they're just right!
In this section we'll take a look at ways to select your paths, or parts of your paths, for editing.
The Path Component Selection tool
This tool is designed for quickly selecting an entire path component. This is great when you want to move or resize a path component, for example.
The tool can be found under the black mouse pointer icon in the Tools palette:
To select a component, just click anywhere in or on the component:
You can also Shift+click on more than one component, or click and drag a marquee, to select multiple components at the same time.
To deselect all components, click in an empty area of your document with the Path Component Selection tool, or press the Esc key.
The Direct Selection tool
You'll find the Direct Selection tool under the Path Component Selection tool popup in the Tools palette (see above).
This tool lets you select individual path segments and anchor points for editing. To select a segment, click on the segment:
To select an anchor point, click on the point:
You can also Shift+click on more than one segment or point, or click and drag a marquee, to select many things at the same time.
To deselect all segments and points, click in an empty area of your document with the Direct Selection tool, or press the Esc key.
Some handy shortcuts
- You can temporarily activate the Path Component Selection tool when you're using the Direct Selection tool by holding down the Control key (Windows) or Command key (Mac) while clicking with the mouse.
- You can also use the Direct Selection tool from all other drawing tools by holding down the Control key (Windows) or Command key (Mac) while clicking with the mouse. This is very useful for selecting and editing existing path components while you're creating new components with the Pen tool.
- You can switch between the Path Component and Direct Selection tools by pressing Shift+A.
Now that you know how to select path components and segments, let's look at how to alter them.
Altering path segments
Being able to accurately move and reshape path segments is the key to becoming a Pen tool expert! By knowing and understanding how the shape of path segments can be altered, you'll be able to create any shaped path with a high level of precision. So pay careful attention! :)
To alter a path segment, you need to use the Direct Selection tool (described above). The easiest way to activate this tool while you're drawing with the Pen tool is to hold down the Control key (Windows) or Command key (Mac).
Moving straight segments
Straight segments are easy to move. Just click on the segment you want to move with the Direct Selection tool, and drag with the mouse:
Moving curved segments
To move a curved segment, first click on the segment with the Direct Selection tool. You then need to Shift+click on both the segment's anchor points to select them:
Once you have both anchor points selected, click on the curve and drag it to move it around:
Notice how you're just changing the position of the curved segment here; you're not altering its shape (although the shape of the neighbouring curve changes to keep up with the new curve's position).
Reshaping curved segments
There are two ways to reshape a curved segment. The first technique just shrinks or stretches the curve, without reshaping the segments either side of it. The second technique involves altering the direction lines at an anchor point to change the shape of the segments on either side of the point.
Technique 1. Shrinking and stretching
To shrink or stretch a segment, first click on the segment with the Direct Selection tool, then make sure that neither of its anchor points are selected, or that only one anchor point is selected (if both are selected then you will simply move the segment, as described above). You can deselect the anchor point(s) as necessary by Shift+clicking on them:
Then click on the curve and drag it to shrink or stretch it as required:
Technique 2. Altering the direction lines
By dragging the direction lines at an anchor point, you can change the shape of the curves on either side of the point. The best way to get the hang of this is just to practice!
To alter a direction line, click on the direction point at the end of the line with the Direct Selection tool, then drag it around:
Editing anchor points
As well as changing the curves and direction lines as shown above, you can also change the type of each anchor point in your path. This allows you to create any shape of path that you like!
Most of the changes you'll make to anchor points will be done with the Convert Point tool, available under the Pen Tool in the Tools Palette:
You can also quickly select the Convert Point tool when you're working with the Pen tool by holding down the Alt key (Windows) or the Option key (Mac).
Converting from a corner point to a smooth point
To turn a corner anchor point into a smooth anchor point, click on the point with the Convert Point tool, and drag away from the point to make the direction lines appear:
Converting from a smooth point to a corner point
There are 3 types of corner point you can create, allowing you to form different shapes of curves and lines.
Making a corner point without direction lines
To convert a smooth point to a corner point with no direction lines, simply click once with the Convert Point tool on the anchor point you wish to convert:
The direction lines will disappear, and you'll be left with a corner point with two straight line segments on either side.
Making a corner point with direction lines
To turn a smooth point into a corner point with direction lines (in other words, to create a corner with curves rather than a corner with straight lines), click on either one of the direction points with the Convert Point tool, and drag the point around until you get the desired shape:
Notice that you have now "broken" the direction lines so that they work independently of each other, and the result is two curves that enter and leave the points at very different angles (a corner). Compare this to the original smooth point, where the direction lines moved together and were at 180 degrees to each other, and the curves moved smoothly through the point.
Making a corner point with only one direction line
It's also possible to make a corner point with only one direction line. This will mean that the segment on the side of the point with the direction line will be a curve as it leaves the point, while the segment without the direction line will be a straight line as it leaves the point (though it may curve at the other end if it's heading towards a smooth anchor point). Understanding this technique means you can easily switch from curves to straight lines and vice-versa at any anchor point. Very useful!
To make a corner point with one direction line, all you have to do is use the Convert Point tool to drag the unwanted direction point into the anchor point until it disappears. Click on the direction point you want to remove, and drag it until it's on top of the anchor point:
Notice how the segment on one side of the point is now a straight line, while the other segment remains curved. Cool eh!
You can quickly retract the direction line "in front" of the anchor point (in other words, on the side with the most recently placed curve) by Alt+clicking (Windows) or Option+clicking (Mac) on the anchor point itself:
Dragging anchor points
You can of course drag anchor points around to reshape your paths. Use the Direct Selection tool to make sure that the point you want to move is selected (you can Shift+click to select multiple points, or to deselect points as required). Then just click on a point and drag!
Practice working with all these tools for editing path segments and anchor points, as these skills are the key to producing great paths.
Reopening and joining path components
If you've closed a path component (by clicking on the first anchor point with the Pen tool to complete the loop), you can later re-open the path by using the Direct Selection tool to select one of the path segments (by clicking on it), then pressing the Delete key:
You can also join two separate path components together, provided they are both open. First, click on the end point of the first path, where you would like the join to start, with the Pen tool:
Then click on the end point of the second path, where you want the join to end. Your path components will then be joined into one continuous component:
Transforming and manipulating paths
You can use a lot of the same tools that you use for raster graphics on paths too, including:
- Cutting, copying and pasting
- Skewing, distortion and perspective
Just select the points, segments or components you want to manipulate, then apply the appropriate command. You'll find all these manipulation commands under the Edit menu:
- Edit > Cut
- Edit > Copy
- Edit > Paste
- Edit > Free Transform
- Edit > Transform > Scale
Remember, use the Direct Selection tool if you want to manipulate individual points or segments, and the Path Component Selection tool to select and manipulate entire path components.
For example, here we've selected just the bottom two points of the triangle with the Direct Selection tool, and rotated them with Edit > Transform Points > Rotate:
On the other hand, in this example we've selected the entire component with the Path Component Selection tool and rotated with Edit > Transform Path > Rotate:
Now that you know how to create and edit paths, find out some of the handy things you can do with them!
Responses to this article
2 responses (oldest first):
"You can also use the Direct Selection tool from all other tools by holding down the Control key (Windows) or Command key (Mac) while clicking with the mouse. "
I didnt get the meaning. Thanks.
If you're currently using another drawing tool (Pen, Freeform Pen, Path Selection, etc) then you can hold down Control/Command to use the Direct Selection tool temporarily.
It should really say "from all other drawing tools"! I'll update the tutorial...
Post a response
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A r c h i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n
Making the Most of Title I Schoolwide Programs
Student Achievement and School Accountability Conference
Text (slide 24):
Six-Step Planning Process (cont.)
- Step 5. Writing the Schoolwide Plan
- What's been completed?
- Needs assessment conducted
- Results have been analyzed with needs prioritized
- Strategies have been researched and program goals have been set....
Use the core planning team to pull all the parts together in a coherent program statement.
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Drug Jar (Albarello) with Seated Queen
Probably workshop of Orazio Fontana, Italian (active Urbino), c. 1510 - 1571
Maiolica is an Italian term used to describe a tin-glazed ceramic that reached the height of its popularity during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Fairly inexpensive, maiolica wares were suitable for everyday use, frequently taking the form of pharmacy jars, vases, and dishes.
Maiolica was born of a desire to emulate porcelain, a delicate and translucent form of pottery that until the eighteenth century only the Chinese knew how to make. The technique was a complicated multi-step process. First, the clay was collected, strained, and dried to a plastic consistency. Then it was shaped into the desired wares, by wheel, mold, or hand and fired in a kiln. Once fired, the ceramic was covered with an opaque white glaze containing tin, an expensive metal imported into Italy from England or the Low Countries (present-day Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg). The porous ceramic absorbed this glaze immediately, leaving a powdery white coating on the surface. It was then painted using pigments made from ground metals suspended in water. The most common pigments were made from metallic oxides: copper made green, iron made orange, manganese made purple, cobalt made blue, antimony made yellow, and tin made white. Again the ceramic absorbed the water in the paint, leaving the pigments on the surface and making it nearly impossible to correct any errors or change the composition. When the painting was completed, some vessels were coated with a shiny lead glaze, and then all were fired again, at a slightly lower temperature.
Explore the Collections
* Works in the collection are moved off view for many different reasons. Although gallery locations on the website are updated regularly, there is no guarantee that this object will be on display on the day of your visit.
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MALNUTRITION RISK FACTORS
Internationally adopted children are at risk for malnutrition for many reasons. Some of the contributing factors are prenatal: prenatal health of the birth mother, prenatal diet, and prenatal infections, for example. Other contributing factors occur while the child is institutionalized (even if in a foster home). Institutionalized children are rarely breast fed and may not even receive formula. If they do receive formula, it may be a suboptimal brand or it may be mixed incorrectly. Often, children are weaned too early, given non-fortified solid foods instead. When children do begin eating solid foods, they may receive insufficient amounts or food that is low in the micronutrients essential for growth and development. Additionally, children may not spend enough time in the sun, which can lead to a vitamin D deficiency and/or rickets.
KIDS NEED MORE THAN NUTRITION TO GROW
Interestingly, studies show that even if institutionalized children receive adequate nutrition they do not grow as well as would be expected. Why is this? This is where the car analogy comes in. Think of a car. A car needs sufficient fuel to go. But it takes more than fuel. The car also must have an engine and a driver to make that engine go. Just as a car needs fuel, children need food. But the food alone is not enough. Children also need healthy bodies (the engine) and a caregiver (the driver) who provides love, attention, and care. When a caregiver provides sufficient love, attention, and care, children produce growth hormone that is necessary for proper growth.
GROWTH SPURTS CAN LEAD TO MALNUTRITION
When children are adopted, they begin to receive higher quality fuel (nutritious food). Due to the love and attention from their new “drivers,” they produce higher levels of growth hormone and their engines (bodies) begin to develop. Many children have big growth spurts! As important as this growth is, it also leaves children at risk for further malnutrition. Some children just don’t have the micronutrient stores to support rapid growth. Their stores may become depleted. Micronutrients that should be monitored closely, especially 6-12 months post-adoption, are iron, zinc, and Vitamin D.
For more nutrition tips specifically for adopted children, visit www.AdoptionNutrition.org.
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No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam
Exploring Muhammad's legacy
By Steven Martinovich
Out of every tragedy there is hope that some good can come of it. The mass murder of thousands on September 11, 2001, for example, led to the liberation of millions in Afghanistan. Many believed that an unintended consequence of the attacks would be a quest by Westerners to learn more about Islam, a faith that has lived alongside theirs for fourteen centuries. Given the attitudes and comments expressed about it by so-called experts over the past four years, however, ignorance concerning Islam seems to have persisted.
Reza Aslan's No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam goes a long way in dispelling that ignorance for readers who decide to pick up this accessible volume. It goes further than that, however, by being Aslan's entry into the debate about the future of Islam. The Islamic world, he argues, is in a state of flux as it debates its own future. Islam is going through its own Reformation, a process that will determine the faith's path for the next millennium.
Aslan opens No god but God with a look at the religious world in Arabia in the years preceding the revelations that Muhammad was granted by Allah. What we know today as Arabia was a land filled with gods. The God of Christianity and Judaism jostled alongside those of hundreds of cults and religions. Statues to over 300 gods and prophets adorned the Ka'ba in Mecca, a city at the time controlled by a powerful tribe eager to protect their religious and economic status.
It was in this world in 610 AD that Muhammad began receiving the word of Allah. Eventually the growing popularity of his message forced him and his followers to migrate to Yithrab, modern day Medina, where he created the first Muslim community. Through the force of his message, and a few battles, Muhammad's message gradually spread throughout the Arab world, eventually including Mecca where he cleansed the Ka'ba of its idols and dedicated it to Allah. Muhammad's revelations had literally prompted a religious revolution that continues to shake the world today.
From there Aslan explores a wider history of Islam. He documents the various Islamic kingdoms that rose up after the battles of secession, the struggle to craft Islamic law after Muhammad's death and the debates to interpret the Quran, fought primarily between those seeking a literal interpretation -- the side that eventually won -- and those seeking a rationalist interpretation. Aslan surveys the major factions of the Islamic community -- Sunnism, Shi'ism and Sufism -- and explains their origins and how they differ from one another.
It is at the end that we are treated to Aslan's thoughts on which direction Islam should pursue. Aslan argues that Islam should embrace the rationalist approach, interpreting the Quran and Hadith in the context of the times they were written. The faith, he all but argues, must adapt itself to the modern world, and not look back to a time when Islam was the religion of a relatively small corner of the world. The key to Islam's progression, he argues, is the creation of modern, pluralistic and democratic Islamic nations.
If No god but God does have a flaw it's that readers may come in expecting more than Aslan delivers. There are, for example, several notable empty spots in the book including any real exploration of Islam in its reaction to the Crusades. Nor will the reader learn much about how Islam was adopted and modified by those outside of the Arab world despite the fact that non-Arabs relatively quickly became the majority of the faithful. Understandably, had Aslan pursued those and other threads No god but God could have quickly sprawled into a multi-volume survey and made it much less accessible.
No god but God's biggest problem for many, however, may be his rosy outlook. Aslan reaches back to the earliest days to prove that Islam is a tolerant religion based on egalitarian principles. While that is entirely correct, critics could argue that the loudest voices in Islam today are those fighting to impose and maintain an ultra-conservative version of the faith, one hostile to modernity, women and other faiths. Their approach to Islam may be a perversion of everything Muhammad strove for, but it is also one that resonates with millions of Muslims. Aslan's hopes, at any rate, will ultimately be answered in the internal debate that Islam is currently undergoing.
Those criticisms aside, No god but God is certainly one of the best of the many introductions to Islam that have appeared since September 11, 2001. While critics might argue that, as a Westernized liberal Muslim, Aslan's interpretations and conclusions are likely not shared by large portions of the Islamic community, it's also beyond debate that his primary conclusion -- that an Islamic Reformation is taking place -- is correct. Regardless, No god but God is a exceedingly well written and argued primer to Islam that will hopefully promote a deeper understanding of this faith's traditions and beliefs.
Steven Martinovich is a freelance writer in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
Buy No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam at Amazon.com for only $17.13 (34% off)
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MUSK-OK. The animal commonly known by this name, though approaching in size the smaller varieties of oxen, is in structure and habits closely allied to the sheep, its affinities being well expressed by the generic name 0 vibos bestowed upon it by De Blainville. The specific name Moschatus, as also the common English appellatives "musk-ox," "musk-buffalo," or " musk-sheep " applied to it by various authors, refer to the musky odour which the animal exhales. This does not appear to be due to the secretion of a special gland, as in the case of the Musk-deer ; but it must be observed that, except as regards the osteology, very little is known of the anatomy of this species.
The Ovibos mosehatus about equals in size the small
Welsh and Scotch cattle. The head is large and broad. The horns in the old males have extremely broad bases, meeting in the median line, and covering the brow and whole crown of the head. They are directed at first downwards by the side of the face and then turn upwards and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. Their basal halves are of a dull white colour, oval in section and coarsely fibrous ; their middle part smooth, shining, and round ; their tips black. In the females and young males the horns are smaller, and their bases are separated from each other by a space in the middle of the forehead. The ears are small, erect, and pointed, and nearly concealed in the hair. The space between the nostrils and the upper lip is covered with short close hair, as in sheep and goats, without any trace of the bare " muffle " of oxen. The greater part of the animal is covered with long brown hair, thick, matted, and curly on the shoulders, so as to give the appearance of a hump, but elsewhere straight and hanging down, - that of the sides, back, and haunches reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely concealing the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur, shed in the summer. The hair on the lower jaw, throat, and chest is long and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap, though there is no loose fold of skin in this situation as in oxen. The limbs are stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, the external being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole partially covered with hair.
The Musk-ox is at the present day confined to the most northern parts of North America, where it ranges over the rocky barren grounds between the 60th parallel and the shores of the Arctic Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and it appears that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie river, though formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz Bay. Northwards and eastwards it extends through the Parry Islands and Grinnell Land to north Greenland, reaching on the west coast as far south as Melville Bay ; and it was also met with in abundance by the German polar expedition of 1869-1870 at Sabine Island on the east coast. No trace of it has been found in Spitzbergen or Franz Joseph Land. As proved by the discovery of fossil remains, it ranged during the Pleistocene period over northern Siberia and the plains of Germany and France, its bones occurring very generally in river deposits along with those of the reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros. It has also been found in ordinary Pleistocene gravels in several parts of England, as Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield near Bath, Barnwood near Gloucester, and also in the lower brick earth of the Thames valley at Crayford, Kent.
It is gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of twenty or thirty head, or, according to Hearne, sometimes eighty or a hundred, in which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown males. They run with considerable speed, notwithstandim,'s the shortness of their legs. Major H. W. Feilden, naturalist to the Arctic Expedition of 1875, says : "No person watching this animal in a state of nature could fail to see how essentially ovine are its actions. When alarmed they gather together like a flock of sheep herded by a collie dog, and the way in which they pack closely together and follow blindly the vacillating leadership of the old ram is unquestionably sheep-like. When thoroughly frightened they take to the hills, ascending precipitous slopes and scaling rocks with great agility." They feed chiefly on grass, but also on moss, lichens, and tender shoots of the willow and pine. The female brings forth one young one in the end of May or beginning of June after a gestation of nine months. According to Sir J. Richardson, " when this animal is fat its flesh is well tasted, and resembles that of the caribou, but has a coarser grain. The flesh of the bulls is highly flavoured, and both bulls and cows when lean smell strongly of musk, their flesh at the same time being very dark and tough, and certainly far inferior to that of any other ruminating animal existing in North America." The carcase of a Musk-ox weighs, exclusive of fat, above 3 cwt. On this subject Major Feilden says : "The cause of the disagreeable odour which frequently taints the flesh of these animals has received no elucidation from my observations. It does not appear to be confined to either sex, or to any particular season of the year ; for a young unweaned animal, killed at its mother's side and transferred within an hour to the stew-pans, was as rank and objectionable as any. The flesh of some of these animals of which I have partaken was dark, tender, and as well flavoured as that of four-year old Southdown mutton " (Zoologist, September 1877).
See Richardson, Fauna Borealt-Americana (1829), and Zoology of H.M.S. Herald (1832); W. Boyd Dawkins, "Oribos moschatus," in BriliM Pleistocene Mammalia, part v. ; Memoirs of the Palmontographical Society (1872).
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Each of these swirling clouds is a result of a meteorological phenomenon known as a Karman vortex. These vortices appeared over Alexander Selkirk Island in the southern Pacific Ocean. Rising precipitously from the surrounding waters, the island's highest point is nearly a mile (1.6 km) above sea level. As wind-driven clouds encounter this obstacle, they flow around it to form these large, spinning eddies. Image courtesy of USGS National Center for EROS and NASA Landsat Project Science Office.
Originally uploaded in CLEAN:Teaching Climate and Energy Science.
Image 26144 is a 1224 by 1224 pixel JPEG
Uploaded: Sep30 10
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The Precourt Institute for Energy at Stanford University and KQED, public media for Northern California, have created a two-part e-book series on energy for iPads and Mac computers. Primarily targeted at grades 8 to 13, the interactive Energy iBooks Textbooks are designed to give readers a broad introduction to the subject of energy.
The two-volume series can be downloaded free of charge from the iBooks Store. Volume one, Energy: The Basics, investigates the nature of energy and energy resources. The 55-page book is divided into two chapters: "The Science of Energy" and "Energy Resources." Volume two, Energy: Use and Efficiency, explores how people use energy, from generating electricity to developing energy-efficient technologies. The 40-page book is divided into three chapters: "Human Energy Use," "Electricity" and "The Grid and Energy Efficiency." A companion iTunes U course can also be downloaded for classroom or informal education use.
"Energy is one of the most important, yet least understood, challenges facing humanity," said Sally Benson, director of the Precourt Institute for Energy. "Promoting energy literacy is a central part of our mission. We are delighted to have the opportunity to combine our expertise in this field with that of KQED in science media to develop a truly engaging, in-depth resource about one of the most vital topics of our time."
In addition to animations, in-depth articles and a glossary of energy terms, the Energy e-books feature videos produced by KQED and Stanford on geothermal energy, the solar-power industry and other topics. Career-spotlight videos also give students a behind-the-scenes glimpse of the diversity of jobs available in the renewable-energy industry.
KQED, the San Francisco-based PBS and NPR affiliate, has published three other science-related Multi-Touch books in addition to Energy.
"KQED is committed to using cutting-edge media and technical tools to create resources for both formal and informal teaching and learning," said Tim Olson, KQED vice president of digital media and education. "As iPads become more prevalent in the classroom, expanding our Multi-Touch science book collection is another way for us to distribute our relevant education content to teachers and students in an interactive, easy-to-navigate package."
The Energy e-books and their companion iTunes U course can be downloaded at: itunes.com/kqed
This article was written by Mark Shwartz, Precourt Institute for Energy at Stanford University.
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The present volume is the first in the advances in oncobiology series. It is meant to be useful not only to clinical and non-clinical oncologists but also to graduate students and medical students. The individual chapters are presented as self-contained summaries of current knowledge rather than as reviews. The last chapter deals with the subject of chemotherapy.
Some Aspects of Oncology, 1st Edition
Contents. List of Contributors. Preface (G. Heppner). Pathobiology of Neoplasia (D.W. Visscher and G.H. Heppner). Cancer Induction by Ionizing Radiation (K.L. Mossman). Environmental Causes of Cancer (J.S. Malpas). Progestin Regulation of Cellular Proliferation (E.A. Musgrove and R.L. Sutherland). Tumor Angiogenesis and its Control by Tumor Suppressor Genes (P.J. Polverini). The Role of Gap Junctional Intercellular Communication in Neoplasia (R.J. Ruch). Cell Adhesion and Metastasis: Molecular Mechanisms (C.W. Evans). RAS: Processor of Vital Signals (C.M. Weyman and D.W. Stacey). Human Cytokines (B.G. Darnay and B.B. Aggarwal). Immunity to Cancer: Cytotoxic Lymphocytes, Interleukin-2, and the Tumor Necrosis Factor Superfamily (M.J. Robertson and J. Ritz). Quantitative Analysis of Nuclear Size for Prognosis-Related Malignancy Grading (F.B. Sørensen). Prostate Cancer (M. Gleave, M. Bandyk, and L. Chung). The Biology of Human Melanoma (S.Q. Lynch, P.M. Doskoch, S. Vijayasaradhi, and A.N. Houghton). Aspects of the Treatment of B Cell Malignancies (A.Z.S. Rohatiner, J.S. Malpas, and R.K. Ganjoo). Principles of Cancer Chemotherapy (J.S. Malpas and A. Rohatiner). Index.
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The basic rule in any weight-loss program is that you need to burn more calories than you consume to lose pounds. Eating a healthy, low-calorie diet and exercising is the best, and most balanced way to do this. Running as your form of exercise burns calories, tones the muscles and works out the cardiovascular system. Once good habits are built, it makes it easier to keep the weight off. As you lose weight, you may find that you are able to run faster and for longer periods of time, but you will burn fewer calories because you have less weight to lug with you.
Cardiovascular exercise is one of the most efficient ways to burn calories, and running is at the top of the list of calorie burners. A person who weighs 155 lbs. and runs for 60 minutes at a rate of 7.5 miles per hour will burn 930 calories, and a 185-lb. person running at the same rate and length of time will burn 1,110 calories, according to Harvard Medical School, almost twice the amount of other cardiovascular exercise, such as aerobics or tennis. Running on a treadmill is less stressful on the joints but won't give quite as much of a workout as running outdoors or on a track, although the amount of calories burned is similar.
When running to lose weight, the American College of Sports Medicine recommends working out for 60 to 90 minutes five times a week. Start by running close to the 60 minute mark, gradually increasing the intensity, time and mileage. If just starting an exercise program, it's best to start by walking and work your way up to running. Varying the workout with interval training -- periods of running mixed with brief periods of walking -- will help you avoid burnout and keep the muscles fit.
A good weight-loss program includes eating a proper diet with healthy foods and lower calories. If you do not consume more calories than you burn, running for 30 to 60 minutes at a moderately intense pace for five times a week is enough to keep your weight in balance. You must burn 3,500 more calories than you consume to lose 1 lb. of fat. Dropping 500 calories from your daily consumption, either through eating less or exercising more, will help you lose a pound of fat in one week. Once you have reached your desired weight, continue eating healthy foods and maintain a balance between calories consumed and expended; this will help keep the weight off.
Consult with a doctor before beginning any weight-loss program. Running requires only a good pair of shoes and space to run. Buy a good pair of running shoes so your feet are supported when you are running. This can help avoid injury and wear-and-tear on your feet and toes. Avoid trying to lose weight too quickly. Building good eating and exercise habits while you are losing weight will make it easier to keep it off and will keep you healthy.
- Siri Stafford/Photodisc/Getty Images
This article reflects the views of the writer and does not necessarily reflect the views of Jillian Michaels or JillianMichaels.com.
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Te Pito Te Henua, or Easter Island, by William J. Thompson, , at sacred-texts.com
The geological features of the island are replete with interest. The formation is purely of a volcanic character and embraces every variety pertaining to that Basaltic, cellular, and tufaceous lavas abound in diversified forms. The basaltic is generally porous and scoriform, but on the slope of the hills the substrata are frequently as com pact and dense is that of the coast-line. Near Anakena may be seen hills composed of scoria quite as cellular as pumice, and in close proximity compact beds having a dark blue basis, composed of crystals of glassy feldspar and olivine. The cellular formation is mixed pumice and slag, in some cases similar
to volcanic cinder, having the lightness and qualities of coke. In some of the varieties the cavities are filled with olivine crystals partly decomposed, but generally the cavities are empty. This lava when mixed with feldspar is sometimes of gray color; not unfrequently several tints of red may be seen, though the most common is a dark, lusterless brown.
The tufaceous lavas are extremely interesting, because they form the most prominent feature in the physiognomy of the island. To this geological structure, with the incessant action of the trade-winds and heavy rains, is due the fact that the island is surrounded by precipitous cliffs, rising in some cases to a thousand feet in height. The formation is extremely friable, and by the action of the elements, enormous masses are continually disappearing beneath the waves of the sea that beat upon this unprotected shore. These tufas differ considerably in consistency at the eastern end of the island. The species is a fine light-red dust that is blown about by the wind and is destitute of vegetation; towards the southwest end the basis is a compact mud-like red clay, while the colossal crowns, intended to adorn the gigantic statues, are carved out of a variety that has been scorified in one of the craters, and is of a dull reddish color.
The ordinary rules for estimating the age of rocks by compactness can be applied at Easter Island only hypothetically, because the scoriform and more dense specimens are found immediately contiguous to one another. In places they are quite conglomerated, as though older formations had been disturbed by volcanic convulsions, while a new flow of lava enveloped and sealed the whole into a heterogeneous mass. During our short stay on the islands there was no opportunity to measure the lava flow or to make investigations of that nature.
Natural caves are numerous, both on the coast-line and in the interior of the island. Some of them are of undoubted antiquity and bear evidence of having been used by the early inhabitants as dwellings and as burial places. It is reported that small images, inscribed tablets, and other objects of interest have been hidden away in such caves and finally lost through land-slides.
The numerous bills on this island have gently sloping sides, except where they approach the coast, falling at this point precipitously to the sea. The plains are irregularly shaped, and some of the smaller ones rise to a considerable height. The physical character of the soil is alluvial. The substratum is volcanic ash and stones, and the upper formation is composed of decayed vegetable matter mingled with a rich deposit of decomposed lava washed down from hills by the frequent rains. These plains being formed by the periodical eruptions of the volcanoes, some difference may be noted in the quantity of the soil, varying according to location.
After the successive discharges of lava from the craters of Rana Roraka and Rana-kao had prescribed the limits of the island and when
this flow had ceased, there was a heavy deposit of mud, covering deeply both hill and dale. This condensed earth, after the lapse of centuries, has formed a soil that produces a natural grass affording an excellent pasturage for flocks and herds. The expiring energy of the volcanic power appears to have been directed, long after the formation of this soil, to sprinkling thickly the entire surface of the island with stones and small bowlders, thus providing the means of attraction and holding the moisture, nature's substitute, as it were, for trees. The natives have distinct names for the following varieties: Black and red tufa with volcanic cinder and pumice are called "Maea-Hane-hane," "maea" being the generic term applied to all stone. A soft gray tufa is ground down with the juice of the sugar-cane and used as a paint. This is known as "Kiri-kiri Teu." Hard slates, black, red, and gray, are used for stone axes and called "Maea-Toke." Granite used for the same purpose is known as "Maea-Nevhive." The hardest and finest stone implements are made of the flinty beach pebble known as "Maea-Rengrengo." The hard cellular stories from which the majority of the platforms are built are called "Maea-Pupura." The material from which images were constructed is called "Maea-Matariki," and the obsidian from which spear-heads were made is known as "Maea-Mataa."
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Published on 29.09.04 in Vol 6, No 3 (2004)
HIV-Positive Youth's Perspectives on the Internet and eHealth
Background: Globally, half of all new HIV infections occur among young people. Despite this incidence, there is a profound lack of resources for HIV-positive youth.
Objective: To investigate Internet access, use and acceptability as a means for health promotion and health service delivery among HIV-positive youth.
Methods: A community-based participatory approach was used to conduct a mixed methods research study. Thirty-five qualitative in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with youth (ages 12-24) living with HIV in Ontario. Also, brief structured demographic surveys were administered at the time of the interview. A stakeholder group of youth living with HIV, professionals and researchers collaboratively analyzed the data for emerging themes.
Results: Five main themes were identified with respect to the youth's use of and interest in the Internet as a health promotion strategy. These include: (1) high rates of Internet use and access; (2) issues around public and private terminals; (3) their use of the Internet primarily for communication and entertainment; (4) the rarity of health information seeking behavior in this group; and (5) wanting "one-stop shopping" from an e-health site. HIV-positive youth were enthusiastic about the possibility of content that was developed specifically to target them and their needs. Also, they were keen about the possibilities for increased social support that youth-specific online chat rooms and message boards might provide.
Conclusion: Given high rates of use, access and interest, the Internet provides an important way to reach young people living with HIV using health services and health promotion programs. The onus is on e-Health developers to understand the particular needs of HIV-positive youth and create relevant content.
J Med Internet Res 2004;6(3):e32
Globally, half of all new HIV infections occur among young people . Currently there are an estimated 11.8 million youth aged 15-24 years living with HIV/AIDS [ ]. In Canada, youth, particularly young women aged 15-29, represent a growing population who are being infected with HIV and AIDS [ , ]. As of June 2002, 13279 youth and young adults under the age of 29 had tested positive for HIV in Canada [ ]. Due to under-reporting and under-diagnosis, as well as a long asymptomatic period, the actual prevalence of HIV in youth is likely much higher than indicated in official statistics. Surveillance data in the United States shows that although AIDS incidence is declining, there has not been a comparable decline in the number of newly diagnosed HIV cases among youth [ ].
Despite this prevalence and incidence, there is a profound lack of resources for HIV-positive youth . In particular, youth-accessible resources outlining treatment options are scarce. Although material is available to help adults make treatment decisions, many of these resources are not appropriate for youth because they fail to address their unique clinical and developmental challenges. Furthermore, texts written for adults are often intimidating to younger audiences both because of language and literacy barriers and the less engaging ways in which information has traditionally been presented.
While many HIV-positive adolescents are at early stages in the course of their disease, health promotion messages are very important for them. Studies of adolescents living with HIV have shown high morbidity and mortality rates [, ]. Other studies looking at the subjective health experience have documented that a quarter of those interviewed described their health as "fair" or "poor." [ ] These findings illustrate the importance of treatment, self-care and prevention of co-infections for this population.
Treatment and Self-care Needs
HIV-positive youth are unique in their treatment and self-care needs. Many youth for whom antiretroviral medications are clinically indicated choose not take them . Many do not access health care services. Youth may have perceptions of treatment that differ from adults [ ], favoring a present quality of life over improving biological markers. In contrast to adults, peer influence has been identified as one of the key factors affecting youth treatment decision making [ , ]. Thus, there is a strong need for peer-driven resources about HIV/AIDS treatment, which are presented in youth-friendly formats. Moreover, these resources need to be sensitive to the ways in which self-care and treatment decisions are contextualized within the broader scope of these youth's lives.
Adolescence and early adulthood are the stages when lifelong health and social behavior patterns are formed. HIV-positive youth are particularly vulnerable during this period, as they experience disproportionate rates of: homelessness [, ]; sexual and physical abuse [ , ]; financial difficulties [ , ]; addictions [ ]; legal concerns [ , ]; social isolation and stigma [ , ]; and mental health concerns [ , ]. Often, the immediacy of these social and structural determinants of health may overshadow worries about HIV infection [ ]. This results in a need for information that is sensitive to the unique situations of HIV-positive youth, while framing their experiences within the perspective of normal youth development to avoid further marginalization and stigmatization.
Potential of the Internet
There is a growing literature that emphasizes the potential of the Internet, not only for health promotion [, ], but also as a community development tool [ , ]. The Internet provides innovative ways of engaging youth, allowing opportunities to assess and address their needs and to provide them with a means of offering each other support. Research has demonstrated that computers can attract young adults to participate in health assessments and behavior change programs, in ways and numbers that are not possible using traditional approaches [ , ]. Internet technology can be easily updated, is available 24 hours per day, and enables self-directed learning. It can be reached by those in remote and isolated settings, facilitates repeat use and can be anonymously accessed. Finally, information presented online can be of a highly graphical, interactive nature, and thus be able to reach users who may not have age-appropriate literacy skills [ ].
In 1994, only 17% of young people were estimated to be using the Internet. Data from 2000 however, suggest that between 92% and 99% of Canadian youth used the Internet regularly . Indeed, the digital divide in Canada is narrowing. Among households with less than $20,000 incomes, 77% of youth reported regular Internet use in 2000. Given the rapid growth of Internet use, this number has probably grown considerably [ ]. American youth are also online: 73% of 12-17 year olds in the US use the Internet regularly [ ], and 95% of all teens have ever been online [ ]. Generally, youth are more likely than their adult counterparts to use the Web and are 'early adopters' of technology [ ].
Research with adult populations living with HIV has demonstrated that computer-based health services can improve a patient's quality of life and promote more efficient use of health care systems [- ]. Furthermore, qualitative studies have shown that HIV-positive adults use the Internet for a wide variety of functions including communication, advocacy and commerce [ , ]. Kalichman found that individuals with HIV who used the Internet were more likely to be better informed about HIV treatment and self-care than those who did not [ , ]. However, he also found that there was a "digital divide": those accessing the Internet were more likely to be better educated and report higher incomes [ - ].
Despite the growing popularity of the Internet as a health information resource , little research has been conducted on the feasibility of using the Internet as a health promotion strategy with HIV-positive youth. One of the aims of this study was to investigate Internet access, use and acceptability among this vulnerable and marginalized population.
A community-based participatory research model [, ] was used to assess the needs of Canadian HIV-positive youth. A stakeholder group of HIV-positive youth (trained as community researchers) and supporting professionals collaboratively developed the research design, instruments and protocol. Qualitative methods were selected for their ability to explore issues 'in-depth' and allow participants to express their thoughts and feelings 'in their own words.' Thirty-five interviews were conducted with a diverse group of HIV-positive youth across Ontario. The interviews were semi-structured and probed around four main areas of interest: a) future goals; b) social support; c) treatment and self-care issues; and d) online interests and behaviors. In addition, brief structured surveys were administered at the conclusion of each interview. Surveys asked about demographics (e.g., age, sex, sexuality, etc.) and Internet use. This paper will focus on the online component (other findings have been reported elsewhere).
Using a maximum variation sampling scheme, a sampling frame was developed that ensured diversity in age, sex, sexuality, age of diagnosis, ethno-racial identity and geographic region . Youth were recruited through AIDS-serving organizations, youth-serving organizations, hospitals, and health clinics. In some cases, youth workers and health care providers approached young people in their case load and told them about the study. In other cases, recruitment flyers were simply posted. Also, young people who had already participated were encouraged to tell other HIV-positive youth who they knew about the study (snowball recruitment).
In all cases, youth approached the research team directly. Participation was limited to youth who: a) were between the ages of 12 and 24 years; b) were identified as HIV-positive through self-report; c) had the ability to communicate in either English or French; and d) had lived in Ontario for the last three months. Each received a $20 honorarium for participation. Standard procedures were employed for obtaining informed consent (approved by the University of Toronto Human Subjects Ethical Review Committee and the Research Ethics Review Board at The Hospital for Sick Children). Two interviews were conducted in French; 33 interviews were conducted in English.provides a breakdown of our final sample.
|Last 12 months||15 (43%)|
|Longer than 12 months||13 (37%)|
|History of Street Involvement|
|White, European, Canadian||19 (54%)|
|First Nation/Aboriginal||3 (9%)|
|Large Urban||28 (80%)|
|Small Urban/Rural||4 (11%)|
|1 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, Queer or Questioning|
2 Unspecified, Chinese, South-East Asian
Interviews lasted between 35 and 95 minutes. Generally, they were taped and transcribed verbatim. In one case, a youth did not want to be audio-taped and copious notes were taken during the interview. In another case, a youth wanted to write out his own answers rather than talking into a tape-recorder. At the conclusion of each interview, youth were asked to fill out a brief demographic survey and invited to continue to participate in the research project. In addition, they were provided with a list of youth-friendly health and service agencies in their area.
A modified grounded theory interpretive approach guided the analyses [- ]. A sub-sample of 10 transcripts, stripped of identifying names and places, were returned to the stakeholder group of HIV-positive community youth researchers and professionals for preliminary analysis. Based on emerging themes, commonalities and major differences, a preliminary coding framework was developed [ ]. Data were coded by two youth community researchers using Nud*istqualitative data analysis software [ ]. After coding the first 10 transcripts, issues with the coding scheme were brought back to the larger stakeholder group and the scheme was refined and subsequently applied to the remaining transcripts.
Coded data were returned to the larger team for analysis. Members of the team were asked to fill out a work sheet for each code asking:
- What was the range of experience here? What are the different ways that youth talked about their experience?
- What are the general patterns that emerged? Generally how would you summarize what most young people had to say?
- Which one or two quotes best summarize what you see here?
Weekly meetings were held to go over worksheets and discuss main themes, relevance and implications for each code. Collectively, the team's notes were discussed and summary tables constructed to capture the most common themes, gaps and issues.
Five main themes were identified with respect to the youth's use of and interest in the Internet as a health promotion strategy. These include: (1) high rates of Internet use and access; (2) issues around public and private terminals; (3) their use of the Internet primarily for communication and entertainment; (4) the rarity of health information seeking behavior in this group; and (5) wanting "one-stop shopping" from an e-health site.
High Rates of Internet Use and Access
"I'm online like all the time." – young man
All of the youth we interviewed had used the Internet. Thirty four percent reported being online daily, 37% weekly and 29% said they were online monthly or occasionally. In addition, nearly half the youth we spoke with used instant messaging programs and two-thirds of the youth documented that they used e-mail at least once per week ().
These young people logged on from a wide range of public and private locations (). Community centers, youth-serving organizations, AIDS-serving organizations, shelters, and public libraries were important points of Internet access both among housed and street-involved youth. Those who were actively street involved discussed the importance of using the Internet, particularly e-mail, as a vital communication mechanism. Nearly all the youth with a history of street involvement cited being online daily or weekly. While the quality of access (in terms of speed, privacy and freedom to surf) varied across locations, most youth were active users of public Internet terminals and access points.
Youth who documented lower rates of Internet use did not see access as the major barrier. Rather, these young people simply preferred other modes of communication and/or gathering information. As one young woman stated: "Ah, well honestly, this is nothing to do with HIV, but I rarely use it... I don't really have the patience for the Internet. I only use it on real necessity." She preferred using the telephone for communication and reading books for gathering information.
Issues Around Public and Private Terminals
For many youth, private Web access was not a reality. Many were street-involved, some lived in subsidized housing and others lived in low income environments where Web access was not available at home. Thus, youth primarily talked about accessing the Web from public locations ().
|Benefits of public access||"I wouldn\'t care, because Internet is used for so many things, it could be research for school..."|
"So many people use it -- they don\'t know who went on their sites. It doesn\'t matter. You go to Web station and it\'s the same thing, like, a thousand people might touch the same keys as you so..."
"It\'s nobody\'s business anyway, you know. Like... why are you talking to me? I don\'t even know your name. Why would I care what you have to say, you know?"
"I don\'t care where I go online. Nothin\' really bothers me like that."
|Drawbacks of Public Access||"Never checked out health sites... Because usually when I go... either in a library or a cyber cafe I don\'t want people seeing what I\'m looking up, just in case they take it the wrong way." The thing that would make him feel safe is an area where no one can see.|
"I don\'t like doing things in a library other than like check out books or something like that. People look over your shoulder. Or you\'re sitting--the computers are like right next to each other, and it\'s like--I\'ve always felt uncomfortable even researching certain books, looking at a certain book. It\'s like can you see the title I\'m typing in, don\'t look. You know I don\'t want, like, you to know, even if people aren\'t that nosy, I just don\'t want to risk it."
"Really worried about checking out health info online... In the library I was always looking over my shoulder...What can you do, right? Somebody tell you - what\'s wrong, what\'s wrong\' and you can\'t really say and you want to lash out so you have to leave."
"Due to the fact that I don\'t have a computer at home and I use my computer from school. I have to sign in every time I use the computer and accessing sites like that leaves traces, so it leaves information behind... and I don\'t like that."
|"Private" Access||"I use the Internet from home, so I don\'t worry about stuff like that."|
"No. From a public in--no. Always my private. Because public, if you\'re going to a public library somewhere else, a little sign will pop up, \'information that you use or may enter may be seen by other people within this facility\'. I don\'t like that. On my computer at least it will be like may be seen by people over the other--on the Internet and it\'s just like okay, I don\'t really like that either, there\'s not really big much of a difference, but at least it\'s a lot better when you\'re in the privacy and nobody can really pinpoint you..."
Youth had mixed feelings about public access. Some saw the public portals as having an added sense of security and anonymity. In terminals where usernames were not required, they could feel free to browse the Web and search for confidential information without fear that they would be 'tracked down,' 'discovered' or 'outted' as being HIV-positive. They felt that because so many people used public access terminals all the time, their information or 'log histories' would be lost in the mix. One young person that had Internet access at home described searching for sensitive information at the library so her dad would not find out.
By contrast, other young people complained about the lack of privacy in public terminals. In particular, in libraries or shelters where computers were close together or peer networks were close-by, searching for sensitive or confidential information was not considered a possibility. Many youth were extremely leery about issues of confidentiality and were afraid that if they searched for information about HIV in public, others would find out about their status. Youth who needed special usernames or ID codes to access public terminals (e.g., at school) were extremely reluctant to search for confidential information.
Generally, youth that had home access often felt safer using private Internet access points than public ones. However, some youth acknowledged that even in the "privacy" of their own homes – they were not totally 'safe.' These youth were worried that their parents, friends or siblings might be able to trace their 'online movements.' Others worried that through the use of 'cookies' and other new technologies, others might be able to find out confidential information about them. As such, even 'safer' spaces were not seen as completely 'safe' or 'private.'
Youth Use the Internet for Communication and Entertainment
"I use it for everything and anything you can possibly think about in the world, and some things I'm not going to mention over tape." – young man
Overwhelmingly, these young people used the Internet for communication (chat, message boards, e-mail, instant messaging). They talked at great length about their love of these Internet communication tools. Many of them had multiple e-mail addresses, and some talked about having multiple Internet identities.
These youth also spent a good deal of time surfing the Internet for entertainment purposes (e.g., games, music, sports, movies, pornography). For many, the Internet was seen as 'something to do' or a good alternative to television. Many of the young men mentioned interactive gaming. Generally, the Internet was seen as a way to have fun. As one young man put it, "I guess, like, the Internet for me is just like a time for playing games and chatting on the net."
These youth also documented using the Internet to search for information for school and work. Many were savvy Internet users and were able to describe complex search strategies for finding the information that they were looking for. Despite being sophisticated Internet users, few used to Internet to seek out health information.
Health Information Seeking Behavior is Rare
"Cause half the time I don't really know I have HIV because I don't think about it, 'cause it's not like something you really think about 'cause I'm doing well." – young woman
Youth rarely talked about the Internet as a place where they sought health information (). A few young people described using the Internet regularly to learn about HIV, treatment options and community resources. These youth were 'expert' searchers; they were online regularly and knew how to access the information they were looking for. One young man in particular, was on HIV peer support sites regularly and saw his 'virtual friends' as important sources of social support and health information. However, these youth were in the minority.
|Many youth do not use the Internet for health information|
|"I really haven\'t checked that stuff out yet."|
|"Because it is not interesting to me."|
"I guess, like, the Internet for me is just like a time for playing games and chatting on the net."
|"Because usually when I go to either a library or a cyber café, I don\'t want people seeing what I\'m looking up, just in case they take it the wrong way."|
|"Well, once in a while but hardly ever because I go to [Special school for street involved youth] and there\'s like a healthcare place you can go to so, if anything, I just go there if I have questions..."|
|"I don\'t really have the patience for the Internet...I just can\'t stand looking at computer screens, using the mouse, it feels so awkward so I don\'t like it."|
|"How do you find sites?"|
|Some youth have limited experience using the Internet for health information|
|"Yeah, when I first found out I had it, I went on sites, a few sites to find out what I wanted to do. I wanted to read up on some of it. Couldn\'t believe it, did a lot of crying the first few months. It was all so overwhelming."|
"I did like a couple of times like when I first found out but now it\'s just, I try not to think about it and try not to read much about it. Everything else is basically for adults."
|"I did one time, yeah. It was helpful...Yeah. I had two of my other friends look with me, ahm, health information like different medications, how to take care of yourself, things like that, and I got a whole bunch of information on it."|
"When I first was diagnosed, I checked stuff out on the Websites. And then just all kinds of stuff...It was helpful because my dad was there. If I had been by myself, I probably wouldn\'t have understood anything. That\'s why you need to direct stuff towards teens."
|"I have been doing a lot of it recently, but I don\'t know, I\'m still trying to take it all in. It\'s all like, thinking. I go to the site, I read it, like I don\'t know, a paragraph or two and I get psyched out of it, like, okay, I don\'t want to think about it, I don\'t want to think about it and I go off and play a new game. Then I go back to the site and read the next paragraph and then click off of it."|
|A small minority were expert searchers|
|"I always check this site out and there\'s a lot of people with HIV on there too, around the world. And I ask them questions... . (There\'s) Questions and answers, side effects on drugs, I mean, hundred medications, the whole nine yards."|
|"You just search google or yahoo and tons of stuff comes up."|
When probed about why most did not use the Internet to access health information, they had a variety of responses. For some, the Internet was a place to 'escape' to. They saw the Internet as being primarily about entertainment (e.g., "I use the Internet to play card games and interact with other people.") For others, seeking health information was not seen as a priority because HIV was a relatively small part of their identity. As one young man explained, "It is, after all, only three letters." A small subset of youth worried that if they searched for health information about HIV online, someone (their ISP provider or others around) might find out about their HIV status. One young woman had adopted strategies for managing these issues, "[at the agency] the computers are so close and there are a lot of people I know there...but at the library I feel safer." Other reasons that youth provided included: preferring other methods of getting information; hating computers; not knowing how to access appropriate information; and not being ready yet to find out more information (i.e., too early after diagnosis).
Other youth who had experimented with using the Internet for health information complained that: a) there was too much out there and it was hard to prioritize and figure out "what's what"; b) most of the information that was out there was unintelligible and c) they found the experience somewhat overwhelming. Some adopted strategies of asking friends or family to search with them and act as translators or interpreters. As one young man described, "It was helpful because my dad was there. If I had been by myself, I probably wouldn't have understood anything. That's why you need to direct stuff towards teens."
Youth Want "One-Stop Shopping" From an eHealth Site
"Like basically, one-stop information location for positive youth. Like everything and anything you can put in there, but put it into a format that youth can understand, right? Something to create and have some fun with!" – young man
Despite the Internet's rare use for health information, when asked if they would visit a Website specifically designed by and for HIV-positive youth, most of the young people we interviewed were extremely enthusiastic about the possibilities of the Internet for health promotion. Nine percent said they would use a site specifically developed for positive youth everyday. Twenty-nine percent said they would use it regularly, 43% said they would use it once in awhile and 20% said they would never use such a site. Youth in the "once in awhile" category were generally enthusiastic about the concept. While they did not see their HIV status as being a major part of their identity, they were nevertheless interested in being able to access relevant content when appropriate (e.g., when they had specific questions). The minority of youth that would not access these resources gave the following reasons. They were either: (a) not interested in HIV health information resources generally; (b) unenthusiastic about the Web; or (c) concerned about privacy.
Social Support & Communication Opportunities
|Chat Rooms||"Chat rooms where people can chat about how they\'re feeling, how they\'re doing... they can write to each other and stay in contact..."|
|Message Boards||"Message boards... for people to connect with each other - you feel so alone, you want to talk about stuff and share ideas... you can post your feelings, a poem or something..."|
|Treatment||"Information about medication, information about other options out there, information about doctors that are youth oriented or they are good with you, so basically an investigation on doctors."|
|Resources||"Like you know, there\'s a whole bunch of agencies or services that you have to know. We all don\'t know of things that are out there."|
|HIV/AIDS||"Like about how you get it and stuff."|
|Harm reduction||"Like how to make sure you don\'t spread it and stuff."|
|\'Health\' generally||"How to maintain your health and be good to your body."|
|Games, quizzes||"Funkiness, coolness... make it fun and comfortable."|
|Q & A||"Like ask the doctor."|
|Nicknames||"If you don\'t want to use your real name, you should be able to use a code."|
|Password||"Password is a big thing."|
|Confidentiality Agreements||"[You should have] a privacy or confidentiality agreements... so youth will understand that their information is not going to go out to somebody else on the net."|
|Discreet Look||"Why do all you guys use big, red letters? Big- big red bubble letters [that say HIV] all over the site!?"|
|Protection from prowlers||"It might not be a good idea because the older guys might go in there and start going after the youth. And it might be a really uncomfortable situation for those youth."|
Youth were extremely specific about what they wanted from e-health strategies targeted towards them (). First and foremost, young people wanted an opportunity to share and connect with each other; chats and message boards were seen as the main attraction to heading towards a site specifically for HIV-positive youth. Nearly every young person we spoke with recommended the creation of a chat space. Many youth described feelings of isolation and loneliness and felt that the opportunity to connect with other youth in similar circumstances could be extremely valuable. They talked about the importance of connection and prioritized chats and message boards over other possible Internet information applications (e.g., didactic information). Many of them worried, however, about "prowlers" and sexual solicitations in sites that were geared towards youth audiences and were concerned about how those might be managed.
Youth embraced the concept of "one-stop shopping" or one site that would be able to answer all their questions. Many talked with frustration about how so many sites 'out there' that dealt with HIV were not 'youth-friendly' or 'user-friendly' and were hard to understand. They did not enjoy getting 'lost' in complicated links.
Study participants wanted the look and feel of a site geared towards them to be discreet and not 'obviously' about HIV so that they could access it in public forums. In order to protect their privacy, youth did not want to be asked for their real names. They were happy to provide nicknames and felt that passwords provided added protection. Also, they wanted to see privacy or confidentiality agreements that assured them that their confidentiality and anonymity would not be compromised.
Our study found that HIV-positive youth are online and are Web savvy users. A surprising finding was that the youth who were perhaps most impoverished and marginalized (those who were either currently or had a history of being street involved) demonstrated high rates of Internet use. This is in sharp contrast to American findings of adult populations living with HIV [, ].
This study supports evidence from investigations of adults living with HIV that communication is a primary reason that people living with HIV use the Internet. However, unlike adults, our study did not identify advocacy as something that youth did online. Information seeking was secondary [, ].
Although they go online with regularity, the HIV-positive youth in our study rarely searched for health information. This was due to personal and institutional barriers including: lack of interest; difficulty assimilating information geared towards adults; fear of disclosure; and inadequate private access. Our findings that youth living with HIV use the Internet primarily for communication and entertainment is consistent with other studies that have looked at Internet use among more general youth populations . In addition, the problems documented around quality of access are also found among other youth populations [ ].
Results of a national needs assessment conducted by the Canadian AIDS Society in 2000 concluded that, "Nationally...there was a huge lack of services for HIV-positive youth. These missing services ranged from support groups, to accessible treatment information, and basic living necessities for positive youth." Similarly, Toronto's Positive Youth Outreach 2000 Survey found that youth ranked treatment information amongst their top six most pressing needs [ ]. Furthermore, they cited the Internet as one of the best ways to give them information. Identifying a need for further venues of social support, these youth documented that Chatrooms/ Listserves, phone lines and social events were the top three services they wanted. This study confirmed that, indeed, the Internet may be a viable way to impart health and treatment information, provided the content, look and feel of such materials were created and presented in 'youth friendly' formats.
One limitation of this study is that we recruited young people from youth- and AIDS-serving organizations and health care settings. As such, the youth we spoke to were generally well connected to health and/or social services, which may have provided them higher rates of public Web access. The qualitative nature of our study also makes it difficult to generalize our results to all HIV-positive youth.
Nevertheless, this study suggests that if content were developed specifically for HIV-positive youth and marketed to them, they would be interested. Targeting young HIV-positives for health promotion messaging may be both feasible and desirable . Given the success of computerized and online health promotion strategies with other populations, this may prove to be an important health promotion strategy.
Health care providers should be aware of the need for providing information to HIV positive youth in non-traditional formats. Health care providers may want to familiarize themselves with youth-friendly resources that are already available (e.g., http://www.livepositive.ca or http://www.youthhiv.org/). Referring youth clients to appropriate Web sources may be an important additional tool for health care providers and health promoters for supplementing 'regular care'. Finally, the onus is on e-health developers to better understand the needs of this vulnerable population and continue to expand and create appropriate, relevant and up-to-date content.
The authors thank the youth and community partners for their assistance in the data collection. This study was supported by a grant from the Ontario HIV Treatment Network.
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix 1Interview Guide
Goals: How can youth living with HIV be supported in achieving their goals?
- What are your hopes, goals, and aspirations for the future?
- What might help you to achieve your goals? What could you do for yourself?
- Have your goals changed as a result of learning your HIV status? How?
- What kinds of programs do you wish were around for young people like you?
Treatment: How can youth living with HIV be supported in making treatment or self-care decisions?
- How prepared do you feel to take care of your health?
- What kinds of problems do you face when taking care of your health?
- Do you feel like you have choices about treatment? Do you know what your choices are?
- What kind of information would you like on different treatment options for young people living with HIV/AIDS?
- What are some of the 'health topics' that you feel like learning more about?
- How can you be supported in making treatment or self-care decisions?
- What advice would you have for other HIV positive youth that are trying to make treatment decisions?
Support: How can youth living with HIV be supported?
- Where do you feel comfortable going for health information?
- Who do you turn to for moral/social support?
- How open are you about your HIV status with people in your life?
- Do you ever feel lonely or excluded because of your HIV status?
- Even though you are a diverse group of individuals - what common experiences do you think HIV+ youth might share?
Internet: How do youth living with HIV use the Internet?
- Do you ever use the Internet? What for? (Do you ever use it to get health info?)
- Do you know about any sites are out there for HIV+ youth? Do you use them? For what? Do you feel safe using them? Why/why not?
- If we were going to create a new Website for HIV positive youth in Canada - what sorts of things should we be sure to include? (What content/information would you like to see on the site? e.g. counselors, chat rooms, information)
- What would make you feel safe accessing it? Do you have a safe place to access it from? What sorts of things could we do to protect your privacy? (Would you feel safer accessing the site if it had a privacy/password age before you get to the homepage?)
Appendix 2Coding Scheme
- To parents and family
- Loving and supportive
- Abusive, dysfunctional
- To health care providers
- Faith - they know best
- To other youth
- Other youth generally
- To other youth with HIV
- To partners, lovers (boyfriend/girlfriend)
- To other institutions
- Church & Spirituality
- Youth Orgs
- Youth Shelters
- Counsellors, Case workers
- Hospital clinics
- Kids Help Phone
- To parents and family
- Isolation, loneliness
- Living day by day (not future oriented)
- Uncertainty (in general)
- Long term vs. short term
- About health
- About relationships, partners
- About family of origin
- About starting own family
- About school
- About career, employment
- About financial stability
- About housing
- Goals changed
- Yes - why
- No - why
- Feelings about HIV
- I'm a normal kid - no big deal
- Regrets, Guilt
- Shame - HIV as "dirty" or "foreign" or "bad"
- Angry, resentful
- Small part because I am overwhelmed with everything else
- Just is a small part of me
- "death sentence", feeling mortal
- conspiracy theories
- Acceptance or integration of HIV in life
- Life in shelters/Street Issues
- Drug use
- Feelings about living in shelters
- Issues around disclosure
- Bad experiences/Stigma/Discrimination
- Good experiences
- Why should I tell you? (I wouldn't if I had a growth on my foot)
- Advice for other youth
- Stay positive
- Think before you act
- Find people you trust
- Want to know more about..
- Fear of finding out more...
- Lack of interest...
- Saturated (savvy about what is out there, accessing services)
- Where I go to get info
- Other health issues
- Eating disorders
- Vitamins, nutrition
- Addictions & substance use
- Mental health issues
- Self-care stuff
- Diet, vitamins, nutrition
- Choosing healthy, supportive relationships
- Taking care of yourself is tiring, exhausting, hard work
- Getting help
- Apathetic around self-care
- Alternative therapy (e.g., acupuncture)
- Knowledge, Attitudes & Behavior Around Medication
- Why take it?
- Have no choice
- Side effects & concerns
- Taking medicine as a young person
- Not ready for it
- Barriers to accessing meds
- Figuring out what is credible
- Avoiding it
- Adherence, interruption
- Coping Strategies
- Level of Internet Usage, what people do (and don't do) online
- Work (job or school)
- Health info
- Ideas for Website
- Privacy, Safety and the Internet
- Public Access Good
- Public Access Bad
- Private access
- Presentation of site
- Passwords and confidentiality
- Protection from prowlers
- The Internet as anonymous, safe
- The Internet as unsafe
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Edited by G. Eysenbach; submitted 25.01.04; peer-reviewed by S Kalichman, J Gillett; comments to author 17.03.04; revised version received 21.06.04; accepted 22.06.04; published 29.09.04
© Sarah Flicker, Eudice Goldberg, Stanley Read, Tiffany Veinot, Alex McClelland, Paul Saulnier, Harvey Skinner. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (http://www.jmir.org), 29.9.2004. Except where otherwise noted, articles published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, including full bibliographic details and the URL (see "please cite as" above), and this statement is included.
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The Mayan rain god Chac
Droughts do far worse than brown our lawns—the water shortages and crop damage they mete out, and the fires fed by dry conditions, have effects that last long after rain returns. These events may even have civilization-destroying powers: although doubts remain, many researchers consider drought one of the leading contributors to the collapse of the Maya. And a new study published in Geophysical Research Letters finds that by cutting down forests, Mayans may have directly contributed to the droughts that brought about the downfall of their society.
Like modern civilizations, Mayans felled trees in order to harvest the raw material and clear land for cities and crops. Researchers modeled how this deforestation affected local climate conditions with computer simulations. Cleared land absorbs less solar energy, which means it releases less moisture to contribute to rainfall. By comparing untampered or regrown forest to reconstructions of the tree cover during Mayan occupation, researchers found that razed land could have reduced annual rainfall by 5 to 15 percent. This means that of the estimated drought during the height of Mayan civilization, 60 percent of the rainfall decrease was likely due to deforestation.
Sometimes you have to change your vantage point to really see something.
The New York Times today reports on the work of Diane and Arlen Chase, who spent more than 20 years cutting through the Central American jungle to survey the Ancient Mayan city of Caracol in present-day Belize. But when they were turned on to the possibility of using flyover missions equipped with laser technology that could see to the jungle floor, their research accelerated dramatically.
In only four days, a twin-engine aircraft equipped with an advanced version of lidar (light detection and ranging) flew back and forth over the jungle and collected data surpassing the results of two and a half decades of on-the-ground mapping, the archaeologists said. After three weeks of laboratory processing, the almost 10 hours of laser measurements showed topographic detail over an area of 80 square miles, notably settlement patterns of grand architecture and modest house mounds, roadways and agricultural terraces [The New York Times].
Given such dramatic results, you might think the scientists would have started working from above earlier. After all, learning by bouncing lasers around isn’t new: Satellites have measured the Antarctic ice by reflecting lasers of the sheet and back into space, then measuring how long it took. Scientists have bounced lasers off reflectors that U.S. and Russian moon missions left behind, measuring the moon’s slow progression away from the Earth.
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The Spiny Lobster program is responsible for monitoring and developing models of South Florida's spiny lobster populations and for conducting research on spiny lobsters.
Commonly referred to as the Florida spiny lobster, the Caribbean spiny lobster inhabits tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico.
A species account for Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus
) in Florida.
A stock assessment of Spiny Lobster, Panulirus argus
the Southeast United States.
This brochures discusses the Caribbean spiny lobster, also known as
a crayfish, crawfish, langosta, and Florida lobster. Topics include
a description of the lobster's appearance, life history, range and
habitat, and management efforts.
This article is a summary of information collected from nearly
2,000 recreational lobster fishers during the 1999-2000 lobster
Lobster trap fishing is important to Florida's cultural history and economy. Many traps are lost annually due to storms and boat propellers cutting the buoy rope that marks each trap, leading to ghost fishing and habitat damage.
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Researchers created a list of 50 random food items, then found studies from the last 35 years that claimed risks or benefits for the majority them. But most of the claims were based on weak evidence.
"We have seen a very large number of studies, just too many studies, suggesting that they had identified associations with specific food ingredients with cancer risk," said Dr. John Ioannidis from the Stanford Prevention Research Center in California, who worked on the analysis.
"People get scared or they think that they should change their lives and make big decisions, and then things get refuted very quickly," he told Reuters Health.
That back-and-forth can distract the public from associations that do have solid evidence behind them, such as the increased cancer risk tied to smoking or the beneficial effects of fruits and vegetables, he said.
"There's very strong evidence, and pretty strong expectation, that some nutrients in some foods would be related to cancer risk - either protecting or increasing the risk - but it's very hard to believe that almost anything would be associated with cancer," Ioannidis added.
For their study, he and Dr. Jonathan Schoenfeld from Harvard Medical School in Boston selected the first 50 ingredients they found in randomly-chosen cookbook recipes.
That list included meats and fish, vegetables, dairy products, bread and spices.
The researchers then ran each ingredient through a medical journal database search to see if there were any studies tying how much of it people consumed to their risk for some type of cancer.
For 40 out of the 50 ingredients - including veal, celery, cheese and mustard - there were a total of 264 such studies. Of those, 103 suggested the ingredient was tied to an increased risk of cancer, and 88 to a decreased risk.
Studies on some ingredients, such as onions, carrots and tea, almost all showed a decreased cancer risk, and for others, like bacon and sugar, most or all findings showed a higher risk. But for many foods, study results were all over the map.
The average effect shown in each study was about a doubling of cancer risk or a halving of risk, depending on which direction the association went for a particular ingredient in a particular report. However, the data backing those claims was usually unconvincing, Schoenfeld and Ioannidis said.
In larger reviews that included multiple studies, the links between each particular food item and cancer risk were typically smaller or nonexistent, according to the pair's findings, which are published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
"You have all these individual studies, and people are not getting together and trying to figure out what is going on in terms of the entire picture," said Teresa Fung, a professor of nutrition at Simmons College in Boston.
"It's a system problem. It's also how science is reported," Fung, who also has an adjunct appointment at the Harvard School of Public Health, told Reuters Health.
"I agree with their point that there's room for improvement in the way nutrition and cancer is researched and reported to the public," said Marjorie McCullough, strategic director of nutritional epidemiology at the American Cancer Society.
"These individual results often get taken out of context," said McCullough, who like Fung wasn't involved in the new analysis.
"I would caution people not to over-interpret individual studies and look to guidelines that have been published" based on more comprehensive reviews, she added.
Of course, none of this means nutrition isn't important for cancer risk and general health. McCullough told Reuters Health the evidence is building that extra weight plays a role in many cancers, and maintaining a healthy body weight is an important part of ACS's guidelines.
But when it comes to diet itself, it may be more important to focus on larger patterns, rather than specific foods, she added.
"Sometimes we need to take a step back and look at things from a different perspective," Fung said.
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SARASOTA, Fla., Aug. 8 (UPI) -- A toxic red tide continues to bloom and expand in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico as it nears the coast of South Florida. Officials say the maroon-tinged algae bloom is one of the largest Florida's waters have seen in a decade.
Researchers with the Florida Wildlife and Conservation Commission, the University of South Florida and Mote Marine recently returned from a three-day research cruise, during which they deployed a remote control underwater robot to collect data needed to create a 3-D image of the bloom.
Researchers say the red tide is some 80 miles long and 50 miles wide, and is only 30 miles from the coast in some places. It stretches as deep as 130 feet.
"It may come inshore, and when it does, you may see some effects at your local beach, such as you may get a little dry cough, get the watery irritated eyes kind of thing from the toxins," Mote researcher Haley Rutger told local NBC affiliate WFLA.
But while a red tide is mostly just a nuisance for beach-goers, it can be deadly for local marine life. Dead fish, sea turtles and even manatees can be found washed ashore as the algae encroaches upon the shallows.
Rutger says researchers in Florida hope their ocean observations can help better predict when red tides will occur, how big they'll grow and where they'll move to -- like weather forecasting. He and his colleagues also want to better understand how the toxins affect the ocean ecosystem.
"How long the animals keep the toxins in their systems and that kind of thing, it's just important to understand the effect on animals as it is to understand the effects on humans," Rutger added.
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Front Range, an eastern range of the U.S. Rocky Mts., bordering the Great Plains and extending c.300 mi (480 km) S from SE Wyo. to the Arkansas River, S central Colo. It has several peaks, including Gray's Peak and Pikes Peak, that are more than 14,000 ft (4,270 m) high. The Arkansas and the South Platte rivers are the largest streams rising in the range. Most of Colorado's population is located along the range's eastern foothills. The Front Range was scouted by U.S. explorers Zebulon Pike, in 1806–7, and Stephen Long, in 1819–20. In 1858 gold was discovered at Cripple Creek, Colo., and goldseekers rushed into the S Front Range. Most of the range is in national forests; Rocky Mt. National Park is located in the north.
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Asparagus is one of the few vegetables which is best to buy as "crowns"
i.e. plants which are ready for planting. Although you can sow seeds, it
takes a certain degree of skill and a lot of patience, so we recommend
buying the ready grown crowns. These are sold as 1 year old, 2 year old
and 3 year old plants and are usually delivered "bare rooted".
You can buy 1 year olds if you have the patience to wait 2 years before
harvesting. We recommend buying 2 year olds as not only should you
be harvesting the year after planting, but these are more likely
to take more easily than 3 year old crowns which can be temperamental.
Well looked after plants will continue to produce asparagus for
up to 20 years.
Height - Up to 30cm/ 36" - Spread allow +30cm/1ft
Yield per plant
Up to 25 spears once established
Time between planting and harvesting
1 year old crowns - 2-3 years
2 year old crowns - 1-2 years
3 year old crowns - 1 year
Late March - April - temperature +18C/64F
Where to Sow
In well prepared ground. Site must have good drainage and be
in a relatively sunny position. Dig the ground thoroughly in
the autumn, incorporating a good layer of manure or compost
then leave until the spring when ready to plant and fork
over to break up the clods.
How to Plant
Dig a hole about 20cm/8" deep and 30cm/12" sq. If planting
several plants, it will be easier to dig a trench.
Make the centre a little higher than the sides thus creating
a mound of earth then spread the roots on the crown out
evenly over the mound and immediately cover with about
5cm.2" of soil, leaving the rest of the hole/trench empty.
The shoots will start to appear very soon, at which point
you should start filling the hole gradually as the shoots
grow taller, until the soil is level with the surrounding
If growing in containers, only use very large containers -
at least 45cm/18" in diameter and 45cm/18" deep - and only
plant 1 crown in each container as above.
Growing on - 1st year
It is very important that you don't harvest any
spears in the first year. The spears must be left
to develop into bushy fern-like stems. Pick off any
berries and allow the ferns to die back and turn yellow,
then cut down to ground level in October. If you have
planted 1 year old crowns, then you should repeat this
process for another year (2 years in all).
This may seem a long time, however bear in mind a properly
prepared and well looked after asparagus plant will provide
asparagus for between 10 and 20 years.
Growing on 2nd and subsequent years
Before the spears start appearing, lightly rake in a
little general fertilizer such as Growmore in early spring.
Keep the area free from weeds - this is best done by hand to
avoid damaging any spears which have be underground. You can
also apply a layer of compost to the surface.
Patience! The first year you harvest, only pick a few spears
from each plant allowing the rest to mature into feathered
ferns to build up the plant's strength.
From the 2nd year of harvesting, you can pick as many as you
like - and in fact, they grow so quickly, you may have to
cut spears every day.
Cut the spears once they have reached about 12cm/5" high.
Use a sharp kitchen knife and cut the stems about 7.5cm/3"
below the soil level. Stop harvesting by mid June
to allow the ferns to develop as above in
order to re-build the plant's reserves for next year.
Both the adult beetle adult and larvae chew spears during
the spring and can also defoliate the plant in the summer.
1. Hand pick the adults from plants
2. Remove the dark brown eggs from the spears.. Chemical
3. Spray with pyrethrum
1.After harvesting clear debris and turn the soil over
around plants to disturb beetles.
2. Early inspection of plants for tell tale signs
3. Harvest spears as early as possible.
Violet Root Rot
Leaves yellow and die and roots covered with purple mould
Organic None. Dig up and destroy affected plants. In severe
cases, destroy all the plants in the bed and replant new
asparagus elsewhere. Chemical None
Tomato, Parsley, Basil
Create a bio-diverse environment by planting flowers
nearby to attract bees, ladybirds and other "friendlies". To learn more about companion planting click
In the Kitchen
Refrigerate for up to 4 days. Excess amounts can be frozen. Prepare as
below then blanch in boiling water for 1-2 minutes, drain well and allow
to cool before freezing
Cut off the woody ends of the stalk or pare with a peeler. Rinse well in
20 minutes - Drizzle liberally with oil and seasonings
7 - 10
5 - 8
5 - 8
For more preparation and cooking information about asparagus plus lots
of recipes visit our sister site
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From 11:00PM PDT on Friday, July 1 until 5:00AM PDT on Saturday, July 2, the Shmoop engineering elves will be making tweaks and improvements to the site. That means Shmoop will be unavailable for use during that time. Thanks for your patience!
The narrator begins by talking about Nietzsche's idea of "eternal return," the theory that everything we experience has happened an infinite number of times already and will continue to repeat itself infinitely.
From this perspective, a life that happens only once and then disappears is meaningless and without weight.
When something is transitory, we can't take it seriously, and so we can't judge it as though it matters.
This makes for a pretty cynical world, where everything is permitted because it happens only once and therefore cannot be judged. The narrator cites Hitler as an example of this sort of "moral perversity."
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Politics, competition, influence and power fuel the current sectarian tensions between Shia and Sunni Muslims, the two main branches of Islam. The root of the hostility is a political question in itself: who is the legitimate successor to the Prophet Muhammed?
Both sects share common religious beliefs: the five pillars of Islam, the Quran and Prophet Muhammed being the last messenger of God. The differences lie mostly in the Shia and Sunni interpretation of the hadiths and sharia law on how Muslims should define and govern themselves. But for the most part, the religious differences are superficial. The conflict and violence is more about political power, where geo-politics intertwines with theology.
FOR CONTEXT The Shia-Sunni divide: Tunnel vision prevails
The majority sect in this small Gulf state is Shia. However, the government is dominated by a Sunni monarchy, military and ruling elite. Shia Muslims began protesting for equality and recognition in the 1970s after the British left. The most recent large-scale protests erupted in 2011. Bahrain and its friends in Saudi Arabia retaliated by clamping down on the opposition, killing civilians.
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Syrian unrest began with protests against President Bashar al-Assad’s regime in March 2011. The ruling elite in this war-torn country belongs to the Alawites, a minority offshoot of Shia Islam. The civil war has exposed underlying grievances between Shia and Sunni.
Lebanon has been relatively stable, but struggles to maintain a balance between its religious and ethnic sects. In the government, the President must be Christian, the prime minister is Sunni and the parliamentary speaker is Shia. Fighting has mostly been concentrated in the Sunni dominated North in small pockets near the Syrian border, with the Lebanese militant group Hezbollah aiding and supporting Assad’s regime.
The 1979 Iranian Revolution was key to empowering the Shia community. Iran sponsored and encouraged Shia uprisings in Saudi Arabia’s oil rich eastern province. Keeping Syria in power is vital to Iran’s strategic interests in the Middle East. Syria has been the route to sending people, money, and weapons to groups like Hezbollah, a Shia militant group created by Iran. For Iran, it is all about regional interests.
This is the heartland of the global Shia community. For a long time, the majority Shia Muslims were discriminated by the Sunni-dominated regime. After the 2003 war and fall of Saddam Hussein, Shia Muslims stepped into power, targeting Sunni Muslims through government death squads and torture. Sunnis responded with suicide attacks and bombings. The war has amplified tensions between the two, emphasizing growing nationalistic attitudes of Shia Muslims.
Sunni-ruled Saudi Arabia consistently feels challenged and threatened by Iran in the race for regional power. Iranians are neither Arab nor Sunni. Saudi Arabia fears Iran will stir unrest among the Shia Muslims living in the Gulf.
The information in this article is based on infographics published in a university project paper.
Note: This infographic is based on interviews with a number of Shia and Sunni scholars, experts and academics. This is a controversial and complex issue, with interpretations varying from country to country and person to person.
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European researchers have combined computer modelling of quantum mechanics and precision fabrication processes to create novel transparent conductive oxides made to order for a wide range of scientific and consumer applications.
TCOs – materials that combine transparency and conductivity, qualities that are not usually found together – have multiple applications. As sensors, photovoltaics, light emitting devices and electronically controllable films, they are found in scientific instruments, DVDs, digital cameras, mobile phones, computer displays and hundreds of other products.
Until recently, most TCOs relied on a material called ITO, an oxide of indium which is doped – slightly modified – by the addition of a small quantity of tin. ITOs have proved useful, but, Dr Garry says, suffer from two drawbacks. Their transparency is not very good, especially in the near-infrared range, and indium is in short supply and very expensive.
The NATCO team decided to explore a completely different material, strontium cuprate doped with varying amounts of barium. Copper, barium and strontium are far more abundant and much less expensive than indium.
Extensive calculations applying quantum mechanics predicted that, by doping strontium cuprate with a few percent by weight of barium, the researchers could create precisely the materials they wanted, combining good electrical conductivity and optical transparency.
Fabricating the new materials was a challenge. At first the materials were fabricated in the form of bulk ceramics and then, for actual applications, thin layers were deposited on suitable substrates.
In the end, the researchers settled on two deposition techniques – pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and metal organic chemical deposition (MOCVD).
In PLD, a burst of laser light vaporises the material to be deposited, creating a thin film on a glass or silicon surface. It allows precise control, but can’t be used on large surfaces.
MOCVD uses organic chemistry to create gasses that deposit the desired material onto a surface. It is a more complicated procedure, but has the advantage of being able to be scaled up to coat large surfaces.
Once they had fabricated the materials, the researchers could test how well their electrical and optical properties matched the predicted values. “This was the first time that this kind of work was done on TCOs,” says Dr Garry.
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on Reddit, or StumbleUpon. Thanks
How to Make Money
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It is Martin Luther King Jr. Day in the United States, a federal holiday celebrating one of our nation’s most influential civil rights leaders. This being the 25th anniversary of MLK Day, the Corporation for National & Community Service has challenged us to pledge “at least 25 actions during 2011 to make a difference for others and strengthen our communities.” Many of us enjoy positions of privilege we do not fully appreciate, and treat this holiday as a day off rather than a “day on,” as my teachers used to say. If today has no other affect, I hope it will at least serve as a reminder to reflect on the importance of civil rights and equal opportunities. Moreover, I hope it will help us recognize our own prejudices – whether demonstrated by our actions or just in our thoughts – so that we can overcome them. In light of recent events, we would also do well to remember that Dr. King made many calls-to-action, but none were calls-to-arms, none were pleas for violence.
Below, we present the chapter “Standing with Lincoln” from All the People: A History of Us by Joy Hakim, which looks back on all the effort (and cheese sandwiches!) that went into the August 1963 march on Washington.
The civil rights leaders were human, and so there were rivalries and jealousies. They disagreed among themselves. Those from older organizations, like the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), were at their best working through the courts and trying to change the laws. That was a slow process; it took skilled leadership. The lawyer Thurgood Marshall and the labor chief A. Philip Randolph were that kind of leader.
Martin Luther King, Jr., had helped organize the SCLC (the Southern Christian Leadership Conference). Its appeal was to the mass of moderate churchgoing blacks; most of its leaders were ministers. But many young people were impatient with both of these approaches, which seemed too slow-moving. They formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), known as SNICK. SNCC and the Congress for Racial Equality (CORE) organized many of the sit-ins in college communities. Some black groups wanted to fight with fists, weapons, and anger. Everyone knew that if they got their way, much of the high purpose of the civil rights movement would be lost. Leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr., had made civil rights a cause for all Americans. It was about quality. It was about justice and freedom for all. It wasn’t just for blacks—although most of the leadership was black.
For years, A. Philip Randolph had talked of a freedom rally in the nation’s capital. Perhaps it would bring the diverse black leaders together. Perhaps it would bring black and white people together. Perhaps it would influence Congress.
President Kennedy had sent a civil rights bill to Congress. Would it be passed? No one was sure. A march would show Congress and the president the importance of the civil rights movement. Many thought that Kennedy was paying more attention to affairs in Cuba and Vietnam than to the problem of unfairness at home. When President Kennedy gave a speech in West Berlin, Germany, about political freedom, it inspired cheers from people around the world. But some Americans weren’t enthusiastic. They knew there was a kind of freedom that was missing right here in America—it went straight to the soul and spirit of an individual. The black leaders understood that soul freedom.
Exactly 100 years had passed since Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. Some white people were still telling black people to be patient. Martin Luther King, Jr., said, “We can’t wait any longer. Now is the time.” Philip Randolph was 74. If ever he was to have his march, it had to be soon. And so it was decided: on August 28, 1963, there would be a march for freedom in Washington, D.C. Black leaders hoped that 100,000 people would participate. The marchers were going to demand four things: passage of the civil rights bill; integration of schools by year’s end; an end to job discrimination; and a program of job training. Bayard Rustin, who was a whiz at organizing, was in charge.
Rustin got to work. He had 21 drinking fountains, 24 first-aid stations, and lots of portable toilets set up on Washington’s grassy Mall. Workers made 80,000 cheese sandwiches. Movie stars, singers, high-school bands, preachers, and politicians practiced speeches and songs. The speakers and entertainers were to stand on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial and look toward the tall, slender Washington Monument and, beyond that, to the nation’s Capitol.
Rustin worried about every detail. He got a big hook and put it on the end of a long stick. Then he gave careful instructions to a helper he called the “hook man.” Anyone who spoke too long was to be pulled from the microphones by the hook man.
Two thousand buses headed for Washington, and 21 chartered trains. A man with a freedom banner roller-skated from Chicago. An 82-year-old man bicycled from Ohio. Another, who was younger, came by bike from South Dakota. Sixty thousand whites came. Television crews, high in the Washington Monument, guessed that there were 250,000 people altogether.
It was a day filled with song, and hope, and good will. Finally, in the late afternoon, the last of the speakers stood on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. It was Martin Luther King, Jr. He began with a prepared speech, which was formal and dignified, as was his nature. Then something happened inside him. Perhaps he responded to the crowd. Perhaps his training as a preacher took over. Whatever it was, he left his written speech and began talking from his heart. “I have a dream,” he said.
I have a dream that one day down in Alabama…little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today!
Then he challenged the whole nation, not just those who were marching.
So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire, let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York, let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania, let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado; let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. But not only that. Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia; let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee; let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.
And when this happens and when we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: “Free at last. Free at last. Thank God Almighty, we are free at last.”
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I am searching a way to "hydrologically" connect upstream points to a unique downstream outlet by creating an optimized stream network as pictured below...
The cummulated lenght of the stream lines should be minimized.
Otherwise the stream network should remains confined within a defined polygon...
I only know the input points (red) and the output (green) and the polygon. There is no other constraints
Does anyone know how to do it ?...
I searched on the web all the morning but without succeed
No I rightly try to do it without considering the topography... Just a flat (or approx flat) surface. That's why I am searching a way for so long time :-)
It is an hyopthetical area.
Imagine that you are in you bath.. the water level rises up and overflow on a downstream threshold - at a corner of you bath..
Then you add a few particles at different corners of your bath (upstream) and you try now to sketch what will be their circulation to reach the threshold by forming an optimized network.. The stream network (as I draw on the right) should be minimum regarding the particles input.
Am I understood ? :-)
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The Lost Cycle of Time: An Ancient Look at the Future - Part 3
The Greek historian Hesiod spoke of the wonderful nature of the last golden age, when “peace and plenty” abounded. The ancient Maya and Hopi used names such as “worlds” and “suns” and numbered them to identify specific epochs with the Hopi myths telling us of cities at the bottom of the sea. It wasn’t just the Greeks and Mesoamericans that broke the great cycle into an ascending and descending phases, with four periods each. According to Vedic scriptures, when the autumnal equinox moves from Virgo to Aries, humanity moves through the ascending Kali, Dwapara, Treta, and Satya yugas, or eons, before slowly declining in reverse order as the equinox completes its journey (the Satya Yuga marks a golden era). These periods correspond neatly with the Greeks and early Mediterranean civilizations.
Whatever language is used, the concept is the same. In his book, The Holy Science (1894), Sri Yukteswar explains that when our solar system is at a point farthest from its companion star, humanity’s consciousness is at its lowest point (which last occurred around 500 AD), and when the sun is at its closest point (which next occurs in 12,500 AD), consciousness reaches its highest point in this cycle. These celestial points are located at the intersection of the autumnal equinox sun and one of the zodiac’s twelve constellations – the celestial clock. When the AE sun is in Aries, which is almost always placed in the twelve o’clock position of the zodiac, the Earth is in the best possible stellar environment, making it easy for many people to experience an awakened state of consciousness. When the AE sun is in the constellation Libra, conditions are at their worst, and a dark age, a period of deluded consciousness, prevails.
Please note that we are not saying the stars or constellations cause the changes, or giving any credence to horror-scope astrology. Rather we are pointing out that we can tell where we are in the Great Year by using the stars as a celestial clock. In fact we can do the same with the seasons. When Orion is high in the evening sky we know it is winter. Orion does not cause winter but if we just woke from a coma we could look at the sky, and with just a bit of knowledge, determine exactly where we are in the earth’s revolution.
Presently, we are just a few hundred years into the ascending age, crossing over from what the Greeks would call the Age of Man (Iron) to the Age of the Hero (Bronze) – yet still very far from the Age of the Demigods (Silver) and the Age of the Gods (Gold), which are utterly inconceivable to us at this time.
Caption: The two equinoxes act as markers on the face of the celestial clock. The ancients used the autumnal equinox (AE) as the hour hand of the ages, with 500 AD as the low point. The renaissance represents the awakening from the Kali Yuga (Iron Age) to the Dwapara Yuga (Bronze Age). That process is now quickening at an exponential rate, akin to the Sun casting more light as it rises above the horizon.
According to Eastern teachings it means we are now awakening from a time when individual consciousness perceived itself as purely a physical form, living in a strictly physical universe, to a time when we begin to see ourselves and the universe as more transparent and mostly made up of subtle energy. This began with the discoveries of the Renaissance (principles of electricity, laws of gravitation, microscopes, telescopes, and other inventions that expanded our awareness) and has accelerated since with the emergence of quantum physics, which shows us that matter and energy, are interchangeable and proves Einstein’s concepts that even time and space are relative. In short, we are back on the upswing, just beginning to “remember” ourselves as pure consciousness living in a world of undreamed of possibilities.
According to Paramahansa Yogananda, author of Autobiography of a Yogi , by the year 4100 AD (when we cross into the Treta Yuga proper, a.k.a. the silver age), “telepathy and clairvoyance will once again be common knowledge.” It may seem far-fetched, but according to myth and folklore, there was such a time on Earth before, in about 3100 BC, the last Treta Yuga. Some pre-Dark Age stories, such as Genesis, would designate the Treta Yuga the pre-Babel age, when mankind communed freely with nature before God “confused the tongues.”
People often forget what the world was like just five or six hundred years ago, when every nation was at war, plagues and poverty decimated large populations, lifespans were half what they are today, individual rights were nonexistent, and justice was doled out through torture, inquisition, or burning at the stake. Yes, the world still has problems, but consciousness and awareness are expanding rapidly, manifesting in many ways; in the U.S. alone, millions of people are meditating, doing yoga, and using “nontraditional” healing practices to maintain their well being. From the perspective of technology, many believe we are now approaching the “point of singularity” Ray Kurzweil explored in his book The Singularity Is Near – an acceleration of intelligence which will blur the distinction between man and machine. But it is so much more. Can there be any doubt that improvements across all areas of society over the next five hundred years will be off the charts compared to those of the last five hundred?
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Although thousands of Scots crossed the Atlantic in the nineteenth century, the greatest wave of Scottish emigration to the United States came after World War I and into the 1920s. These white and largely Protestant immigrants assimilated easily into American culture: they already knew the language, and many were skilled laborers, craftsmen, or members of the professional or merchant class.
Chicago's Scots established their own organizations, from Burns clubs (after poet Robert Burns) to pipe bands, nurturing Scottish culture and perpetuating Scottish customs. Philanthropic groups were among the earliest immigrant societies within the Scottish American community. In 1846 Chicago Scots founded the Illinois Saint Andrew Society, the oldest charitable institution in the state. With over one thousand members in the 1990s, the society has continued to operate the Scottish Home in North Riverside, Illinois, which in the late twentieth century had to abandon its policy of admitting only patients of Scots descent because of dwindling numbers.
Scottish immigrants played major roles in Chicago's early development. John Kinzie was probably Chicago's first English-speaking resident. Other early Chicagoans of Scottish birth or descent include trader Alexander Robinson; printer Robert Fergus, considered the father of the printing industry in Chicago; detective Allan Pinkerton, whose house on West Adams Street was a stop on the Underground Railroad; James MacLagan, pastor of the First Scotch Presbyterian Church. In the late 1890s many wealthy second- and third-generation Scottish Americans lived along fashionable Prairie Avenue or, further south, on Drexel Boulevard. As late as the early decades of the twentieth century, a cluster of churches, halls, and Masonic temples on the South Side, especially along 64th Street, catered to the Scottish American community.
Scots were particularly well represented in Chicago's meatpacking industry. The Union Stock Yard was built primarily by a combination of Scots, Scottish Americans, and Ulster Scots. Many of the cattle owners and drovers were themselves Scottish immigrants. In addition, a number of Chicago institutions have Scottish roots, including Encyclopedia Britannica and Carson Pirie Scott & Co.
Numerous Scottish place names dot the Chicago area, from Inverness and West Dundee to Bannockburn and Midlothian. Moreover, many Chicago streets honor Scottish places and people: Aberdeen Street, for example, is named after Scotland's third largest city, while St. Clair Street commemorates the life of General Arthur St. Clair, the Scots-born Revolutionary War hero. Yet another physical reminder of Scotland's impact on Chicago is the statue of Robert Burns, Scotland's national poet, that stands in Garfield Park. Erected in 1906, it remains a source of pride for the city's Scottish American community.
Berthoff, Rowland. British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790–1950. 1953.
MacMillan, Thomas C. “The Scots and Their Descendants in Illinois.” In Illinois State Historical Society Transactions, no. 26 (1919): 31–85.
Rethford, Wayne, and June Skinner Sawyers. The Scots of Chicago: Quiet Immigrants and Their New Society. 1997.
The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago © 2005 Chicago Historical Society.
The Encyclopedia of Chicago © 2004 The Newberry Library. All Rights Reserved. Portions are copyrighted by other institutions and individuals. Additional information on copyright and permissions.
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We applauded the designation earlier this year of Paterson's Great Falls as a National Historical Park, and now we're glad to see Congress following through with funding.
Legislation on its way to President Obama includes $500,000 to develop a management plan for the park -- in effect, to start planning the future of the past.
It's a unique site by any standard, a natural wonder and historic monument all in one. By harnessing the power of the falls in 1794, Alexander Hamilton, our first treasury secretary, staked out the young nation's economic independence.
Hamilton founded Paterson and created New Jersey's first corporation to nurture home-grown manufacturing. Over the next 150 years, a variety of goods -- including sailcloth, silk, beer, the Colt revolver, the first submarine, locomotives and later, aircraft engines -- were made in Paterson.
Ron Chernow, who wrote an award-winning biography of Hamilton, said in a speech at the Great Falls this spring that Hamilton conjured a vision that transformed the nation from a rural and agrarian economy into one that was an urban industrial powerhouse.
Leonard Zax, a lawyer who has worked pro bono with the New Jersey Community Development Corp. for years to obtain national park status for the Great Falls, says restoring the park and its historic 18th-century buildings will help tell a story that holds great relevance for us today. "It's economic development, for sure, that is compatible with the fabric of the city and respectful of the past," Zax said. "It is the most historic place in America that no one's ever heard of."
That, at last, is about to change.
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“I have not yet begun to fight!“
In 1953, John Paul Jones was remembered by Americans as “The Fighting Sailor.” He was actually much more than that.
He was born John Paul in 1747, on the southern coast of Scotland. He began his career as a mariner at the age of 13, when he sailed out of Whitehaven as a ship’s apprentice. During his sailing career, he had numerous contacts with his brother who had settled at Fredericksburg, Virginia.
He adopted the alias of “John Jones”, at the suggestion of this brother, when he fled to his Virginia home in 1773, to avoid execution after an incident where he was accused of murdering a sailor under his command. When the American Revolution commenced, he was using the name “John Paul Jones.” Although he is considered the father of the United States Navy, he never rose above the rank of Captain in the Continental Navy. With his highly regarded command of the frigate Bonhomme Richard, John Paul Jones became America’s first naval hero. He later earned the rank of Admiral for his service with the Russian Navy. He spent his last days abroad and ended up being buried in Paris, France. Years later his remains were brought home and reinterred at the United States Navy Academy chapel, in Annapolis, Maryland.
He is most famous for his legendary reply when a British officer asked for his surrender during battle: “I have not yet begun to fight!“
Learn More: The American Revolution
The image, John Paul Jones: Fighting Sailor, 1953, is subject to copyright by Marxchivist. It is posted here with permission via the Flickr API by barneykin, administrator of “The Revolution ed” pool.
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Linear note taking is the typical outline format. If you would like a review on linear note taking, this page is perfect for you. Many people find this method of note taking very effective because this type of organization and formatting works best for them. When they review their notes, it all makes sense and they are able to glean the information they need from their outline.
If you do not like to use outlines try Cornell Notes or mapping. Remember, you need to use whatever form of note taking works for you. With that reminder, let's review linear note taking.
Linear note taking can be done while:
Listening to a lecture
Listening to class discussions
In this article I will give you some great tips on how to do linear note taking while reading and listening to a lecture. These tips will definitely help you take better notes so you can improve your grades.
Here are some tips to make linear note-taking a more successful experience. Actually, these are good tips for any type of note taking.
Remember: Note taking while reading will help you organize important topics and details.
Note taking when reading is great because you are in total control of how fast you are taking in the information. When you are listening to a lecture, you are at the mercy of the speaker. When you are reading, you can go as slowly or as quickly as you would like.
For this example, we are going to outline a chapter on Force from a Physical Science book. Here we go.
1. Quickly scan through the chapter. This need not take any longer than a couple of minutes. Don't take notes yet, you are simply trying to get a general idea of what information will be covered.
2. Go back to the beginning and write in the headings and subheadings, but remember to leave room between the headings. Like this:
3. After you have your headings and subheadings written down, go back to the beginning. As you read, look for:
Words in bold
And make note of these. The result should look like this:
After you have read a chapter and taken notes stop for a minute to think about what you have just read. Ask yourself:
1. Do I know the main ideas?
2. Do I remember some important facts?
3. Can I intelligently discuss the information presented in this chapter?
You may find you want to go back and review some of the information and add to your existing notes. I would be very surprised if you did NOT have to go back and take more notes. You will be amazed at how this review will help you remember the information.
This is a little trickier because you do not have control over what the teacher will say or when they will say it. Let's face it we've all sat in classes with a teacher who rambles. Just how in the world are you supposed to take notes on rambling? Well, I'm going to give you some tips on how to take effective notes no matter how good the speaker is.
When you first get to the classroom you should:
Put a date on your notes
Write the title of the lecture, if you know it
During the lecture do not try to write down every word. That will never work. Write down only main points. A good system to make sure you can glean good information from the lecture is by using the following:
What this means is that most information given by professors and/or teachers is given in a question format. For example, "What crop was the impetus that led to slavery in Europe and the Americas?"
So now you have your question. Start listening for the evidence that will bring a conclusion (answer) to the question.
Sometimes finding the answer and supporting evidence is not so easy. Here are some tips that will help you recognize important information.
Listen for the teacher saying:
"The main point...."
"This will be on the test...."
"The most important reason is...."
Be sure to copy all that is written on the board.
The reason this is being written is because
it is important!
When you are finished with the class you should have several questions with answers or conclusions and the evidence to support the answer.
Using A Laptop
One thing you really should do if at all possible is take a laptop to class for linear note taking. This will make things so much easier because you will easily be able to cut and paste and rearrange things to your liking.
Using a laptop for note taking also gives you the ability to use text formatting to highlight important things such as formulas, vocabulary and important ideas. Use:
Whatever it takes to help you understand the information. Implementing these tips will soon have you on your way to developing a method of note taking that works for you.
The trick to using a laptop for note taking is to stay organized, so here are some hints. If you use a laptop in class be sure to:
1. Make separate folders for each class
2. In each folder have a "notes" directory
3. Save each "notes" document with the date in the file name, ie. Psychology_2_5_2014.doc
Unless you are a really great linear note taking person, there is a good chance you will have to re-write or edit your notes after class. But that's o.k. because it will give you a chance to review your notes.
Effective note taking is a great way to improve your grades. Here is an overview on note taking technigues. It is important to find a method of note taking that works for you. That's why at Study Skills For All Ages, we discuss many different methods of note taking.
Linear Note Taking
What is linear note taking? It's really outlining. Here are some great linear note taking tips that will help you take more effective notes so you can study more effectively and improve your grades.
Note Taking Symbols
Note taking symbols and abbreviations are a fantastic way to accelerate your note taking from 0 to 60 in 3 seconds!! Don't miss out on this valuable tip.
Yes!! Click Here and Learn How to Make Creative Flash Cards that actually work!
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This study is maintained and distributed by the National Archive of Computerized Data on Aging (NACDA), the aging program within ICPSR. NACDA is sponsored by the National Institute on Aging (NIA) at the National Institutes of Heath (NIH).
Bicol Multipurpose Survey (BMS), 1978: [Philippines] (ICPSR 6878)
Principal Investigator(s): Bicol River Basin Development Program
The Bicol Multipurpose Survey (BMS) was designed to assess the impact of the Bicol River Basin Development Project (BRBDP) on one of the poorest regions in the Philippines. Using data collected from both semi-urban and rural areas of the Bicol Region, the BMS sought to examine the impact not only of the various development projects of the BRBDP such as irrigation, electricity, and road repair, but also the economic, social, and health issues faced by the residents of the Bicol Region. The survey gathered data for 17 project areas and 3 cities in the provinces of Albay, Camarines Sur, and Sorsogon. Household-level information (Part 1) covers household characteristics, physical environment, income and expenditures, distance from schools, and respondents' feelings about household conditions and the progress of the barangay in which they lived (a barangay is a political subdivision equivalent to a village in rural areas and to a neighborhood in urban areas). Information on topics such as attitudes about foods during pregnancy, infant and child care, prenatal care, community involvement, and work history are contained in a separate Mothers Data file (Part 2). The individual-level data (Parts 3-5) contain demographic information such as age, sex, and education, and include time spent on household and occupational tasks. Information was collected from persons as young as 6 years of age, but was coded for individuals 15 years and older for tasks such as selling, food preparation, farm work, raising livestock and poultry, and the type and amount of fishing. Morbidity data from over 17,000 individuals are also included. The Household Production files (Parts 6-11) cover agriculture and business, crop production, rice farming, raising livestock and poultry, type of fishing done, and quantity of fish caught. Also included are income figures, assets, and liabilities. The Barangay Survey (Part 12) examines the physical aspects of the barangay and the use of social services in the area to determine the impact of the BRBDP and outside influences. The barangay captain or official records provided information on the physical characteristics, community services, medical services, social services, sanitation, and educational systems available within the barangay. The Extension Workers Survey (Part 13) asked 324 workers about their knowledge and activities regarding agricultural practices such as fertilizer use, pest and disease control, and other aspects of planting and transplanting. Through the Medical Practitioners Survey (Part 14), 426 practitioners were asked questions on their education and training, general health knowledge and experience, and knowledge and attitudes about birth control. Data collected in 1978, 1983, and 1994 can be used individually or merged together on a unique household identifier found in Part 15 (with the exception of the Medical Practitioners and Extension Workers data).
These data are available to the general public.
WARNING: Because this study has many datasets, the download all files option has been suppressed, and you will need to download one dataset at a time.
Bicol River Basin Development Program. Bicol Multipurpose Survey (BMS), 1978: [Philippines]. ICPSR06878-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 1997. http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06878.v1
Persistent URL: http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06878.v1
This study was funded by:
- United States Agency for International Development
Scope of Study
Subject Terms: agriculture, child care, community involvement, crop production, educational system, environment, farming, health care services, households, income, poverty, pregnancy, prenatal care, rural areas, sanitation, urban areas
Geographic Coverage: Philippines, Global
Date of Collection:
Universe: All farm and nonfarm households residing in 17 IDAs (Integrated Development Areas) and 3 cities of the Bicol Region, Philippines.
Data Types: survey data and administrative records data
Data Collection Notes:
(1) The logical record length data and SPSS and SAS data definition statements were extracted from SAS transport files. (2) Data collected in 1978, 1983 (ICPSR 6889), and 1994 (ICPSR 6890) can be used individually or merged together on a unique household identifier found in Part 15 (with the exception of the Medical Practitioners and Extension Workers data). Data for 1978, 1983, and 1994 can be merged with data for 1981 (ICPSR 6888) at the community level only. (3) Users should note that barangay codes have been scrambled and documentation has been modified in order to preserve respondent confidentiality.
Sample: Multistage, stratified random sample of approximately 1,900 households containing more than 17,000 individuals residing in both semi-urban and rural areas. A household was defined as a dwelling where one or more families prepare food in common.
personal interviews and administrative records
Original ICPSR Release: 1997-11-04
- 2005-11-04 On 2005-03-14 new files were added to one or more datasets. These files included additional setup files as well as one or more of the following: SAS program, SAS transport, SPSS portable, and Stata system files. The metadata record was revised 2005-11-04 to reflect these additions.
Related Publications (?)
- Citations exports are provided above.
Export Study-level metadata (does not include variable-level metadata)
If you're looking for collection-level metadata rather than an individual metadata record, please visit our Metadata Records page.
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Bullying doesn’t end in the schoolyard. Many adults are victims of bullying bosses or co-workers. Why? Because, most bullies are still not challenged or provided self esteem counseling.
Research shows that people who feel insecure about their own abilities, or have suffered a blow to their self-worth, are more likely to engage in bullying, possibly in an attempt to feel better about themselves.
A number of studies are saying that workplaces are growing more toxic. The Ottawa-based Canada Safety Council reports that one in six employees has been bullied.
So many companies are placing bullying in the same family as sexual harassment or discrimination; Ontario, Quebec and Saskatchewan have made workplace bullying illegal.
A 2010 study by the U.S.-based Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) found 35 per cent of U.S. employees have been bullied, with 58 per cent of victims being female. Women were found to suffer most at the hands of other women. Nearly 80 per cent of female victims say their abuser was another female. Remember the movie “The Devil Wears Prada”?
Bullying is characterized as offensive, intimidating, malicious or insulting behavior, an abuse or misuse of power through means intended to undermine, humiliate, denigrate or injure the recipient.
Bullying may be by an individual, against an individual (often by someone in a position of authority such as a manager or supervisor) or involve groups of people. It may be obvious or it may be insidious.
I want to be clear — some practices that may not seem fair to certain (underperforming) individuals is not bullying. Companies need to run efficiently so things like job realignments, transfers, demotions, and appropriate disciplinary actions are not bullying, as long as they are carried out professionally and within ethical and legal guidelines.
What every manager should know is that bullying will affect the overall well-being of an organization. It often results in increased absenteeism, higher turnover, increased stress, and more participation in employee assistance programs (EAPs).
There is increased risk for accidents, decreased productivity, and a decrease in morale. This often results in a decrease in customer service. We also find it is harder for those companies to recruit top talent.
An important component of any prevention program is management commitment, which is communicated through written policy. Management and employees should work together to create a violence prevention program that applies to all stakeholders. It should clearly outline examples of unacceptable behaviour and articulate the organization’s position on workplace bullying.
Most importantly, it must state the consequences when an individual violates the code of behavior. Some organizations with whom I work outline a confidential process by which employees can report incidents and to whom, and how they protect reporting employees.
Valerie Cade, a Calgary-based speaker and author of the book Bully Free at Work, says “Canada is seen as a leader in attacking workplace bullying, but many companies still don’t know how to handle it.”
Ms. Cade encourages companies to establish a “disrespectful workplace” policy detailing behaviours a company won’t tolerate. “Then you can hold people accountable for bullying,” she says.
Here are other suggestions to consider:
— Incorporate assessments into the hiring process: No matter how great a resume may look, avoid hiring those who may be prone to overly aggressive behaviors.
— Start at the top: Senior management must make it clear that bullying under any circumstances isn’t acceptable.
— Review every claim: Assuming a bullying complaint is just a conflict between two people who should sort it out between themselves may actually be supporting the aggressor.
— Proceed with caution: Take all bullying allegations seriously, but don’t assume they’re all true. Bullies have been known to set up a victim to bring a claim against them, hoping the organization will take action against that person.
— Collect evidence: Interview workers (privately) who may have witnessed the activity.
One of the best things an organization can do is address bullying in their employee orientation program and new manager training curriculum. My question for managers this week: “What is your organization doing formally, especially during this festive holiday season, to eliminate all forms of bullying in your organization?”
Joseph Sherren, CSP, HoF, PEI’s Management Effectiveness Expert, has spoken to more than 4,000 audiences in over 25 countries worldwide. For information on our workshops and speaking, contact us at www.gatewayleadership.com or (902) 437-6998
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Farewell Frank Kameny
By Candace Y.A. Montague
October 13, 2011
Frank Kameny, longtime D.C. gay activist and founder of Mattachine Society of Washington -- one of the earliest LGBT rights organizations in the U.S. -- passed away Tuesday from an apparent heart attack. Kameny was known as one of the founding fathers of the gay rights movement and was an outspoken advocate for gay and lesbian citizens to live their lives in the open. Ironically, he passed away on National Coming Out Day, an informal day for gay and lesbians to "come out of the closet." Kameny was known as the person who coined the phrase "Gay is Good." He was 86 years old.
Dr. Kameny was a government astronomer who was fired for being gay in 1957. He fought the decision through letter writing and sued in lower courts. He lost the case but that didn't stop him from writing a brilliant brief in 1961 that is regarded as the first civil rights claim based on sexual orientation. Kameny also led protests at the White House and the Pentagon among other places. Kameny received a formal apology in 2009 from the U.S. Civil Service Commission for being fired based on sexual orientation. Councilmember-at-large David Catania (I) remembered Kameny as a strong leader who wouldn't back down. "He was a stubborn and impatient person, and that was the recipe for his success," Catania said. "He was never going to be content with second-class citizenship."
Frank Kameny was a fearless and charismatic leader in the gay community. It was mistakenly reported that he died from an infection caused by having AIDS in 2007. The publication who printed the report retracted it. Kameny's reaction to the news: "Did you give a date of death?" Whitman-Walker Health, in Northwest, issued a statement yesterday about Kameny's death stating "Frank was a true pioneer and leader in the fight for equal rights for the LGBT community. There are not words strong enough to describe the breadth and depth of his accomplishments."
Rest in peace Dr. Kameny. Your legacy shall live on.
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D.C. HIV/AIDS Examiner
Candace Y.A. Montague
Candace Y.A. Montague has been learning about HIV since 1988 (and she has the certificates from the American Red Cross to prove it). Health is a high priority to Candace because she believes that nothing can come of your life if you're not healthy enough to enjoy it. One of her two master's degrees is in Community Health Promotion and Education. Candace was inspired to act against HIV after seeing a documentary in 2008 about African-American women and HIV. She knew that writing was the best way for her to make a difference and help inform others. Candace is a native Washingtonian and covers HIV news all around D.C. She has covered fundraisers, motorcycle rides, town hall meetings, house balls, Capitol Hill press conferences, election campaigns and protests for The DC Examiner.com and emPower News Magazine.
Subscribe to Candace's Blog:
September 8, 2014 - ADAP Advocacy Association Launches Directory: A Blog Entry by Candace Y.A. Montague
May 6, 2014 - Artist Luke James Discusses the Importance of Health and Love: A Blog Entry by Candace Y.A. Montague
April 18, 2014 - Three Things You Still Need to Know About Sexually Transmitted Diseases: A Blog Entry by Candace Y.A. Montague
March 7, 2014 - How Technology Decreases the Stigma Surrounding STDs: A Blog Entry by Candace Y.A. Montague
January 21, 2014 - Safer Sex Advice From Dr. Rachael Ross: A Blog Entry by Candace Y.A. Montague
A Brief Disclaimer:
The opinions expressed by TheBody.com's bloggers are entirely their own, and do not necessarily reflect the views of TheBody.com itself.
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The world today faces significant economic, environmental and social challenges. While no single policy instrument holds all the answers, innovation is the key ingredient of any effort to improve people’s quality of life. Today’s recovery from the global financial and economic crisis remains fragile. As countries seek to improve productivity performance and ensure sustained growth, they will need to boost their capacity to innovate. Innovation is also essential for addressing some of society’s most pressing issues, such as climate change, health and poverty.
But how can governments encourage more people to innovation more of the time? And how can government itself be more innovative?
This publication presents the OECD Innovation Strategy, the culmination of a three-year, multidisciplinary and multistakeholder effort. It provides analysis and policy guidance on a broad range of issues from education and training policies, to policies that provide a conducive business environment and infrastructure for innovation, to policies that foster the creation and diffusion of knowledge. It can support government efforts to develop effective innovation strategies and to achieve key economic and social objectives. It advocates an approach which takes into account the interplay of different policy domains and brings them together through supportive mechanisms for governance at the local, regional, national and international levels.
Executive Summary (download)
Chapter 1. Fostering Innovation: The Policy Challenge
Chapter 2. Innovation Trends
Chapter 3. Empowering People to Innovate
Chapter 4. Unleashing Innovations
Chapter 5. Creating and Applying Knowledge
Chapter 6. Addressing Global and Social Challenges through Innovation
Chapter 7. Improving Governance and Measurement
Chapter 8. The Way Forward
Annex A. Consultation
A summary is available for download (pdf) in the following languages:
Readers can access the book choosing from the following options:
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As indicated by the name, this type of control method requires the use of some peripheral device that closes the loop back to the drive. The device that is commonly used is the tachometer, or tach generator, as it is sometimes called. Figure 5-2 indicates a simple closed-loop control scheme.
Figure 5-2. Closed-loop control
Closed-loop control is a bit more complex, but yields a great improvement in motor-speed regulation. The key to the success of this scheme is the tachometer (T) or feedback device. A speed reference is given to the AC or DC drive. The actual speed, determined by the tach, is fed back to the drive. Both the speed reference and feedback are combined into the summing circuit. The summing circuit produces an error signal. That error signal is now the speed reference that is sent to the power and logic control, which translates the signal into faster or slower motor speed.
If this happened to be an AC drive configured in torque-control mode, the feedback would be a current feedback instead of speed. If this was a position control, such as a servo controller, the feedback would be a position and use an encoder instead of a tach. The idea of this entire scheme is to have zero error on the output of the summing circuit. If error occurs, it
must be corrected. How fast it is corrected is a function of the logic control in the drive.
The use of proportional integral derivative (PID) is critical to the success of the entire system. The PID controller will be programmed to correct for the error immediately or over a period of time. It will also be programmed as to how much error should be corrected over a period of time. The dynamics and stability of the system is dictated by the responsiveness or sloppi-ness of the feedback loop and control system. As with any type of control system, it is only as good as the weakest link. The remainder of this topic will be devoted to closed-loop components, their accuracy, and how the responsiveness of the system will be affected.
A tachometer generator or tach is an electromechanical device that translates the rotational speed of a shaft to an electrical signal. An analog tach generator is a small generator that produces an output voltage whose magnitude is linearly proportional to shaft speed. An AC tach produces an AC voltage and a DC tach produces a DC voltage. DC tachs produce a negative voltage to indicate reverse rotation as shown in Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3. DC tach output voltage vs. speed
DC tachs are the most popular type of analog tach, since AC tachs do not indicate direction and are generally less accurate than DC tachs. The output of a DC tach is typically specified in volts per 1000 rpm. The V/1000 rpm voltage constant is the slope of the output voltage versus speed line.
Digital tachs, or pulse tachs as they are sometimes called, produce a series of pulses. The frequency of those pulses is proportional to shaft speed. This can be seen in Figure 5-4.
The output of a digital tach is typically specified in pulses per revolution (PPR). Most pulse tachs are magnetic devices in which pulses are generated by gear teeth passing by a magnetic pickup.
Figure 5-4. Pulse tach output
An encoder is an electromechanical device that translates mechanical position and/or velocity into electrical signals. A shaft encoder or rotary encoder translates rotational or angular position and/or velocity into electrical signals.
An incremental encoder provides a signal that indicates position change or incremental position rather than absolute position. In principle, an incremental encoder is essentially the same type of device as a pulse tach, previously discussed. The term encoder usually implies a device with more advanced features and performance. Terms such as incremental encoder, encoder, pulse tach, and digital tachometer are basically used for the same type of device. In industry, they are often used interchangeably.
Optical encoders, on the other hand, are devices that use pulses for rotational signal generation. A light beam is transmitted through transparent stripes or slots in a rotating disk. The photo detector picks up those light beams and converts them into a series of pulses, sometimes called a pulse train. Figure 5-5 shows this process.
Figure 5-5. Optical encoder characteristics
Optical encoders are the most widely used types of encoder. They are capable of providing very high resolution.
Magnetoresistive encoders have a wheel or disk with numerous small magnetic poles imprinted on the disk surface in alternating north/south pairs. Incremental position is indicated by a sensing element consisting of a combination of resistors that change resistance on the basis of a magnetic field. The sensing element provides input to electronic circuitry, which generate pulses corresponding to each individual imprinted magnetic pole.
An absolute encoder produces a number of binary outputs that can be read as a binary word, which indicate the absolute angular position of the shaft relative to some unique index position. This type of encoder would be used primarily in a system where position feedback would be required (e.g., cut-to-length servo system).
This topic is primarily concerned with motor speed or velocity in drive systems. Therefore, the focus will be on the incremental encoder or pulse tach, rather than on absolute encoders devices.
The following paragraphs explain several encoder features that provide functions and performance that go beyond simply indicating shaft speed.
An encoder with a single output cannot indicate direction of rotation. Quadrature outputs are two outputs with a 90° phase displacement, as shown in Figure 5-6.
Figure 5-6. Quadrature outputs of a pulse tach (encoder)
As shown in Figure 5-6, quadrature outputs can be used to determine direction of rotation by detecting which of the two output signals is leading. The low-to-high transitions of the leading signal occur before the low-to-high transitions of the lagging signal.
Incremental encoders can be used to indicate when the shaft is in one particular “index” position. This is done by using an index pulse or marker pulse that occurs only once per revolution at the index position. Figure 5-7
shows this procedure. The width and phase relationship of the index pulse may vary among encoder models.
Figure 5-7. Encoder marker pulses of index positions
Figure 5-8 indicates complementary or differential outputs. Complementary outputs are pairs of outputs that are configured in such a way that one output (A) is high whenever its complement (A) is low.
Figure 5-8. Complementary or differential outputs
A and A represent the signal voltages with respect to circuit common. The voltage between the A output and the A output is the voltage difference, or differential, between the A and A-voltages. An encoder output signal that does not include the complementary A and B signals is called a single-ended output.
Differential signals have better noise immunity than single-ended signals. Figure 5-9 indicates a differential line driver and receiver connected by a twisted pair of shielded wires—a transmission line.
Figure 5-9. Differential line driver and receiver diagram
The use of a differential line driver and receiver protects against common mode noise between the transmitting and receiving locations. The use of a shielded, twisted-pair transmission line protects the signal from electromagnetic fields that might interfere with signal transmission.
The resolution of an encoder is determined by the number of pulses per revolution of the encoder shaft. The resolution determines the smallest amount of shaft rotation that the encoder is able to indicate. If an encoder generates 1024 pulses per revolution, it can indicate a movement of 1/ 1024 of a revolution or 0.35 degrees of rotation. The effective resolution of an encoder can be improved by using pulse multiplication. This procedure is shown in Figure 5-10.
Figure 5-10. Encoder wiring diagram
The A and B signals shown in Figure 5-10 are the outputs of a quadrature encoder. The 1X signal is a series of narrow pulses corresponding to the low-to-high transitions of the A signal. These pulses are typically generated by the device that receives or uses the encoder signal.
The resolution of the 1X signal is equal to the encoder PPR. The 2X signal contains pulses corresponding to both the low-to-high transitions and the high-to-low transitions of the A signal. The resolution of the 2X signal is twice the encoder PPR. The 4X signal contains pulses corresponding to the low-to-high and high-to-low transitions of both the A and the B signals. The effective resolution of the 4X signal is four times the encoder PPR.
To correctly apply encoders, the specifications of the encoder must be determined. Then the applications specifics can be matched to the encoder that would best meet the requirements. At this point, a review of typical encoder specifications is in order.
The most basic encoder specification is the resolution or number of pulses per revolution of the encoder shaft. In general, using the highest possible pulses per revolution allows the best possible drive performance. High PPR allows speed to be measured more accurately and sampled more fre-
quently. The pulse frequency is determined by the encoder-operating speed and the resolution according to the following formula:
The following example illustrates the pulse-frequency calculation for a 2048 PPR encoder operating at 1800 rpm. Note that the pulse frequency unit of measurement, hertz, is equivalent to pulses per second. The minute and revolution units cancel, leaving pulses-per-second or hertz as the units of measurement.
The encoder PPR must be selected so that the pulse frequency is high enough to allow the required performance at the minimum operating speed. At the maximum operating speed, the pulse frequency must not exceed the maximum output frequency capability of the encoder. It also must not exceed the maximum input frequency capability of the circuitry that receives the signal.
Some drives can be adjusted to accept any PPR value within a specified range. Other drives accept only specific PPR values, such as 1024 PPR or 2048 PPR. The accuracy of an encoder is the maximum percentage variation between the actual positions of the pulse edges or transitions and the theoretical correct positions. The encoder accuracy is not the only factor that determines the speed-measurement accuracy. Speed-measurement accuracy is influenced by the encoder timing and counting accuracy. It is also influenced by the mechanical backlash in the coupling to the machine.
The measurement method may improve upon the encoder accuracy by averaging a number of pulses in each measurement. When speed is averaged over an extended period of time, the measurement accuracy will be determined entirely by the timing and counting accuracy.
The basic specification for the output signals indicates whether the encoder has a single output or quadrature output and whether or not a zero marker is provided. If complementary output signals are provided, the encoder specification may identify the IC-type number for the line driver. The output voltage and current ratings should also be specified. Single-ended outputs are often open collector, current sinking outputs. Most encoders provide square-wave outputs (50% duty cycle), but some models may be available with a fixed-pulse width.
Output specifications must be checked for compatibility with the circuitry that will receive the signal. Encoders require an external power source. The most common requirements are 12 and 24 VDC. Encoders are also available for operation at 5 VDC. However, these encoders are not recommended for installations requiring a long cable distance between the encoder and the drive.
Most encoders require a regulated input supply voltage and provide an output at the same voltage level as the input voltage. If the encoder has its own voltage regulator, its output signal level will be considerably lower than the input supply voltage. If the drive is designed to provide a regulated encoder supply voltage, it may not accept an encoder signal at a voltage level that is significantly below the supply voltage.
Before installation, the user should verify that the output voltage of the encoder is compatible with the input voltage range of the drive’s encoder input. In addition, all encoders have minimum and maximum operating temperature ratings. If the encoder is subjected to temperatures outside the specified limits, it may not operate correctly and can ultimately be damaged. A possible source of encoder damage is heat. Heat is very likely to be conducted to the encoder housing through the mounting structure from motor or machine. An encoder should be selected with an operating temperature rating that is suitable for the location and mounting method.
A variety of mechanical specifications define the type of encoder housing available and the type of mounting arrangement possible. Encoders are available with various degrees of protection from moisture and environmental contaminants. The degree of protection is determined by the encoder housing type and material, the shaft material, the type of shaft seal, etc. Explosion-proof models are available for use in areas where fire or explosion hazards may exist because of flammable gases or vapors. Various bearing ratings are available to accommodate a wide range of radial and axial loads that might be subjected to the shaft of the encoder.
There will also be a maximum operating speed determined by the mechanical construction of the encoder. For each PPR rating, there will be a maximum speed corresponding to the encoder’s maximum output frequency capability as described in a previous paragraph. The encoder manufacturer’s installation and alignment procedures must always be carefully followed to ensure reliable operation.
Once the encoder is properly installed, it must be wired to the specifications of both the encoder and drive manufacturer. Careful attention to wiring is essential to ensure that a drive with encoder feedback performs properly. The following recommendations cover the most common requirements.
Each encoder output channel and the power supply should be connected using an individually shielded twisted pair of wires. Encoder wiring and a connection scheme are shown in Figure 5-11.
Figure 5-11. Encoder wiring diagram
Three individual cables or a three-pair cable can be used. If a three-pair cable is used, be sure that each pair of wires is individually shielded. The shields are to be grounded as recommended by the drive instruction material. Shielded cable is grounded at only one point to prevent ground loops or circulating currents through the shield conductor. The best ground location is usually at the drive. The encoder cable must be run in a steel conduit. Cables from more than one encoder can be run in the same conduit, but the conduit cannot carry power wiring.
Encoder cable should be a low-capacitance type of cable, designed for high-speed digital signals such as RS-422/485 serial communications signals.
Since the relationship between encoder shaft rotation and quadrature signal phasing is not standardized, this relationship can vary among encoder models. The instruction material furnished with the encoder is the best source of determining the encoder phasing. Phasing corresponds to the selected motor direction. If the drive does not operate properly upon initial startup, encoder phasing could be a suspect. It may be necessary to determine proper phasing by trial and error.
Note: Today’s microprocessor-based adjustable-speed drives are designed for use with incremental encoders rather than analog tachometer generators. Although some models may accept a feedback signal from a DC tach, the best performance is obtained by using an encoder. Analog tachometer generators have better EMI immunity compared with encoders. However, with the use of differential signals and careful attention to wiring, EMI immunity of an encoder can be equal or better than that of an analog tach.
If an analog tach is used, it is necessary to determine what range of signals are compatible with the drive circuitry that it will be connected to. The circuit must be designed for either a DC or AC tach. The maximum input voltage and tach-generating voltage at maximum speed are factors to consider before purchasing a tach. Using a tach with the maximum compati-
ble volts per 1000 rpm will provide the best performance over a wide speed range.
A resolver is a “position” transducer, with characteristics that resemble a small motor. This type of feedback device would be used mainly with servo motor applications where precise feedback of rotor position is critical to system accuracy. For example, in cut-to-length applications, linear position of a sliding table or cutting arm would be a function of the position of the rotor. Figure 5-12 shows a diagram of a resolver.
Figure 5-12. Resolver diagram
A resolver is very similar to an AC induction motor. A resolver contains a single winding rotor that rotates inside fixed coils of wire, called stators. A reference voltage is typically applied to the rotor winding. This rotating winding has a magnetic field that induces a voltage in the stator windings, which produce an analog output. This analog output is proportional to shaft (rotor) rotation.
Basically, the resolver is a rotating transformer. The rotating primary (rotor) induces a voltage in the fixed winding secondaries (stator windings). The analog output is what is fed back to the drive as an actual speed signal, or what would be considered a position signal.
Because there are no electronics involved with resolvers, they are better suited for dirty environments than encoders. Also, the resolver is a device that is an absolute measuring instrument. It can retain its exact location during a power outage. Typically the resolver can transmit information over distances up to 1000 feet with little effect from electrical noise. The resolution of some resolvers can be rated as high as 16,384 counts (14 bit or 214).
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Apple has hired Doug Bowman, a virtual reality researcher, for an unknown project, The Financial Times reports.
Prior to working at Apple, Bowman was a professor of computer science at Virginia Tech University, where his research focused on virtual reality.
According to his academic profile, his work focused on "three-dimensional user interface design and the benefits of immersion in virtual environments."
Apple has recently been looking to beef up its virtual, and augmented, reality efforts. The company has bought a series of small startups which focused on the technology, along with filing several patents.
Microsoft, Google, Samsung, and HTC are all working on either augmented (or "mixed") reality or virtual reality. The difference is that augmented reality adds to the current world while virtual reality swaps it out for another.
Microsoft's HoloLens, an augmented reality headset, goes on sale to developers later this year while Google's Cardboard, which works with an Android phone, has already been released.
Oculus, which is owned by Facebook, has been making big strides with virtual reality and recently announced its first headset, named Rift, will go on sale for $600 (£420) in March.
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Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)
Importance of Newborn Screening for SCID
Babies born with Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) appear normal at birth but cannot fight infection. They may die before 1 year of age without medical treatment1. If SCID is diagnosed early in life, before the onset of infection, a bone marrow transplant can successfully treat the disorder.
Newborn screening identifies babies with congenital disorders like SCID. Nearly 4 million newborns are screened annually in the U.S. for numerous diseases, and 32 states and the District of Columbia currently screen for SCID. CDC's Division of Laboratory Sciences has developed laboratory tests and reference materials for SCID using dried bloodspots and is working to advance screening nationwide.
Shortly after a baby is born, a health professional takes a few drops of blood from the baby's heel. The blood sample is sent to a state laboratory to be tested for several severe disorders. Although each state decides which disorders are included in the screening, the Secretary's Advisory Committee on Heritable Disorders in Newborns and Children (SACHDNC) recommends states test for a core panel of 31 congenital disorders2. SCID was added to the core Recommended Uniform Screening Panel (RUSP) in 2010.
CDC Laboratory Program Activities
Since 2008, CDC has worked to increase the number of U.S states and territories that include accurate SCID testing as part of their newborn screening programs. In an effort to expand and improve screening, CDC's Division of Laboratory Sciences:
- Funds SCID test development and early screening in collaboration with states,
- Provides training and technical assistance to state labs screening for SCID,
- Develops new laboratory methods to identify babies with SCID,
- Provides testing materials to labs to help ensure accurate SCID screening, and
- Sponsors conferences and meetings to educate scientist about methods and reference materials for SCID testing.
CDC's Division of Laboratory Sciences funds SCID screening by state public health laboratories through cooperative agreements with newborn screening programs. Eligible state or territorial programs are those that have not previously conducted state-wide SCID newborn screening and demonstrate sufficient laboratory expertise, facilities, and legal authority to conduct screening. Awardees include:
- Louisiana, Nevada, and North Carolina (2015)
- Georgia, Virginia, and Oklahoma (2013)
- Michigan and Minnesota (2011)
- Wisconsin and Massachusetts (2008)
Successful newborn screening pilot studies in these states have:
- Ensured SCID screening tests were ready for nationwide use,
- Served as models for other states to implement population-based screening, and
- Provided evidence to support the addition of SCID to the RUSP.
In 2015, CDC funded New York to develop advanced laboratory screening techniques and quality assurance materials that will improve the detection of SCID.
SCID Program Outcomes
The primary goal of CDC's newborn screening program is to improve the health and lives of newborns. SCID newborn screening program activities continue to:
- Increase number of laboratories screening for SCID
- Increase number of babies screened for SCID
- Improve state laboratory capacity
- Improve state laboratory performance
CDC funding has helped states screen for more than one million babies for SCID. The Division of Laboratory Sciences continues to conduct proficiency testing programs with quarterly send outs to all U.S. laboratories currently screening for SCID.
- Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Newborn blood spot screening for severe combined immunodeficiency by measurement of T-cell receptor excision circles; Approved guideline. CLSI NBS06-A 2013.
- Selection of conditions based upon Newborn Screening: Towards a Uniform Screening Panel and System. Genetic Med. 2006; 8(5) Suppl: S12-S252 as authored by the American College of Medical Genetics (ACMG) and commissioned by the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA).
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Using a technique called high-resolution atomic force microscopy (AFM), researchers in China have visualized the molecular structure of a hydrogen bond.
Image: AFM images of 8-hydroxyquinoline on a copper surface show hydrogen-bonding interactions at low temperature; C = gray, H = white, O = red, N = blue, Cu = orange. Credit: Science.
Hydrogen bonds are incredibly useful and they're all over nature. Most famously, they're responsible for holding the two strands of the double helix of DNA together. They also give water its unique properties. Chemists describe a hydrogen bond as the attractive force between the hydrogen attached to an electronegative atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom of a different molecule.
Chemists are very familiar with the way it looks — but only at a theoretical level. No one has ever actually seen a hydrogen bond, at least until now. The visualization breakthrough now appears in Science: “Real-Space Identification of Intermolecular Bonding with Atomic Force Microscopy.”
Image: AFM images of 8-hydroxyquinoline on a copper surface show hydrogen-bonding interactions at room temperature; C = gray, H = white, O = red, N = blue, Cu = orange. Credit: Science.
To create these remarkable images, a team led by Xiaohui Qiu and Zhihai Cheng of China’s National Center for Nanoscience & Technology, along with Wei Ji of Renmin University of China, used noncontact AFM to scan for the forces that rest between molecules in variety of compounds. The winning combination was 8-hydroxyquinoline (an organic compound) deposited on a copper surface.
As some of you may remember, this technique is similar to the one used by Felix Fischer and his team who earlier this year created the first image of molecules breaking and reforming chemical bonds. Specifically, they visualized the positions of individual atoms and bonds in a molecule having 26 carbon atoms and 14 hydrogen atoms structured as three connected benzene rings.
But for the new study, the scientists took the process to the next level by using the same technique to sniff-out weaker interactions rather than just the covalent bonds. Working at temperatures near absolute zero, the scientists watched as 8-hydroxyquinoline formed hydrogen-bonded aggregates, with the electron density of the hydrogen bonds made visible via the atomic force microscope. The researchers also produced images of hydrogen bonds at room temperature.
Interestingly, some scientists speculate that hydrogen bonds contain some covalent aspects. Breakthroughs like this could shed some light on the issue.
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To form the Arco Capaz, start with segment AB and angle CAB. Draw line through A perpendicular to AC. Draw perpendicular bisector to AB. Obtain the point O of intersection on these two new lines. Draw the circle centered at O passing through A. If E is on the arc of the circle between A and B (on the opposite side of AB from C), then the angle measure of AEB is equal t the measure of CAB.
In the following applet you can drag points A, B, C, and E to move the figure.
This page uses JavaSketchpad, a World-Wide-Web component of The Geometer's Sketchpad. Copyright © 1990-2001 by KCP Technologies, Inc. Licensed only for non-commercial use.
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April, 1863. Men and women, young and old, from all walks of life, gathered on the thoroughfare leading to the banks of the River Tigris in Baghdad to bid a tearful farewell to One Who had become their friend, their comforter and their guide.
Mirza Husayn-‘Alí—known as Bahá’u’lláh—was being banished from their midst. As a prominent follower of the Báb, whose teachings had swept through Persia two decades before, Bahá’u’lláh had forfeited the privileged life into which He had been born, and instead embraced imprisonment and exile for the rest of His days.
But despair would soon be transformed into hope: Before leaving the environs of Baghdad, Bahá’u’lláh would announce to His companions what many of them had already suspected—that He was the great Divine Educator heralded by the Báb, the initiator of a new era in history in which the tyrannies and injustices of the past would give way to a world of peace and justice: an embodiment of the principle of the oneness of humankind.
The “Divine Springtime,” He would unequivocally proclaim, had arrived.
Born in Tehran, Iran on 12 November, 1817, Mirza Husayn-‘Alí enjoyed all the advantages conferred by noble birth. From a very early age, He displayed extraordinary knowledge and wisdom.
The city of Tehran, Iran, where Bahá’u’lláh was born.
As a young man, rather than pursuing a career in government service as His father had done, Mirza Husayn-‘Alí chose to devote His energies to the care of the poor. He showed no interest in seeking position or prominence.
With His acceptance of the religion of the Báb, life permanently changed for the young nobleman and His family. Although They never met in person, from the moment Mirza Husayn-‘Alí heard of the Báb’s message, He declared His wholehearted belief in it and put all of His energy and influence into promoting it.
In 1848, a significant gathering of the Báb’s followers took place in a village in the northeast of Iran named Badasht. Mirza Husayn-‘Alí played a central role in the proceedings, which affirmed the independent character of the new religion. From this time onwards, Mirza Husayn-‘Alí was known as Bahá’u’lláh, meaning the “Glory of God” in Arabic.
As the community of the Báb’s followers grew, so did the fierce opposition it provoked. Thousands upon thousands were subjected to the most cruel and barbaric treatment, and many were put to death. When three hundred Bábís sought refuge in a deserted shrine called Shaykh Tabarsi, Bahá’u’lláh set out to join them, but He was prevented from reaching His destination.
In 1850, the Báb was publicly executed. With the majority of the Báb’s leading supporters killed, it soon became evident that Bahá’u’lláh was the only One to Whom the remaining Bábís could turn.
In 1852, Bahá’u’lláh was falsely charged with complicity in an attempt on the life of Nasiruddin Shah, the King of Iran. When the warrant was issued, He set out to face His accusers, much to the astonishment of those who were charged with arresting Him. They conducted Him, barefoot and in chains, through teeming streets to a notorious subterranean dungeon, known as the “Black Pit.”
The dungeon had once been the reservoir for a public bath. Within its walls, prisoners languished in the cold and unhealthy air, clamped together by an unbearably heavy chain that left its mark on Bahá’u’lláh’s body for the rest of His life.
It was in this grim setting that the rarest and most cherished of events was once again played out: a mortal man, outwardly human in every respect, was chosen by God to bring to humanity a new message.
This experience of Divine Revelation, touched on only indirectly in surviving accounts of the lives of Moses, Christ, and Muhammad, is illustrated in Bahá’u’lláh’s own words: “During the days I lay in the prison of Tihran, though the galling weight of the chains and the stench-filled air allowed Me but little sleep, still in those infrequent moments of slumber I felt as if something flowed from the crown of My head over My breast, even as a mighty torrent that precipitateth itself upon the earth from the summit of a lofty mountain…At such moments My tongue recited what no man could bear to hear.”
After four months of intense suffering, Bahá’u’lláh—now ill and utterly exhausted—was released and exiled forever from His native Iran. He and his family were sent to Baghdad. There, the remaining followers of the Báb increasingly turned to Bahá’u’lláh for moral and spiritual guidance. The nobility of His character, the wisdom of His counsel, the kindness that He showered upon all and the increasing evidences of superhuman greatness in Him, revived the downtrodden community.
Bahá’u’lláh’s emergence as the leader of the community of the Báb’s followers increasingly aroused the intense jealousy of Mirza Yahya, His ambitious, younger half-brother. Mirza Yahya made several shameless efforts to slander Bahá’u’lláh’s character and sow seeds of suspicion and doubt among His companions. To remove Himself from being the cause of tension, Bahá’u’lláh retired to the mountains of Kurdistan, where He remained for two years, reflecting on His divine purpose. This period of His life was reminiscent of Moses' withdrawal to Mount Sinai, Christ’s days in the wilderness, and Muhammad's retreat in the Arabian hills.
Yet even in this remote region, Bahá’u’lláh’s fame spread. People heard that a man of extraordinary wisdom and eloquence was to be found there. When such stories reached Baghdad, the Bábís, guessing Bahá’u’lláh’s identity, dispatched a mission to implore Him to return.
Residing once more in Baghdad, Bahá’u’lláh reinvigorated the Báb’s followers; the stature of the community grew and His reputation spread ever further. He composed three of His most renowned works at this time—the Hidden Words, the Seven Valleys and the Book of Certitude (Kitáb-i-Íqán). While Bahá’u’lláh’s writings alluded to His station, it was not yet the time for a public announcement.
As Bahá’u’lláh’s fame spread, the envy and malice of some of the clergy was rekindled. Representations were made to the Shah of Iran to ask the Ottoman Sultan to remove Bahá’u’lláh further from the Iranian border. A second banishment was decreed.
A modern view of the house of Rida Big, the residence of Bahá’u’lláh in Adrianople for one year. The Mosque of Sultan Salim is in the background.
At the end of April 1863, shortly before leaving the environs of Baghdad for Istanbul (known as Constantinople in the English language of the time), Bahá’u’lláh and His companions resided for twelve days in a garden which He named Ridván, meaning “Paradise”. There, on the banks of the River Tigris, Bahá’u’lláh declared Himself to be the One heralded by the Báb—God’s Messenger to the age of humanity’s collective maturity, foretold in all the world's scriptures.
Three months after departing Baghdad, Bahá’u’lláh and His fellow exiles reached Constantinople. They remained there for just four months before a further banishment took them to Edirne (Adrianople), a gruelling journey undertaken during the coldest of winters. In Adrianople, their accommodation failed to protect them from the bitter temperatures.
Bahá’u’lláh referred to Adrianople as the “remote prison.” Yet despite the inhospitable conditions under which the exiles were forced to live, inspired verses continued to flow from Bahá’u’lláh’s pen, and His message reached as far away as Egypt and India.
During this period Mirza Yahya, the jealous half-brother of Bahá’u’lláh, contrived to poison Him. This tragic episode left Bahá’u’lláh with a tremor that showed in His handwriting to the end of His life.
Beginning in September 1867, Bahá’u’lláh wrote a series of letters to the leaders and rulers of various nations. In these prescient writings, He openly proclaimed His station, speaking of the dawn of a new age. But first, He warned, there would be catastrophic upheavals in the world's political and social order. He summoned the world's leaders to uphold justice and called upon them to convene an assembly where they would meet and put an end to war. Only by acting collectively, He said, could a lasting peace be established. His warnings fell upon deaf ears.
An illuminated copy of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, commissioned by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in 1902.
Continued agitation from Bahá’u’lláh’s detractors caused the Ottoman government to banish Him one final time, to its most notorious penal colony. Arriving in the Mediterranean prison city of ‘Akká on 31 August 1868, Bahá’u’lláh was to spend the rest of His life in the fortified city and its environs.
Confined to a prison for more than two years, He and His companions were later moved to a cramped house within the city's walls. Little by little, the moral character of the Bahá’ís—particularly Bahá’u’lláh’s eldest son, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá—softened the hearts of their jailers, and penetrated the bigotry and indifference of ‘Akká’s residents. As in Baghdad and Adrianople, the nobility of Bahá’u’lláh’s character gradually won the admiration of the community at large, including some of its leaders.
In ‘Akká, Bahá’u’lláh revealed His most important work, the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (the Most Holy Book), in which He outlined the essential laws and principles of His Faith, and established the foundations for a global administrative order.
In the late 1870s, Bahá’u’lláh—while still a prisoner—was granted some freedom to move outside of the city's walls, allowing His followers to meet with Him in relative peace. In April 1890, Professor Edward Granville Browne of Cambridge University met Bahá’u’lláh at the mansion near ‘Akká where He had taken up residence.
The Mansion of Mazra’ih — one of the homes where Bahá’u’lláh stayed after being released from the prison city of ‘Akká.
Browne wrote of their meeting: “The face of Him on Whom I gazed I can never forget, though I cannot describe it. Those piercing eyes seemed to read one's very soul; power and authority sat on that ample brow…No need to ask in whose presence I stood, as I bowed myself before one who is the object of a devotion and love which kings might envy and emperors sigh for in vain.”
Bahá’u’lláh passed away on 29 May, 1892. In His will, He designated ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as His successor and Head of the Bahá’í Faith — the first time in history that the Founder of a world religion had named his successor in a written irrefutable text. This choice of a successor is a central provision of what is known as the “Covenant of Bahá’u’lláh,” enabling the Bahá’í community to remain united for all time.
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Use radio buttons to indicate a set of mutually exclusive but related choices. Users can select one option in a group. Users tap a radio button to select or clear it.
- Use radio buttons for two or more choices when space is not an issue. If space is limited, consider using a drop-down list instead.
- Verify that the content for radio buttons remains static. Content for radio buttons should not change depending on the context.
- Do not start an action as soon as users select a radio button. For example, do not open a new screen when users select a radio button.
- Group and order radio buttons logically. For example, group related options together or include the most common options first.
- Avoid ordering radio buttons alphabetically. Alphabetical order is language-specific.
- Use clear, concise labels. Verify that the label clearly describes what occurs when users select the radio button.
- Place labels on the right side of radio buttons.
- Use sentence case capitalization for the individual radio buttons in a group. Capitalize the first word and any other word that requires capitalization (such as a proper noun).
- Do not use end punctuation.
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XEN IV: CPU Complex
The CPU Complex on the XEN card is a standard PC. The choice of a PC architecture was based on several considerations:
A PC based CPU complex will be the cheapest to implement because of use of standard components
A PC based development system can be used easily for development. There is no need to cross compile to a different platform.
Many Real Time operating system choices are available for the PC platform
The OMC will be a Windows 2000 based Workstation using the same processor, so there will be byte swapping problems between the OMC and the XEN/CAS cards.
The CPU Complex will be equipped with 64 Mbytes of RAM, 8 Mbytes of ROM and a standard 10/100 Mbps Ethernet port for message communication between the XEN processor and the rest of the switch.
In addition to the standard PC functionality, the CPU Complex will support a watchdog monitor. The watchdog monitors main objective is to reset the processor if it finds that the hardware or software are hanging. This watchdog signal is passed to seven other XEN processors in the processor group. Thus the CPU complex also supports inputs from the watchdog signals of seven other XEN processors. A watchdog for another XEN processor will be reported to the CAS card. On self watchdog, the board will be reset.
The XEN card accepts power from a unregulated power supply and this module provides a regulated power supply interface to the card. A fringe benefit of a onboard power supply is that it simplifies software handling, as power supply failure don’t have to be delt with separately.
It may be noted that the Power Supply is mounted as a child card on the XEN card. This is required because typically Power Supply failure rates are much higher than other components. Thus when a Power Supply on a XEN card fails, it can be replaced onsite with a new Power Supply child card. Only the child card will have to be shipped for repair.
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Who Picked the Most?
Date: 09/12/98 at 00:27:23 From: Will Subject: Summer Vacation During summer vacation, Anita, Brent, Carlo, and Donna worked together picking peaches. At the end of the season, they compared the number of peaches that they each had picked. They made note of the following facts: 1. Brent picked more than Anita and Carlos picked together. 2. The total of what Anita and Brent picked just equaled the number Carlos and Donna picked together. 3. The total picked by Donna and Carlos was more than the total picked by Brent and Carlos. Arrange the names of the people in the order of the number of peaches that each picked, starting with the person who picked the most. The answer I have is that Donna picked the most because of fact number 3. Brent came in second because of fact number 1. But the part that I have trouble with is finding who came in 3rd and who picked the fewest peaches, Anita or Carlos.
Date: 09/12/98 at 10:34:04 From: Doctor Kate Subject: Re: Summer Vacation Will: I would find this problem very difficult to solve in my head. Instead, I'm going to try a very useful translation technique. Let's call the amounts Anita, Brent, Carlos and Donna picked "A", "B", "C", and "D" for short. Now let's translate the clues. 1. Brent picked more than Anita and Carlos picked together. That is, the amount Brent picked, B, is more than what Anita and Carlos picked together, A + C. (Do you see why I've added A and C? If A is what Anita picked, and C is what Carlos picked, A + C is what they've picked together.) So this clue really means: B > A + C Now that you see what I'm doing, let's translate the others. You try it first, and then see if you get the same thing I get. 2. The total of what Anita and Brent picked just equaled the amount Carlos and Donna picked together: A + B = C + D 3. The total picked by Donna and Carlos was more than the total picked by Brent and Carlos: D + C > B + C Okay, so what does that do for us? Well, it gives us three pieces of information in the form of equations and inequalities. We can combine these bits of information mathematically. Here's where all the algebra comes in. First, notice that if D + C > B + C , we can remove C from both sides and find that D > B. In plain English, if Donna and Carlos picked more together than Brent and Carlos did, Donna must have picked more than Brent. So Donna's looking good as a winner, but we don't know that quite yet. We don't know anything about Anita and we aren't sure where Carlos is. Let's do some more algebra. We also know B > A + C. This means that B > A and B > C because we know that A and C are both zero or positive numbers. This one makes most sense in english. If Brent picked more than Anita and Carlos combined, surely he picked more than Anita and more than Carlos separately. So we have D > B, B > A and B > C. So the only thing left to know is whether A > C, A = C or A < C. That's where you got stuck. This part is a little more tricky, and we have to rely more on the algebra instead of the mathematics. A good idea to find out where to start is to ask "What information have I not used?" and the answer is that we haven't used the fact that A + B = C + D. So let's try to use this information. Well, looking at it by itself, it doesn't tell us whether A or C is bigger, but we are forgetting what we already know. That is, that D > B. Now, in algebra, we say that: A + B = C + D and C + D > C + B So we know A + B > C + B. We can use the same trick as before and get rid of the B, finding that A > C. And we're done. What does it mean? Well, this is a little trickier in English, but I could say it like this: We know that Anita and Brent picked the same as Carlos and Donna, but Donna picked more than Brent. So Anita must have picked more than Carlos in order to make the pairs equal. It's hard to imagine in English, and it's worth the effort of trying, but later in mathematics you'll encounter all sorts of problems that no one can do in English, but the Mathematical methods will be able to solve. So being able to do this problem both ways is important. So please let me know if you have any questions. - Doctor Kate, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/
Search the Dr. Math Library:
Ask Dr. MathTM
© 1994-2015 The Math Forum
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The age of Victoria (1837-1901) approaches our own so
closely that it is still difficult to form an accurate judgment of
its history or literature. In a review of the history of the age we
noted three factors, democracy, science, imperialism, which have
profoundly influenced English letters from 1850 to the present
Our study of Victorian literature includes (1) The life and works
of the two greater poets of the age, Tennyson and Browning. (2) The
work of Elizabeth Barrett, Matthew Arnold, Rossetti, Morris and
Swinburne, who were selected from the two hundred representive
poets of the period. (3) The life and the chief works of the major
novelists, Dickens, Thackeray and George Eliot. (4) A review of
some other novelists of the age, the Brontë Sisters, Mrs. Gaskell,
Anthony Trollope, Blackmore, Kingsley, Meredith, Hardy and
Stevenson. (5) The typical essayists and historians, Macaulay,
Carlyle, Ruskin, with a review of other typical groups of writers
in the fields of religion, history and science.
Selections for Reading
Typical selections from all authors named
in the text are found in Manly, English Poetry, English Prose;
Pancoast, Standard English Poems, Standard English Prose; and
several other collections, which are especially useful in a study
of the minor writers. The works of the major authors may be read to
much better advantage in various inexpensive editions prepared for
school use. Only a few such editions are named below for each
author, but a fairly complete list is given under Texts in the
Tennyson's selected minor poems, Idylls of the King, The Princess
and In Memoriam, in Standard English Classics, Riverside
Literature, Pocket Classics, Silver Classics. A good volume
containing the best of Tennyson's poems in Athenĉum Press Series.
Browning and Mrs. Browning, selected poems in Standard English
Classics, Lake Classics, English Readings, Belles Lettres Series.
Matthew Arnold, selected poems in Golden Treasury Series, Maynard's
English Classics; Sohrab and Rustum in Standard English Classics;
prose selections in English Readings, Academy Classics.
Dickens, Tale of Two Cities, David Copperfield, Christmas Carol in
Standard English Classics, Lake Classics; other novels in
Thackeray, Henry Esmond in Standard English Classics, Pocket
Classics; English Humorists in Lake Classics, English Readings;
other works in Everyman's Library.
George Eliot, Silas Marner, in Standard English Classics, Riverside
Literature; Mill on the Floss and other novels in Everyman's
Blackmore's Lorna Doone and Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford in Standard
English Classics. Reade's Cloister and the Hearth, Kingsley's
Westward Ho and Hypatia in Everyman's Library.
Macaulay, selected essays in Standard English Classics, Riverside
Literature, Lake Classics.
Carlyle, Essay on Burns in Standard English Classics, Academy
Classics; Heroes and Hero Worship in Athenĉum Press, Pocket
Classics; French Revolution in Everyman's Library.
Ruskin, Sesame and Lilies and selected essays and letters in
Standard English Classics; selections from Ruskin's art books in
Riverside Literature; other works in Everyman's Library.
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Some of the more interesting attempts to establish schools here were developed by Anna Harriet Leonowens and Daniel Tompkins.
Anna came to Staten Island after spending several years teaching the children of the King of Siam. She lived on Tompkins Place for three years and established a private school for girls in West Brighton.
Anna, you may remember, was the inspiration for Rogers and Hammerstein’s hit play and movie, “The King and I.”
Tompkins, who did a great deal to develop Staten Island while he was Governor of New York state, worked hard to bring an institution of higher learning to Staten Island.
He tried to relocate Columbia College, Washington College and finally West Point to Staten Island, but these efforts failed. He finally gave up when more personal and financial issues demanded his attention.
While these efforts failed, many others were successful, including Wagner College, Notre Dame College, St. John’s University and the Augustinian Academy, all located on Grymes Hill.
Grymes Hill is a very special place on Staten Island. Carved by a receding glacier, it possesses sweeping views of the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, the New Jersey waterfront and the Manhattan skyline.
These features drew some the most prominent people in New York to establish their homes here. They included Capt. Jacob H. Vanderbilt, Sir Edward Cunard, Gen. William Greene Ward, Madam Suzette Grymes and John Gans.
Most of these names are familiar, with the exception of John Gans. He is a man who would play an important role in establishing Notre Dame College. Gans, a German immigrant, owned a steamship company.
He built his estate overlooking the harbor so he could oversee his business and still enjoy the peaceful, serene surroundings that Staten Island provided. After Gans’ death, his family lived in the 24-room Georgian style mansion until it was sold in 1934.
Actually, before St. John’s University took over its campus on Grymes Hill, the site was the home of Notre Dame College and was run by the Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame.
In 1903, the Sisters established an academy offering both an elementary and high school education for young women. In 1928, they began offering college courses for women as an extension of Fordham University under the direction of Sister Helen Flynn (also known as Mother Saint Egbert). Sister Flynn served in a leadership role for the college until 1965.
The new college needed a home. Fortunately, Sister Flynn had a very good relationship with the Gans family and was able to purchase the 24-room Georgian style mansion, along with its surrounding grounds, for $105,000. An additional nine acres and two buildings of the Gans estate were added to support the growing college in 1955. Today, the Administration Building Flynn Hall is the original Gans home.
That first class of 31 students began a tradition of offering women an opportunity to continue their education beyond their high school years. In 1933, they received their own charter for an independent, four-year liberal arts college.
It was an exciting time for the community, as expressed several years later in an editorial in the schools newspaper: “When you educate a man, you educate a person; when you educate a woman, you educate a family.”
The college became a dynamic and lively center for both education and public service. The campus sponsored many conferences. However, it never lost its small and intimate culture or varied from its original mission.
During the late 1960s, it was becoming increasingly difficult for small, private colleges to survive and Notre Dame College was not immune. Eventually, the college submitted to the financial pressures of operating in the New York City metropolitan area and closed its doors in 1971.
Fortunately, there were people interested in maintaining a Catholic institution of higher education on Staten Island.
Terence Cardinal Cooke interceded and asked the Vincentian Fathers of St. John’s University to integrate Notre Dame College into their university.
Since the ideals fostered by Notre Dame College perfectly complemented the Vincentian values, the St. John’s community enthusiastically supported the merger, which was approved by the Board of Regents in January 1971. Â
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Could one of the answers to Britain's future need for electric power be harnessing the wind with blades as tall as St. Paul's Cathedral? One of Britain's top experts on alternative energy believes that it could be so. But other sources warn that giant windmills have run into trouble in the United States and that they may be too difficult to build.
John Wright, director of the Technology and Planning Division of Britain's Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) sees ''good prospects'' in wind power.
Britain has plenty of wind, he points out. The CEGB has commissioned a 200 -kilowatt wind turbine at Camarthen Bay to launch a 10-year research project into wind potential.
The Scottish hydroelectric board is building a much bigger 3-megawatt windmill on Orkney Island. In theory, Mr. Wright says, wind turbines could generate 7 percent of current electricity consumption.
Yet other sources point to unhappy US experiences with giant windmills. Noted here is a report in the publication Energy Daily in Washington that all five of the US government's big windmills have been shut down.
A fail-safe device stopped a giant Boeing 2.5-megawatt windmill in Washington State, the Daily reported. An engineer climbed the 200-foot-high tower to find a big crack around the drive shaft holding the 100-ton rotor.
US officials are said to estimate that repair costs per windmill will be at least $500,000.
''These big windmills are uneconomic,'' a scientist here says. ''If you build them big to be efficient, the blades are too heavy and they crack. If you build them small, they are uneconomic. I'm not sure they can be built at all.''
But Mr. Wright sees possibilities. He sees wind power as more promising than solar in Britain, a country notoriously short of sun. Nor is he impressed with harnessing British waves or tides, or the heat from Britain's hot dry rocks.
Britain's Department of Energy has concluded that wave power was not promising enough to warrant expensive sea trials. An experiment with tides will probably not be built before the end of the century.
Critics of the CEGB say it deliberately downgrades alternative energy sources to push its own plans for nuclear power stations.
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Difference Between Weed and Hash
Weed vs Hash
Weed aka Grass aka Pot aka Marijuana aka Marihuana aka Mary Jane aka Dope aka Ganja aka Reefer comes from the same plant as Hash aka Hashish aka Charas aka Stuff aka Manali aka Cream. That plant is Cannabis Sativa.
Definition of Weed and Hash
- Basically Weed is the dried leaf of the plant and the fruit of the plant. It is dried to make it look sort of like regular tea leaves.
- Hash is the rubbed in, scrubbed out, pushed in, poked out, scraped off, mashed up resin of the leaves held together as a bunch and treated with various kinds of liquidly chemicals. The paste is then dried and cut into cakes of Hashish or Hash.
A Brief History of Weed and Hash
The Cannabis leaf is kind of like in the shape of Canada’s flag-symbol. But green. The green mean peace machine gained hype in the 60s Hippie Movement though it has been around in India and China for Centuries and Millennia. Weed is some say ‘completely harmless’ and hash ‘almost harmless’, which is of course in comparison to Alcohol and Cigarettes.
Like the Lotus plant has many uses for all its parts (root is eaten and flower used as decoration), Cannabis also has many uses. It was discovered in China centuries ago to make paper, hemp cloth and bags. It is mainly used for two uses today ‘“ to make Weed and Hash.
World over Legalisation and Medical use activists are gaining ground, demanding legal use of the herb they claim has wonderful medicinal and healing properties. The US went on a banning spree in the 60s when it made many countries accept the criminalization of Cannabis.
Although both the above are classified as Soft ‘Drugs’, till date no over dose death case has been registered. People hardly seem to go out and cause road accidents when DUP (pot*) as compared to thousands in DUI globally. Many countries have mock slap-on-the-wrist kind-of fines while some the death penalty, which is quite a range when it comes to the level of criminalization on Cannabis.
Uses of Weed and Hash
It is banned is many parts of the world with notable exception in Amsterdam. Many places world over have started legalizing it in the garb of medical use through Govt. Operated ‘shops’.
- Weed is attached to the non-smoke-able seeds and barks of the plant which need to be removed meticulously before making it ready for a bong or a joint or an empty cigarette paper or a chillum aka Chill. People find Hash to be more addictive and stronger (of course it’s the resin) than mellow Grass. It allegedly improves appetite (giving smokers the ‘munchies’), musical ability, lateral thinking, creative thinking, writing, meditation, etc. But all that’s speculation.
- Hash is also smoked in the same ways as Weed except it is stronger and more potent, and thus ‘potentially’ more damaging.
Examples of Weed and Hash
- Caribbean, Mysore, California Sun etc.
- Afghani, Kashmiri, Turkish, Manali etc.
1.Weed is a dried up leaf of a plant while hash is mashed up resin of the leaves.
2.Hash is stronger than weed.
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| 0.947849
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• After Frank Bergstrom’s harness building burns on Calumet Road in 1886,
concern is expressed that there is no town fire department when for two
blocks there is a solid row of wooden buildings downtown.
• In April, 1895 fire consumes 1,000 bushels of wheat, oats, corn, feed,
flour and lumber at the Blackwell mills at Calumet and Porter Avenue for a
$20,000 loss; no insurance.
• The Chesterton volunteer fire department is organized in June, 1902.
• A train spark ignites the Chicago Hydraulic Press Brick Co. fire in Porter
in October, 1904. Chesterton responds as Porter has no fire department and
one person later recalls, “It was so hot at times we could smell our clothes
scorching.” The brickyard sends firemen $100 in gratitude and rebuilds.
• When the regular Chesterton firemen doesn’t hear the alarm for a 1937 fire
on 15th Street, two local men in a nearby tavern take the fire truck and
respond. They later are arrested for public intoxication and driving a motor
vehicle without the permission of the owner. They are acquitted by a jury.
The men later sue the town citing lost chance for advancement at work, and
for becoming “ill and nervous.”
• Five men are killed March, 1955 in an Indiana Toll Road gas explosion two
miles south of Chesterton. The flames can be seen in Furnessville. Firemen
respond, but water is of no help.
• The same month in 1955 Chesterton firefighters respond to a fatal fire at
the home of Porter Town Marshal Francis Ray Wiesemann, which claims the life
of his wife Esther and daughter Camilla.
• Obrecht Truck & Trailer fire blazes in September, 1960.
• The Chesterton Fire Auxiliary helps feed about 100 college students from
Minneapolis, Minn. in 1978 after a snowstorm strands their buses at the
Duneland YMCA for nearly three days.
• The Dalmatian statue in front of the Broadway fire station is in memory of
Daisy, the Chesterton department’s mascot who accompanied firefighters in
the truck. She died in 1988 and is buried at the station; Bob and Sandy
Mitchell donated Daisy’s statue in 1997.
• Chesterton Terrace apartment building is completely destroyed by a gas
explosion and fire in September, 1996. Call comes in as a barbecue grill on
fire; seven departments respond.
• The following month, Ferrellgas on 15th Street sustains an explosion and
fire, catapulting propane tanks into the air.
• Old St. Patrick Church on Third Street is reduced to a gutted shell in an
August, 1998 fire.
• Malo’s Flower Shop on Lincoln Avenue burns down in February, 1999 but
firefighters save nearby gasoline pumps.
• A stubborn peat fire burns here in 1999. In 1895, the peat swamp west of
the enamel factory at 15th Street was set fire by a passing train. Buildings
were saved then by digging a trench near the enamel factory and filling it
Information provided by Eva Hopkins
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Cassop Primary School, UK
Sustainable energy in a rural school
Cassop Primary School serves three small villages, with a building that was contructed in 1912. Its sustainability journey started in 1995 with efficient lights, then cavity wall insulation. Work scaled up in 1998 when the school took up an invitation from Durham County Council to have a 50 kW wind turbine installed in its grounds. Then the old oil boiler was replaced with an automated wood-pellet boiler, which burns pellets produced locally from recycled waste wood, and a photovoltaic (PV) array was installed on a south-facing roof.
But the sustainability journey is part of the school ethos, not just the fabric of its building. Sustainable energy is integrated into all aspects of the curriculum, including art and literacy as well as maths and science. And a spare classroom has been made into a sustainability centre, for other schools as well as Cassop to use. Cassop pupils are confident ambassadors, making sure that electricity and heat are used widely, and able to give a presentation on sustainability to a full meeting of the County Council, or to take visitors around their school.
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Thiazolidinediones or glitazones are the first class of medication designed to reverse the basic problem in Type 2 diabetes of resistance to insulin. Insulin resistance appears to be associated with high blood pressure and the high triglycerides/low HDL cholesterol problem that puts many people with Type 2 diabetes at risk for heart disease.
Target Organ: muscle, fat, and liver
Action: improve receptivity of insulin receptors, reduce glucose production by liver
Lowers HbA1c by 0.5% to 1.5%
Time to reach maximum effect: 6 - 8 weeks
Taken: with or without food
|15 - 45 mg||1|
|2 - 8 mg||1 - 2|
|Side Effects: swelling of legs, fluid retention, weights gain(upper respiratory tract infections, headaches, muscle aches, tooth aches, sore throat in less than 1%)|
|Contraindications: kidney or liver disease, enlarged heart, congestive heart failure, edema, pregnancy|
The drugs currently available in this group, Avandia and Actos, reverse insulin resistance by improving the sensitivity of insulin receptors in muscle, liver, and fat cells. This helps the body use insulin better. They improve sensitivity partly by reducing levels of inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor alpha, while increasing activity of the PPAR gamma receptor. They also help keep the liver from overproducing glucose. They have been shown to lower blood sugar levels about 15% while at the same time lowering insulin levels by 20%. In Type 2, insulin levels are raised as the body produces more insulin than normal to try to overcome insulin resistance. Lower insulin levels indicate that these drugs are decreasing insulin resistance.
In addition to improving insulin sensitivity, glitazones may decrease cardiac risks. They raise the LDL level slightly, but increase the size of the LDL molecule. This may make LDL less harmful, because small, dense LDL is the type most likely to clog blood vessels. Glitazones also lower alpha tumor necrosis factor, an inflammatory particle that is associated with an increased risk of heart disease. Blood pressure and triglyceride levels are somewhat reduced, while HDL levels are slightly raised. Newer glitazones, which work on other PPAR receptors and are currently in clinical trials, also seem to lower high triglycerides and raise the low levels of protective HDL cholesterol commonly seen with insulin resistance.
Glitazones decrease insulin resistance and improve cholesterol, lipid and glucose levels around the clock. Their greatest effect on the blood glucose occurs after eating. They do not cause hypoglycemia when used alone, but can cause lows if used with a sulfonylurea or insulin.
Less insulin is required to control blood sugars when glitazones are used. This means that doses of other drugs that increase insulin production, like sulfonylureas and Prandin, or insulin itself may need to be reduced when a glitazone is started.
Avandia and Actos may produce side effects, such as water retention and swelling of the ankles, especially in older people. Other possible side effects include weight gain, muscle weakness, and fatigue. Because they lower insulin resistance, they also increase fertility in younger women who have polycystic ovary disease, called PCOS. If pregnancy is not desired, a premenopausal woman using one of these drugs should be careful to use birth control. Although they have been shown to rarely cause liver damage, the FDA requires that liver tests be done before treatment start, every two months for the first year and periodically thereafter. If the liver enzyme ALT shows a value more than three times the upper limit of normal, the drug must be stopped.
The glitazones work well in Type 2 diabetes only when insulin resistance is present. People with Type 1.5 diabetes, caused by a lower production of insulin rather than resistance to insulin, are unlikely to benefit from a glitazone. The presence of excess abdominal weight, a low HDL level, high triglycerides, or high blood pressure, all associated with insulin resistance, are good indicators that glitazones may be worth trying.
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Stormy with a Chance of Molten Iron Rain: First Ever Map of Exotic Weather on Brown Dwarfs
Think the weather is nasty this winter here on Earth? Try vacationing on the brown dwarf Luhman 16B sometime.
Two studies out this week from the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy based at Heidelberg, Germany offer the first look at the atmospheric features of a brown dwarf.
A brown dwarf is a substellar object which bridges the gap between at high mass planet at over 13 Jupiter masses, and a low mass red dwarf star at above 75 Jupiter masses. To date, few brown dwarfs have been directly imaged. For the study, researchers used the recently discovered brown dwarf pair Luhman 16A & B. At about 45(A) and 40(B) Jupiter masses, the pair is 6.5 light years distant and located in the constellation Vela. Only Alpha Centauri and Barnard’s Star are closer to Earth. Luhman A is an L-type brown dwarf, while the B component is a T-type substellar object.
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Getting a knee arthroplasty or joint replacement is expected by a lot of people to be a solution to their mobility problems. However, it seems that there is a certain group of people that have not regained the full range of motion that they had expected after surgery. This condition is generally termed as stiffness of the replacement joints. The duration of stiffness after total knee replacement has not been extensively written about, though there are available solutions to correct the condition.
Osteoarthritis and Knee Replacement
An indication that a patient needs knee surgery is when he or she has a developing osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is a combination of various conditions that result in the continuous degradation of the joints. The joints are protected by a material called the cartilage, the same material the visible part of the ear is made of. A series of forces contribute to its thinning out, causing the joints to become closer and will eventually cause pain whenever in contact.
This is especially true to the knees, since they have to stand the weight of the entire upper body and the legs. Running, walking, or even standing becomes very difficult to a person with osteoarthritis. If therapy and medication cannot help anymore, the joints are replaced by artificial mechanisms that mimic the function of the knee.
Why Does the Stiffness Happen?
There are several factors that could lead to the stiffness. One is the actual built quality of the artificial replacements. Though the replacements have been rigorously tested prior to shipping in various medical facilities, there is still a big chance that a small portion may not have passed quality control measures.
Another culprit may be the lack of rehabilitation after the surgery. Usually, patients are asked to complete a series of physical exercises to retrain simple tasks such as standing up or bending the knees. At first, they are simply asked to do these exercises while in bed or sitting. Next, a physical therapist and railings or crutches provide assistance until complete motion is revived. If there is serious negligence on the side of a therapist or the lack of cooperation from the patient, stiffness of the knee will eventually occur.
How Long Does the Stiffness Last?
According to a recent study, it was found out that among people who have experienced knee surgery, only 1 percent have felt stiffness in their replacements. Most of them have also reported the issue earlier to their surgeons and they have performed certain corrections. Duration of stiffness after total knee replacement can last as long as the rehabilitation process of the patients. This can mean as long as three months or more, but most patients get full function of the knees by then.
One way to shorten the duration of stiffness after total knee replacement is to massage the knees or have them moved by an expert while the patient is under anesthesia to remove the pain. This is usually part of the rehabilitation process already and ensures that the replacement is working perfectly.
If the stiffness can be discovered early on, surgery can be performed again to adjust the calibration of the joints or have them replaced altogether. According to the same study above, corrective surgery resulted to around 90 percent of patients getting back full motion of the knees.
A strict doctor ordered rehabilitation always follows knee replacement surgery. Unfortunately, this rehab is only enough to give you some mobility and get back part of your life. They don't expect people with knee replacements to have the full abilities like they once did, so they don't even try. With the right exercise and routines, though, you can have that life back, despite what the doctors tell you. Take the time to learn about rehabilitation from knee replacement surgery, and how you can ease your fear of living a sedentary life by taking action.
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Death sentence for Jesus
Why did the crowd in Jerusalem choose Barabbas, not Jesus? Because Barabbas, a political terrorist and criminal, was the Sanhedrin's preferred candidate.
Pontius Pilate did not realize that the people of Jerusalem, who hated the Roman presence in Jerusalem and were fiercely loyal to their leaders, would never accept Pilate's choice.
The Passover amnesty
Apparently it was the custom to release a prisoner at Passover. Josephus, the Jewish historian, says that the Romans sometimes gave an amnesty to prisoners in Judaea for political reasons.
This practice is not mentioned outside the gospels, but that is no reason to doubt it. It may have been Pilate's invention, occurring only while he was governor. He was always looking for ways to mollify the people and gain popularity for himself. Jerusalem was a notoriously difficult posting for any governor.
Who was there?
On this particular morning a crowd had gathered outside Pilate's Jerusalem headquarters. It was early, but the city was swollen with Passover pilgrims from all over Israel.
A substantial crowd came from the lower city, the less affluent part, to the praetorium. They were there to support their preferred candidate for amnesty. Some may have been Galileans, but not many. The arrest and trial of Jesus had taken most of his supporters by surprise, and they probably did not know his whereabouts, let alone the danger he was in.
Most of the people there would have been supporters of
Because he had opposed the Romans, Barabbas would be a hero to many of the Jews; they would prefer him to Jesus, a religious reformer from remote Galilee.
Ecce Homo (Behold the Man), Antonio Ciseri, 1871
Pilate gives the crowd a choice
Pilate saw this as an opportune moment. He was convinced Jesus was innocent, and he clearly did not want to release Barabbas, who was more of a political threat to the Romans than Jesus was.
He wanted to play the crowd against their leaders, the Sanhedrin, and deflect its members from a choice he deemed madness - the murderer Barabbas. He believed the people would fall in line with his proposal, and free the comparatively harmless Jesus.
By doing so he showed himself to be out of touch with local sentiment.
The crowd chooses Barabbas - why?
Why was the Jewish Sanhedrin determined to get rid of Jesus?
What was Pilate's position?
Both Philo (a philosopher) and Josephus (a Jewish historian) make it clear that Pilate detested the Jews. Whenever he had to deal with them he inevitably took the opposite position to what they wanted. He did this when the Sanhedrin brought Jesus to him.
But he was no fool. He saw that the Sanhedrin were using legal processes to get rid of someone who was causing them trouble.
The crowd had to choose between two candidates, one proposed by Pilate, representative of Rome, and the other by the Sanhedrin, their leaders. It was no contest. Choosing Jesus would have been disloyal to their Jewish leaders. So Jesus became a victim of the political forces that swirled around Israel/Judah.
Pilate may have seen Barabbas as a terrorist but elements of the crowd, on that particular morning, in that particular place, saw him as a freedom-fighter. They clamoured for Jesus' execution - virtually a lynch mob. There was the unspoken assumption that if Pilate was a good governor, he would bow to their wishes, rather than provoke a revolt.
Pilate was clearly amazed by the people's choice of Barabbas. Although he was unhappy, he nevertheless went along with it. He knew Jesus had not violated any Roman law. Thus even though he might symbolically wash his hands and declare his own innocence, he was as guilty as anyone else, perhaps more so, because he had the responsibility of a leader. He sent an innocent man to a hideous death.
Given the choice between Jesus, a social/religious reformer, and a festival riot in Jerusalem, Pilate decided that one death was better than a possible revolt - and all the deaths that would cause. He succumbed to Jewish pressure.
He made his proclamation from the judgement seat of the praetorium. He did it reluctantly.
His wife - tradition calls her Procla - sent her husband an urgent message that she had had a dream, more like a nightmare, that he was not to condemn this innocent man. This might seem a trivial reason to a modern person, but Romans and Jews saw dreams as divine revelations, sent to guide humans, and Pilate would have ignored his wife's dream with great reluctance.
The sentence proclaimed was crucifixion, a death that was meant to terrify the general populace and deter them from committing a similar crime. Rebels against Rome were usually executed in this manner.
What happened next? See Way of the Cross
1 The Passover amnesty: Read the blue text
2 Pilate presents Jesus and Barabbas to the crowd: Read the green text
3 The crowd chooses: Barabbas Read the red text
4 The death sentence: Read the black text
Mark 15:6-15 6 Now at the feast he used to release for them one prisoner for whom they asked. 7 And among the rebels in prison, who had committed murder in the insurrection, there was a man called Barabbas. 8 And the crowd came up and began to ask Pilate to do as he was wont to do for them. 9 And he answered them, "Do you want me to release for you the King of the Jews?" 10 For he perceived that it was out of envy that the chief priests had delivered him up. 11 But the chief priests stirred up the crowd to have him release for them Barabbas instead. 12 And Pilate again said to them, "Then what shall I do with the man whom you call the King of the Jews?" 13 And they cried out again, "Crucify him." 14 And Pilate said to them, "Why, what evil has he done?" But they shouted all the more, "Crucify him." 15 So Pilate, wishing to satisfy the crowd, released for them Barabbas.
Matthew 27:15-26 15 Now at the feast the governor was accustomed to release for the crowd any one prisoner whom they wanted. 16 And they had then a notorious prisoner, called Barabbas. 17 So when they had gathered, Pilate said to them, "Whom do you want me to release for you, Barabbas or Jesus who is called Christ?" 18 For he knew that it was out of envy that they had delivered him up. 19 Besides, while he was sitting on the judgment seat, his wife sent word to him, "Have nothing to do with that righteous man, for I have suffered much over him today in a dream." 20 Now the chief priests and the elders persuaded the people to ask for Barabbas and destroy Jesus. 21 The governor again said to them, "Which of the two do you want me to release for you?" And they said, "Barabbas." 22 Pilate said to them, "Then what shall I do with Jesus who is called Christ?" They all said, "Let him be crucified." 23 And he said, "Why, what evil has he done?" But they shouted all the more, "Let him be crucified." 24 So when Pilate saw that he was gaining nothing, but rather that a riot was beginning, he took water and washed his hands before the crowd, saying, "I am innocent of this man's blood; see to it yourselves." 25 And all the people answered, "His blood be on us and on our children!" 26 Then he released for them Barabbas, and delivered him to be crucified.
Luke 23:13-25 13 Pilate then called together the chief priests and the rulers and the people, 14 and said to them, "You brought me this man as one who was perverting the people; and after examining him before you, behold, I did not find this man guilty of any of your charges against him; 15 neither did Herod, for he sent him back to us. Behold, nothing deserving death has been done by him; 16 I will therefore chastise him and release him." 17 [No text] 18 But they all cried out together, "Away with this man, and release to us Barabbas"-- 19 a man who had been thrown into prison for an insurrection started in the city, and for murder. 20 Pilate addressed them once more, desiring to release Jesus; 21 but they shouted out, "Crucify, crucify him!" 22 A third time he said to them, "Why, what evil has he done? I have found in him no crime deserving death; I will therefore chastise him and release him." 23 But they were urgent, demanding with loud cries that he should be crucified. And their voices prevailed. 24 So Pilate gave sentence that their demand should be granted. 25 He released the man who had been thrown into prison for insurrection and murder, whom they asked for; but Jesus he delivered up to their will.
John 18:38-41, 19:1, 6-16 38 ... Pilate went out to the Jews again, and told them, "I find no crime in him. 39 But you have a custom that I should release one man for you at the Passover; will you have me release for you the King of the Jews?" 40 They cried out again, "Not this man, but Barabbas!" Now Barabbas was a robber.
5 Pilate said to them, "Behold the man!" (Jesus) 6 When the chief priests and the officers saw him, they cried out, "Crucify him, crucify him!" Pilate said to them, "Take him yourselves and crucify him, for I find no crime in him." 7 The Jews answered him, "We have a law, and by that law he ought to die, because he has made himself the Son of God." 8 When Pilate heard these words, he was the more afraid; 9 he entered the praetorium again and said to Jesus, "Where are you from?" But Jesus gave no answer. 10 Pilate therefore said to him, "You will not speak to me? Do you not know that I have power to release you, and power to crucify you?" 11 Jesus answered him, "You would have no power over me unless it had been given you from above; therefore he who delivered me to you has the greater sin." 12 Upon this Pilate sought to release him, but the Jews cried out, "If you release this man, you are not Caesar's friend; every one who makes himself a king sets himself against Caesar." 13 When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus out and sat down on the judgment seat at a place called The Pavement, and in Hebrew, Gab'batha. 14 Now it was the day of Preparation of the Passover; it was about the sixth hour. He said to the Jews, "Behold your King!" 15 They cried out, "Away with him, away with him, crucify him!" Pilate said to them, "Shall I crucify your King?" The chief priests answered, "We have no king but Caesar." Pilate said to them, "Shall I crucify your King?" The chief priests answered, "We have no king but Caesar." 16 Then he handed him over to them to be crucified.
Bible Study Guide: Jesus Christ: Pontius Pilate offers Jesus of Nazareth or Barabbas; the crowd chooses Barabbas; the death sentence
Copyright 2012 Elizabeth Fletcher
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December 6, 2012
Using Math To Better Understand River, Valley Networks
Lee Rannals for redOrbit.com — Your Universe Online
Researchers wrote in a paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) that they have used math to explain different characteristics of river and valley networks.Rivers and valleys form intricate branching patterns, which have inspired some scientists to develop a theoretical understanding of river-network geometry.
MIT scientists have created a mathematical theory to discover a common angle at which valleys branch off. The theory predicts that rivers branch at an angle of 72 degrees.
To put the theory to test, the team measured 5,000 branching angles in the Florida Panhandle, and found that branching was indeed 72 degrees.
Dan Rothman, a professor of geophysics in MIT´s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS), said the mathematical analysis may be applicable to other systems, like neuron dendrites and fungal filaments.
Another team of scientists published a report in the journal Nature that looked at another mathematical model of river networks. This model identifies a tipping point at which rivers branch.
The river may give rise to a dense network of tributaries, depending on a river's capacity to erode a landscape.
“We use mathematics to speed up time and help us understand how these systems evolve,” Taylor Perron, leader of the team with the paper published in Nature, said in a statement. “If you could speed up the clock, you would see that the landscape is a lot more dynamic.”
Rothman and his team looked to near the town of Bristol for their research. This area hosts a network of valleys cut into the landscape, and from an aerial view, you can see midsize branches running with water. Over time, the tips of the smallest valleys branch to create a denser valley network.
The team looked to the mechanics of groundwater flow to try and gain a better understanding of how these valleys branch. Groundwater flows under the surface, through material like porous sand. In the Florida Panhandle, groundwater may act to cut into a network of valleys.
Groundwater stored in the hills surrounding a valley slowly seeps out, and over time, the process slowly erodes the surrounding hills, which ultimately extends a valley and splits it in two.
Rothman and colleagues derived a mathematical expression to find the angle at which the split occurs. These paths generally curve either away from each other, when the angle between the stream is small, or toward each other, when the angle is large.
“What we show is that because of the properties of groundwater flow, one can understand something about the organization of this pattern,” Rothman said. “It opens a world into a really interesting geometry.”
Perron and his team examined the formation of river networks over land. They sought to find what governs the branching pattern that takes place.
The researchers of this study had to develop a simple mathematical model that represents the erosional mechanisms that act on a river network. With their model, the shape a river network takes is governed by a tug of war between two forces. The first force is the strength of river incision, or how quickly a river erodes. The second is the strength of soil creep, or how quickly soil from surrounding hills fills in a river valley.
The team found that as they turned up river incision, a river basin with a single river channel morphs into a network of branching channels at a very specific tipping point. This tipping point explains why larger rivers develop a network of tributaries.
Connecting the tipping point to specific erosional mechanisms allowed Perron and his team to understand why river basins in landscapes grow tributaries at different scales. They predicted that river basins should branch at a smaller size in environments where river incision is strong, or where soil creep is weak.
“Understanding how river networks originate and evolve is key to understanding how landscapes have evolved in the past, and how they will evolve in the future,” said Mikael Attal, a lecturer in landscape dynamics at the University of Edinburgh who was not a part of the research. “What is fascinating about these two papers is that they provide a physical explanation for the geometry of river networks using some very simple concepts. Studies such as these will help better parameterize models and help make more accurate predictions of what may happen in the future.”
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This ancient Egyptian hieroglyph is an example of a symbol that has completely transcended its culture and yet is uniquely associated with it. It may have been in use as early as the 27th century B. C. E., a symbol associated with Imhotep, chief minister to the pharaoh Djoser and likely the chief physician for the pharaoh’s family, who later became a god of medicine and healing.
Also known as the staff sign, the key of life, the key of the Nile, the symbol for sexual union and for life, the ankh was also associated with the Egyptian goddesses Hathor and Isis. In reality, though, all manner of gods and pharaohs are depicted holding the ankh, showing that they command the power of life (and conversely, death) and that they also garner immortality for themselves. The recently dead of ancient Egypt are shown grasping it by the loop, or sometimes upside down, appearing to use it as a key.
Part of its enormous appeal in art and tattoos is the expression of opposites in its symmetric composition, as well as the active and passive qualities of the loop over the cross. It carries connotations that are ever popular in tattoo design choices: reflecting religious beliefs, appealing to our appreciation of ancient aesthetics, and using glyphs that communicate on more than one level. The ankh is a connection to the distant past and the fascinating culture of Pharaonic Egypt and, in all its basic uses, it is fundamentally a sign of life that is unending.
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When the Global Crisis struck in September 2008, all eyes were on the US (Eichengreen and Baldwin 2008). Iceland, however, was the first country to really suffer. Its three major banks collapsed in the same week in October 2008, and it became the first developed country to request assistance from the IMF in 30 years. GDP fell 65% in euro terms, many companies went bankrupt and others moved abroad. At the time, a third of the population considered emigration as a good option (Danielsson 2008).
Since then, Iceland’s economic recovery has been hailed as a miracle, especially by foreign commentators. It is therefore baffling to many that the Icelanders just voted out the government responsible for the post-Crisis recovery, returning the parties responsible for the pre-Crisis boom and bust to power. What’s going on?
The numbers look good
By first sight, the Icelandic economy looks to be doing surprisingly well. Inflation is 3%, unemployment is 5%, and the government budget is almost balanced. The currency stable and the economy grew 1.6% last year. The government is seen to have dealt firmly with foreign creditors and not bailed out its banks. Domestic creditors and the welfare system have supposedly been protected. Based on this record, the government could be expected to be the most popular in Europe. So why did it get voted out?
The positive economic statistics hide a multitude of sins, relating to government policies in the run-up to elections and bad economic management. OECD (2013) finds that Iceland suffered the worst percentage change in household market income between 2007 and 2010.
The rot underneath
The exchange rate of the Icelandic currency is firmly in the hand of the central bank since the country operates under strict capital controls (see Arnason and Danielsson 2011). Iceland is facing significant balance of payment problems. These will get worse over the coming years because large amounts of money owned by foreign entities are trapped in Iceland by the capital controls. When this money leaves the exchange rate is likely to fall. In spite of this, the exchange rate appreciated sharply in the run-up to the elections, reaching a peak right before the voting date. This temporarily stimulated the economy and held down inflation. Since the election, the currency has been falling.
There are other indications of future inflation, for example public sector wages have been rising in recent months. Based on past history, the most likely response of the Icelandic government will be to inflate away the impact of the salary increases.
Moreover, the national accounts that indicate a nearly balanced budget do not hold up to scrutiny. The recent slowdown in economic activity has reduced government revenue while actual and promised expenditures in the months before the election increased. Meanwhile, official statistics systematically exclude one-off items such as the continuous support for the government housing fund and unfunded pension liabilities. When those are included, the fiscal position of the government is precarious.
The main problem is lack of investment
The main long-run economic problem facing Iceland is its low and falling investment rate. Before the crisis, Iceland invested at the same rate as the rest of Europe, around 21% of GDP. Last year, the Icelandic investment rates fell to 14% of GDP, the fifth lowest in Europe. This is set to worsen. The Central Bank forecasts private-sector investment will fall 23% this year, whilst overall investment may fall by 9%.
Investment has been held back by three main factors:
- Capital controls.
- Political views on investment.
- Tax policy.
Following its crisis in the fall of 2008, the government, the Central Bank and the IMF considered capital controls necessary because of the large amounts of money held by carry traders – this exceeded 40% of GDP. The authorities felt capital controls were necessary to prevent the money from leaving, causing the exchange rate to collapse.
The controls were meant to be temporary – a few weeks at most. Years later, they are still present today, and getting stronger. The controls led to a collapse in investment for the very simple reason that any potential investor is worried about being locked in an unstable currency controlled by a less than competent government. Those with the ability to invest have preferred to keep their options open by keeping their funds liquid.
Investment has also been held back by political interference in economic policy. The outgoing government was composed of two parties: left-of-centre Social Democrats and the left-wing Green Party (the latest incarnation of the Soviet-leaning Communist Party). The government has been overtly hostile to private-sector investment – especially foreign direct investment. They have frequently intervened in individual investment choices.
Investment is also affected by the tax regime. Tax rates in Iceland, not surprisingly, have increased following the Crisis. Moreover, the tax regime has changed frequently, thus increasing the uncertainty for potential investors. This tax risk significantly contributes to low investment rates.
Welfare system and the protection of the poor
The outgoing government consistently maintained that it ringfenced the welfare system and protected the poorest in society. The Icelanders do not perceive it that way. After all, the OECD (2013) finds that market income inequality rose considerably in Iceland.
The welfare system has borne the brunt of the government's economic policies. The pension system has been raided, especially affecting those with low pensions. Perhaps 1% of the population is dependent on charities for food. The health system has been scaled back, with co-payments increasing sharply. These policies have hit the poorest especially hard.
Loans available to Icelandic households have traditionally been inflation indexed or linked to foreign currencies. This meant that the post-Crisis debt burden increased sharply for many households. Iceland has seen significant debt relief, primarily because the courts have declared foreign-currency link loans to be illegal. This however has mostly benefitted the wealthiest parts of society.
Friendliness towards foreign creditors
The main reason why the Icelanders voted out their government was its deference towards foreign creditors. Iceland came under significant pressure from the IMF to accommodate foreign creditors, and the government gave in.
The most important dispute with foreign creditors is related to Icesave (see Danielsson 2010). Whilst an overwhelming majority of the population strongly opposed the Icesave settlement which cost Iceland 40% of its GDP, the government pressed ahead.
In addition, when resolving claims by foreign creditors to the remaining assets of the banking system, the government has handed the domestic banks to foreign vulture funds. Meanwhile, it has been accommodating to foreign creditors seeking to repatriate funds locked in Iceland because of the capital controls.
All of these policies were vocally opposed by voters. In the election campaign, foreign creditor friendliness was a major issue, and it is no wonder that the one party that most strongly opposed the Icesave deal – and the one that took the firmest position against foreign creditors – has emerged as the biggest victor in the election.
While it is surprising to many foreign observers that the Icelanders have chosen to return to the status quo ex ante, it is logical given how poorly governed Iceland has been since its crisis.
The voters opted for the same centre-right parties responsible for the pre-crisis boom. They want a government that:
- Implements sensible pro-growth policies.
- Firmly opposes EU membership.
- Takes a firm line against foreign creditors.
All while working to lift capital controls and further integrating Iceland into the world economy. The Icelanders elected the new government because they have more trust in their ability to deliver on this list than did its left-of-centre predecessor.
Arnason, R and Jon Danielsson (2011) Iceland and the IMF: Why the capital controls are entirely wrong”, VoxEU.org, 14 November.
Danielsson, Jon (2008), “The first casualty of the crisis: Iceland”, VoxEU.org, 12 November.
Danielsson, Jon (2010), “The saga of Icesave: A new CEPR Policy Insight”, VoxEU.org, 26 January.
OECD (2013) "Crisis squeezes income and puts pressure on inequality and poverty", oecd.org.
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The Millennium Consumption Goals — a new idea to tackle over-consumption and unsustainable production
With the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) scheduled to take place in June, discussions on a more sustainable development agenda have been on-going at international level. Suggestions for accelerating sustainable development include the introduction of the Millennium Consumption Goals (MCGs) that are to hold developed countries responsible for their over-consumption and unsustainable production patterns.
The MCGs were introduced by Nobel Peace Prize Winner, Prof Mohan Munasing at a UN preparatory meeting for Rio+20, in January 2011, and are officially promoted by a broad coalition of stakeholders at UN level, called the MCG Network. The network aims for the adoption of an international mandate for the MGCs, which could be agreed upon by international leaders at the Rio+20 conference. The promotion of such consumption goals comes at a time of increased poverty, resource scarcities, conflict and climate change that have been accelerated by unsustainable consumption patterns and resource exploitation of developed countries.
The MCGs are intended to be a supplementary tool for broader initiatives in the area of sustainable consumption and production and the green economy — concepts discussed as part of an overall strategy for sustainable development. “Millennium consumption goals (MCG) could help make our development path more sustainable, by focusing on the 1.4 billion people in the richest 20 percentile of the world’s population. They consume over 80% of global output, or 60 times more than the poorest 20 percentile. Instead of viewing the rich as a problem, they should be persuaded to contribute to the solution”, stressed Prof Mohan Munasing. As such, the MCGs are to comprise global benchmarks for the ‘rich’, complementing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that are targeted at the ‘poor’, he continued.
With an overall consumption of 80% of global output, small shifts towards more sustainable consumption patterns may already have significant effects and may free up more resources to increase the consumption of the poor, according to Munasing. With its global agenda, the MCGs would target a large number of individual households and could thus yield quicker results than top-down government policies and industrial investments.
“All human beings are stakeholders, when it comes to sustainable development and climate change. Consumers and producers can and must strive to make development more sustainable — economically, socially and environmentally. By acting together now, we will make the planet a better and safer place for our children and grand children”, he concluded.
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http://www.eurostep.org/wcm/eurostep-weekly/1944-the-millennium-consumption-goals--a-new-idea-to-tackle-over-consumption-and-unsustainable-production.html
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The first pressure-tolerant ROV successfully tested in the deep Atlantic.
In early May 2012, a new pressure-tolerant ROV named Erno2, designed by Enitech GmbH (Rostock, Germany), was successfully tested within the framework of the “Pressure-tolerant deep-sea systems” project of Germany’s Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi).
Driven by electric thrusters, the light vehicle easily manoeuvred above the seabed, streaming live video from over 4000 m deep with its 3 video cameras and LED lights. The actual robot was attached to its tether management system (TMS) during the two-hour descent into the deep. It left the TMS 20 m above the seafloor and continued its journey being remotely controlled. A video- and data-link allowed the engineers to navigate the vehicle and monitor its behaviour. Both the TMS and the ROV were powered with batteries that can be recharged during the mission, so the ROV’s stay on the seafloor is in theory unlimited.
Less than 1 m wide, the 420 kg-heavy Erno2 is a relatively small ROV. All Erno2 equipment takes up only a half of the standard 20-foot container, making Erno2 one of the world’s smallest deep sea ROVs. Operating depths of 6000 m are possible due to the vehicle’s pressure tolerant construction. To withstand the extreme pressure, all important ROV subsystems - the motor, the lights, all the sensitive electronics - are, instead of pressurized encapsulations, protected with elastic silicon molds. This new technique, developed at Enitech GmbH, is set to replace the oil-filled containers that were previously used for pressure compensation, and is to become the enabling technology for compact, lightweight, robust and cost-effective unmanned deep sea vehicles.
Enitech experts have been working on this deep sea technology since 2000. After developing pressure-tolerant thrusters and power supply systems for AUVs like DeepC and SeaOtter MKII (Atlas Elektronik, Bremen), Enitech GmbH came up with their own vehicle - the Erno2 - that was now successfully tested in on several deep sea missions. The ROV was co-financed by the government’s R&D project, so the small company from Rostock can now manufacture commercial products based on the tested components for cost-effective deep sea AUV and ROV equipment.
The new components were, among others, used for an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) PreToS. The PreToS, also built within the “Pressure-tolerant deep-sea systems” project framework, delivered an excellent performance last year during its first trials in the Baltic Sea.
As project coordinator, Enitech GmbH works in close cooperation with EvoLogics GmbH (Berlin) on underwater communication systems, as well as with the Berlin Technical University (Technische Universität Berlin - TU Berlin) and the Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research (Leibniz-Institut für Ostseeforschung Warnemünde - IOW). TU Berlin engineers, among others, designed the hull and the titanium frame of the PreToS AUV, that, with Enitech’s pressure-tolerant silicon components, is also able to submerge to up to 6000 m.
The PreToS AUV’s first deep sea mission in the Atlantic is scheduled for early 2013. During its first operation, the AUV is to conduct three-dimensional mapping of an underwater current at the Azores. In fall 2013, the PreTos is planned to come back to autonomously map and photograph the seabed at 6000 m, accompanied by Erno2 for support and emergency.
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http://www.marinelink.com/news/successful-atlantic345981.aspx
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|6604711||Autonomous system for the aerial refueling or decontamination of unmanned airborne vehicles||2003-08-12||Stevens et al.||244/135A|
|6601800||Aerial refueling pod and constant tension line apparatus||2003-08-05||Ollar||244/135A|
|5393015||Rotary wing aircraft in-flight refueling device||1995-02-28||Piasecki||244/135A|
|5326052||Controllable hose-and-drogue in-flight refueling system||1994-07-05||Krispin et al.||244/135A|
|5241722||Ramp system||1993-09-07||Rohrlick et al.||14/71.5|
The present invention relates to automatic hook-up of a hose-and-drogue aerial refueling apparatus to a receiver aircraft probe and, more particularly, to apparatus and methods for in-flight hose-and-drogue refueling using electrooptical technology.
The usefulness of air refueling became apparent to the military almost as soon as they started using aircraft. The main advantage of air refueling is obvious: it enables aircraft to stay airborne longer. Since most aircraft are incapable of taking off with maximum fuel and full payload, without in-flight refueling there is always a balance to be struck between range, payload, and fuel. Air refueling is more than just a range stretcher: it allows one to carry out missions with a smaller number of sorties, or alternatively, fewer aircraft.
One approach to in-flight refueling is the hose-and-drogue system, in which a drogue attached to a fuel hose is extended from the refueling aircraft's belly or wings. The receiver aircraft is equipped with a fixed or retractable probe and the receiving aircraft's pilot flies the probe into the drogue.
The advantages of the hose-and-drogue system are the following: (a) up to three receivers can take fuel simultaneously; (b) if one hose/drogue unit (HDU) becomes unserviceable, the tanker still can offload its fuel; (c) the HDU is inherently safer than the heavy, rigid boom, which is restricted in its movements; (d) it is easier to install on non-purpose-built aircraft; and (e) it is compatible with most receivers, e.g., fixed wings, as well as rotorcraft.
There were, however, two disadvantages to early hose and drogue system: it has lower fuel transfer rates than the boom system, and the drogue is uncontrollable and is susceptible to winds and gusts. In bad weather conditions and particularly in low level refueling situations the hookup process was very difficult and demanded excessive receiving aircraft pilot maneuvers. Since the aircraft &o be refueled was likely to be already low on fuel, excessive maneuvering could result in the necessity to abandon the aircraft.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,326,052, which issued to Krispin et al. on Jul. 5, 1994 (hereinafter the '052 patent), and the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference, discloses a system designed to overcome the problem of drogue instability by providing a system with means for both drogue steering and drogue motion measurement, thus enabling either stabilization of the drogue or, alternatively, fully automatic hookup.
Specifically, the system disclosed in the '052 patent includes a plurality of miniature, pressurized gas thrusters mounted, preferably equally spaced, on the perimeter of a drogue in such way that activation of any thruster generates a force in a direction perpendicular to the fuel outlet nozzle. In principle, four thrusters are sufficient. Two are required to control the drogue in up-and-down motion and two in the sideways motion. The position of the drogue is measured by electrooptical position-sensing devices.
The measurement system consists of a plurality of light sources (LS) such as Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) mounted at a certain distance from the end of the receiving fuel probe, a plurality of sensors each comprising a lens and a position-measuring photodetector that is mounted on the perimeter of the drogue with its sensitive area directed toward the receiving aircraft, and a processing electronic circuit for calculating the position of the light-source assembly relative to the detector assembly and computing the control commands to the thrusters.
In accordance with one preferred form of the invention disclosed in the '052 patent, the measured position of the drogue relative to the probe of the receiving aircraft is used to determine the control commands to the thrusters so that the drogue will track the position of the probe in order to achieve automatic hookup. In such an arrangement the pilot of the receiver aircraft is required to approach the vicinity of the tanker aircraft; once the two aircraft have closed to a certain distance, the automatic control system of the drogue is activated and guides the drogue until contact with the incoming probe has been achieved.
In accordance with an alternative form of the invention disclosed in the '052 patent, measurements are made of the drogue position relative to the tanker aircraft, either belly or wings, and are used to control the motion of the drogue so as to stabilize or, equivalently, to minimize the motion of the drogue relative to the tanker aircraft. In such an arrangement, the pilot of the receiver aircraft is required to track the drogue, which has been stabilized relative to the tanker. The tanker is much less susceptible to wind gusts and turbulence.
The present invention provides a number of improvements to the systems disclosed in the '052 patent.
Specifically, the invention provides an in-flight hose-and-drogue refueling system comprising, in combination: a refueling hose-and-drogue unit extending from a refueling aircraft for engaging with a refueling probe of an aircraft to be refueled; and a drogue steering means for steering the drogue, said drogue steering means comprising a plurality of individually controllable, compressed air driven thrusters, and a compressed air supply line extending along the hose for supplying compressed air to said thrusters, wherein said hose and said supply line form a unit having a circular outline.
The invention further provides a refueling hose-and-drogue unit for airborne refueling of an aircraft, said unit comprising a hose, a drogue, an infitting that attaches said hose to said drogue, and a plurality of thrusters secured to said infitting and operable to control the position of said drogue in flight.
The invention further provides a refueling probe installable in an aircraft for engaging a drogue to enable the aircraft to be refueled in flight, said probe comprising a light source and electrical wires or optical fibers for supplying lighting energy to said light source, wherein said probe comprises a tube having a wall and said electrical wires or optical fibers are embedded in said wall.
The invention further provides an in-flight hose-and-drogue refueling system comprising: a housing configured to be housed in a weapons bay of a military aircraft or to be suspended below an aircraft; and a refueling hose-and-drogue unit installed in said housing.
FIG. 1 is an elevational view of the distal end of a hose-and-drogue refueling system according the invention.
FIG. 2 is an elevational view showing several components of the system of FIG. 1 to a larger scale.
FIG. 2A is a detail view of a portion of the structure shown in FIG. 2.
FIG. 3 is cross-sectional view taken along line 3—3 of FIG. 2.
FIG. 3A is a detail view of a portion of the structure shown in FIG. 3.
FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C illustrate three possible forms of construction for a component of a system according to the invention.
FIG. 5 is an elevational, pictorial view of one exemplary embodiment of a compressed air supply arrangement for use in a system according to the invention.
FIG. 6 is an elevational view of one possible housing for a system according to the invention.
FIGS. 7A and 7B are elevational views of a second possible housing for a system according to the invention in two operating states.
FIG. 8 is an elevational view of an aircraft equipped with the housing shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B.
FIG. 9 is an elevational, pictorial view of a third possible housing for a system according to the invention.
FIG. 1 is an elevational view of the distal end of a hose-and-drogue refueling system according the invention, together with the inlet end of a probe that extends from an aircraft that is to be refueled (not shown). The hose-and-drogue system includes a hose 12 for delivering fuel, an infitting 14 secured to the distal end of hose 12, a coupler assembly 16 secured to the distal end of infitting 14, that is the end remote from hose 12, and a drogue, often referred to as a basket, 18 fixed to assembly 16. Drogue 18 is provided with a series of ribs 20 that provide aerodynamic stability and carries, at its distal end, a group of position sensing devices (PSDs) 22. Probe 24 is provided at its fuel-receiving end with two concentric rings of light sources 26 for producing light that is detected by PSDs 22. The manner in which light sources 26 interact with PSDs 22 is described in detailed in the above-cited '052 patent. Essentially, PSDs 22 produce position signals that are used to actuate the thrusters in a manner to align the longitudinal axis 28 of the drogue with that of probe 24.
Light sources 26 are supplied with lighting energy via electrical wires or optical fibers. According to a feature of the invention, probe 24 is constituted by a tube having the electrical wires or optical fibers embedded in its wall. This tube may be made of a suitable composite material.
Light sources 26 can be IR sources and PSDs 22 can be IR sensors.
FIG. 2 is an elevational view showing infitting 14 and coupler assembly 16 to a larger scale. Infitting 14 is provided with at least two gripping rings 30 that are pressed, or crimped, against the outer surface of hose 12 in order to form a secure, nonmovable connection between hose 12 and infitting 14. Infitting 14 can also be provided at its interior with gripping elements that engage the inner wall of hose 12 to further secure the connection therebetween. Infitting 14 is equipped with thrusters, preferably four in number, that are actuatable to displace the drogue in directions transverse to longitudinal axis 28. These thrusters include outlet nozzles that constituted by four radial passages 34 that are formed in infitting 14 and are distributed uniformly around the circumference of infitting 14. Infitting 14 further carries a set of PSDs 38 that are arranged to detect light from a light source carried by the refueling aircraft. PSDs 38 can be coupled to control elements for the thrusters in order to stabilize that drogue relative to the refueling aircraft. Such an arrangement is described in the above-cited '052 patent, particularly with reference to FIG. 5 of that patent.
The light source on the refueling aircraft can be an IR source and PSDs 38 can be IR sensors.
Coupler assembly 16 includes a ball joint 40 that couples assembly 16 to drogue 18 in a manner to permit limited pivotal movement of drogue 18 about two axes perpendicular to longitudinal axis 28 of the drogue. Coupler assembly 16 further includes a joint 42 that forms a rotatable coupling with infitting 14. This rotatable coupling allows coupler assembly 16 and drogue 18 to rotate about longitudinal axis 28 without twisting hose 12 or infitting 14, so that the relative orientations of nozzles 34 are not varied and hose 12 is not subject to damage.
As described in the '052 patent, suitable circuitry is connected between PSDs 38 and the thrusters to allow the position of the drogue to be controlled to maintain the drogue relatively stationary relative to the refueling aircraft.
PSDs 22 can be constituted by self-contained wireless transmitting devices that transmit signals to wireless receivers (not shown) in infitting 14 to provide information about the position of light sources 26 relative to longitudinal axis 28. Each transmitting device can have a different carrier frequency or can be digitally coded to be receivable only by a respective one of the wireless receivers. Thus, each wireless receiver produces position signals associated with only one PSD 22. The wireless receivers have outputs that are supplied to signal processing circuitry in the refueling aircraft. The wires coupling the receivers to the circuitry can be embedded in hose 12.
Since coupler assembly 16 and drogue 18 are subject to rotation about axis 28 when being dragged through the air, provision must be made to identify the angular positions of PSDs 22, and thus of drogue 18, associated with position signals produced by the wireless receivers.
One possible arrangement for effecting such identification is shown in FIG. 2A. A flange on infitting 14, which may carry PSDs 38, is provided with a light source 43 and, adjacent thereto, a light detector 44. A flange forming part of joint 42, which will rotate with coupler assembly 16, carries a small reflecting element 45 having a limited angular extent. Each time element 45 moves opposite light source 43 and light detector 44, the latter will produce a light detection pulse. This pulse is supplied as a gate signal to the wireless receivers to trigger the delivery of position signals to the signal processing circuitry in the refueling aircraft. Thus, these position signals are associated with a defined angular position of PSDs 22. Operating power may be supplied to light source 43 by a conductor embossed in hose 12.
FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view taken along line 3—3 of FIG. 2. As shown in FIG. 3, infitting 14 further includes an interior gripping ring 46 that presses against the interior wall of hose 12. Within hose 12 there is carried a compressed air hose 47 having an outlet that is connected in any suitable manner to an annular compressed air distributor manifold 48. Manifold 48 has four outlets each coupled to a respective thruster control valve 50, which may be composed of a solenoid and examples of which are already known in the art. Each control valve 50 is connected to control the supply of compressed air to a respective outlet nozzle 34. One thruster outlet nozzle 34 and control valve 50 are shown in greater detail in FIG. 3A.
FIGS. 4A and 4B and 4C illustrate three possible arrangements of the fuel hose and air hose according to the present invention. All of these embodiments have in common that the fuel and air hoses form an assembly having a circular outline. Such an outline is preferred because it facilitates reeling of the assembly into the refueling vehicle.
In FIG. 4A hoses 12 and 47 are separately fabricated and hose 47 can simply extend freely along hose 12, except at the outlet end of hose 47, where it is connected to distributor 48 of FIG. 3.
In the embodiment of FIG. 4B, fuel hose 12′ and air hose 47′ are formed by coextrusion.
In the embodiment shown in FIG. 4C fuel hose 12″ and air hose 47″ are each formed to have one flat side, along which the two hoses are bonded together by any suitable bonding technique. This bond may be formed in order to separate when a certain tension is created between hoses 12″ and 47″. Such a tension may be created, for example, if an accidental mechanical rupture occurs in air hose 47″, resulting in a leakage of compressed air toward fuel hose 12″. Thus the bond should be formed to cause the hoses to separate when a tension force between the hoses is below that which corresponds to a leakage pressure that would rupture fuel hose 12″.
In all of the illustrated embodiments of the invention, because the air hose is filled with air at a high pressure, for example in the range 340–455 psi, the air hose has a rigidifying effect on the fuel hose, thereby reducing the magnitude of transverse movements of the fuel hose while being dragged through the air.
With regard to the embodiment shown in FIG. 4A, air hose 47 can be installed, as noted above, to be freely moveable within fuel hose 12. Alternatively, air hose 47 can be fixed in position relative to fuel hose 12 by spacers provided at intervals within fuel hose 12.
FIG. 5 is an elevational, pictorial view of one exemplary embodiment of a compressed air supply arrangement for use in a system according to the invention. The arrangement includes a high pressure vessel 52 which, simply by way of nonlimiting example, is composed of three spheres coupled together by suitable fittings. The arrangement further includes a pressure regulator 54 connected between vessel 52 and hose 47 and a miniature high-pressure compressor 56 that is connected to maintain the desired air pressure within vessel 52.
According to one feature of the invention, pressure vessel 52 may be either clad or lined with a suitable composite material to prevent the vessel from exploding and from being penetrated by at least some projectiles. Any known composite material that is suitable for this purpose may be used.
Heretofore, in-flight refueling has been performed by refueling aircraft that are specially equipped to perform this function. This limits the number of aircraft available to perform this function. According to a further feature of the present invention, a refueling system is installed in a vessel, or housing, that can be mounted on or in a variety of aircraft that are configured to be used for other purposes. Two embodiments of such a housing are illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7A and 7B.
FIG. 6 illustrates a pod that is constructed to be mounted beneath the fuselage or beneath a wing of a variety of large aircraft and that contains the required high pressure air supply, stabilization system light source, power system, control circuitry and fuel tank. The pod illustrated could include a turbine driven by a propeller 60 located at the front of the pod to generate power for operating the refueling system. Propeller 60 would be rotated by air flowing past the pod when the aircraft to which the pod is mounted is in flight.
The pod is open at its rear end and hose 12, containing hose 47, would be deployed out of the open rear end of the pod.
FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate a vessel 80 that would be installed in the weapons bay or bomb bay of a military aircraft, which could even be an unmanned, remotely controlled aircraft. The weapons bay can be equipped with a support bracket 70 provided with cables 74 that can be attached to a mounting bracket 78 on vessel 80. In order to load vessel 80 into a weapons bay, cable 74 would be attached to bracket 80 and would then be wound onto motor driven reels carried by bracket 70 in order to bring vessel 80 into the stowed position shown in FIG. 7B. As in the case of the embodiment of FIG. 6, vessel 80 would contain a compressed air supply, a stabilization light source, control circuitry and all other equipment required for the refueling operation. The fuel tank can be installed in vessel 80 or in the aircraft. Vessel 80 is equipped with a cowl 84 that is mounted to pivot downwardly into the position shown in FIG. 7A when a refueling operation is to be performed. Cowl 84 provides aerodynamic stabilization and provides a passage for deploying hose 12.
FIG. 8 shows housing 80 installed in the weapons bay of an unmanned military aircraft 90.
FIG. 9 shows a housing 110 mounted on a pallet 112 that can be installed in the hold of a cargo or tanker aircraft. Housing 110 is shown with a side removed to allow viewing of all of the components of a refueling system according to the invention, which are installed in the housing. These components include a drum, or reel, 116 on which hose 12 is wound, a source 118 of high pressure air coupled to hose 47, a fuel pump and pressure supply valve 120 coupled between a fuel supply line 124 connected to a fuel tank in the aircraft and hose 12, a coupling unit 126 for connecting source 118 to the high pressure air supply hose (not shown in FIG. 9), signal processing circuitry 128 and a power supply 130. The hose-and-drogue unit is shown in a stowed position in a storage tube 134 that opens to the exterior of the aircraft. Circuitry 128 is connected (not shown) by conductors in hose 12 to the various light sources, PSDs, receivers, sensors and thrusters carried by the hose-and-drogue unit. Pallet 112 with housing 110 attached can be easily loaded onto, and secured to, the bulk cargo floor of an aircraft.
In the embodiments shown in FIGS. 6–9, the high pressure air supply vessel could be wrapped in a suitable composite material and sealed with titanium for the purposes described above with reference to FIG. 5. In fact, the high pressure vessel assembly shown could be used in the vessels shown in FIGS. 6 and 7A, B.
While the description above refers to particular embodiments of the present invention, it will be understood that many modifications may be made without departing from the spirit thereof. The accompanying claims are intended to cover such modifications as would fall within the true scope and spirit of the present invention.
The presently disclosed embodiments are therefore to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, the scope of the invention being indicated by the appended claims, rather than the foregoing description, and all changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are therefore intended to be embraced therein.
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Give me the splendid, silent sunRanjeni A Singh | Mar 14, 2012, 12.00 AM IST
Amaterasu, Apollo, Ra or Surya. Call it what you may but in pan-cultural cosmologies from
Sunny and spirited
In many cultures, the "huge ball of fire" symbolises a psychological principle as well. Those who spend time outdoors tend to be happier and also have better memory, say psychologists at the Fordham University in New York. They found that this may be because sunny weather triggers the release of the neurotransmitter serotonin in human bodies, which makes people more alert and cheerful. Perhaps that's why in India, we celebrate Makara Sankranti, the day when the sun begins its ascendancy and entry into the Northern Hemisphere, signifying that we too may go higher and higher, to more and more light and wisdom and away from darkness.
Since we started off as an agricultural society, depending on the sun for life and sustenance, it was natural that the sun came to be deified and mythological stories followed. In most traditions, the sun is regarded as masculine, but to the Teutonic, Japanese, Oceanic, Maori, and Cherokee cultures, the sun is feminine. The Sumerians were, perhaps, the first to worship the sun. Over the centuries, the Sumerian sun god's influence grew and by the time the Egyptian civilisation was at its peak, the sun god reigned supreme. However, sun worship reached its height with the Aztec, Maya, and Inca civilisations of
In Chinese cosmology, there were originally 10 suns in the sky, all brothers. They were supposed to emerge one at a time as commanded by the Jade Emperor. They were all very young and loved to fool around. Once they decided to go into the sky to play, all at once. This made the world too hot for anything to grow. A hero named Hou Yi shot down nine of them with a bow and arrow to save the people of the earth. He is honoured to this day.
The Aztecs of central Mexico believed that each cosmic era has a sun and so far, there have been four. The fifth sun, Tonatiuh, rules the present era. Tonatiuh is responsible for supporting the universe.
The Japanese believe that the sun goddess, Amaterasu was born out of the left eye of the Father creator, and her brother, the powerful storm god, Susa-no-wo was born out of his nostrils. But the siblings always fought. While Amaterasu took care of things that grew on earth, her brother destroyed everything. After many fierce encounters, her brother was finally banished to his own realm. Eventually, the realm he founded, passed on to the descendants of Amaterasu.
Before Apollo came on the scene, the Greeks believed that the sun rose out of the ocean on the eastern side, and drove through the air in a chariot giving light to gods and men. Often associated with the sun, Apollo was the son of the supreme Greek god Zeus and Leto, a nymph. Zeus's wife Hera was outraged and convinced the earth to refuse to allow Leto to give birth anywhere on its surface. But the island of Delos allowed Leto to take refuge there and give birth to Apollo and his twin sister, Artemis, goddess of the hunt and wild things. The goddess Themis assisted in raising him by feeding him ambrosia, the sacred nectar of the gods.
Whatever the myths, across cultures, solar deification is widespread. Also, all the stories focused on the eternal fight between light and darkness. And because of the far-reaching influence of the sun, it continues to shine brightly in the imagination and faith of people.
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Conjuring up images of the Dust Bowl, this year has been
extremely dry in the United States. According to the National Drought
Mitigation Center at the University of Nebraska, 26 states are in drought
conditions. Droughts are ranked exceptional (the highest ranking) in Colorado,
Wyoming, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico.
In a typical year, drought hits 10 to 12 percent of the
country. This year, crops are withering in heat-baked fields and ranchers have
sold off herds rather than let them starve for lack of pasture.
A key factor in the water shortage is the lack of adequate
snowpack in the mountains. Melting snow from higher elevations usually feeds
rivers and streams, but this year snowpacks from the Rocky Mountains were only
one-quarter of their normal levels. Of course, lack of rain is another factor.
In Dodge City, Kansas, rainfall over the 14 months ending in July amounted to
the driest period since 1952-1953.
In Colorado, Denver's water resources, serving 1.1
million customers, reached an all-time low in July. Its reservoirs registered
63 percent full compared to 80 percent during the same period a year ago. In
Aurora, Colorado, reservoirs are at 48 percent of normal compared with 81
percent of last July.
Cities all over the United States are taking various
approaches to the drought and resulting water crisis. Denver suburbs have
implemented tough new water restrictions. These restrictions are the first in
The City of Denver also has put together humorous water
conservation ads. These ads have told residents to "Only Wash the Stinky
Parts" and "Instead of Washing Clothes, Don't Wear
However, for those not complying, it is no laughing matter.
Known as the "Sod Squad" in Denver, water police have given out
1,254 violation notices in July, the first month of mandatory water
restrictions. The fines are $100 after the first warning and $500 if you still
don't take heed.
The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California has
started a multi-faceted campaign to encourage outdoor water conservation and
promote the use of native and drought-tolerant plants in gardens, with the help
of actress Rene Russo. The district's new campaign will include print
advertisements, public service announcements, cable television commercials as
well as movie theater slides throughout the district's six-county service
area. The campaign shifts the focus from conservation inside the home to
outside, where 30 to 70 percent of water is used.
Metropolitan does not see this campaign as a quick fix. They
are hoping to take water conservation to the next level - into people's
homes and lifestyles.
However, it does seem as if some water programs are working.
Denver's water consumption is down to 350 million gallons on a hot summer
day from 450 million gallons before the restrictions began. The hope now is for
a wet winter to recharge the water supply.
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Desert Ghost Towns:
Ballarat Ghost Town
From 1897 to 1917 Ballarat served as a supply and recreation center
for miners in the Panamint Mountains and Death Valley. Ballarat springs, cemetery
and remaining ruins of adobe, tin and wood buildings are featured. At its peak the remote
outpost boasted 7 saloons, one school, and no churches. The ghost town is included in the
list of Death Valley ghost towns but is not located in the park.
Ballarat, Panamint Valley
Ballarat California photo slideshow
Ballarat cemetery photos
Post Office Spring, Ballarat Ghost Town
Post Office Springs, Ballarat Ghost Town, Panamint Valley.
History of Ballarat
Ballarat Ghost Town. Charles Anthony and John Lampier located the Panamint ... The 80 acre townsite of Ballarat was laid out in 1897, and the buildings from ...
Death Valley Ghost Towns
1897 marks the year that Ballarat came into being. The main mine was the Radcliffe which produced 15000 tons of gold ore between the years 1898-1903. ...
Inyo County Mining History
Lost Gunsight Legend; Lookout Gold in Inyo County; Beveridge; Ballarat Ryan · Greenwater · Tecopa (20th Century) Gold (20th Century); Little Mack ...
Inyo County Gold
Ballarat Charles Anthony and John Lampier located the Panamint Valley Mine on July 27, 1893. This mine, also known as the Anthony, Gold Bug, and Knob Mine, ...
Inyo County in the 20th Century
After the Ballarat boom, no new gold discoveries in Inyo County occurred until the worldwide depression of the 1930s and devaluation of the dollar brought ...
Shorty Harris - Death Valley History
From 1897 to 1917 Ballarat served as a supply and recreation center for miners in the ... Ballarat Ash Meadows View of Telescope Peak from Shorty's Grave ...
He was found and nursed back to health by Oscar Denton, the caretaker for the Greenland Ranch, and just a month later was headed up to Ballarat with Shorty ...
Death Valley - Jack Keane
Jack Keane was an Irish Miner out of Ballarat. He'd been prospecting for over 8 years finding pretty much nothing. One day in 1903 he discovered a ledge ...
A guide to the Geology of the Ballarat Area, Death Valley Regional Geology Guide.
The geology of Ballarat Delta, Ballarat Area, Death Valley regional field guide.
The Briggs mine is 7.7 miles south of Ballarat on a level, winding but good surfaced road maintained by the mining company. ...
Comprises the Panamint Mountains, which are between Panamint Valley and Death Valley.
Surprise Canyon Wilderness
ACCESS: Access to this wilderness is via State Highway 178 through Panamint Valley and along Ballarat Road to Indian Ranch Road. Four-wheel drive routes ...
Manly Peak Wilderness
ACCESS: Access this wilderness via State Highway 178 north of Trona and along, Ballarat Road. Go south on Wingate Wash Road, then east on Goler Wash Road or ...
Panamint and Ballarat 7.5 minute topos. Comments: Old jeep road washed out in 1980s and offically closed to vehicles but makes a great hiking trail. ...
Randsburg Mining District
Miners from as far away as Pleasant Canyon and Ballarat could now enjoy a weekend of golf, stay at the Hotel Johannesburg, and board W. K. Miller's stage on ...
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Earth's Meteorological Monsters
Part A: 2005 Hurricane Season
Click on the picture below to watch a NASA video of the 2005 Atlantic Hurricane Season.
Sea Surface Temperature
Questions and Discussion
After everyone has seen the video, you'll hold a class discussion about what you've learned from the visualization and what questions you had about what you saw. To get ready for the discussion, respond to these questions on your Activity Sheet.
Stop and Think
1: Generalizing from the information in this video, describe where most hurricanes form and how they move across the Atlantic Ocean basin. Does there seem to be anything particular about those places that helps hurricanes to form?
2: Come up with four questions about things from the video that you didn't understand.
Now, watch the video again. This time, focus on the path that each hurricane follows. Use the image on the right to help you identify latitude ranges.
Checking InAnswer the following questions to check your understanding of the information presented in the video.
- What direction are most hurricanes traveling between 10° and 20° N latitude? Most hurricanes in this latitude range are traveling westward.
- At what latitude do many Atlantic hurricanes generally begin moving eastward? Around 30° N latitude
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The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has awarded $465,000 to the Navajo Nation to monitor the ecology of the San Juan River. As Arizona Public Radio’s Ryan Heinsius reports, scientists are still trying to understand the possible long-term effects of last summer’s Gold King Mine spill.
Several species of aquatic insects are mysteriously missing from the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon. Scientists now know that’s because dam managers rapidly change the river’s level to meet electricity demand.
The largest coal company in the U.S., Peabody Energy, announced Wednesday that it’s filed for bankruptcy. As Arizona Public Radio’s Ryan Heinsius reports, Peabody has operated on the Navajo Nation since the 1960s.
The Navajo Nation and Hopi Tribe have been at odds for almost four decades about water rights to the Little Colorado River. Leaders of the tribes recently met with Arizona officials to revive attempts at a settlement. Arizona Public Radio’s Ryan Heinsius reports.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has released its final plan to monitor contamination levels from last summer’s Gold King Mine spill in Colorado. The plan is designed to give the agency broad scientific data about conditions in the Animas and San Juan rivers, which bore the brunt of the spill. Arizona Public Radio’s Ryan Heinsius reports.
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Making Linux Accessible for the Visually Impaired with Speakup
During the past ten years, evolutions in many fields of technology have influenced the lives of all of us, and especially the world's blind population. Advancements in speech synthesis have led to the usability of many different operating systems, Linux among them. One of these programs, and by far one of the best, is a screen review package called Speakup, written by Kirk Reiser with assistance from the user community. Speakup is unique in the sense that it integrates seamlessly into the kernel, allowing it to talk from startup to shutdown, and even to debug kernel errors, which I can testify to from personal experience. It also makes the installation of a Linux system much easier, because one does not usually require a serial console or sighted assistance to complete the installation process.
A screen review package is a program that takes the text displayed on the screen, and outputs it in spoken words. The actual speaking is done by a speech synthesizer, which can come in either hardware or software versions. Hardware synthesizers are either external boxes with headphone jacks and volume knobs that plug in to your computer via serial or USB ports, or ISA or PCI cards that have an output jack for a speaker or headphones. Software synthesizers are actual software programs that handle all the processing of the text into spoken words and output it through the computer's sound card. Speakup supports both hardware and software synthesizers, though software synthesizers require a user-space program and thus can't load at kernel boot, as we'll discuss later. Speakup's key features include seamless integration, logical key layout, support for laptop keyboards, easy adjustability of speech settings and support for software synthesizers.
Speakup is packed full of features, some of which you won't find in any other screen reader. In order to read text, Speakup uses an invisible review cursor. At the same time, however, Speakup tracks the system cursor, to facilitate navigation in menus, editors and similar situations. To perform tasks such as moving the review cursor around, Speakup uses the numeric keypad, hereafter referred to as the numpad.
The numpad Enter key silences speech until the next key press, which is very useful for quieting boot-up messages and/or frequently heard text. It also synchronizes the location of the review cursor with the system cursor, facilitating many different operations. Insert plus numpad Enter silences reading of new text until this combination is pressed again, but still allows you to move around the screen.
The numpad plus key reads the entire screen. The numpad 0, or insert, is used as a key modifier similar to Alt, Ctrl or Shift. Speakup also respects numlock, still allowing the user to enter numbers from the numpad if necessary. Numpad keys 7–9 go up a line, read the current line and go down a line, respectively. A similar arrangement is used for words on numpad 4–6, and with characters on numpad 1–3. The numpad slash marks a spot on the screen, and if there is a spot already marked, it copies the text into memory. Insert plus numpad slash inputs any previously copied text, which usually results in pasting it to the location of the system cursor.
The numpad minus parks the review cursor. Parking means that the review cursor's location will not be moved unless the user moves it; this is useful for tracking text that changes but is not at the cursor, requiring you to move to it constantly. This functionality is also in the windowing system, which will be covered shortly. Numpad star toggles on and off cursor tracking. This is different from parking the review cursor, because parking does not affect what is actually spoken, just where the review cursor is. Cursor tracking always speaks what is at the cursor, which is optimum for menus and editors, but occasionally you may need to turn it off.
For laptops, Speakup has a set of key assignments as well. These center around the Caps Lock key or Windows logo key if it is present on the keyboard. While the Caps Lock key is down, the letters I, O and U act as the numpad 7–9. Thus, you have a very similar arrangement to what you have on the numpad. Some things are different—for instance, Caps Lock plus Enter acts as numpad Enter, but overall it's very similar and easy to learn. When referring to either the the Caps Lock/Windows key or numpad Insert key simultaneously, they are called the Speakup key.
Adjusting speech settings, such as volume, rate, pitch and tone, can be done in two ways.
The first, and probably the easiest, is to use the Speakup key plus the numbers on the number row. The Speakup key plus 1 and 2 decrement and increment the volume, respectively; 3 and 4 do the same with pitch; and finally 5 and 6 do the same with rate. The Speakup key plus F9 and F10 control punctuation, and the Speakup key plus F11 and F12 control the punctuation only for reading.
The Speakup key plus F5 lets you edit the “some” punctuation level. It works by toggling the punctuation that you press, as to whether it is spoken in the specified level. The Speakup key plus F6 does the same for the “most” punctuation level, and Speakup key plus F7 lets you edit what delimiters are used when moving by words; usually it is spacing and certain punctuation.
The other method of changing speech settings is to use the Speakup entry under /proc. Under /proc/speakup, there are the usual items, such as volume, rate, pitch, voice, version and synth_name, as well as some more-advanced items dealing with timing and other things. Some of these values are read/write, and some are read-only. For instance, version gives the current revision of Speakup, including the CVS build date if applicable, but synth_name can be used both to get and set the synthesizer in use. synth_direct is a write-only entry that sends all text directly to the synthesizer. It is even possible to load a new keymap while the system is running, rather than having to rebuild the kernel. There are also values for punct_some, punct_most and delimiters, which do the same things as the key functions described above. There is also a script called speakupconfig, which saves all of your entries in /proc/speakup for the particular synthesizer in use and allows you to restore these settings later, allowing automated loading of settings.
Fast/Flexible Linux OS Recovery
On Demand Now
In this live one-hour webinar, learn how to enhance your existing backup strategies for complete disaster recovery preparedness using Storix System Backup Administrator (SBAdmin), a highly flexible full-system recovery solution for UNIX and Linux systems.
Join Linux Journal's Shawn Powers and David Huffman, President/CEO, Storix, Inc.
Free to Linux Journal readers.Register Now!
- Download "Linux Management with Red Hat Satellite: Measuring Business Impact and ROI"
- Profiles and RC Files
- Astronomy for KDE
- Maru OS Brings Debian to Your Phone
- Understanding Ceph and Its Place in the Market
- Snappy Moves to New Platforms
- What's Our Next Fight?
- Git 2.9 Released
- OpenSwitch Finds a New Home
- The Giant Zero, Part 0.x
With all the industry talk about the benefits of Linux on Power and all the performance advantages offered by its open architecture, you may be considering a move in that direction. If you are thinking about analytics, big data and cloud computing, you would be right to evaluate Power. The idea of using commodity x86 hardware and replacing it every three years is an outdated cost model. It doesn’t consider the total cost of ownership, and it doesn’t consider the advantage of real processing power, high-availability and multithreading like a demon.
This ebook takes a look at some of the practical applications of the Linux on Power platform and ways you might bring all the performance power of this open architecture to bear for your organization. There are no smoke and mirrors here—just hard, cold, empirical evidence provided by independent sources. I also consider some innovative ways Linux on Power will be used in the future.Get the Guide
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Digital Energy is the energy freed up by information and communications technology.
It isn’t just incremental energy efficiency – the kind most environmentalists and businesses think of. It is potentially transformative, as my colleague Tachi Kiuchi and I hint at in our book, What We Learned in the Rainforest — Business Lessons from Nature.
Digital is the cheapest energy of all. Studies suggest that it can replace fossil fuels at a rate of 3 percent a year, possibly more. At that pace, it would drive down carbon intensity 75 percent by 2060. Combine that with a switch from coal to natural gas in electricity, and we could approach the drop in total carbon emissions scientists believe necessary in the U.S. — and we would have the support of the high tech and natural gas communities in doing it.
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COLUMN: Tomorrow’s toilets meet challenges
There might not be much point in reinventing the wheel, but reinventing the toilet could be a different story.
The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation issued a challenge to 22 universities around the globe to reinvent the toilet. The goal is to create an affordable, waterless and hygienic toilet for the developing world that doesn’t need to be connected to a sewer.
Upon first reading the challenge I thought, ‘wait a minute, isn’t this already being done?’ The composting toilet already exists and although not mainstream, it meets most of the criteria.
However, it looks like the challenge is trying to get people to design a toilet that not only composts waste, but generates power from the waste and recovers and treats urine to be used for cleaning, including handwashing.
I’m not too sure how comfortable I would be washing my hands with treated urine, although the power-generation ideas are intriguing.
The challenge was whittled down to eight submissions from universities around the globe.
There are several goals for the challenge. It includes creating a toilet to address issues for the 2.6 billion people who lack proper sanitation, developing a toilet that is hygienic and sustainable for the world’s poorest populations, has an operation cost of five cents per user per day, doesn’t release pollutants but generated energy, and recovers salt, water and nutrients.
It also aims at creating a toilet that can be used by entrepreneurs in poor urban settings as a sanitation business.
The Loughborough University team, from the U.K., wants to create a toilet that transforms the waste into a material for energy generation, soil conditioning or water for handwashing.
The Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands wants to create a process that uses microwave technology to transform the waste into electricity that creates carbon monoxide and hydrogen that is funnelled into a fuel cell for electricity generation.
The Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, in partnership with the industrial design company EOOS, is creating a system that recovers water for cleansing. The University of Kwazulu-Natal in South Africa is designing one that recovers water and carbon dioxide.
Stanford University is proposing a design that decomposes the material at high temperatures and processes the waste into a type of biological charcoal. The University of Toronto’s department of chemical engineering and applied chemistry is working on a design that sanitizes waste within 24 hours and sanitizes urine with ultraviolet disinfection methods.
The California Institute of Technology wants to create a solar-powered toilet that breaks the waste into hydrogen. It is then stored in hydrogen fuel cells that can be used to provide backup energy sources.
And the eighth proposal from the National University of Singapore wants to create a system that treats the waste, energy and nutrients and recovers clean water.
Although some of the ideas sound similar, I applaud the move to create better and more useful ways to handle human waste. Using clean water for toilets seems like such a waste.
So much water is contaminated daily through home usage. I wish my home had a system that separated different streams of waste water, purifying and treating some for reuse in the home and diverting others for further treatment and energy production.
Water is a precious resource and human waste is contaminating too much of it as the two streams are mixing together.
As more development and strain on our natural resources continues, we will need to find better ways to handle waste in our society.
To check out the challenge, please go to www.gatesfoundation.org.
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Labor and Childbirth: Active Labor
During active labor, your contractions will be stronger and more rhythmic than with early labor. They peak and subside like waves. They may happen 3 to 5 minutes apart and last about 45 to 60 seconds. This part of labor can be hard work. But it is often shorter than early labor. When you reach active labor, exams and tests will be done to see how you and your baby are doing.
Evaluating you and your baby
An exam tells how you and your baby are responding to contractions. Your blood pressure, temperature, and pulse will be checked. A blood or urine sample may also be taken. A fetal monitor will be used to check your baby’s heart rate. Sometimes an IV (intravenous) line is started to give you medicine and fluids.
Moving ahead with labor
You may now feel contractions in your whole stomach instead of just the lower part (like during early labor). If your amniotic sac has not broken already, it may break now. Or, it may be broken for you. To help your baby descend, change position often. Walking or sitting in a rocking chair or recliner may help. You may find it hard to relax even though you are tired. You may also be less interested in talking than you were earlier. If you’re having anesthesia, you will get it now.
Special issues during labor
If labor doesn’t progress well or a problem arises, you may need a cesarean. But your healthcare providers may take certain steps to help you avoid a cesarean:
If your cervix isn’t dilating, a medicine (oxytocin) may be used to augment labor.
If fetal monitoring shows your baby isn’t getting enough oxygen, shifting your body position may help. You may also be given oxygen through a mask.
If you have preeclampsia (a condition that results in high blood pressure, swelling, and other symptoms), you may be given medicines by IV (intravenous). Your healthcare provider may also tell you to lie on your left side.
Responding to contractions
During contractions, try to stay relaxed. Tense muscles use more oxygen, eat up your body’s energy, and increase pain. Use the breathing and relaxation techniques you may have learned. And let your support person know how he or she can help. If you’ve had problems during a previous birth, focus on the present. Keep in mind that no 2 births are the same.
Support person’s note
Here's how you can help:
Have the mother walk or change positions at least once an hour. This improves circulation and helps the baby descend.
Keep reminding the mother to breathe and relax through each contraction.
Reassure her. Try to keep her from getting anxious or overstressed.
Take care of yourself. Take a short break to eat or go to the bathroom when you need to.
Rest when the mother does. You’ll both benefit.
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Feb. 28, 2002
The tools of agriculture are changing as growers experiment with new space-age techniques called "precision farming."
Feb. 26, 2002
Not all full Moons are alike. This week's will be the brightest of 2002 -- but will anyone notice?
Feb. 21, 2002
Astronomers have learned that the center of our Milky Way galaxy harbors a long-sought black hole. But the finding has raised even more questions than before.
Feb. 19, 2002
The ringed planet will vanish behind Earth's moon on Wednesday, Feb. 20th. Some astronomers will be watching carefully for the faint glow of Saturn's "lost ring."
Feb. 14, 2002
Researchers using a space-age device called a bioreactor have grown patches of heart tissue that beat and respond much like a real human heart.
Feb. 12, 2002
Four hundred years after they were discovered, Saturn's breath-taking rings remain a mystery
Feb. 8, 2002
By peering through a giant cosmic lens, scientists have found some of the first-born stars in our Universe.
Feb. 6, 2002
NASA's HESSI spacecraft aims to unravel an explosive mystery: the origin of solar flares.
Feb. 1, 2002
Research aimed at building better greenhouses in space has led to a device that attacks and destroys airborne pathogens -- like Anthrax.
Jan. 28, 2002
250 million years ago something unknown wiped out most life on our planet. Now scientists are finding buried clues to the mystery inside tiny capsules of cosmic gas.
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Learn about free on-demand learning
Reference our medication guides for helpful information
Make a choice that matters
The best care starts with the best information
People have long feared rheumatoid arthritis (commonly called RA) as one of the most disabling types of arthritis. The good news is that the outlook has greatly improved for many people with newly diagnosed (detected) RA. Of course, RA remains a serious disease, and one that can vary widely in symptoms (what you feel) and outcomes. Even so, treatment advances have made it possible to stop or at least slow the progression (worsening) of joint damage.
Rheumatologists now have many new treatments that target the inflammation that RA causes. They also understand better when and how to use treatments to get the best effects.
RA is the most common form of autoimmune arthritis, affecting more than 1.3 million Americans. Of these, about 75 percent are women. In fact, 1–3 percent of women may get rheumatoid arthritis in their lifetime. The disease most often begins between the fourth and sixth decades of life. However, RA can start at any age.
RA is a chronic (long-term) disease that causes pain, stiffness, swelling and limited motion and function of many joints. While RA can affect any joint, the small joints in the hands and feet tend to be involved most often. Inflammation sometimes can affect organs as well, for instance, the eyes or lungs.
The stiffness seen in active RA is most often worst in the morning. It may last one to two hours (or even the whole day). Stiffness for a long time in the morning is a clue that you may have RA, since few other arthritic diseases behave this way.
For instance, osteoarthritis most often does not cause prolonged morning stiffness. Other signs and symptoms that can occur in RA include:
RA is an autoimmune disease. This means that certain cells of the immune system do not work properly and start attacking healthy tissues — the joints in RA. The cause of RA is not known. Yet, new research is giving us a better idea of what makes the immune system attack the body and create inflammation. In RA, the focus of the inflammation is in the synovium, the tissue that lines the joint. Immune cells release inflammation-causing chemicals. These chemicals can damage cartilage (the tissue that cushions between joints) and bone. Other things likely play a role in RA as well. For instance, genes that affect the immune system may make some people more prone to getting RA.
RA can be hard to detect because it may begin with subtle symptoms, such as achy joints or a little stiffness in the morning. Also, many diseases behave like RA early on. For this reason, if you or your primary care physician thinks you have RA, you should see a rheumatologist. A rheumatologist is a physician with the skill and knowledge to reach a correct diagnosis of RA and to make the most suitable treatment plan.
Diagnosis of RA depends on the symptoms and results of a physical exam, such as warmth, swelling and pain in the joints. Some blood tests also can help confirm RA. Telltale signs include:
X-rays can help in detecting RA, but may not show anything abnormal in early arthritis. Even so, these first X-rays may be useful later to show if the disease is progressing. Often, MRI and ultrasound scanning are done to help judge the severity of RA.
There is no single test that confirms an RA diagnosis for most patients with this disease. (This is above all true for patients who have had symptoms fewer than six months.) Rather, a doctor makes the diagnosis by looking at the symptoms and results from the physical exam, lab tests and X-rays.
Therapy for RA has improved greatly in the past 30 years. Current treatments give most patients good or excellent relief of symptoms and let them keep functioning at, or near, normal levels. With the right medications, many patients can achieve “remission” — that is, have no signs of active disease.
There is no cure for RA. The goal of treatment is to lessen your symptoms and poor function. Doctors do this by starting proper medical therapy as soon as possible, before your joints have lasting damage. No single treatment works for all patients. Many people with RA must change their treatment at least once during their lifetime.
Good control of RA requires early diagnosis and, at times, aggressive treatment. Thus, patients with a diagnosis of RA should begin their treatment with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs — referred to as DMARDs.
These drugs not only relieve symptoms but also slow progression of the disease. Often, doctors prescribe DMARDs along with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs and/or low-dose corticosteroids, to lower swelling, pain and fever. DMARDs have greatly improved the symptoms, function and quality of life for nearly all patients with RA. Ask your rheumatologist about the need for DMARD therapy and the risks and benefits of these drugs.
Common DMARDs include methotrexate (Rheumatrex, Trexall, Otrexup, Rasuvo),
hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil) and
Gold is an older DMARD that is often given as an injection into a muscle (such as Myochrysine), but can also be given as a pill — auranofin (Ridaura).
The antibiotic minocycline (Minocin) also is a DMARD, as well as the immune suppressants
azathioprine (Imuran) and
cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune, Gengraf). These three drugs and gold are rarely prescribed for RA these days,
because other drugs work better or have fewer side effects.
Patients with more serious disease may need medications called biologic response modifiers or “biologic agents.” They can target the parts of the
immune system and the signals that lead to inflammation and joint and tissue damage. FDA-approved drugs of this type include
abatacept (Orencia), adalimumab (Humira),
anakinra (Kineret), certolizumab (Cimzia), etanercept (Enbrel), golimumab (Simponi) infliximab (Remicade),
rituximab (Rituxan, MabThera) and
tocilizumab (Actemra). Most often, patients take these drugs with methotrexate, as the mix of medicines is more helpful.
Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors are another type of DMARD. People who cannot be treated with methotrexate alone may be prescribed a JAK inhibitor such as
The best treatment of RA needs more than medicines alone. Patient education, such as how to cope with RA, also is important.
Proper care requires the expertise of a team of providers, including rheumatologists, primary care physicians, and physical and
occupational therapists. You will need frequent visits through the year with your rheumatologist. These checkups let your
doctor track the course of your disease and check for any side effects of your medications. You likely also will need to repeat
blood tests and X-rays or ultrasounds from time to time.
Research shows that people with RA, mainly those whose disease is not well controlled, have a higher risk for heart disease and stroke. Talk with your doctor about these risks and ways to lower them.
It is important to be physically active most of the time, but to sometimes scale back activities when the disease flares. In general, rest is helpful when a joint is inflamed, or when you feel tired. At these times, do gentle range-of-motion exercises, such as stretching. This will keep the joint flexible.
When you feel better, do low-impact aerobic exercises, such as walking, and exercises to boost muscle strength. This will improve your overall health and reduce pressure on your joints. A physical or occupational therapist can help you find which types of activities are best for you, and at what level or pace you should do them.
Finding that you have a chronic illness is a life-changing event. It can cause worry and sometimes feelings of isolation or depression.
Thanks to greatly improved treatments, these feelings tend to decrease with time as energy improves, and pain and stiffness decrease.
Discuss these normal feelings with your health care providers. They can provide helpful information and resources.
RA is a complex disease, but many advances in treatment have occurred recently. Rheumatologists are doctors who are experts in diagnosing and treating arthritis and other diseases of the joints, muscles and bones. Thus, they are best qualified to make a proper diagnosis of RA. They can also advise patients about the best treatment options.
Updated August 2013. Written by Eric Ruderman, MD, and Siddharth Tambar, MD, and reviewed by the American College of Rheumatology Committee on Communications and Marketing. This information is provided for general education only.
Individuals should consult a qualified health care provider for professional medical advice, diagnosis and treatment of a medical or health condition.
© 2013 American College of Rheumatology
Rheumatoid Arthritis Spanish
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he advantage of milling your own flour is that you can produce a fresh, luxurious bread that preserves all the vitamins inherent in the wheat. With the proper equipment, wheat can be milled as it is needed or milled in batches.
Before historical records, wheat and the seeds of other grasses were stored for later consumption. The wheat berries were simply chewed and swallowed. As this was hard on the teeth, someone had the bright idea of crushing the wheat before eating it. Thus, in ancient times, flour was milled by crushing it between two stones. This was better than just chewing the berries, but doing this in any quantity was hard work and required long hours. The average person today would find the job tedious.
When woven material was invented, it was found that the flour resulting from milling could be sifted through material in order to remove the bran. This made flour that could be used to make quality breads. Later, wind, water, and horse powered mills were invented. It might be a good experiment attempting to mill bread in the same manner as the ancients. However, for most people one or two efforts should be sufficient.
Laura Ingalls Wilder, in her book, "Little Town on the Prairie", describes an episode when her family could not get flour and had to resort to grinding wheat that had been saved for seed into flour. Because there was no mill in town, Mary, Laura's sister, used a coffee grinder. But the labor was so tedious that she was constantly at it just to make enough flour to supply the family's needs. This is a good illustration of how much work is involved in crushing wheat berries.
Today, the average person has several milling options available. There are electric and hand-crank models. Once the flour has been milled you can use it as is or use a sifter to regulate the coarseness of flour you would like.
Next Page: We have several flour mills available in our store.
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What Ails Us? – Gabor Maté Challenges The Way We Think About Chronic Illness, Drug Addiction, And Attention-Deficit Disorder
By TRACY FRISCH
Physician Gabor Maté was born in Nazi-occupied Hungary in 1944 to Jewish parents who were primarily concerned with simple survival. His father was interned in a forced-labor battalion, his aunt disappeared, and his maternal grandparents died in Auschwitz.
In 1957 Maté and his mother and father immigrated to Canada, and he went on to get a medical degree from the University of British Columbia in Vancouver. He started a private family practice in East Vancouver that lasted for twenty-seven years. While treating patients, he observed that those who had experienced trauma, stress, and anxiety at a young age tended to repress their emotions and also to have more health problems. He also served as medical coordinator of the palliative-care unit at Vancouver General Hospital for seven years. In the late 1990s he took a job working with hiv-positive drug addicts at several innovative urban rehab programs, including one where addicts are given needles and allowed to inject heroin on-site — the only such supervised-injection program in North America.
With both the chronically ill and addicts, Maté again saw the roots of their problems in “adverse childhood experiences,” such as abuse, neglect, poverty, or parental stress. At a time when medical science was increasingly looking to our dna for the source of many illnesses, Maté was becoming convinced that experiences in our early years play an even greater role in brain development and behavior. The emotional patterns we learn as small children, he says, live on in the cells of our minds and come back to us as adults.
In his fifties Maté diagnosed himself with attention-deficit disorder [add] — a result, he says, of his early childhood in wartime Hungary. Those difficult formative experiences also led him to become a workaholic and a shopaholic, he believes. He credits mindfulness meditation and therapy with helping him cope.
In his first book, “Scattered,” Maté makes the case that add is not a genetically inherited disorder but rather is caused by the environment in which one is raised. He proposes the same for addiction in his book “In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts.” His other titles are “When the Body Says No: Exploring the Stress-Disease Connection” and, with Dr. Gordon Neufeld, “Hold On to Your Kids: Why Parents Need to Matter More Than Peers.” Protecting and strengthening the parent-child bond is crucial, Maté says, and he identifies the lack of support for struggling families in the U.S. and Canada as the root cause of many social and healthcare crises.
For many years Maté wrote a weekly medical column for The Globe and Mail, Canada’s most widely read newspaper. Recently he gave up practicing medicine to focus on his appearances at seminars and conferences, where he discusses disease, addiction, and human development within a social context. Attributing our maladies to heredity is simplistic and disempowering, he says, a distraction from the problems of economic inequality, bad schools, and a declining sense of community.
Frisch: Medical science has tried to offer genetic explanations for everything from alcoholism to obesity to breast cancer to depression. Why do you think genes can’t account for all our differences?
Maté: The genetic explanation is comfortable because it means that we don’t have to look at people’s lives or the society in which those lives are led for the source of our problems. If addiction is genetic, we don’t have to worry that it’s connected to child abuse, for example.
But studies actually show that, though certain genes might predispose you to addiction, if you grow up in a nurturing environment, those genes are inactive. Most genetic studies completely ignore the science of epigenetics, which is how the environment actually turns certain genes on or off.
Frisch: What led you to become interested in the connection between illness and environmental pressures?
Maté: As a family physician I began to notice that who got sick and who didn’t wasn’t completely random, that people who got sick more often tended to have more stressful lives. And I began to think that the stress had a lot to do with their illnesses.
I am not the first to arrive at that thought, which has been amply validated by research over the decades. Stress is a significant factor in the onset of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, and cancer. But that research is generally not part of medical education. Doctors are trained to understand disease as a random event usually caused by external agents — bacteria, viruses — or genetics. We’re not taught to look at patients’ formative experiences or multigenerational stress patterns. Yet both my own observations and the research literature clearly indicate that you can’t separate people’s bodies from their environments.
Consider all the stresses of life in a society where people feel little sense of control and lots of uncertainty all the time; where people are expected to behave contrary to their true nature; where relationships are often troubled; where parents are not available for their kids because they’re too busy. Under such conditions, you’re more likely to get sick. Nearly 50 percent of American adults have a chronic illness.
On top of that, the U.S. has an inequitable healthcare system that provides good care to some but minimal care to others, and the debilitating expense of healthcare stresses patients further.
Frisch: We all experience stress, but we don’t all get sick. What makes some people more prone to illness than others?
Maté: People who have a chronic illness of any kind — cancer, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, fibromyalgia, inflammatory bowel disease, chronic neurological and skin disorders — often fit certain personality profiles. For example, they tend to pay a lot more attention to the needs of others than to their own. They get caught up in their job or their role as a caregiver rather than looking after themselves. They also tend to suppress the so-called negative emotions, such as sadness and anger. They try not to acknowledge these emotions even to themselves. And, finally, they tend to think they are responsible for how other people feel and to be terrified of disappointing others who are important to them.
So an overwhelming sense of responsibility and self-suppression is what tends to characterize the chronically ill.
Frisch: Have there been studies that support this?
Maté: Yes. In some studies of women who are having breast biopsies, psychologists could predict with relative certainty who would be diagnosed with cancer based purely on personality profiles. They were right as much as 90 percent of the time. The so-called cancer personality has been studied particularly in relationship to multiple melanoma, a type of skin cancer. Of course the personality doesn’t cause the disease, but it does increase your risk of getting it.
Frisch: Are there different personalities for people who have cancer and people who have, say, heart disease?
Maté: Well, there are two kinds of people who are prone to heart disease. One type is the rageful Type A workaholic. After a fit of rage, your chance of having a heart attack or stroke doubles for the next two hours, because your blood pressure is up, your adrenaline is up, clotting factors are increased, and your blood vessels have narrowed. In the long term you’ll suffer high blood pressure, constriction of the arteries, and so on.
The other type of person who gets heart disease is the emotional suppressor. They express no anger at all, not even healthy anger. They tend to get diseases of the heart muscle. Instead of the coronary arteries being damaged by high blood pressure, the cardiac muscle is weakened.
Frisch: Why shouldn’t we make an effort to stay calm? Doesn’t anger hurt relationships?
Maté: To say that we shouldn’t have anger is like saying that we shouldn’t have rain: we may not like getting wet, but without it there’s no irrigation. Healthy anger is a necessary response to a boundary invasion. It’s our way of saying: You’re in my space. Get out. You see this behavior in animals, too. It’s not a question of should or shouldn’t; it’s a part of our makeup. The role of emotion is to keep out that which is dangerous or unhealthy and allow in that which is helpful and healing. So we have anger and revulsion, and we have love and attraction.
Now, rage is always unhealthy. Rage is anger that is disproportionate to the situation. It usually arises from past experiences, not present boundary issues, and it keeps going on and on. It’s not discharged once you’ve protected your boundaries. It’s the result of frustration that’s built up for many years, like a pressure cooker that explodes.
Anger that is repressed can also turn inward. People who repress their anger can actually suppress their immune system, making it turn against itself. When that happens, you’re going to get autoimmune disease. Anger and the immune system have the same purpose: to protect boundaries. The immune system does its job of attacking foreign particles, and anger does its job of keeping out human invasions.
When you suppress your response to a boundary invasion, you’re going to become stressed. If I started rifling through your purse, for instance, and you didn’t object but instead repressed your anger, you’d feel very stressed, because you’d be worried I’d take your money. It takes tremendous energy to suppress emotions. The act itself is stress producing. Self-suppression is not innate. It’s a learned coping style. When you’re a child and your parents can’t handle your feelings, you learn to suppress them to maintain your relationship with your parents. But what was a coping response in the child becomes a source of illness in the adult.
Frisch: Does positive thinking protect people from illness?
Maté: A genuinely positive attitude that’s based on real experience and authentic power does protect people. If you realistically see the world as a place where you can get your needs met most of the time, you’ll be healthier.
The compulsive positive thinker is in trouble, however, because he or she is in denial of reality. Some people are not comfortable with their own pain, so they cover it up with positive thoughts in a desperate attempt to avoid what’s there.
Frisch: Does low social status or oppression make people less healthy?
Maté: Yes. The major triggers for stress include uncertainty, lack of information, and loss of control. The more you are not in charge of the circumstances of your life and the decisions that affect you, the more stress you will be under. In a study of the British civil service, lower-ranking civil servants had a greater risk of heart disease than their superiors. Low socioeconomic status makes it more likely that you will be exploited and that your needs won’t be met. Of course, other factors such as poor nutrition and housing conditions can also contribute to ill health.
In African American men the death rate from prostate cancer is more than twice the rate among white American males. If you look at men in Africa, they have the same rate of developing cancer in their prostates as men everywhere — it’s fairly universal — but they don’t have a high rate of death from prostate cancer. I credit the Africans’ high-functioning immune systems, which has to do with the fact that they’re not as stressed as African American men, who deal more often with loss of identity, loss of status, loss of control, loss of power.
There has been a dramatic increase over the past several decades in the number of women being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis as compared to the number of men: “an increase in the ratio of women to men of nearly 50 percent per decade,” according to one U.S. expert. Women are now three to four times more likely than men to get ms. Such changes cannot be explained genetically, since genes don’t change in a population over such a short time frame.
There’s a lot of literature connecting ms to stress, and it’s easy to see why women might be more stressed, especially now. They’re still playing their traditional role of stress absorber, soaking up the worries of their spouse and children, as they always have. Now they also have to be out in the workforce, and they are doing so with less support, because the community and the extended family are less available. And traditionally women are trained not to express their so-called negative emotions.
Frisch: When people already have a chronic or degenerative disease, can changing the way they deal with their emotions help them overcome it?
Maté: In some cases. I know people with stage iv cancer who have changed their lifestyle and their emotional patterns and done very well, surviving a decade or more beyond their prognosis. They also changed their relationships and what responsibilities they took on. They started saying no when they didn’t want to do something. And why not? When they wouldn’t say no, the cancer came along to say no for them.
I don’t want to be simplistic about it. Not everyone can be saved. But with many of these illnesses, flare-ups could be avoided, and the inexorable progression and deterioration slowed or even stopped, if people started living differently, not controlling their emotions but changing how they relate to the world based on their emotions.
Frisch: You seem to be careful in your work not to blame people for their illnesses. Still, when you say there’s a connection between illness and emotional behavior, some might think you are holding the patients responsible for their own disease.
Maté: It’s not that I am careful not to blame. It’s that there’s nobody to blame. People don’t develop these behavior patterns deliberately. These are coping mechanisms based on family-of-origin problems. If I suppress my emotions because my parents couldn’t handle my anger when I was two years old, how am I to blame for that? At some point these coping mechanisms helped us survive.
I also don’t blame parents: these are unconsciously transmitted, multigenerational dynamics. Parents do their best, but we live in a highly stressful culture.
Frisch: What about individual responsibility? Where does it come in?
Maté: You have to understand the word responsibility. It implies that one has the ability to respond. Once I understand something, once I’ve thought it through, then I can respond consciously. Only after it makes sense to me can I start taking responsibility.
So is it true that some people bring on their own illnesses? In a certain sense, yes. How they live affects their health. Nobody argues that smoking doesn’t increase the risk of lung cancer. But even in those cases there are people who smoke to soothe some stress or pain that they didn’t create for themselves. It’s not entirely their choice.
Frisch: How should we raise our children to ensure they become healthy adults?
Maté: First we need to do away with the behavioral understanding of children, which dominates parenting in North America. We insist on looking at the behavior of the child and asking, “Do we like this or not?” If we don’t like it, we try to change the behavior. But we rarely ask, “Why is the child behaving this way?” The behavior is a symptom, a secondary issue. The real task is to understand what is actually bothering the kid. The child doesn’t necessarily understand it himself. It’s not his job to understand it. It’s the parent’s job, the teacher’s job, the doctor’s job, the psychologist’s job.
As long as we restrict ourselves to either punishing or curtailing children’s behaviors, it’s like giving an asthmatic cough medicine: it might suppress the symptom, but it does nothing about the inflammation that’s causing it.
If a child’s “acting out” is a result of a disturbed attachment relationship to her parents, to punish the behavior only further wounds the child, who didn’t deliberately choose that behavior and has no idea why she’s being punished for it.
It’s in relationships that people develop the coping mechanisms that may later make them sick. If my relationship with my parents demands that I become their caregiver because they’re alcoholics, then I’ll likely become a chronic caregiver and will ignore my own needs. The children of alcoholics suffer a lot from anxiety, depression, and physical illness because of how they cope. But they had no choice but to cope that way.
Frisch: You say no one is to blame for a poor attachment relationship between parent and child, but don’t the parents still have to change their behavior to break the cycle?
Maté: Absolutely. The older child’s brain, and even the adult’s brain, has the capacity to develop new executive circuits under the right conditions. Since the child’s most important relationship is with the parents, if the mother and father take better care of themselves and of one another and of the child, the child can significantly grow out of add or learn how to handle it better.
Frisch: Aren’t there cases in which a child’s acting out or add can’t be traced back to a lack of proper attachment to the parents?
Maté: Sometimes the question is not so much of attachment, but of attunement: the capacity of the parent to be emotionally in tune with the child. Many children are well attached to their parents, but the latter are too stressed or too distracted to be attuned to their kids. Stress on parents in this society is why we are seeing so many more kids being diagnosed with disorders.
Frisch: Why is attachment so essential for humans and other animals?
Maté: Attachment is simply the drive to be close to other creatures — to take care of them or be taken care of by them. The attachment drive is what we call “love” in lay terms.
It’s not essential for all animals. Reptiles hatch from the egg, and off they go. There’s nobody to take care of them; the mother turtle is long gone by the time the eggs hatch. Some of the offspring survive, but most of them don’t.
In avian species the infant has to attach to the parent to be nurtured and in order to model behavior and to learn. Mother birds instinctively care for their young and sometimes will risk their own lives in order to save their infants.
The more helpless the infant, the longer the period of attachment. In human beings it goes on longer than in any other creature because of the immaturity of the human infant.
The parent-child bond is our most important relationship; through it we experience the world. The child doesn’t experience poverty in the abstract; the child experiences whether the parents can provide for him or her. When a parent comes home stressed, the child experiences the parent’s emotions and, through them, the world that stresses the parent. The attachment relationship gives us our concept of the world: Is this place hostile? Is it friendly? Is it nurturing? Is it indifferent?
It’s also through the attachment relationship that we learn about relationships in general. Can people be trusted? Can we be vulnerable and express who we are, or are we going to be attacked for it? Do we need to protect ourselves and hide and shut down?
In the attachment relationship we also learn who we are: Are we good? Are we bad? Are we acceptable? Are we worthwhile? All of this depends not on what the parent thinks of us but on how the parent unconsciously acts toward us. If my parents enjoy me, then I’ll have good self-esteem. If my parents are so stressed and worried and depressed that they can’t enjoy me, even if they love me, then I will have low self-esteem, because children invariably make everything about themselves.
Frisch: How do other theories of learning and human development deal with attachment?
Maté: Educational theory tends not to understand it. Educators focus mostly on subject matter and little on the relationship between the teacher and the student, which is actually a strong determinant of how well a child will do in school. A kid who is well connected to adults will learn more easily. And the parents are the primary adult relationship.
In today’s climate teachers are under scrutiny and may themselves be graded by how well their students do on standardized tests. If you want to be a “successful” teacher, all you have to do — it doesn’t matter how inept you are — is teach in a nice middle-class neighborhood with intact families and well-adjusted kids, and you’ll get great scores. But if you take on the job of working with kids in poorer areas, where the families are challenged by poverty or racism and the children are constantly stressed, you might as well give up trying to present yourself as a successful teacher.
Frisch: Why don’t you advocate any particular set of parenting techniques?
Maté: Parenting is not about techniques. Parenting is about a relationship. You may read all the latest books, but if your relationship with your child is not well established because you’re too stressed, too busy, or too involved in your career, even the best techniques will not work.
In the context of a healthy relationship your proper parenting instincts will be triggered. When you’re with a baby, and the baby starts making big eyes at you and smiling, what’s your response? But when we are disconnected from our kids, because we haven’t been present enough in their lives, they don’t trigger our parenting instincts; they trigger our anxieties, our resistance, or our rage, and then we parent from those places.
The main trap parents fall into is thinking that this child is my child just because I am the biological parent. In the emotional sense the child is mine only if he or she is attached to me. In this society we tend to take that attachment for granted, but we can’t afford to do that. In older cultures parents used to be with their young children every hour of the day. In this society we often don’t see our kids for most of the day, so our status as parents is on shaky ground. When we’re not around, our kids tend to connect with people besides us, particularly other kids, who often supplant us as the primary figures in our children’s lives, even though we’re the caregivers and providers. Children are looking for an emotional connection. When they find it in other kids, they’re less concerned with what we as parents expect or demand of them.
Frisch: But what about stay-at-home parents who find themselves starting to go stir-crazy when they’re with their child all day long?
Maté: Why do they go stir-crazy? Because they’re alone with the child in an isolated home. That’s not how people are meant to parent. We’re meant to parent in a community. Indigenous women don’t go stir-crazy. They’re out in the village, relating to other adults the whole day.
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Always reward children, and they will develop lifelong habits, or will they?
Research in the 1970’s has shown that you can get children to paint lots of pictures simply by rewarding them with candy or gold stars…[However] as soon as they were discontinued, the children stopped painting pictures. They painted fewer pictures, once they were no longer being rewarded [probably because they were painting many solely for the reward!], than children who had never gotten any rewards. P6
Are you turning into your dad? Children will grow up to imitate their parents
The fact is children cannot learn how to behave by imitating their parents, because most of the things they see their parents doing – making messes, bossing other people around, driving cars, lighting matches, coming and going as they please, and lots of other things that look like fun to people who are not allowed to do them – are prohibited to children. From the child’s point of view, socialization in the early years consists mainly of learning that you’re not supposed to behave like your parents. P11 Perhaps you’re turning into your dad, because of the simple fact that you’re 50% of the your dad genetically. Which also means that you’re turning into your mother as well.
The apple falls close to the tree after all
It is possible for heredity to account for 100% of the resemblance between parent and offspring even though it accounts for 50% of the variation among the offspring. Not clear? Let me try again, using an example from another species – a vegetable, species this time. Plant some corn, pick an ear from each plant, taste it,.. and save a cob from each plant to use for seed and next year plant the seeds. You will find that the seeds from the plants that produced sweeter corn grow into plants that also produce, on the avg, sweeter corn – in other words, there will be a correlation between the parent corn’s sweetness and the offspring corn’s sweetness. That correlation is entirely due to heredity: the genes the offspring received from the parent account for 100% of the resemblance between them. But the genes account for only about ½ the variation in the sweetness of the offspring corn, because other factors such as soil, water and sunshine will also play a role… On average pleasant, competent parents tend to have pleasant, competent kids. But that doesn’t prove that parents have any influence – other than genetic – on how their children turn out. P24
Don’t forget to hug and kiss your ugly kids too!
A common generalization says that children who are hugged are more likely to be nice, children that are beaten are more likely to be unpleasant. Turn that statement around and you get one that is equally as plausible: nice children are more likely to be hugged, unpleasant children are more likely to be beaten. Do the hugs cause the children’s niceness, or is the children’s niceness the reason why they are hugged? Or are both true?… In standard socialization studies there is no way to distinguish these alternative explanations, there is no way to tell the causes from the effects. P28
And don’t forget to punish the pretty ones!
Researchers have found that children’s cuteness or homeliness has a measurable effect on how their parents treat them… A mother is, on average, more attentive to her baby if the baby is cute that if the baby is homely (cuteness was rated by independent judges). Although all the babies in this study were well cared for, the cute babies were looked at more, played with more, and given more affection than the homely ones… People are not as nice to homely children as they are to pretty ones. If they do something wrong, they are punished more harshly than pretty ones. If they don’t do anything wrong, people are quicker to think that they did. Homely children and pretty children have different experiences. They grow up in different environments [even in the same house]. P29
Identical twins reared in the same house are not nearly as alike as you would expect them to be. Given how similar reared apart identical twins are, you probably think that the reared together ones must be as alike as two copies of your annual Christmas letter. In fact, they are no more alike than identical twins separated at infancy and reared in different homes… I am talking about identical twins. These people are so alike in appearance that you have trouble telling them apart, but give them a personality test and they will check off different answers. The correlation of personality traits is only 50% for identical twins reared in the same house [and the same for those separated]. P34 [So what affect, if any, is the shared home environment and parents having on these twins then? It seems that you will become different, but only just so, whether you live with your identical sibling or not.] Any differences between [identical twins] have to be environmental [since they share 100% of the same genes]. The similarities can be genetic, environmental or a combination of the two. P35
Mom and Dad and the home aren’t so critical after all
Are adopted children more like their adoptive parents or more like their biological parents? People who share genes should be more alike than people who don’t, and people who shared a childhood environment should be more alike. From these 2 premises we can generate predictions. If risibility is entirely genetic, we would expect to find that identical twins are very similar and that it doesn’t make any difference whether they were reared together or apart. If risibility is entirely environmental, we would expect to find that reared-together twins, siblings, and adoptive siblings are equally alike in risibility. Finally, if risibility is due to a combination of heredity and environment – certainly the best bet – we’d expect to find that people who share genes are somewhat alike, people who were reared in the same house are somewhat alike, and people who share both genes and environment are the most alike. Sounds logical? Guess again… What we actually found is None of the Above… People who share genes are more alike in personality than people who don’t [so the notion that personality is partially genetic has been proven]. It was the premise about sharing an environment that didn’t seem to be working properly. Study after study was showing that pairs of people who grew up in the same home were not noticeably more alike than pairs who grew up in different homes. P35-6
The data showed that growing up in the same home, being reared by the same parents, had little or no effect on the adult personalities of siblings. Reared together siblings are alike in personality only to the degree that they are alike genetically… There are no leftover similarities for the shared environment to explain… For IQ as for personality, the correlation between adult adoptees reared in the same home hovers around zero. P37
Even more evidence – are you seeing a pattern yet?
[From landmark 1983 paper by Eleanor Macoby and John Martin] The findings imply strongly that there is very little impact of the physical environment that parents provide for children and very little impact of parental characteristics that must be essentially the same for all children in a family: for example education, or the quality of the relationship between the spouses. Indeed, the implications are either that parental behaviors have no effect, or that the only effective aspects of parenting must vary greatly from one child to the other within the same family. P38
Regarding that last statement about ‘aspects of parenting must vary greatly’. Does it make any sense to say that what matters is whether Mom loved you best, if it doesn’t matter whether Mom was home or at work, married or single, gay or straight? P52
No reason to have nice, tidy, big house full of art and healthy food after all. Poor fat slobs rejoice!
In other words, most of the things that were believed to have important effects on children turn out not to have important effects on them. If the parents work or don’t work, read or don’t read, drink or don’t drink, fight or don’t fight, stay married or don’t stay married – all these ‘must be essentially the same for all children in a family’ and therefore all appear to have very little impact on the children [lasting impacts on their personalities and intelligence, not their present moods or feelings!] Similarly, if the physical environment of the home is an apartment or a farmhouse, spacious or crowded, messy or tidy, full of art and tofu or auto parts and twinkies – all these too, ‘must be essentially the same for all children in a family’ and therefore appear to have ‘very little impact’. P39
You were always Mom’s favorite!
How do we know that Mom didn’t love you best because you were better to begin with? Are you smart because you were labeled the brain or were you labeled because you were smart? If parents treat each of their children differently, are they responding to the differences among their children or are they causing them?… We need to find a reason why a parent might behave differently toward 2 children that can’t be attributed to genetic differences between them. [Something like birth order for example.] p40
First borns are conservative, and Second borns are rebellious, everyone knows that!
A huge study of 7,582 college age residents of Zurich were given a series of 12 personality trait tests… Among the subjects coming from 2 child families, there were no significant differences between the 1st and 2nd born in any of the measured personality traits… The researchers, Cecile Ernst and Jules Angst, also reviewed all birth orderb studies from 1946 to 1980 published anywhere in the world. First of all, they found most of the studies were irredeemably flawed. In most cases the researchers failed to take into account differences in family size and socioeconomic status. [As for the ones that were left?] What did they find? No consistent birth order effects personality. P42-3 [So birth order makes no difference on your personality, and the nurture assumption takes another hit.]
Yeah, but I know of someone whose parents…
Of course, if we look at one particular person [yourself, someone you know perhaps], it’s easy to come up with a story about how the home environment (the critical demanding mother, the ineffectual father) shaped the child’s personality and produced the messed up grownup we see today. That kind of post-hoc speculation – unprovable – is the stock in trade of biographers [and people who dispute this theory]. P46
What about parenting style? Can that affect your kids personality?
In 1967, Diana Baumrind defined 3 contrasting styles of parenting – Authoritarian, Permissive and Authoritative. I have always found these terms confusing, so I will call them Too Hard, Too Soft and Just Right…Middle class American of European descent try to use the Just Right parenting style, because that is the style currently approved by their culture. If they don’t use it, it’s because they have problems or the kid does. If they have problems, it could be because they have disadvantageous personality characteristics that they can pass on to their kids genetically. If the kid has problems – a difficult temperament for example, the Just Right style might not work and the parents may switch to the Too Hard method. So among European-Americans, parents who use a Too Hard style are more likely to be the ones with problem kids. This is exactly what researchers find. In other ethnic groups – notably Asian and African Americans – cultural norms differ. Chinese Americans use the Too Hard style not because their kids are difficult, but because that’s the style favored by their culture. Among Asian and African Americans, therefore, parents who use a Too Hard style should not be more likely to have problem kids. Again, this is exactly what the researchers find. P49 [So the style doesn’t matter nor affect your child’s personality.]
What about day-care? Isn’t it much better to have Mom spend time with you?
Do infants suffer long term detriments from early nonmaternal care? Recent studies have demonstrated that the answer is no. Even the variation in quality of care makes less difference than you might think: ‘The surprising conclusion from the research is that variation in the quality of care proves to have little or no impact on most children’s development.’ P50
Every child should be raised by a mother and a father, not just a single mother.
A recent study looked at 3 kinds of families that are without a biological father – single mothers, lesbian mothers, and those children created by artificial insemination. The children of these mothers were well adjusted and well behaved – in fact, their adjustment was above average and the researchers found no differences among them. The ones without fathers were doing as well as the ones with fathers. P51
Is your life like a fairy tale or a movie?
Like Cinderella, most children have at least two distinct environments: home and the world outside home. Each has its own rules of behavior, its own punishments and payoffs… Children – even preschoolers – are remarkably good at switching from one personality to another. Perhaps they can do this more easily than older people. Have you ever listened to a couple of 4 year olds playing house [including all the various roles: Mommy, baby, big sister, director, producer, screenwriter]? P58
Once a baby always a baby. Try the mouse that roared.
There was no evidence of individual differences in sibling interactions carrying over into peer interactions…Even the 2nd born child, who has experienced years in a subordinate role with an older sibling, can step into a dominant role with a peer. P60
First, do no harm. Good advice not only for doctors, but for parents as well.
Some psychologists believe that severe abuse in childhood can lead to multiple personality disorder… The connections between the mental tanks [where each child has at least 2 – home and the world outside home] are broken, or never get formed, and each personality accumulates its own memories and fails to share them with the others. [This is just a theory.] p67
And you think you had it bad as a kid?
In parts of the world where people still live in traditional ways, no [language] lessons are given and parents generally do very little conversing with their babies and toddlers – they consider learning the language the child’s job, not the parents’… This is not unreasonable. After all, young children plainly can’t understand a word you say. So why waste your breath in soliloquies? P69
There once was this old Greek king…
There is an old Greek story about a king who wanted to know what language children would speak if left to their own devices [with no one to speak with them and no speech to hear.] Would it shock you to learn that in the US there are 1000s of children being reared like that? No it is not some [sadistic] experiment. These are babies born to profoundly deaf parents… 90% of these babies have normal hearing. These babies miss out on some of the experiences we consider crucial to normal development. No one comes running when they scream in terror or in pain. No one encourages their coos or makes a big deal out their mamas and dadas… Despite the fact that they didn’t learn any language from their parents, they became fluent speakers of English. P70
The nail that sticks up, is hammered the hardest.
The motivation to keep the home life from leaking out is stronger than the motivation to keep the outside world from leaking in, and it is especially strong in those who have an inkling that their homes might be abnormal in some way. If their mother drinks, their parents throw things at each other, or their father is an invalid, kids don’t want anyone to know about it. The child of immigrants might avoid inviting friends over to play. The kid whose parents are wealthier than their neighbors may be as anxious to keep it a secret as the kid whose parents are poorer: what they hate is being different from their peers. P71
Spy vs Spy
Getting information from friends and classmates can be tricky. Mutual efforts by a pair of children to find out about the other’s family often fail because both children fear they have something to hide… But children have a clever way of getting around this problem: they play House. In the game, children can cooperatively develop an idea of what a normal family is like and at the same time limit their risks. P71
Out of sight, out of mind
You are right that parents have effects on their children, but what evidence do you have that these effects persist when the parents aren’t around? The child who acts obnoxious in the presence of her parents may be demure enough before her classmates and teachers… If observations are made outside the home, away from parents, the differences between the offspring of divorced and nondivorced parents get much smaller or go away entirely. P75
A classic case of child abuse if they ever saw one.
Until quite recently in evolutionary time our ancestors made their living by hunting and gathering, and a hunter-gatherer baby was probably never left alone unless it was being abandoned… Even today, babies in most parts of the world sleep in the same room, often in the same bed, with their mothers… Mayan mothers when told that US babies are commonly put to bed in a separate room were appalled… They regarded the practice as tantamount to child neglect. P81
Gosh, its great to have you back from the office so soon Dad.
Things got better for European and American children during the 19th century. When men began to work at jobs away from the home for much of the day, the home became a private place – a haven from the world – instead of a place of business. The family came to be seen as a unit held together by mutual affection rather than by economic considerations… With men working outside the home, women were increasingly seen as having the role of attending to the family’s needs. P83
The 2 of you get along or else! Don’t make come down and straighten things out!
Parents in our society try so hard to get their children to love each other and what they get is constant squabbling. Parents in traditional societies make no effort to get their children to love each other and it happens as a matter of course. There are 2 reasons for this: 1st in traditional societies there isn’t much to fight over. The custom of giving all the attention to the baby is hard on the child who has just been deposed, but it means that all the children (but the baby) are in the same boat. They don’t compete for the parents attention because it doesn’t work. Nor do they compete for toys, because there aren’t any. They play with sticks and pebbles and leaves, and there are plenty of those to go around. 2nd, it is natural for older children to dominate younger ones. Because non-traditional parents feel that their children should be equal, they try to keep the older one from dominating the younger one, and as a consequence the older ends up resenting the younger one. Only by putting their might on the young one’s side can parents prevent domination by the elder, and this makes it look, to the elder, like the parents are favoring the younger one. P93
Can’t we all just get along? No, we can’t really.
Many people believe that children have to be taught how to hate… Hating the members of other groups is part of human and chimpanzee nature. What children have to be taught is how not to hate. We are born xenophobic. P112
What on earth would make that child act that way?
I can think of 4 reasons why it would not be in an offspring’s best long term interests to allow itself to be overly influenced by its parents.
- A predisposition to only learn from its parents would prevent the offspring from picking up useful innovations introduced by other members of its community. Since young animals are more likely to come up with useful innovations it is to an offspring’s advantage to learn from its peers as well as from its elders. What it learns from its peers is also likely to be more timely and better suited to the current conditions.
- If parents had the power to influence their children by environmental means as well as genetically, the children would be too similar to the parents and too similar too each other…
- It wouldn’t make evolutionary sense to design children to be programmed by their parents because children can’t count on having parents… Among the Yanomamo of the Amazon, the likelihood that a child of ten will still be living with both biological parents is only 33%… If children required parents in order to learn what they have to learn [like many other mammals], losing a parent would have been a death sentence.
- What’s best for the parents isn’t necessarily best for the children. Take for example weaning. A mother may want to wean her child in order to get ready for the next baby, but the child wants to be nursed as long as possible… Human children often begin to act babyish again after a younger sibling is born [my daughter was 95% potty trained when our second daughter was born. She was in diapers for over 6 months after the birth.] p120
Why? I’ll tell you why, because I said so. That’s why.
The offspring’s best policy is to watch out for its own interests while trying to remain on good terms with its parents… When the parent imposes an arbitrary system of reinforcement in order to manipulate the offspring into acting against its own best interests, natural selection will favor offspring that resist such schedules of reinforcement. P121 So you’re kids have Charles Darwin on their side when they disagree with you.
Remember that one day you won’t be here for them.
The lives of hunter gatherer children depended more on their group’s survival than on their parents’, because even if their parents died they had a chance of surviving if their group did. Their best hope of success was to become a valuable group member as quickly and convincingly as possible… Their future prospects depended, not on making their parents love them, but on getting along with the other members of the group – in particular, the members of their own generation, the people with whom they would spend the rest of their lives. P122 And the people with whom they would have to compete with for resources and mates.
You don’t need language to think
The Whorfian hypothesis [that the way we cut up the world into categories is entirely arbitrary, and that pinning a name on a category is what causes our brains to pigeonhole things.] predicts that babies and animals can’t categorize because they don’t have words for the categories. This prediction has been soundly disconfirmed. Pigeonholing turns out to be so easy that even a pigeon can do it… A pigeon taught to peck at one button when shown a picture of a cow, another when shown a picture of a car, can apply this training to cows and cars it never saw before. P130
Big hairy, bulging monsters!
Children don’t perceive adults as people like themselves, not if there are any other children around to make the distinction clear. To a child, an adult might as well be a member of another species. Grownups know everything, and can do whatever they want. Their bodies are enormously big and strong and hairy, and they bulge out in add places… Different creatures entirely. P144
Just because he’s nice to you, don’t doesn’t mean he’s nice to me.
The one convincing result that has come out of the attachment research is that children’s relationships are, to a large extent, independent of each other. Toddlers who are securely attached to their mothers are not necessarily securely attached to their fathers, and vice versa. Children who are securely attached to their caregivers at the day care center are not necessarily securely attached to their mothers, and vice versa. Security attachment does not reside in the child, it resides in the child’s relationships. The child’s mind holds not just one working model, but many of them – one for each relationship. P152
Monkey see, monkey do
Monkeys reared with mothers but without peers are happy enough in infancy but have serious problems later on, when they are caged with other monkeys… The peerless ones show no disposition to play together, and are abnormal in their social behavior. P154
The way we were
The belief in playmates is held around the world. But before societies became industrialized and urbanized it was rare for a young child to have others of the same age to play with. In tribal and small villages, the young child graduates from her mother’s lap into a play group of children with a range of ages, and she starts off as the youngest one in the goup… If there are enough children in the vicinity, the older ones go off and form their own groups… The older children [many of them related to each other as siblings, cousins, young uncles and aunts] are responsible for the younger ones – it is they, to a large extent, who teach the younger ones how to behave and how to play the local games. Their instruction is not gentle – teasing and ridicule are prevalent, as is the use of force – and it is not based on reasoning… And yet fights and serious aggression are uncommon… Perhaps children fight more when adults are present because they know they can count on the adults to stop them… Children in traditional societies also learn language in the play group. They don’t learn it from their parents because their parents don’t talk to them much. Older children simplify their speech a bit when talking to younger ones, but they don’t provide the kind of language instruction that parents give their toddlers in our society – the question asking, the patient rephrasing of the learner’s poorly phrased statement, the smile and pat when is said well… [Nevertheless] they all become competent users of the language that is spoken in their community. And they all become socialized. P160
When children imitate their parents [or adults] they don’t do it blindly: they are careful about it. They do it only when they think the parent is behaving normally, the way other people in their society behave. They become conscious of such things at a surprisingly early age. P164
Children’s groups operate by the majority rules rule: whoever comes to the group with behavior that is different from the majority is the one who has to change… For children, socialization is largely an unconscious process. P169
Identification with a group and acceptance or rejection by the group, do leave permanent marks on the personality… Researchers found that peer acceptance or rejection was associated with ‘overall life status adjustment’ in adulthood; having or not having a friend in grade school was not. P171
The fancier aspects of human groupness [a kid thinking of herself as a ‘kid’ and thinking of herself as a ‘girl’] do not come into play until middle childhood – the elementary school years. That is when the most important things happen. It is when children get socialized for keeps and when permanent changes are made in their personalities… During middle childhood, children become more alike to their peers of the same sex. They learn how to behave in public – to not hit (girls) or not cry (boys), to act polite to grownups (girls) but not too polite (boys)… The new behaviors become habitual – internalized – and eventually part of their public personality. It is the personality that the child adopts when they are not at home. It is the one that will develop into the adult personality. P176
Which children do the other members of the group pay attention to? Which ones do they look at when they’re not sure what to do? Someone who is high in the attention structure has privileges only dreamed of by the lower downs. He or she can be an innovator. The penalties for being different are mainly imposed on those in the middle and lower ranks of the attention structure. Those on top don’t have to imitate anyone: they’re the imitates. P178
Children who are unpopular with their peers tend to have low self-esteem, and I think the feelings of insecurity never go away entirely – they last a lifetime. You have been tried by a jury of your peers and you have been found wanting. You never get over that. P179
Short children, especially boys, tend to have low status among their peers. There is no reason, other than size, why these children should be rejected by their peers, and parents are more protective of smaller children. And yet short children are considerably more likely than tall ones to suffer from low self esteem and a host of other psychological problems… A researcher followed 2 groups of boys – slow and fast maturers – into adulthood. The slow maturers were small for their age growing up, but they eventually caught up; as adults they were only a ½ inch shorter on average. But the difference in personality persisted. The early maturers tended to be poised and self-confident. The late maturers were less sure of themselves, more prone to touchiness and attention seeking… p180
In parts of the world where mixed age play groups still exist, issues of size and status aren’t so important. A child starts out being the youngest and smallest, and gradually moves up in the ranks… Children in urbanized societies don’t get to run this gamut of experience. At home they remain the oldest/youngest among their siblings. In school, if they are lucky, at the top of the totem pole, or unlucky, at the bottom. P180
Somewhere around the age of 7 or 8, children start comparing themselves to their peers in a way they hadn’t done before. Ask a bunch of little boys in nursery school “Who’s the toughest boy?” and they’ll all jump up and shout ‘Me! Me!’. At 8 they are wiser. They’ll point to the biggest boy in the room. P180
Fortunately we get to choose which group to compare ourselves to. A 4th grader can consider himself tough if he’s tougher than most of the other 4th graders. He doesn’t have to compare himself to the 5th graders. If he discovers that he is not the toughest in 4th grade, there are plenty of other niches he can try out for. Class clown for example. Middle childhood is when children get typecast into roles that might last them the rest of their lives. They choose or get nominated or are forced into them by others. When it happens the characteristics a child starts out with tend to become exaggerated. The funny child gets funnier, the brainy child gets brainer. P181
Researchers have found that children’s attitudes toward schoolwork change if they switch from one group to another over the course of a school year. If a child moves into a clique of academic achievers, her attitude toward schoolwork is likely to improve; if she moves out of it, her attitude gets worse… The changes measured couldn’t have been due to changes in intelligence or parent’s attitudes, since neither is likely to reverse direction over the course of a single school year. P182
When an immigrants’ child joins a peer group of ordinary non-ethnic Americans, the parents’ culture is lost very quickly. The old culture is lost in a single generation as soon as a family moves away from the Chinatown or Latino neighborhood to an area where they are no longer surrounded by people of the same national background. What makes this appear gradual [to sociologists] is that families don’t all move away at the same time. Some go as soon as they can afford to, others wait a generation or two… The last aspects of the old culture to disappear are the things that are done only at home. Styles of cooking may survive for several generations. Children do not ordinarily learn cook in the presence of their peers. P191
When in Rome, do as the Romans.
For children it’s more than that: when in Rome, they become Romans. Even if their parents happen to be British or Chinese. When the culture outside the home differs from the culture inside it, the outside culture wins. P193
Hear no evil…
What makes deaf culture unique is that it can’t be passed down from the parents to children. A large majority of deaf children are born to hearing parents who know nothing about the world of the Deaf. And a large majority of the children born to deaf parents can hear, and these children become members of the hearing world. And yet the Deaf have a robust culture… They have their own rules of behavior, their own beliefs and attitudes. The profoundly deaf children of hearing parents get their behaviors and beliefs in the same place they get their language: in the schools for deaf children. Where else could they get them? Not from their homes…p194
You’ve been sentenced to serve 18 years in prison without the possibility of parole.
A child’s goal is not to become a successful adult, any more than a prisoner’s goal is to become a successful guard. A child’s goal is to be a successful child… Within a prison there are 2 different social categories: prisoners and guards… Because the guards have power over them, prisoners try to keep on reasonably good terms with their guards. But what really matters to most the prisoners is how they are regarded by fellow prisoners. They are aware that, sooner or later, they will probably become free people like the guards. But that is in the hazy future. Right now they are involved with the day to day job of getting along as a prisoner… Like other groups, prisoners have their culture – a culture that persists over time even though individuals keep coming and going… How do prisoners learn to be prisoners? One way is by making mistakes: the guards will punish them if they break any of the guard’s rules, and other prisoners will mock or shun or attack them if they break any of the prisoner’s rules. But for those who are observant and keep on their toes, it is possible to become a successful prisoner without ever getting negative feedback: they can learn by watching others. They cannot learn [the culture] by imitating the guards, but they can learn by imitating other prisoners. Let me hasten to add that childhood differs from imprisonment in important ways. Most children lead pleasanter and happier lives than prisoners. And children love many of the people who watch over them, and their feelings are reciprocated. P198
Wanna see my stash?
There is a rule in most nursery schools against bringing toys or treats from home… The children attempted to evade this rule by bringing small objects that they could conceal in their pockets… While playing, a child often would show his ‘stashed loot’ to a playmate and carefully share the forbidden object w/o catching the teacher’s attention… Showing the hidden object turned an act of personal defiance into an expression of groupness – us kids against the grownups – and made if much more fun. Mocking or evading adult authority seem to be universal in children’s groups. Each new generation of kids discovers the strategies on its own, but some traditions are passed along from older kids…
Same as it ever was
If present day school children were wafted back to any previous century they would probably find themselves more at home with the games being played than with any other social custom. Researchers found English schoolchildren still playing games that date back to Roman times. P200
Monkey see, monkey do
Cultures can be changed or formed from scratch, in a single generation. Young creatures are more likely than older ones to be innovators and to be receptive to new ideas. It was a 4 year old female Japanese macaque monkey named Imo who invented a new way of separating grains of wheat from sand. Imo threw the wheat into the ocean: it floated, the sand sank. Imo’s playmates copied her and soon the whole troop – all but its oldest members – had learned to cast their wheat upon the water. Another cultural innovation followed, begun a by 2 year old female named Ego. Ego introduced swimming to her peer group, and before long all the young monkeys were splashing in the surf and diving underwater for seaweed. Most of the adults didn’t cotton to this new sport, but little by little they died off, and swimming in the ocean became part of the culture these Japanese macaques. P202
Keep a stiff upper lip old chap
Upper class British men closely resembled – in behavior, attitudes and accent – their fathers. And yet their fathers had practically nothing to do with their upbringing. The rule that children should be seen but not heard wasn’t enough for the British. ‘The true Britishman, said Sir Anthony Glyn, feels that children should not be seen either. A lecture each holiday on fortitude, fitness and trying hard at games is almost all the parental contact needed.’… At the prep schools to which British aristocrats send their sons, there is a children’s culture that is passed down… Before the invention of TV the kids at those schools had little contact with the adult culture; what went on in the world outside the school had little impact on them… Each new cohort of kids was much like the last one; the culture continued almost unchanged while generations of kids passed through it. The reason the sons were so much like their fathers was that they had both been socialized in the same way and in the same place. The sons took their along with them as they grew up, just as their fathers had before them. P204 Sir Glyn’s boring holiday lectures were all for naught I’m afraid.
Peer pressure, parental style.
Parents don’t like to be different from their friends and neighbors in the way they rear their kids. They worry about it. And the kids sense this vulnerability and are quick to put it to their advantage. “None of the other kids have to phone home.” “All the other guys are getting new Nikes.” Though parents scoff at these transparent ploys, they are not completely immune to them… The reason parents are doing this terrible [female genital mutilation] to their daughter – jeopardizing her life and health, her ability to have children – is that everyone else is doing it. Their friends and their neighbors, their siblings and cousins, are doing the same to their daughters. They risk the scorn of all these people if they don’t go along with the practice. They risk being stuck with a daughter whom no one will marry because, according to their culture, nice girls don’t have clitorises… People rear their children the way their friends and neighbors are doing it, not the way their parents did it, and this is true not only in media-ridden societies like our own [Don’t believe it, did you ever have a ‘play date’ growing up? Did you walk to school, elementary school? Try letting your kid do that today without getting calls from child protective services.] When anthropologists studied a primitive African tribe, their custom was to force-feed millet gruel to an infant by holding its nose so that it would have suck in the stuff in order to take a breath. When the tribes were revisited 20 years later, this ‘risky and wasteful way of feeding’ was no longer being used – all the mothers had switched to feeding millet gruel out of plastic bottles with rubber nipples… P207
Puzzled in New Jersey
In some African-American communities it has been so long since anyone nursed a baby that members of the younger generation are sometimes unaware that it is possible to feed a baby that way. A NJ director for helping economically disadvantaged mothers reported “I’ve had women say to me, ‘Oh, you mean you can actually get milk out of there?’”p208
TV – the village idiot.
In traditional societies there is no privacy and children are exposed from infancy on to aspects of life that we, in developed societies, try to protect them from: birth and death, gore and gossip, sex and violence. There is, I assure you, as much sex and violence in traditional societies as there is in our own. The difference is that in our own society most real-life scenes of sex and violence take place behind closed doors. So instead of learning about such things by watching their neighbors, today’s children watch TV. TV has become their window on society, their village square… Preventing an individual child from watching TV would not protect that child against its influence, because TV’s impact is not on the individual child – it is on the group. P211
The fact that children are like parents isn’t informative: it could be heredity, it could be environment, who knows? But the fact that children are like their friends’ parents is very informative: it can only be environment. And since most kids don’t spend a whole lot of time with their friends’ parents, the environmental influence must be coming to them by way of their friends. It is delivered by the peer group. P212
The most important years for group socialization are the years of 6 to 12. During that time, children in our society spend much of their free time with peers of their own sex. They are socialized not just as children but as girls and boys. This gendered socialization is not simply a consequence of spending time with other members of one’s sex or even of liking the members of one’s sex better: it is a consequence of self-categorization. A girl categorizes herself as a girl, and she gets her idea about how to behave from the data she and her group have collected. They’ve been collecting the data since the day they were born. P226
Children may categorize themselves as members of groups that reject them. You don’t have to be liked by the members of your social category in order to feel that you are one of them. You don’t even have to like them. [Think of those folks who are anatomically male, but feel like a girl trapped in a boy’s body. Their social category is not the other boys, but rather the girls. And you really can’t expect them to be welcomed with open arms into the girl’s group, can you?] p228
Boys will be boys. But why?
3 year olds in a lab strewn with toys were mixed into groups. Girls and boys were equally friendly when paired with a member of their own sex, but a disquieting asymmetry appeared when a girl was paired with a boy. The girl instead of playing with her partner often became the onlooker. ‘Girls frequently stood on the sidelines and let the boys monopolize the toys.’… These things are happening at an age when there is hardly any difference in size or strength between the avg girl and avg boy. Perhaps this is why little girls start avoiding little boys: it is not as much fun to play with people who don’t listen to your suggestions and who grab your toys without even asking. But soon little boys are also avoiding little girls, perhaps because it is more fun to play with people who want to do exciting things rather than dumb things like changing dolls’ diapers. P229
Were you tomboy too?
It is unusual for a girl to be accepted into a boy’s game. Most of the girls who play games with boys do it in the neighborhood play groups, not in school. Neighborhoods offer fewer potential companions than schoolyards, so the children can’t be as selective; this provides a handy excuse for the children who don’t want to be as selective. In any event, neighborhood play groups often contain both sexes and a range of ages. The mixture of sexes is what makes it possible for so many women – more than 50% - to say that they were tomboys in their youth and played with boys. P230
When the group distinctions are salient, hostility between groups is most likely to emerge. Pressures on children to avoid showing any signs of friendliness to members of the opposite sex are most intense in the parts of the school where adults keep a low profile… Adult influence increases the amount of friendly interaction. It is the kids themselves, not the grownups, who initiate and maintain the segregation of the sexes. P230
I think groupness is stronger in males for evolutionary reason: it is the males – larger and more muscular than females, able to run faster, and freer in adulthood to take physical risks because they don’t get pregnant and don’t have babies to lug around – who join their fellows to defend the group and to launch attacks on other groups. Intergroup warfare was part of the environment in which our species evolved, and anything that gave us an edge over our adversaries was worth a bit of extra work for that little Y chromosome. The games boys like to play – the world over – are very good preparation for warfare. P231
Boy’s groups tend to be hierarchical. There is a leader and he tells the others what to do. Boys vie with each other for status. They refrain from showing weakness. They don’t ask for directions because they don’t want anyone to know they’re lost. Girl’s relationships tend to be close and exclusive, though not necessarily lasting. Girls are less likely to show hostility directly; they get back at their enemies by attempting to turn friends against them. Leadership in a girl’s group has its hazards: it can get you a reputation for being bossy. Girls don’t believe in bossing their friends around – they believe in cooperation and taking turns. P234
Girls and boys are more alike in behavior in places where they are too few in number to form separate groups, because in those places they categorize themselves as kids. They are alike because the are socialized in the same peer group. The exaggerated sex differences we see today among children in our own society may indeed be a creation of our culture: it was the invention of agriculture, only 10,000 years ago, that made it possible for us to provide children with so many potential playmates. A bit of advice to parents who want to rear androgynous children: join a nomadic hunter gatherer group. P236
2 things that affect how a person feels about herself are status and mood. If her status in her group is low and there is nothing she can do to improve it, her self-esteem goes down. Her self-esteem also goes down if she’s depressed. From early adolescence on, females are twice as likely as males to become clinically depressed. P238
To children in school, the most important people in the classroom are the other children. It is their status among their peers that matters most to them – that makes the schoolday tolerable or turns it into a living hell. A large part of the teacher’s power resides in her ability to put individual children in the spotlight. She can, if she is so inclined, hold up a child to public ridicule or public envy. But a teacher can much more than that… Teachers have power and responsibility because they are in control of an entire group of children. They can influence the attitudes and behaviors of the entire group. And they exert this influence where it is likely to have long-term effects: in the world outside the home, the world where children will spend their adult lives. P241
The kids who have a poor attitude toward school simply do not do as much brainwork as the kids who think school is important. They don’t have a poor attitude toward themselves – just toward school. They don’t have, as a rule, low self-esteem. Self-esteem is a function of status within the group. People judge themselves on the basis of how they compare with the other members of their own group. P243
American children tend to learn more in classrooms that have fewer children. The reason may be that it is easier for the teacher to make a smaller class a united group. The kids are less likely to divide up into contrasting groups with contrasting attitudes toward schoolwork if there aren’t very many of them. P249
Black kids who do well academically are pressured by their peers not to work so hard. They are failing to conform to the norms of their group: they are ‘acting white’. These kids do not get their anti-school attitudes from their parents. Parents of all racial and ethnic groups think education is important and hold high expectations for their children’s academic success… German researchers found no difference in IQ between children of white fathers and black fathers who were US service men, and who had German (white of course) mothers. These were black kids who couldn’t have a group of their own because there weren’t enough of them in any one school. They may have been rejected by their white schoolmates, but evidently that didn’t give them the idea that reading is unimportant or that school sucks. P250-1
In contexts where gender is less salient, girls and women do better in science and math. Women’s colleges produce a disproportionate number of outstanding female scientists. The women at these colleges live in the same society as the rest of us, but they are less likely to categorize themselves as women and less likely to contrast themselves with men. P252
Most programs like HeadStart have only temporary effects on the children, and some have no measurable effects at all. Interestingly enough, the ones that have no measurable effects tend to all be those that try to change the parents’ behavior (they may however reduce the incidence of child abuse). But they have no noticeable effect on how the children behave when they are not home or on how they do in school. The programs that get the parents involved produce no better results than the ones that leave the parents out. This is just what group socialization theory would predict. P253
Bilingual programs have been, in the words of one knowledgeable critic ‘a dismal failure’. Group socialization theory can explain why these programs fail. They fail because they create a group of children with different norms – norms that permit them not to speak English, or not to speak it well. The fact that their teachers might speak grammatical, unaccented English is not enough. In the schools for the deaf, it’s not the teachers who cause the children with a good bit of hearing to stop talking. Most of the teachers in those schools can hear. P256
A child born to college educated parents is going to have a view of the relevance of education – of the normalness of spending the 1st quarter of your life working your butt off in school – than one born to high school dropouts. The children will bring these attitudes with them to the peer group and if their attitudes are shared by the majority of their peers they will retain them. The atmosphere in the classroom is likely to be pro-reading in a school that serves homogeneous neighborhood where all the homes are full of books. It’s likely to be, so what? Who cares? In a school that serves both kinds of neighborhoods it is likely that the children split up into groups with contrasting cultures [This happened at my HS. A magnet school for gifted children (mainly from upper middle class, college educated parents) collocated on an inner city campus with lower income students.] And now perhaps you can see why it might not work to send a large number of kids from low-income neighborhoods to a private or parochial school. They might form a group of their won and retain the attitudes and behaviors they brought with them to the school. p260
The neighborhood environment has effects during childhood because primary schools tend to be small and to serve homogeneous populations. One of the reasons these effects fade in adolescence is that high schools tend to be large. Even if the population it serves is homogeneous, the larger enrollment permits the students to form more social categories and to divide up in more ways… Once these groups form, whatever characteristics they started out with are exaggerated by group contrast effects. Group contrast effects work like a teeter totter: when someone goes up, someone else goes down. The avg outcome is worse than neutral because it’s so much easier to go down than up. Once kids have split up into groups it is extremely difficult to put them back together again. It’s better to discourage them from splitting up in the first place… One way to do this is to make them as homogeneous as possible. That is why girls do better in math and science in all-girl schools, and why all black colleges put out a disproportionate number of the nation’s talented black scientists and mathematicians. It is why school uniforms work. I would be very interested in the outcome of an experiment to put primary school girls and boys into identical unisex uniforms. Another way is to create new groups that cross cut the other ones. It means giving kids harmless ways to split up – classroom1 vs. classroom 2 instead of girls vs. boys, poor vs. rich, smart vs. dumb, etc… If a child can’t categorize herself as a girl, or a dummy, or poor, she might do so simply as a member of classroom 1. If all else fails, a surefire way to uniting people is to provide them with a common enemy. P263
I believe a teacher’s job is not to emphasize the cultural differences among the students (that can be done at home by the parents) but to downplay them. A teacher’s job is to unite students by giving them a common goal. P263
Human chidren have a peculiar pattern of growth that is not seen in most other mammals. They grow very rapidly in the 1st 3 years, and then growth slows down, and remains slow for about a decade… It as though nature is trying to keep children children for as long as possible, and then as soon as the purposes of childhood have been fulfilled, propel them into adulthood as rapidly as possible [via adolescence], thus shortening the period of uncertainty in which they are neither fish nor fowl. P271
Evolution provided us with 2 reason to love our young children: because they carry our genes and because they’re little and cute. Evolution gave us only 1 reason to love our teenage children: because they carry our genes. Once they balloon to adult size and their sweat gets that gamy smell – adolescents no longer evoke our nurturing instinct. P273
When teenagers have an age group of their own, hostility between teenagers and adults can emerge. Does emerge. It is mutual. The hostility is most visible when groupness is salient, because it is groupness that causes it. When groupness is not salient, it is perfectly possible for teenagers to have warm relationships with adults. Now you can see why teenagers are so annoyed when adults take over their styles of dress or speech – and why they are forced to invent new ones. They have attained adult size and shape, but they don’t want to be mistaken for grownups. They need ways of signaling their group identity and loyalty to the other members of their group… The unspoken question that teenagers are constantly asking each other is: Are you one of us or one of them? Prove it by showing you don’t care about their rules. Prove it by doing something – smoke a joint, get a tattoo, get a hole through your nose is even better – that will mark you irrevocably as one of us. P273
Children are not the changers of culture: they are still learning the ropes and are not sufficiently independent. Adults are not changers of culture: they are maintainers of the status quo. The changers of culture are people in their teens and 20’s who have an age group of their own. Groupness motivates them to be different from the generation of their parents… They adopt different behaviors and philosophies; they invent new words and adornments. Indeed many of these are not improvements. P275
Kids are often forced together into social groups they would rather not belong to. No one chooses to be a brain. The kids pinned down with that label are those who are not athletic or popular enough to get into one of the groups that have higher status. Perhaps braininess is not an asset because kids who do well in school are seen as turncoats: too much under the influence of them, the parents and the teachers.
The kids in adolescent peer groups are similar to begin with; groupness causes them to become more similar to each other and to contrast themselves with the members of other groups. The brains get brainier, the nerds get nerdier, and the delinquents get into real trouble. P278
Trouble is far more likely to occur when teenagers become members of groups with goals and values very different from those of their parents. The teenager who gets in with the ‘bad crowd’ is not going to have a very serene home life. Teenagers who are members of nice peer groups tend to get along well with their parents. Psychologists use this as evidence of parental influence- that parents who use the right kind of child rearing style have nice kids, and parents that use the wrong style have teenagers that are not influenced by them [but is it really?] Perhaps, the correct view is that both groups of teenagers are equally influenced by their peers, [and the teenager’s behavior is what is influencing the parents to get along or not get along.] p279
Up in smoke.
Research has shown that the best predictor of whether a teenager will become a smoker is whether her friends smoke. This is a better predictor than whether her parents smoke. Teenagers who smoke are also more likely to engage other kinds of ‘problem behavior’: to drink, to use illegal drugs, to become sexually active at an early age, to cut classes, to dropout, to break laws. They belong to peer groups in which such behaviors are considered normal. P281
Psychologist: You should be kind to Johnny. He comes from a broken home.
Teacher: I’m not surprised. Johnny could break any home.
Children who are obnoxious at home are not necessarily obnoxious outside the home. Johnny may be obnoxious everywhere he goes, but fortunately such kids are uncommon…because the social context within the home, where the rearing goes on, is very different from the social context outside the home, where the socializing goes on. P296
Care for a rotten Danish?
The increase in criminality among Danish adoptees reared in criminal homes was found only for a minority of the subjects in the study: those who grew up in or around Copenhagen. In small towns and rural areas, an adoptee reared in a criminal home was no more likely to become a criminal than one reared by honest adoptive parents. It wasn’t the criminal adoptive parents who made the biological son of criminals into a criminal: it was the neighborhood in which they reared him… If their own parents are criminals, their friends’ parents may also be inclined in that direction. The children bring to the peer group the attitudes and behaviors they learned at home, and if these attitudes and behaviors are similar, in all probability the peer group will retain them. P298
I’m willing to bet my life that my dad can kick your dad’s ass.
Even today, among Ache Indians of Paraguay, when a man dies in fight, the other villagers often kill his children, even when the children have a living mother… Overall, Ache children whose fathers die suffer a death rate more than 10% higher than children whose fathers remain alive. P300 So even if pop lives, my chances are just 10% better than if he got knocked off, them ain’t good odds.
Hey single moms, what kind of father is the best father for your kids? A dead one.
Do children with father with fathers turn out better in the long run than children w/o fathers? And if they do turn out better, is it because they had a father? Most people think so…If this were true than a lot of things you’d think would matter turn out not to matter. The presence of a stepfather in the home doesn’t improve the kids chances at all. Nor does contact with the biological father outside the home: “Studies based on large nationally representative surveys indicate that frequent father contact has no detectable benefits for children.”… The fatherless one who are better off – and this is curious too – are the ones whose father have died. “Children who grow up with widowed mothers fare better than children in other types of single parent families.” P302
When the biological father is living but not living with his kids, you have a family situation that is statistically associated with unfavorable outcomes for the kids. Let me show you how it might be possible to account for this without reference to the children’s experience in the home or to the quality of parenting they receive there. Most single mothers are poor. ½ of all homes headed by women are below the poverty line. The loss of income impacts the kids in several ways. For one thing, it can affect their status in the peer group… But by far the most important thing that money can do for kids is to determine the neighborhood they grow up in and the school they attend… Poverty forces many single mothers to rear their children in neighborhoods where there many other single mothers and where there are high rates of unemployment, school dropout, teen pregnancy, and crime. P304
It’s the neighborhood stupid!
It’s the neighborhood, not the family. If you look at kids within a given neighborhood, the presence or absence of a father doesn’t make much difference… Adolescent males in this sample [254 black families in the Northeast] who lived in single mother households did not differ from youth living in other family constellations in their alcohol and substance use, delinquency, school dropout, or psychological distress. P304
Moving is rough on kids. Kids who have been moved around a lot – whether or not they have a father – are more likely to be rejected by their peers; they have more behavioral problems and more academic problems than those who have stayed put. Researchers have found that change of residences could account for more than ½ of the increased risk of high school dropout, teen births, and idleness among adolescents being reared without fathers… Changes in residence jeopardize a kid’s standing in the peer group and interfere with socialization because it’s difficult to adapt to group norms when the norms keep changing. P305
If the parents’ presence or absence in the home or the relationship between them – quarreling constantly or writing each other little love notes – had any lasting effect on the kids, we should see it in the behavioral genetic data, and we do not. More precisely, if the parents’ presence or absence had any lasting effect on the kids, it must have been different effect for each kid. Unfortunately, this doesn’t bolster the position of folks who say ‘Parents need to be informed about the possible consequences to their children of a decision to live apart.” What consequences? If you can’t say what the consequences are – if living apart makes one child shyer and the other bolder, or makes one laugh more, and the other laugh less, and if there are no overall trends - what were you planning to inform them about? P307
A twin study of 1500 pairs of adult identical and fraternal twins analyzed their and their parent’s marital histories. The divorce rate was 19% among the twins whose parents had remained married. Among those whose parents divorced, the chances of divorce were considerably higher – 29%. The chances were just as high – 30% - for those with a divorced fraternal twin, and they were higher still for those with a divorced identical twin – 45%. The analysis churned out that: about ½ of the variation could be attributed to genes shared with twins or parents. The other ½ was due to environmental causes. But none of the variation could be blamed on the home the twins grew up in. Any similarities could be fully accounted by the genes they share. Their shared experience, at the same time – they are twins – of parental harmony or conflict, parental togetherness or apartness, had no detectable effect. P308
Don’t look for a divorce gene. Look instead for traits that increase the risk of almost any kind of unfavorable outcome in life. Traits that make people harder to get along with – aggressiveness, insensitivity; traits that increase the chances that they will make unwise decisions – impulsiveness, easily bored. Does that list sound familiar? It is similar to the list often found in criminals… A group of researchers discovered what predicted conduct disorder in children was not parental divorce but parental personality: parents with antisocial personality were more likely to have children with conduct disorder… People with personality problems are difficult to live with so they’re more likely to get divorced; the same people are more likely to have difficult kids. P309
Divorce is bad for children in several ways. 1st, it comes w/a heavy financial penalty: the children usually experience a severe decline in std of living. Their financial status will determine where they live. 2nd, it’s bad because they often have to move to a new residence. 3rd, it increases the risk of physical abuse. 4th, it’s bad because it disrupts their personal relationships.
Long-term modifications of personality and ingrained patterns of social behavior are handled by the groupness dept of the mind. The dept that oversees relationships doesn’t produce long-term modifications of personality, but that doesn’t make it unimportant. In our thoughts and emotions, the relationship dept is much closer to the surface – much more accessible to the conscious mind – than the dept that produces long-term modifications. Relationships can dominate our moment-moment feelings and actions and leave residues in our memories like stacks of old love letters in the attic…p310
When life at home is disrupted, the child’s behavior at home is of course disrupted, and so are the emotions associated with the home… If the researchers want to find out how the child’s life outside the home is affected by the parents’ divorce, they will have to collect their data outside the home… What they fill find, judging from the behavioral genetic data I mentioned earlier, is that parental divorce has no lasting effects on the way children behave when they’re not at home, and no lasting effects on their personalities. P311
If you have occasionally lost your temper and hit your children, it is unlikely that you’ve caused them any lasting harm. On the other hand, it is possible that you’ve harmed your relationship with them. If you have been unjust and they are old enough to realize it, they will think less of you… But it isn’t that they will think less of you that professional advice givers warn you against hitting them. The trouble with hitting children, they tell you, is that it will make them more aggressive… The evidence indicates that being spanked at home does not make kids more aggressive when they’re not at home. P312
Why would a parent abuse a child? One reason might be mental illness… Probably only a minority of abusing parents are mentally ill. But it is likely that many more have personality characteristics that by now will sound familiar. People who are aggressive, impulsive, quick to anger, easily bored, insensitive to the feelings of others, and not very good at managing their own affairs are unlikely to be good at managing their children’s. The unlucky offspring of such people are dealt a double whammy: a miserable home life, and a genetic endowment that decreases their chances of success in the outside world. P315
For older children a stable peer group may be more important than a stable family life. The theory behind foster care is that kids need families. By trying to provide them with families – trying in some cases, over and over again – well meaning agencies rob them of peers. P317
Even in middle class neighborhoods there are delinquent peer groups. Some kids join these groups because they have been rejected by the other groups; some join them out of choice. Kids identify with a group because they feel it consists of others like me. The parents think the group is having a bad influence on their kid, and they may be right, because the whatever the members have in common tends to be exaggerated by their influence on each other and by contrast effects with other groups. But the influence is mutual and the kids had a lot in common to begin with. Is it the parent’s fault when a teenager becomes a member of such a peer group? [They are not at fault when it comes to parenting sytle – Too Soft, Too Hard, or Just Right has not effect.] p319
New Zealand researchers gave personality tests to 1000 young people and found certain traits were good predictors of risky behavior: those who are impulsive, quick to anger, aren’t afraid of danger, and seek excitement, are more likely to drink too much, drive too fast, and engage in risky sex. These same people also tend to have difficulty establishing and maintaining close personal relationships… These disadvantageous personality traits are heritable to about 50% of the variation among individuals. And the traits show up early: researchers were able to see signs of them when their subjects were only 3 years old. P324
Identical twins are separated in infancy; they grew up in different adoptive homes. One became a concert pianist. The other can’t play a note. [Try to guess which one.] Since both have the same genes, the disparity must be due to a difference in their environments. Sure enough, one of the adoptive mothers was a music teacher who gave piano lessons in her home. The parents of the other twin were not musical at all. Only it was the nonmusical parents who produced the concert pianist! P328
Children also learn things at home that they don’t bring to the peer group, and these may be retained even if they are different from what their peers learned. [Remember the cooking example?] Some things just don’t come up in the context of the peer group. This is true nowadays of religion. Unless they attend a religious school, practicing religion is something children don’t do with their peers: they do it with their parents. That is why parents still have some power to their kids their religion. Parents have some power to impart any aspect of their culture that involves things done in the home… Children learn how to play the piano at home. They learn what it’s like to be a doctor or why it’s best to be a Democrat or how to wrap a corn husk around a tamale. What they don’t learn at home is how to behave in public and what sort of people they are. These are things they learn in the peer group. P330
In precolonial China, if a man committed a serious crime, his whole family – parents, children, siblings – were executed along with him. The idea is that the whole family shares the responsibility. P331
Out of its familiar territory the family draws together and becomes a group. The little rivalries between siblings evaporate. But the respite is temporary. As soon as the parents and children are alone together again, groupness wanes and rivalry waxes. They revert to being a bunch of individuals- each with his own agenda, her own patch of turf to defend. Mom he’s putting his foot on my side! P331
The evidence indicates that within the family niche picking or typecasting leaves no permanent marks on the personality. One of the ways children get typecast is by birth order: the oldest child is seen by his parents as more responsible, sensitive, and dependent that his younger siblings; he’s seen by his siblings as being bossy. But consistent differences that depend on birth order generally don’t show up in personality tests given to adults. Nor do researchers find consistent differences in personality between only children and children w/siblings. P332
If it were up to me, I would take the risk that my child might be rejected and put her into the best school I could find – a school with smart, hard-working kids. A school were no one makes fun of the one who reads books and makes A’s.
Unfortunately, your power to influence your children’s friendships shrinks as they get larger. With little children, parents have almost complete control over who their friends are. But once they turn ten, all bets are off. If you forbid an older child to see her friends, and if she is the kind of kid who is attracted to the kind of friends you don’t want her to see, there’s a good chance she’ll them behind your back and lie about it. And lying quickly becomes a habit, if it isn’t already. P337
Feeling very good about yourself may be counterproductive. The problem is that people with high self-esteem tend to think they are invulnerable. There is a theory that violence is caused by low self esteem but a recent review concludes the opposite: ‘Violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism – that is highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance.’ P339
Parents can’t prevent their children from being typecast in negative ways in the peer group. However, they can make it a little less likely to happen. They do have some control over the way their children look, and their goal should be to make them look as normal and as attractive as possible, because looks do count. Normal means dressing the child in the same kind of clothing the other kids are wearing. Attractive means things like dermatologists for the kid with bad skin, and orthodontists for the one whose teeth came in crooked. And plastic surgery for any serious sort of facial anomaly. Children don’t want to be different, and for good reason: oddness is not considered a virtue in the peer group. Even giving a kid a weird or silly name can put him at a disadvantage. P341
Nature gets us do what she wants us to do by making it pleasurable for us to do it. If parenting were hard work, do you think chimps would bother? Parents are meant to enjoy parenting. If you are not enjoying it, maybe you’re working too hard. P345
Nature doesn’t give a damn about fairness. Big males dominate smaller males. Males beat up females. Young animals do the same to younger ones. This unpretty pattern is preserved intact in traditional societies. It is very old. Our current obsession with fairness and niceness is very new. P345
In traditional societies parents are not pals. They are not playmates. The idea that should have to entertain their children is bizarre to these people. They would fall down laughing if you tried to tell them about ‘quality time’. P345
Older siblings are allowed – indeed, are expected – to dominate their younger siblings. It is natural for older kids to dominate younger ones, and in traditional societies no effort is made to prevent it, because there is not so much concern about equality and fairness [in this context. And additionally, he who is young, will become the eldest eventually. So in a way it is somewhat fair because everyone will progress through all stages and eventually will get their turn in the sun.] p346
If the peer group’s culture differs from the parents’, the peer group’s always wins. The child of immigrant parents invariably learns the language of her peers [without an accent], and favors it over the language of her parents. It becomes her native language. P358
The dept of the brain that keeps track of relationships is accessible to the conscious mind. The dept of the brain that adapts your behavior to that of your group is no less important but it is less accessible to consciousness. A lot of its work goes on at an automatic level, like the muscle movements that enable you to pick up the glass… The process I have been talking about in this book generally go on below the level of consciousness… These things can be brought into consciousness but that’s not where they live. In this book, I have been talking about things that children do w/o noticing them, w/o having to exert conscious effort. It leaves the tops of their minds free to do other things. P361
Gold std of social studies is large (at least 1000 people), randomized, and double-blinded, and the researchers have no financial stake in the outcome.
According to group socialization theory it is the influence of the peer group, not the influence of friends, that has long-term effects on personality… Although having the same friends can server as an indicator of shared peer group membership (because kids who are friends are usually members of the same peer group), it is an imperfect indicator (because kids who are not friends can nonetheless belong to the same peer group).
Group socialization theory makes a strong prediction about learned behavior: behavior acquired outside the home may leak into the home, but that reverse will not occur… When a child brings friends home from school and is playing with them at home, whose rules of behavior does he follow, his parents’ or his peers’? When a father takes a teenage daughter to a restaurant and invites a few of her friends to come along, does he see her behaving in way that is unfamiliar to him? When parents visit the school, their children are pleased and embarrassed, but do they revert to behaving the way they behave at home? What does a boy do when he skins his knee in the presence of both his mother and his peers: does he cry as he would with his mother, or act tough as he would with his peers? [Go out and prove this theory for yourself if you still have any doubts.] p388
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The perpendicular itself. See Sine of angle, below. Artificial sines, logarithms of the natural sines, or logarithmic sines. Curve of sines. See sinusoid. Natural sines, the decimals expressing the values of the sines, the radius being unity. Sine of an angle, in a circle whose radius is unity, the sine of the arc that measures the angle; in a right-angled triangle, the side opposite the given angle divided by the hypotenuse. See Trigonometrical function, under Function. Versed sine, that part of the diameter between the sine and the arc.
Origin: LL. Sinus a sine, L. Sinus bosom, used in translating the Ar. Jaib, properly, bosom, but probably read by mistake (the consonants being the same) for an original jiba sine, from Skr. Jiva bowstring, chord of an arc, sine.
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Privacy visor glasses jam facial recognition systems to protect your privacy
This is the world's first pair of glasses which prevent facial recognition by cameras. They are currently under development by Japan's National Institute of Informatics.
Photos taken without people's knowledge can violate privacy. For example, photos may be posted online, along with metadata including the time and location. But by wearing this device, you can stop your privacy from being infringed in such ways.
"You can try wearing sunglasses. But sunglasses alone can't prevent face detection. Because face detection uses features like the eyes and nose, it's hard to prevent just by concealing your eyes. This is the privacy visor I have developed, which uses 11 near-infrared LEDs. I'm switching it on now. It prevents face detection, like this."
"Light from these near-infrared LEDs can't be seen by the human eye, but when it passes through a camera's imaging device, it appears bright. The LEDs are installed in these locations because, a feature of face detection is, the eyes and part of the nose appear dark, while another part of the nose appears bright. So, by placing light sources mostly near dark parts of the face, we've succeeded in canceling face detection characteristics, making face detection fail."
Compared with previous ways of physically hiding the face, this technology can protect privacy without obstructing communication, as all users need to do is wear a pair of glasses.
However, because this system utilizes the difference in spectral sensitivity between human vision and imaging devices, another method is needed for cameras that aren't affected by infrared light.
"In that regard, what we're thinking of is a visor that doesn't use electricity, but uses reflective material. For example, one like this. This makes light from outside look white, or absorbs it. That pattern breaks up the features used in face detection. So you can prevent face detection even without using electricity, by wearing this visor. It is also very cheap to make."
- This Week
- This Month
- All Time
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In 1895, a professor by the name of Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen discovered a source of invisible rays which were capable of penetrating materials not normally translucent to ordinary light. Not only this, but these mysterious rays also caused certain chemicals to fluoresce, notably barium platinocyanide. Not creative in choosing names, Wilhem temporarily called these new rays ‘X-Rays’, a name that sticks to this day.
It doesn’t take long for this news to spread, and not too long after speakers at the Grand Cafe on the Bulevard Des Capucines improvise a show to fascinate a crowd of 33 spectators, where their invisible bones are made to cast a shadow on a shimmering screen by means of a Crooke’s tube and rumchoff coil. Similar shows of this nature were held by the Lumière brothers; the men who presented the first film in the history of cinema. In fact, the soon-to-be great filmmaker Georges Méliès assists these demonstrations.
Soon, others exploit this new invention, and only a few months’ time after rontgen’s discovery sideshow men begin to host “neo-occult sessions” during which painted items are made to fluoresce in the presence of a wide x-ray beam. Often these objects were skeletons or items of a similar deathly nature, and fortunes were told to those who paid their sum.
These sessions became so popular that some retailers even began to stock items related to this type of service. This practice peaked circa 1900.
Throughout 1896, x-rays gradually are applied to nonscientific applications. Despite some initial opposition, x-rays find their place almost instantaneously in the world of medicine and surgery.
A dental radiograph taken by Dr. Walkhoff, 14 days after Rontgen’s paper was published. Walkhoff reported that the 25 minute exposure “was a real torture, but I felt great joy in seeing the results when I realized the importance of Röntgen radiation for our specialty”.
In the USA, many doctors send their patients to be radiographed in physicists’ laboratories. Wolfram Fuch, an electrical engineer employed by one of these laboratories, had conducted more than 1400 radiographs by late 1896.
The first practitioner to use x-ray therapy is likely Dr. Leopold Freund of Vienna, where his first patient was a five year old girl with a hairy beauty mark on her back. In December 1896 she underwent an x-ray treatment 2 hours per day for 16 days, where after 12 days the hair began to fall out, but her back became horribly inflamed. After this incident, Freund limited subsequent exposures to 10 minutes.
At this time it was usually the private radiographer’s duty to assess the fluoroscopic images and report back to the doctor with the news. This began to change with Dr. Antoine Béclère was the first notable doctor to directly image his patients. His colleagues accused him [of] “dishonor by becoming the medical photographer!”
In 1897 Béclère created the first in-house radiology laboratory in Hôpital Tenon, where x-rays were usually performed by Richard Chauvin and Félix Allard.
Still, at that time any engineer, builder, pharmacist, merchant or wine dealer could open their own “x-ray laboratory”. Before 1900 it was often assumed that anyone competent enough to be a good photographer could interpret a radiograph.
Of course, many manufacturers began to compete a market that promised to be a big one. Their salesmen often offered themselves as demonstrations to the deep-pocketed physicians, where they soon discover the effects of such repeated
In September 1896. A man was shot in the head but was not killed. Only after 3 hours of irradiation is the bullet located.
In November 27, 1897, fluoroscopy was used to help deliver a newborn child.exposure. In June 1896, the famed Thomas Edison developed a Calcium Tungstate flouoscope which allowed for bright, real-time observation of a patient’s body. Edison clearly instructs that the success of this method depends on the power of the Crookes tube used, that is to say, the voltage used across the tube. Thus, nearly 90% of these x-rays make it to the face of the unfortunate doctor preforming the procedure.
Later that same year, of interest in their effect on skin, x-rays were used upon the head of a child for 1 hour at a time, where “within 21 days after the experiment, the hair began to fall at the site of penetration over a diameter of about two inches, and the skin is healthy and the patient feels no pain. There was no damage there. There is no concern then,” the doctor preforming this experiment proposes, “that x-rays may be used as a safe and effective method of hair removal”. This ‘fact’ would later be exploited by a man named Albert Geyser, who in 1920 made a [temporary] fortune by selling x-ray machines as hair removal systems.
Signs of something amiss…
In November of 1896, an article titled “the misdeeds of x-rays’ appeared in Nature, where the case of an x-ray exhibitor in London was studied. During the year’s summer, a man was paid to publicly demonstrate x-rays at various fairs for for several hours a day, where he soon developed some curious ailments.
“In the first two or three weeks I felt no inconvenience, but after some time numerous dark spots appeared on the fingers of my right hand which the x-rays often pierced. Gradually they became very painful; the rest of the skin was red and inflamed strongly. My hand hurt so much that I was constantly forced to bathe it in cold water. Ointment temporarily calmed the pain, but the skin had dried and become as hard and as yellow as parchment, and completely insensitive. I was not surprised when my hand began to peel.”
“Soon the skin and nails fall off and the fingers swelled, the pain remaining constant. I lost the skin of my right and left hands, and four of my nails have disappeared from the right hand and two left and three others were ready to fall off. During more than six weeks I was unable to hold anything in my right hand and I can not hold a pen since the loss of my nails … “
Interestingly, not much attention is paid to the article.
The first man to die as a direct result of x-ray exposure is likely Clarence Madison Dally, an assistant to Thomas Edison. Clarence tested every x-ray tube he produced on his hands, which, over the course of several years caused him to develop a cancer of the hand. In 1900, despite several futile amputations he died of mediastinal cancer; an event that reportedly caused edison to abandon all experimentation with x-rays.
In 1903, when asked about the event Edison replied, ‘Don’t talk to me about X-rays, I am afraid of them”.
In 1900, early radiologist Dr. Mihran Kassabian began to share his concerns regarding the x-ray as a possible irritant after noticing burns developing on his hands. Over the years, he becomes increasingly weary of x-rays and urges for more caution and regulation in their use as a therapeutic technique.
Somewhat ironically, he eventually developed a serious cancer of the hands, and succumbs to Dally’s fate in 1910.
Continued fun with ‘A new kind of ray’
By now, some are beginning to understand the dangers of x-rays and steps are taken to ensure radiographers are safe. Lead glass bowls are placed around x-ray tubes to shield excess radiation, and the invention of the coolidge tube helps to make exposures faster and safer for all parties involved. Still, the public is largely unaware of their danger.
For only a few dollars, you too could be cured of sexual impotence!
For some time they were even viewed as a new form of artistic photography, and journalists were encouraged to use them as such.
Law enforcement agencies, interested in inspecting packages and luggage, bought these new ‘cameras’ by the dozens. It was not uncommon for them to be used frivolously, though.
‘Human Telescopes’ –a crude form of fluoroscope, became fun party toys among the elite, where they offered a new use for those crooke’s tubes which were ever-so popular novelties back then.
Much like radio communication, radiography even became a fun hobby for those who could afford the necessary equipment. [Not to say that it this is untrue today!]
In reality, these machines did little to help fit the shoe.
A wake up call…
Interestingly, it wasn’t the x-ray which made known the fact that ionizing radiation wasn’t something to play with. Rather, it was the mishaps of the similar novelty of the time, Radium, which put an end to most of the nonsense.
Radium is an element that emits huge quantities of alpha particles and gamma rays; which, like x-rays, “Had the power to cure any ailment”. As such, it was added to everything from wristbands to drinking water and was bought by the public en masse.
Circa 1917, thousands of women were working in shops to paint the dials of watches with radium-containing luminescent paint. Ideally, this wouldn’t have been anything special, but unfortunately paintbrushes lose their shape after a few strokes. To keep them sharp, women would use their mouths to adjust their shape.
Many women eventually died of radium jaw; a disease of the bone that often results in the jaw literally falling off. This, coupled with the death of socialite Eben Byers finally let the public know, large amounts of radiation are dangerous. ∎
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In HTML, every website is required to have the
<title> tag in the
<head> of the source code HTML structure. It is the area that tells a search engine the name of your site, and if appropriate, the title of the web page you are viewing.
In “Blog Exercises: Know Your Pageviews,” your blog exercise was to check out all the pageviews on your site, the various ways your site generates a specific web page. Your site’s underlying code includes generating web page “titles” for each of these pageviews as well. Do you know what they are? Have you checked your titles lately?
Most modern WordPress Themes are set up to show the name of the site followed by the title of the Page or post such as: What Do You Do When Someone Steals Your Content | Lorelle on WordPress or About « Lorelle on WordPress for my About Page on this site.
Do you know what your title says about your site to search engines and to potential visitors?
To find out, view one of your web pages on your site. In your browser, choose View Source and scan the HTML. I know that most of it won’t be readable unless you know a little HTML, but look at the very top for the
<title> HTML tag. What does it say?
Here are some results I’ve found recently. The first part of each item in the list is what the title says. The second is what it should say. I’ve disguised the names of a few sites to protect the guilty.
|What Appears in the Title Tag||What the Title Tag Should Say|
|Home | Corporate and Continuing Education||Clark College Corporate and Continuing Education|
|Is J.J. Abrams Directing Star Wars Episode VII?||Is J.J. Abrams Directing Star Wars Episode VII? – Mashable Entertainment News|
|Home||Sally Hansen – Dreams of a Bigger and Better World|
|My Blog||Dancing News Entertainment Blog|
|–||The Adventure of a Lifetime – Sky Jumping Blog|
|http://somethingsomething.com/about.html – http://somethingsomething.com/about.html||About – SomethingSomething|
Does that make sense. For example, Mashable, one of the most popular sites on the web for current events, entertainment, and tech news, does not feature the name of their site on their web pages. You would think that the use of their name in the title of their web pages would be important when it comes to search engine keywords and name recognition.
You would imagine the same for Clark College. Wouldn’t having “Clark College” in the title of their Corporate and Continuing Education department’s site be important for branding and name recognition?
What about Sky Jumping Blog and SomethingSomething (yes, both made up)? Their site title and post title say nothing, leaving me to guess that their site either has nothing in the
title HTML tag or one doesn’t exist, which is bad as it required for web page validation and web standards.
title HTML tag is used by search engines in search results as the “name” of your site and the title of the web page article. It is used by feed readers as the name of your site. It is used in many ways and having it lacking the name of your site or useless words like “home” is like telling the search engines you don’t want your site listed.
What does your say? And does it speak well of you and your site?
Your blog exercise today is to check your
<title tag in the source code of your site.
Check the front page and various pageviews to see how it changes. Check the category pageview, single post pageview, Page pageview, etc.
If it doesn’t speak well of you, fix it.
To view it, visit a web page on your site and view the source code (View > Page Source or Source on most web browsers). Search for “title.” It should be within the first few lines of code for your site, so you won’t look far.
There has been much debate over two elements of the
title tag. The first is the usage of the separator between the post title or page name and the site title. In general, the hyphen or Pipe (|) is preferred but the » is popular.
The second debate is over whether the site title should come before the article title or after. In general, the consensus is article title first, site title second, but it is up to you. If you write keyword-rich post titles, consider putting the post title first.
To fix it in your WordPress Theme, contact the Theme author if you are code-shy. If you are willing to do it yourself, see Function Reference/wp title in the WordPress Codex and How to Modify Your WordPress <title> Tag for Search Engine Optimization by bavotasan.com.
If you are on a site not of your own design, contact the Theme author to get this fix and updated, or use a Child Theme to protect your WordPress Theme when it updates.
What did you find when you checked your title? Did you need to fix it? Which order and separator do you prefer?
If you blog about this, remember to include a hat tip link back to this post to create a trackback, or leave a properly formed link in the comments so participants can check out your blog exercise task.
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Studies of the interactions between vegetation processes and mammalian herbivory have been part of BNZ LTER research for over 20 years. We have found that browsing by moose and snowshoe hares controls vegetation development and nutrient cycling at a variety of scales. Mammalian herbivores control species composition, nutrient cycling, and plant population dynamics at the stand and landscape levels, and these effects are manifested both in early and late succession via herbivore effects on the interaction of biotic and abiotic processes.
Primary succession on the Tanana River floodplain is initiated by plant establishment on newly formed silt bars formed by flooding. Whereas all the major plant species (willows, alder, balsam poplar, and spruce) are present in this early wave of colonization, the successional trajectory is characterized by distinct vegetation stages reflecting the life history traits of these dominant species. Because of their high population densities in interior Alaska, mammalian herbivores may consume over 50% of the current annual growth. Consequently, they have major impacts not only on plant growth but also on nutrient cycling processes since litter from browsed plants tends to have higher nutrient concentrations and faster decomposition rates. Perhaps the largest effect of herbivory on nutrient cycling is the selective browsing by moose and snowshoe hares on willows, which leads indirectly to the dominance of alder, an important nitrogen-fixing species.
During periods of high snowshoe hare density, browsing on seedlings of late-successional species such as white and black spruce can result in effects on forest community composition that persist for decades. Studies of snowshoe hare populations at BNZ have shown that, in addition to the classical decadal population cycle, hare abundance varies nearly as much on an intra-annual basis, underscoring the large oscillations of resource availability in boreal forests.
The effects of mammalian herbivory can also alter the activity and abundance of insects and other arthropods. For example, the longer shoots produced by browsed willows experience higher rates of sawfly infestations than the shorter shoots on mature-growth form plants. Moreover, the generally warmer and drier microclimate on the forest floor, caused by browsing-induced changes in canopy structure, results in altered composition in the guilds of ground-dwelling insects. Thus, mammalian herbivory exerts significant control over biogeochemistry and successional dynamics at the level of the species, community and the ecosystem.
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Daguerreotypy spread rapidly, except in England, where Daguerre had secretly patented his process before selling it to the French government. The legal problems attending the pursuit of photography as a profession account in part for the widespread influence of amateurs (e.g., Nadar, the French pioneer photographer) on the early development of the medium. The popularity of the daguerreotype is attributable to two principal factors. The first of these was the Victorian passion for novelty and for the accumulation of material objects, which found its perfect paradigm in these silvery, exquisitely detailed miniatures. The second was the greatly increasing demand from a rising middle class for qualitatively good but—compared to a painter's fee—inexpensive family portraits. The cheaper tintype eventually made such likenesses available to all.
The principal shortcoming of the daguerreotype and its variants was inherent in its nature as a direct positive. Unique and unreproducible, it could not serve for the production of any image intended for wide distribution. This factor, combined with the lengthy exposure time necessitated by the process, restricted its function to portraiture. The vast majority of surviving daguerreotypes are portraits; images of any other subject are exceedingly rare. Nevertheless, for 20 years the daguerreotype completely overshadowed the greater utility of the calotype. In the United States, where it was equally popular, the daguerreotype was promoted by John W. Draper and Samuel F. B. Morse.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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A weekly allowance gives a child a source of income that he or she can learn to make decisions about. There is a heated debate concerning allowance: whether this weekly money should be tied to chores.
Yes. Yes. Yes. If you just give your child an allowance because he or she is on the earth, you are supporting the concept of an entitlement program: I’m on the earth: therefore, I’m entitled to get what I want.
The only way you get money is to earn it, not to whine and nag for it. Speaking of nagging, someone actually conducted a study to determine the number of times kids say that they have to nag a parent before they will give in and buy them what they want. Guess how many times they have to nag? If you said nine: you guessed right. You want to teach your child the natural consequences of money. You get money by earning it. What you want this weekly sum to show your child is the relationship between work (chores) and money (allowance).
How It Works
My Work-For-Pay Allowance system is based on a specified series of chores that are over and above what is expected of your child as a contributing member of your household. Children should not be paid for any act that relates to personal hygiene or the development of personal responsibility.
The “Citizen Of The Household” chores will vary from family to family, but generally they are chores that everyone is expected to chip in and do. For instance, my kids had to keep their rooms free of breeding diseases, and they didn’t get paid for that.
The chores for allowance are over and above the Citizen Of The Household chores. You should assign weekly chores (jobs) for which each child will be responsible. To avoid falling into a sexist trap and assigning garbage duty to the boys and dusting to the girls, rotate chores each week. Remember, not only are you empowering your children to earn their own money, they are also learning the life skills that make a household run.
Like countries, households run on concepts of citizenship. We all share a planet, a country, a community…and a family. Good citizens pitch in and do their voluntary jobs to make things better for all.
You decide on the Citizen-Of-The-Household chores for each child and fill in the chart with the appropriate tasks. Here are some suggestions:
List of Citizen-Of-The Household Chores
• Brush teeth
• Get up on time
• Go to bed on time
• Put cloth reusable grocery bags in the proper place (could be a special closet or in the car)
• Put toys back after use
• Take a bath/shower
• Hang up your clothes or put them in the hamper
• Hang up wet towels after use
• Help out when asked!
Download and print off the “Citizen-of-the-Household Chart”
Print a different chart for each child.
• List the chores down the left side
• Explain each chore to your child
• Show them what is expected, explicitly, for each responsibility – actually model the behavior
Each day as your children complete their Citizen-Of-The-Household chores, allow them to tell you if they think they completed the chore appropriately. They can then check off the appropriate box.
Then you inspect what they’ve done and you decide if the chore was completed to your standards. If so, check off the “Job Well Done” box.
Younger kids love “star” stickers that you can also put on the chart to indicate a “job well done”!
Work- For-Pay Instructions:
Download and print off the “Work-For-Pay Allowance Chart” for each child.
Sample List of Age Appropriate Work-For-Pay Chores:
• Set the table (leaving off knives)
• Clean the table
• Load dishwasher
• Collect clothes and bring to washing machine
• Separate whites and colors
• Dust a room
• Vacuum a room
• Collect newspapers and bundle for recycling
• Feed you pets
• Water plants
• Sweep a room/walkway
• Rake leaves
• Bring in mail
Pick one day per week (I like Friday) to be Pay Day. Make sure you always have the proper change on hand so kids can divide their money into their proper budget jars.
No Work, No Pay
This is one of the household values your children should understand from an early age. That’s the way it works in the real world: you can’t do half your job and expect your employer to pay half your salary.
You’re not going to let your younger kids “sink or swim.” For them it’s a positive reinforcement. So, do the chores with them, let them check-off each job after it’s completed, and as discussed before, put a sticker on the chart to show “ A Job Well Done!” For the older ones, however, it’s “Three Strikes And You’re Out”. You will remind them to complete their chores only three times a week. If they don’t do them, and don’t do them properly, it’s “NO WORK, NO PAY.”
The days of 5-cent sodas and fifty-cent allowances are gone. If you pay your children too little, you are telling them that their work has no value and you take away their incentive to work.
I make it objective and if you can afford it, I suggest that you pay your child his or her age in a weekly allowance – a four year old earns $4.00 a week, a ten year old earns $10.00. I’m sure you’re gasping for air right now because this seems like a large amount. (When I was a kid, I tried to convince my parents to pay me my weight each week. It didn’t fly.) This is really not a huge amount when you see how your children will learn to budget and save and spend their money. Very soon your children will understand that indeed, “MONEY DOESN’T GROW ON TREES.”
The Four Jar Budget
Your kids have worked hard and earned money, now it’s time to learn to save, spend and share their money.
Get 4 clear plastic jars or pouches and label them:
10% Charity Jar
30% Quick-Cash Jar
30% Medium-Term Savings Jar
30% Long-Term Savings Jar
Hint: Make sure that you have rolls of coins and bills on hand so that you have the correct amounts for your kids to count out into the appropriate jars.
By the way – the old fashioned piggy bank really doesn’t do it. First of all, a budget creates a habit of “dividing” money into different categories, and a piggy bank commingles all of their money. Secondly, we want kids to see the joy of the budget, visually. You can’t see into a piggy bank.
Each Pay Day, help your child to count their earnings into the appropriate budget jar. Here are the brief explanations of each jar:
10% Charity Jar:
This money will go to charity. Help your child to decide which one is appropriate. For young children, it may be a religious organization, or a reflection of a passion of theirs. Do they love animals? A donation to the local animal shelter may be perfect. If they have been “rescuing” animals in the Green$treet App, a donation to an endangered animal cause could be great. Remember, giving money is only half of charity. Also, try to do some volunteer “giving” with your child, as well.
30% Quick Cash Jar:
This is instant gratification, that “guilt-free’ spending – or what we called, “mad money”. You set the overall parameters, if it’s no candy, no junk food, those are your rules, but beyond that, let your kids make their own Quick Cash spending decisions. Remind them to bring their quick cash on those shopping days. No more nagging. You now just say, “Did you bring your Quick Cash? You can buy that with your own money.”
30% Medium-Term Saving:
This teaches kids to push-off instant gratification and save for larger items. The young ones can only save for a week or two, because they forget what they are saving for (actually, we also forget). Let them learn to set a savings goal, an important lesson. They are also learning that in game play in the Green$treets App. They can draw a picture of their goal and put that on their jar as a reminder.
The older ones can set a larger medium-term savings goal, and save for a few months.
30% Long-Term Savings:
This is the money we set aside in a budget for a larger savings: college, or a car, for instance. It would be wonderful to also set-up a schedule where once-a-month you bring your child to the bank to have them deposit their money into savings account. After they understand why we use banks, you can make the money transfers on-line.
Remember, a budget is a habit – not an object of torture! Encourage your child to earn, save, spend and share and together, you’ll see the life log skills they are learning.
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Some popular brands of pizza and baked beans are loaded with unhealthy levels of salt, a survey by the Food Standards Agency has found.
Salt content of pizzas varied widely
It found salt levels varied widely between brands.
A number of popular products had more than half the amount of salt recommended for adults to consume in a whole day.
High salt consumption is linked to a range of health problems including stroke and heart disease.
One children's pizza was found to contain almost three times as much salt as a rival brand, while some standard tins of baked beans had two-thirds the salt of other comparable tins.
Salt content: worst offenders
Dr Oetker Crisp Fine Base Speciale Pizza - 4.4g/200g
Tesco's Stonebaked Pepperoni Pizza - 4.1g/200g
Morrisons/Budgens/Somerfield Baked Beans - 3.2g/210g
Asda Spaghetti and Spaghetti Loops - 3.7g/210g
Co-op Spaghetti - 3.7g/210g
Some manufacturers have reduced the salt levels in their products since these surveys were carried out.
But the FSA says levels still need to fall across the full range of processed food for people to reduce their salt consumption to the recommended maximum level of 6 grams a day by 2010.
On average, adults are currently consuming about 9.5g a day.
At present, 75% of our daily salt intake comes from salt hidden in products such as these, and not from salt that we add ourselves.
Salt content: healthier options
Tesco Stonebaked Barbecue Chicken Pizza - 2.4g/200g
Dominos Original Cheese and Tomato Pizza - 2.4g/200g
Co-op/Waitrose/Heinz Baked Beans - 2.1g/210g
Heinz Spaghetti Hoops - 1.6g/210g
Sir John Krebs, FSA chair, said: "Foods such as baked beans, spaghetti and pizza are products that families rely on.
"The fact that the salt in one can of baked beans, or a pizza, can vary so dramatically indicates that manufacturers can reduce the amount of salt they add to these products.
"The Food Standards Agency wants to see more substantial reductions in salt in food products."
Professor Graham MacGregor, chair of pressure group Consensus Action on Salt and Health, said: "This research dramatically illustrates the fact that the food industry can produce food with much lower salt content.
"Why are they not doing do?"
Supermarket chain Morrisons said: "We are actively looking at ways to reduce the levels of salt in our products and have done so in certain areas."
Somerfield said in a statement it was committed to reducing salt content in its own-label products.
"For new products we have set the target of no more than 3g salt per serving and for existing products that are being re-developed, there must be at least a
10% reduction in salt."
The British Retail Consortium issued a statement which said the FSA's survey was based on data from January and may not take into account any recent changes.
"Retailers are already committed to a five year salt reduction plan that will specifically cut salt in nine food groups, including pizzas and baked beans.
"It is hardly surprising to find a wide range of different products offered by retailers.
"It would be ridiculous for any organisation to criticise clearly labelled products that offer customers a wide range of eating options."
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Maurits Cornelis (M.C.) Escher was born on June 17, 1898, in Leeuwarden (Holland). Drawing was his favorite subject at school, and his youth age he became acquainted with linocut. In 1921, Escher and his parents visited the Riviera and Italy. Unimpressed by the tropical flowers of the Mediterranean climes, he made detailed drawings of cacti and olive trees. He also sought out high places and dramatic vistas to sketch; some of his later works were influenced by these sights. Later, he returned to Italy.
During one of the next travels, he visited Alhambra (Spain), where he encountered with traditional Arabic art. In 1923, he married Jetta Umiker, the daughter of a Swiss manufacturer. They had lived in Italy more than ten years, and in 1935 they moved to Switzerland and later to Belgium. In 1936, Escher visited Alhambra for the second time, again studying the Moorish tilings. From this time forward,he concentrated on drawing mosaics. In 1937, he created his famous artwork "Metamorphosis".
In 1941, after Escher's mother died, he moved to Holland and settled in Baarn, where he lived until his last days. Escher gained popularity after the end World War II. During 1950 and 1960 he created the most famous artworks with tilings and impossible constructions. At the beginning of the 1960s Escher delivered a series of lectures in North America.
Disregarding poor health, Escher continued work until the beginning of 1970s. He died in 1972.
Offical artist's website http://www.mcescher.com
Related information about M.C. Escher
- Biography of M.C. Escher
- Mathematical art of M.C. Escher
- More mathematics than meets the eye
- Escher commemorative coins
Artworks inspired by Escher
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Allergies Quiz: Test Your Medical IQ
Reviewed by John P. Cunha, DO, FACOEP on August 10, 2015
Images provided by:
CDC. Food Allergies in Schools.
UpToDate. Patient information: Allergic Rhinitis. Beyond the Basics.
Familydoctor.org. Antihistamines: Understanding Your OTC Options.
CDC: Conjunctivitis (Pink Eye). Allergic Conjunctivitis.
American Lung Association. Pet Dander.
NIDDK. Celiac Disease.
Hopkins Medicine. Health Library. Allergy and Asthma Statistics.
American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. How An Allergist Diagnoses Allergies.
American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Types of Allergies Hives (Urticaria).
This tool does not provide medical advice. See additional information:
THIS TOOL DOES NOT PROVIDE MEDICAL ADVICE. It is intended for general informational purposes only and does not address individual circumstances. It is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment and should not be relied on to make decisions about your health. Never ignore professional medical advice in seeking treatment because of something you have read on the RxList Site. If you think you may have a medical emergency, immediately call your doctor or dial 911.
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The .exe extension on a filename indicates an executable file. Executable files may, in some cases, harm your computer. Therefore, please read below to decide for yourself whether the kill.exe on your computer is a Trojan that you should remove, or whether it is a file belonging to the Windows operating system or to a trusted application.
Description: Kill.exe is not essential for Windows and will often cause problems. The file kill.exe is located in a subfolder of C:\Windows.
The file size on Windows 10/8/7/XP is 302,721 bytes.
The program has a visible window. The file is a file with no information about its developer. The application is loaded during the Windows boot process (see Registry key: MACHINE\RunOnce). The file is not a Windows system file. Therefore the technical security rating is 46% dangerous, however you should also read the user reviews.
Recommended: Identify kill.exe related errors
If kill.exe is located in a subfolder of C:\, the security rating is 16% dangerous. The file size is 65,536 bytes. The program has a visible window. The kill.exe file is not a Windows core file.
Important: Some malware camouflages itself as kill.exe. Therefore, you should check the kill.exe process on your PC to see if it is a threat. We recommend Security Task Manager for verifying your computer's security. This was one of the Top Download Picks of The Washington Post and PC World.
A clean and tidy computer is the key requirement for avoiding problems with kill. This means running a scan for malware, cleaning your hard drive using cleanmgr and sfc /scannow, uninstalling programs that you no longer need, checking for Autostart programs (using msconfig) and enabling Windows' Automatic Update. Always remember to perform periodic backups, or at least to set restore points.
Should you experience an actual problem, try to recall the last thing you did, or the last thing you installed before the problem appeared for the first time. Use the resmon command to identify the processes that are causing your problem. Even for serious problems, rather than reinstalling Windows, you are better off repairing of your installation or, for Windows 8 and later versions, executing the DISM.exe /Online /Cleanup-image /Restorehealth command. This allows you to repair the operating system without losing data.
To help you analyze the kill.exe process on your computer, the following programs have proven to be helpful: Security Task Manager displays all running Windows tasks, including embedded hidden processes, such as keyboard and browser monitoring or Autostart entries. A unique security risk rating indicates the likelihood of the process being potential spyware, malware or a Trojan. Malwarebytes Anti-Malware detects and removes sleeping spyware, adware, Trojans, keyloggers, malware and trackers from your hard drive.
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Prevalence and Incidence of Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis: Rare Disease
Leptospirosis is listed as a "rare disease" by the Office of
Rare Diseases (ORD) of the National Institutes of Health
(NIH). This means that Leptospirosis, or a subtype of Leptospirosis,
affects less than 200,000 people in the US population.
Ophanet, who are a consortium of European partners,
currently defines a condition rare when if affects 1 person per 2,000.
They list Leptospirosis as a "rare disease".
More information about Leptospirosis is available from Orphanet
Incidence (annual) of Leptospirosis:
100-200 cases annually in USA (DBMD) ... see also overview of Leptospirosis.
approx 1 in 2,720,000 or 0.00% or 100 people in USA [Source statistic for calcuation: "100-200 cases annually in USA (DBMD)" -- see also general information about data sources]
Incidence extrapolations for USA for Leptospirosis:
99 per year,
8 per month,
1 per week,
0 per day,
0 per hour,
0 per minute,
0 per second.
[Source statistic for calculation: "100-200 cases annually in USA (DBMD)" -- see also general information about data sources]
Prevalance of Leptospirosis:
It is estimated that 100-200 cases
are identified annually in the United States with about 50%
of cases occurring in Hawaii. (Source: excerpt from Leptospirosis: DBMD)
Incidence statistics for Leptospirosis:
The following statistics relate to the incidence of Leptospirosis:
- 0.8 new cases of leptospirosis per 100,000 population was notified in Australia 2002 (Yohannes K, Roche P, Blumer C et al. 2004, Australia’s Health 2004, AIHW)
- 155 new cases of leptospirosis was notified in Australia 2002 (Yohannes K, Roche P, Blumer C et al. 2004, Australia’s Health 2004, AIHW)
- more statistics...»
More Statistics about Leptospirosis:
All statistics for Leptospirosis
About prevalence and incidence statistics:
The term 'prevalence' of Leptospirosis usually refers to the estimated population
of people who are managing Leptospirosis at any given time.
The term 'incidence' of Leptospirosis refers to the annual diagnosis rate,
or the number of new cases of Leptospirosis diagnosed each year.
Hence, these two statistics types can differ:
a short-lived disease like flu can have high annual incidence but low prevalence,
but a life-long disease like diabetes has a low annual incidence but high prevalence.
For more information see about prevalence and incidence statistics.
|
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Following the near collapse of the UN climate negotiations and the seeming paralysis of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the whole idea of solving the world's environmental problems through multilateral negotiations seems to be in crisis. But, argue Maurice Strong and Felix Dodds, another recent development holds out the promise of reversing the trend.
|Rocinha slum in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Will Rio+20 make a difference?
photo: Leszek Wasilewski (Wikimedia Commons)
Next year, Rio de Janeiro will host another Earth Summit - 20 years after the first.
The idea was proposed in 2007 by Brazil's President Lula da Silva at the UN General Assembly.
It was clear to President Lula and to a growing number of others that the world has changed enormously since 1992, when the world agreed to Agenda 21 - the blueprint for creating a sustainable way of life in the 21st Century.
Rio 2012 could provide much-needed new momentum to international co-operation, not only on environment and sustainable development, but also on the problems that underpin the global financial crisis.
Most of the problems the world now faces have been on the international agenda for decades, some going back as far the Stockholm environmental conference in 1972.
They have now reached more acute, crisis proportions - not as a result of the lack of proclaimed government commitments to action, but to their dismal performance in implementing their agreements.
Indeed, if governments had implemented the many conventions, treaties and declarations they have negotiated from Stockholm to Rio to Kyoto to Johannesburg, we would be well along the road to sustainability.
Governments have done little to carry out their commitments, particularly as to helping finance developing countries' movement towards sustainability.
This failure has only added to the anger of most developing countries at the continued broken promises, and has undermined their ability to make commitments of their own.
As a result, we now face challenges on a number of fronts:
Human societies are living beyond the carrying capacity of the planet
Climate change has emerged as an out-of-control driver of many of the world's environmental and economic crises
The still-prevailing, consumption-based economic model is not only failing to deliver progress to enormous numbers of the world's population, but is seriously threatening the economic stability of all nations, and compromising the prospect for any of us to live on this planet
There is now an increasing link between environment and security
Governments have still not given the UN the mandate, the resources or the institutional capacities required to monitor and enforce international agreements.
All of these issues can be positively influenced by Earth Summit 2012.
But addressing them successfully will require an ambitious and creative agenda.
The UN General Assembly resolution last year which endorsed the summit, produced just that - including these areas of focus:
1. The green economy and poverty alleviation
The current economic model, which has brought unprecedented prosperity to the more developed countries, has only deepened the disparity between them and most developing countries.
Its excesses now threaten the stability of the entire global financial system as well.
The past 30 years have been characterised by irresponsible capitalism, pursuing limitless economic growth at the expense of both society and environment, channelling more and more money into fewer hands, with little or no regard for the natural resource base upon which such wealth is built.
The principal goal of our economy should be to improve the lives of all the world's people and to free them from want and ignorance - without compromising the planet itself.
An economy that integrates sustainable development principles with responsible capitalism can produce enough wealth to meet the needs of people in all nations, equitably and sustainably.
Energy use based on fossil fuels is at the heart of the dilemma, and is the principal source of climate change which threatens the future of all.
Earth Summit 2012 can clearly draw a roadmap to set the world on the path to a new "green" economy that is sustainable, equitable and accessible to all, including the urgent transition to renewable energy.
2. Emerging issues
Environmental and security issues are becoming increasingly intertwined.
The "environment-security/insecurity nexus" covers such overlapping issues as climate, energy, ecosystem destruction, food, water, health and environmental refugees.
At the Copenhagen climate summit, Bangladesh's Finance Minister Abul Maal Abdul Muhith said he expected 20 million environmental refugees to be fleeing his country by 2050, and warned that developed countries would have to accommodate many of them. Are those countries ready?
Earth Summit 2012 can develop a new blueprint to address the environmental and security challenges, defining positive and encouraging ways in which people can work together in addressing them.
3. Sustainable development governance
The present global institutions are inadequate to deal with the Earth's major challenges.
As most of the necessary changes are economic in nature, primary responsibility for decision making cannot be made by environmental ministries. They will continue to be vested in the ministries' of finance, development and trade.
To ensure that these decisions have the required environmental input, it is essential that environmental ministries and agencies have a place at the table and the capacities to ensure that the economic decisions will produce the necessary transition to sustainability.
Earth Summit 2012 should agree on strengthening and upgrading the United Nations Environment Programme (Unep), which should be the most influential champion of the global environment.
What else should we expect from Earth Summit 2012?
Climate change is the biggest single challenge humans have ever faced. It is the greatest security risk we have ever faced; and as a global phenomenon, we face it together.
Earth Summit 2012 can provide a high-profile forum to complete and sign the comprehensive climate change agreement that must emerge from the wreckage of Copenhagen.
What Copenhagen has shown us is that for an effective summit, we need to follow the Rio model of establishing a separate secretariat and secretary-general for the conference.
This would have the aim and mandate to involve and engage the capacities of the entire UN system, ministers, heads of governments, as well as all key stakeholders.
The number of stakeholders across the field has grown hugely in the years since Rio 1992. The new summit can provide an active demonstration of a participatory democratic model, which brings together all those who can contribute to implementation of the decisions taken.
Since 1992, awareness of the Earth's environmental challenges has become universal.
What is lacking is the will of governments to act.
Supported, indeed driven, by an aware and actively committed public, governments must and can act decisively.
Earth Summit 2012 needs to utilise communications media assertively and creatively - to engage the global public in a global conversation on how we are able to live on this "one planet" together.
Earth Summit 2012 presents a unique platform for negotiating the co-operation needed to achieve a new deal between North and South, between rich and poor and between present and future generations. A co-operation that is critical to the future of all people on the planet; and a co-operation that we must achieve.
Maurice Strong was secretary general of the first UN environment conference, in Stockholm in 1972, and of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.
Felix Dodds is executive director of Stakeholder Forum.
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Event Detail Information
Event Detail Information
Miniature Mobile Robots Down to Micron Scale
Abstract: Miniature mobile robots have the unique capability of accessing to small spaces and scales directly. Due to their small size and small-scale physics and dynamics, they could be agile and portable, and could be inexpensive and in large numbers if they are mass-produced. Miniature robots would have potential applications in health-care, bioengineering, mobile sensor networks, desktop micro-manufacturing, and inspection. In this talk, dynamics and control of different size scale miniature robots with various locomotion capabilities are presented. First, as milli/centimeter scale mobile robots, mechanics, design, and control of climbing, flying, and water-walking robots inspired by insects and lizards are presented. Pill-size untethered soft capsule robots are proposed to enable minimally invasive medical diagnosis and therapeutic operations inside stomach. Next, going down to sub-millimeter size mobile robots, the grand challenge is the limitations on scaling down on-board actuators and power sources. Two alternative approaches are proposed to solve this challenge. First, biological cells, e.g. bacteria, attached to the surface of a micro-robot are used as on-board micro-actuators using the chemical energy. Current status of this approach is reported briefly while focusing on a second approach: external actuation of untethered magnetic micro-robots using remote magnetic fields in enclosed spaces. New magnetic micro-robot locomotion principles based on rotational stick-slip, spinning and rolling dynamics are proposed. Vision-based control schemes are used to control teams of micro-robots using novel addressing methods where each robot in the team could be individually actuated while the global magnetic fields exerted on each robot is the same. Such untethered micro-robot teams are demonstrated to control microfluidic flow locally and manipulate micro-gels with embedded cells with or without contact inside microfluidic channels.
Bio: Metin Sitti received the PhD degree in electrical engineering from University of Tokyo, Japan, in 1999. He was a research scientist at UC Berkeley during 1999-2002. He is currently a professor in Department of Mechanical Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University. He is the director of NanoRobotics Lab and Center for Bio-Robotics. His research interests include mobile micro-robots, bio-inspired micro/nano-materials, bio-inspired robot locomotion, and micro/nano-manipulation. He received the SPIE Nanoengineering Pioneer Award in 2011 and NSF CAREER Award in 2005. He received best paper and best video awards in major robotics conferences. He was elected as the Distinguished Lecturer of the IEEE Robotics and Automation Society during 2006-2008 and the Vice President of the Technical Activities in the IEEE Nanotechnology Council during 2008-2010. He is the editor-in-chief of Journal of Micro-Bio Robotics.
|
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After more than 50 years at the top of the heap, the CPU finally has some competition from an upstart called the SoC. For decades, you could walk into a shop and confidently pick out a new computer based on its CPU — and now, everywhere you look, from smartphones to tablets and even some laptops, there are SoCs.
Don’t worry, though, CPUs and SoCs are actually rather similar, and almost everything you know about CPUs can also be applied to SoCs.
What is a CPU?
Despite the huge emphasis put on CPU technology and performance, it is ultimately a very fast calculator. It fetches data from memory, and then performs some kind of arithmetic (add, multiply) or logical (and, or, not) operation on that data. The more expensive/complex the CPU, the more data it can process, the faster your computer.
A CPU itself is not a personal computer, however — a whole framework of other silicon chips is required for that. There must be memory to hold the data, an audio chip to decode and amplify your music, a graphics processor to draw pictures on your monitor, and hundreds of smaller components that all have a very important task.
What is an SoC?
An SoC, or system-on-a-chip to give its full name, integrates almost all of these components into a single silicon chip. Along with a CPU, an SoC usually contains a GPU (a graphics processor), memory, USB controller, power management circuits, and wireless radios (WiFi, 3G, 4G LTE, and so on). Whereas a CPU cannot function without dozens of other chips, it’s possible to build complete computers with just a single SoC.
The difference between an SoC and CPU
The number one advantage of an SoC is its size: An SoC is only a little bit larger than a CPU, and yet it contains a lot more functionality. If you use a CPU, it’s very hard to make a computer that’s smaller than 10cm (4 inches) squared, purely because of the number of individual chips that you need to squeeze in. Using SoCs, we can put complete computers in smartphones and tablets, and still have plenty of space for batteries.
Due to its very high level of integration and much shorter wiring, an SoC also uses considerably less power — again, this is a big bonus when it comes to mobile computing. Cutting down on the number of physical chips means that it’s much cheaper to build a computer using an SoC, too.
The only real disadvantage of an SoC is a complete lack of flexibility. With your PC, you can put in a new CPU, GPU, or RAM at any time — you cannot do the same for your smartphone. In the future you might be able to buy SoCs that you can slot in, but because everything is integrated this will be wasteful and expensive if you only want to add more RAM.
CPUs are on the way out
Ultimately, SoCs are the next step after CPUs. Eventually, SoCs will almost completely consume CPUs. We are already seeing this with AMD’s Llano and Intel’s Ivy Bridge CPUs, which integrate a memory controller, PCI Express, and a graphics processor onto the same chip. There will always be a market for general purpose CPUs, especially where power and footprint are less of an issue (such as supercomputers). Mobile and wearable devices are the future of computers, though, and so are SoCs.
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In boxing – and in American sport – few titles carry as much symbolic importance as heavyweight champion of the world. A symbol of virility and power, the title has become a source of pride for ethnic, religious and racial groups. In the 1920s and 1930s, American Jewish champions such as Benny Leonard and Barney Ross became heroes to their people. Perhaps the most important boxing champion American Jewry has embraced, however, was Joe Louis, a non-Jewish African-American, who in June of 1938 knocked out Max Schmeling, Nazi Germanys best heavyweight. American Jewry claimed Louiss victory as their own, a refutation of Hitlers argument that German Aryans constituted a "master race." Art Buchwald, who grew up in New York, recalled that as a child in 1938 he was sure of three things: "Franklin Roosevelt was going to save the economy . . . Joe DiMaggio was going to beat Babe Ruths record [and] Joe Louis was going to save us from the Germans."
Louis might not have fought for the heavyweight title if a New York Jewish promoter, Mike Jacobs, chose not to handle his fights. Born on the Lower East Side in the 1880s, by the mid 1930s "Uncle Mike" Jacobs had become the sports leading promoter. In 1942 alone he promoted 250 boxing cards, and in the course of his career staged 61 championship fights. He excelled at developing a fighters public identity.
Jacobs recognized Louiss boxing talent, but also knew that, as a black man, Louis would have a difficult – if not impossible – time getting a title shot. Jack Johnson, the flamboyant and self-confident previous black champion, won the heavyweight crown in 1908, but his relationships with white women created a backlash that led to Johnsons conviction on a morals charge. The next black champion, if there were to be one, would have to be low-keyed and circumspect, and he would have to be marketed as representing all Americans, not just African-Americans.
Mike Jacobs recognized that American boxing crowds, and particularly the numerous Jewish fans, ached to see both Schmeling and Primo Carnera, an Italian heavyweight and symbol of fascist might, defeated by an American fighter. In the early 1930s, Schmeling and Carnera had each briefly held the world title. The first fight Jacobs lined up for Joe Louis was in 1935, with Carnera, whom Louis knocked out in six rounds. The same year Louis knocked out Max Baer in the fourth round, setting up a showdown with Schmeling to determine who would be in line to fight the reigning champion, Jim Braddock.
While many in the Jewish public longed for Louis or anyone else to conquer Schmeling and embarrass Hitler, some Jewish groups opposed giving Schmeling a platform. Several of them applied pressure on Mike Jacobs to cancel the Louis-Schmeling fight. Jacobs replied that Louis would defeat Schmeling, giving the lie to Nazi propaganda. More than 45,000 fans filled Yankee Stadium expecting to see the "Brown Bomber" defeat Schmeling. They left disappointed. After a lopsided battering, Louis was knocked out in the twelfth round. Hitler cabled Schmeling to congratulate him on his "splendid patriotic achievement."
Schmeling had earned the right to fight for Braddocks crown, but Jacobs and Braddocks Jewish manager, Joe Gould, decided the American public would rather not run the risk of seeing Schmeling, as one sportswriter put it, "take the title back to Germany and present it to Adolf Hitler for the German Museum." Jacobs guaranteed Braddock a whopping $500,000 payday to fight Louis instead, and the match was made. Louis knocked out Braddock and became champion. As historian Peter Levine observes, the fight "launched [Louiss] reign as one of boxings greatest champions and secured his place as a hero of an oppressed American black population. It also set the scene for one more battle with Max Schmeling that enhanced Louiss status as a hero for all Americans." One might add: especially for Jews.
The second battle between the two men, in June 1938, was promoted as a battle between democracy and fascism. When Schmelings ship docked in New York harbor it was met by hundreds of anti-fascist pickets. The Non-Partisan Anti-Nazi League and the American Jewish Congress urged Jacobs to cancel the fight. Jacobs offered to donate 10 per cent of the gate to groups helping Jewish refugees. Louis proclaimed that he was "backing up America against Germany," and promised he would be "going to town" against Schmeling.
Louis delivered on his boast, knocking out Schmeling in the first round. Americans cheered, and African Americans and Jews celebrated the loudest. In their eyes, Louis had vindicated American democracy. In 1946, after the world had learned how brutally far the Nazis had carried their racial theories, a story in the American Hebrew praised Mike Jacobs for giving Joe Louis the opportunity to strike "a terrific blow to the theory of race supremacy." While Schmelings defeat did not save European Jewry from the Nazi killing machine, Louiss knockout helped American Jews believe that Germans could be defeated by a member of an American minority. The lesson was not lost on the hundreds of thousands of American Jews who fought against Germany in World War II.
Incidentally, Schmeling opposed the Nazis and ultimately developed a personal friendship with Louis. In fact, Schmeling paid for a part of the American boxer's funeral arrangements in 1981.
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Archived Posts from this Category
Archived Posts from this Category
Here at Ground Truth Trekking we’ve been hard at work on a new website… full announcement coming soon. Part of this has been doing a lot of reading on coal and other sources of fossil energy. One of the questions that particularly intrigued me involves how we might move to sustainable transportation. I’ve been wondering what we might replace oil based fuels for transportation with. Renewables as they are often discussed in the media focus around electricity generation, but the challenges and options there are a bit different than for transportation. So I thought I’d put together some of what I learned…
We’re headed toward some big changes in how we power transportation. Most people, including the US Dept. of Energy, think that high prices for oil will be back, and right now we run nearly all our transportation on oil. Also, global warming is largely caused by increases in CO2 from fossil fuels. So there is a widespread move to find fuels with smaller carbon footprints than conventional fuels.
Basically, it comes down to energy storage. Oil is old energy… stored in the fossilized remains of ancient organisms. There’s only so much of this old energy, and the high price volatility in the past few years is probably in part because we’re running out (or, more accurately, are nearing the peak of oil production).
And by using it we release carbon, as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere that was otherwise stable beneath the earth—hence the greenhouse gas problem. So we’re looking for alternatives… Either another combustion fuel, or something else entirely.
Though oil may be running short, most people think coal, another fossil fuel, is abundant enough to meet our energy needs for a century or more (exception, extreme exception). In its native solid form it’s not very good for transportation. But liquid fuel similar to gasoline or diesel can be produced from coal through a refining process. Commonly called Coal to Liquids (CTL), large coal refineries would be built near mines to produce fuel. The problem with this is that between making and burning the fuel, over twice as much CO2 is produced (see Fig. 1).
Advocates of CTL suggest that some of the CO2 might be captured at the refinery, allowing it to be stored somehow, kept away from the atmosphere. But “low carbon coal” using carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) techniques like this have never been applied on a large enough scale for CTL, and are unlikely to be online in the near future.
On the other side of the coin as far as alternative fossil fuels, its possible to take natural gas or gases from oil and fix them into a liquid form. These would extend our fuel supply only slightly, and release somewhat less CO2 to the atmosphere (Fig. 1).
Natural gas might even be carried as-is, compressed and delivered to modified internal combustion engines. This provides the greatest benefit as far as CO2 reduction of any fossil fuel directly burned in an internal combustion engine (Fig. 1).
All of these options still directly use fossil fuels, and so will eventually need to be replaced by sustainable fuels. So fuels derived from living plants and algae are being explored as possible replacements for fossil fuels. These biofuels depend on either fermentation to produce alcohols (corn ethanol or cellulosic ethanol), or refining of photosynthesis-produced oils (biodiesel).
Corn ethanol seems on the surface to have great potential. At least, that’s what the corn industry managed to convince the Bush administration of, leading to massive investment in corn ethanol. However corn ethanol has experienced a precipitous fall from grace. Environmental analysts found that the oil used to power the machinery, and to produce the pesticides and fertilizer to make the corn, was nearly as much as the fuel that was produced in the end (Fig. 1). This presents a problem both from an environmental perspective, and from an economic perspective. It means that price increases for petroleum derived fuels will translate straight into corn ethanol, so it’s tough for them to compete. Of course, it’s possible to grow corn with no fossil fuel help. Native Americans achieved this sustainably for many centuries, but they achieved that sustainability on a scale that has been dwarfed by modern industrial society.
Finally, if land use changes are factored in, corn ethanol really isn’t the way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Fig. 1). Especially if corn for ethanol displaces food production. This means that new land has to be brought into food production. As a result of carving new farmland out of the wilderness, CO2 is released that was previously held in the plants and soil that grew there. There are those who doubt this, but their reasoning is that we will see increased yields in the future, which requires increased use of fossil fuel based fertilizer and pesticides (known as the “green revolution“). Not to mention that stressing the food supply system at a time that may be the end of the pesticides and fertilizers that power the green revolution might be unwise…
Ok, so corn isn’t a good plant to ferment… what about using switch grass, hybrid cottonwood (poplar), or willow that can grow on poor farmland with little pesticides or fertilizer? This path has been less explored, and looks to be expensive, but may be one of the best as far as low CO2 impact.
Diesel has been produced by processing waste vegetable oil, or algae. In the case of algae derived biodiesel, biodiesel can be grown on land that is not suitable for food agriculture, but refining is easier, since instead of going through a fermentation process, the oils just need to be separated from the rest of the biomass.
Short of gathering it from other planets, hydrogen is not available as an energy source, but it may provide a way of storing energy from other sources for transport. Hydrogen can be made from fossil fuels, and then run through a fuel cell to produce electricity to run a motor. Or electricity can be used to split hydrogen out of water, possibly circumventing fossil fuels entirely (Fig. 1).
Probably the most immediate way to escape fossil energy sources for cars (but likely not for planes or container ships) is battery power. The battery technology is a limitation, but usable commuter vehicles now exist using batteries. If the energy for a vehicle can come from somewhere other than fossil fuels, then this becomes one of the most immediately sustainable options (see Fig. 1). This strategy is central to possible approaches to reducing US dependence on fossil fuels, such as the Google Clean Energy 2030 initiative.
People are getting creative about ways to take the energy in the electric grid and put it in your car. Beyond batteries, and hydrogen split from water, there is work to use compressed air to power cars.
The challenge is not simply to find a way to change our current oil-derived fuels to something new. It is coming up with a new transportation infrastructure that in the short term can handle our immediate problems and that in the long term can be completely sustainable.
Part of this will be new ways of powering cars, trucks, plains, ships, trains… But it will include changes in how we use these modes of transportation. For example, right now, our military is in a particular bind… military jets and other vehicles consume vast amounts of fuel, and they need power and range that is not available for electric vehicles. Hence the military has been a big force behind CTL development. In a post-petroleum society, we might have trouble finding enough fuel to make war. Air transport has similar limitations for similar reasons. The personal vehicle fleet looks easier to re-configure… but an increase in the use of plug-in electric vehicles would be greatly facilitated by charging that occurred when electricity supply peaked (a “smart grid“). For transport of goods, it seems like it might be worthwhile to look at a modernized rail system. And for marine shipping, even futuristic sail might be an option. Regardless, with the end of easy and convenient petroleum fuels we’ll see big changes in the way our transportation works.
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Guide to sources for women's history and gender studies
A range of secondary source bibliographies and reference works on British women's history and writing are available in the Arts and Social Studies Library.
Biographies of the lives of women from the 17th-20th centuries.
Gendered books and comics from the 19th-20th centuries.
Examples of women's conduct, etiquette and advice manuals from the 17th-19th centuries.
Books, broadsides and ballads relating to women as both victims and perpetrators of crime, 18th-20th centuries.
Online resources featuring primary sources from the 12th-20th centuries.
Diaries and autobiographies
Memoirs, diaries and commonplace books, 17th-20th centuries.
Sources relating to women teachers, and girl's education, 19th-20th centuries.
Journals, magazines and ballads on fashion and dress, 18th-19th centuries.
Health and medicine
Historical works on women's health and medical treatment, including the history of midwifery, gynaecology and obstetrics; the history of nursing as a profession, including several works by Florence Nightingale; and reports of the Medical Officer for Cardiff, including data on maternity and child welfare. Sources range from the 16th-20th centuries.
A range of material relating to women's lives around the world, 19th-20th centuries. Newspapers from Indian women's organisations, Spanish Civil War sources related to women, sources relating to women in Australia, European Union and United Nations reports on women, and papers of female slavery abolitionists.
Journals and magazines
A wide range of women's journals and magazines from the 17th-20th centuries, from society pages to radical suffragette magazines.
Literature and journalism
Literary works by women from the 18th-20th centuries, including the papers of Ann Griffiths (poet), Joan Reeder (journalist), Maria Edgeworth (novelist), Felicia Hemans (poet), Mary Tighe (poet), and Lady Sidney Morgan (novelist). Information on female applicants to the Royal Literary Fund, and women writers published by Longmans.
Musical scores and papers from Morfydd Llwyn Owen (1891-1918), Grace Williams (1906-1977), and Nancy Storace (1765-1817).
Press cuttings from Welsh newspapers on women's issues, 1989-1995.
Politics, suffrage and the labour movement
Political papers from the British Labour Party and Newport Labour Party on women's issues; papers of the Labour MPs Ellen Wilkinson and Marion Phillips; the diary of social reformer Beatrice Webb; archives of the Women's Labour League, journals by Sylvia Pankhurst, and a range of suffragette magazines. Sources range from the 19th-20th centuries.
Books by and papers belonging to female travellers, 17th-20th centuries.
Papers relating to the history of female students at Cardiff University and its predecessors, 19th-20th centuries.
Sources on witchcraft and those accused of its practice (commonly women), in Europe and America, 15th-19th centuries.
Sources relating to women's societies, 19th-20th centuries.
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http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/insrv/libraries/scolar/special/hums/womenshistory.html
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Dorr, N. and Lisker, F. and Clift, P.D. and Carter, Andrew and Gee, D.G. and Tebenkov, A.M. and Spiegel, C. (2012) Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic exhumation history of northern Svalbard and its regional significance: constraints from apatite fission track analysis. Tectonophysics 514-51 , pp. 81-92. ISSN 0040-1951.Full text not available from this repository.
The late Mesozoic–Cenozoic was a time of profound tectonic activity in the Arctic, with incipient spreading in the Arctic Ocean, Baffin Bay–Labrador Sea and North Atlantic, as well as the northward movement of the Greenland microplate leading to collision and deformation in Greenland, Arctic Canada and Svalbard (Eurekan Orogeny). It is, however, still unclear, how northern Svalbard, situated at the northwestern edge of the Barents Shelf, was affected by these processes. Furthermore, northern Svalbard has been proposed to have been a Cretaceous–Cenozoic sediment source to surrounding regions because it lacks a post-Devonian sedimentary cover. When erosion took place and how that related to the tectonic history of the Arctic, is yet unresolved. In order to reconstruct the erosion history of northern Svalbard, we constrained its thermal evolution using apatite fission track (AFT) thermochronology. Our data reveal AFT ages between 62 ± 5 and 214 ± 10 Ma, recording late Mesozoic–early Paleogene exhumation. Our data show that northern Svalbard was emergent and experienced erosion from the Early Jurassic and presumably through the Cenozoic, although total exhumation was restricted to ~ 6 km. Pronounced exhumation took place during Jurassic–Cretaceous time, probably linked to the extensional tectonics during the opening of the Amerasian Basin (Arctic Ocean). In contrast, Cenozoic ocean basin formation and the Eurekan deformation did not cause significant erosion of northern Svalbard. Nonetheless, AFT data show that Late Cretaceous–Early Paleocene fault-related exhumation affected some parts of northern Svalbard. Fault zones were reactivated due to the reorganization of Arctic landmasses during an early phase of the Eurekan deformation, which implies that this episode commenced ~ 20 m.y. earlier in Svalbard than previously understood.
|Keyword(s) / Subject(s):||Svalbard, Apatite fission track dating, Amerasian Basin, Eurasian Basin, Eurekan Orogeny, Exhumation|
|School or Research Centre:||Birkbeck Schools and Research Centres > School of Science > Earth and Planetary Sciences|
|Date Deposited:||12 Jan 2012 10:16|
|Last Modified:||17 Apr 2013 12:22|
Archive Staff Only (login required)
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http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/4548/
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| 0.914651
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Useful Books for 8085 Designers
8080/85 Family User's Manual, Intel Corporation
A slim volume, but the definitive reference to using the 8085. An amazing breadth and depth of material for the size of the book.
8080/85 Assembly Language Programming, Intel Corporation
The software companion to the User's Manual, this book isn't quite as indispensible, but it is servicable. The instruction descriptions are too brief.
1978 Intel Component Data Catalog, Intel Corporation
Contains the 8085 data sheets, as well as the rest of the family, including VLSI support chips. Helps you decide if you want to use them, and tells you how many volts you need to program an 8755.
The Intelligent Microcomputer, by Roy W. Goody, SRA
Clearly and simply describes the operation of the 8080 and 8085 in detail. Provides many sample circuits, and fruitful ideas. I wish my electronics classes had had textbooks this good.
CMOS Logic Databook, Rev. 1, National Semiconductor
Aside from the data sheets for standard logic, this book has the most complete applications section for using the 74C923 of the several books I have that document it.
Practical Interfacing Techniques for Microprocessor Systems, Coffron and Long
While I didn't actually use much out of this book, I always refer to it for ideas. This book always gives me food for thought on how I want to solve a particular problem. Plus, you've got to love a book that gives a fully implemented NTSC/PAL video interface using standard logic.
Practical Microprocessors, Hewlett Packard
This is the companion book to Hewlett-Packard's 8085-based micro trainer. That trainer's only vice was that it had a circuit board so thick it was hard to find a connector that would fit it without forcing it. The tradeoff being that you didn't have to worry about cracking traces by bending the PCB while using the system. The book includes both schematics and source code, always useful references.
Microcomputer Theory and Applications, by Mohamed Rafiquzzaman
Aside from the standard content, this book includes the complete source for the SDK-85 in the back. A motherlode of useful examples for 8085 system design.
8080 Microcomputer Experiments, by Howard Boyet, Dilithium Press
Books like this are why I miss Dilithium Press. We won't talk about the others.... Anyway, this is one of the gems of my classic computer library. It was written as a companion to the E&L Instruments MMD-1 micro trainer for the 8080A. It's applicable to far more. It includes some insertions concerning that new 8085 chip.
8080/Z-80 Assembly Language, by Alan R. Miller
This book is the comprehensive reference that the Intel Assembly Language book isn't. It covers the Z-80 and CP/M as well. 8080 instructions and their operation are discussed in depth, as well as the differences between the different 8080-type MCUs.
8085/8080 Assembly Language Reference Card, Intel Corporation
What can you say about a software development environment that doesn't fail to function or have media issues after 30 years have gone by? Not a single update, no lost time to plug-in problems, no unwanted interface changes. How cool is that?
Between this, my pencil, eraser, and lined paper I've got everything I need to write all the software the MAG-85 could ever use. Isn't technology wonderful?
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Research Needs in Infant and Toddler Populations
This review confirms the scant available information on the validity and measurement error for the FFQ (Food Frequency Questionnaire), DH (Diet History), and FRs (Food Records) in infant and toddler populations. Validation studies on the 24HR (24-Hour Recall) and on methods to assess supplement intake are lacking. Validation studies using larger and more representative populations, similar methodologies, and that examine the impact of gender, ethnicity or infant age on the validity of infant and toddler feeding measures are needed. Scanlon et al. identified the need for a comprehensive study that evaluates multiple measures of infant feeding simultaneously (78). The reliability of test weighing and the DLW (Doubly Labeled Water) method in representative population samples also should be evaluated. As in all age groups, the further use of biomarkers to evaluate accuracy of subjective self-report methods is needed. The impact of social desirability on reporting on infant intake should be examined, especially with regard to reporting important parenting behaviors such as infant feeding. In addition, research is needed on the impact of parental BMI (Body-Mass Index), education, and ethnicity on reporting validity. Finally more work is needed to validate portion size estimating aides (126). In a longitudinal study, the timing and frequency of dietary assessment in infants and toddlers should be examined.
Last Modified: 11 Apr 2014
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An automated accessibility tool is a piece of software which can test a web page, or even an entire website, for accessibility. Automated accessibility tools are useful because they can save you a huge amount of time. Don't want to check images for alt text on each and every page on your website? Run the site through an automated tester and it'll do it all for you!
Automated accessibility testing tools have been around for a long time and have historically been a useful way of checking websites for accessibility. Bobby, one of the first and most well-known automated accessibility testing tools, is now almost 10 years, and although is no longer freely available, plenty of other free tools such as WebXact and Wave do exist.
But are these tools a little too good to be true? Can you test a website for accessibility so easily? Unfortunately the answer is a resounding no. There are a number of underlying problems associated with using just automated tools to test for accessibility:
Literal interpretation of guidelines
Courses are held every month in London and are taught by usability and accessibility professionals.
Any automated accessibility testing tool, being a piece of software, doesn't have very much in the way of common sense. It will interpret each and every accessibility guideline literally, without bearing any other thought to what else is on the page.
The definition of the word guideline, according to Dictionary.com, is “a rule or principle that provides guidance to appropriate behaviour”. A guideline simply offers guidance to what the best practice is - it shouldn't just be applied without regard to other factors.
For example, one of the W3C accessibility guidelines states that a table summary should be provided for all tables. (This summary doesn't appear on the screen, but it's read aloud to screen reader users before reading through the table content.) Table summaries are useful as they tell screen reader users what to expect in the table. However, there may be a heading directly before the table and it describes what the table is about. In this instance, this summary is essentially useless as it will just repeat what the previous heading said.
Can't check any content issues
The way that content is structured both on the page and across the website is a massive part of accessibility. A website may be perfectly coded and conform to the highest coding standards. If its content is poorly structured though, the site will prove difficult to impossible for some special needs web users.
There are a number of important accessible content considerations, none of which automated accessibility testing tools can check for. Some of these important considerations include:
- Front-loading content so that each paragraph begins with the conclusion
- Ensuring content has been broken down into manageable chunks with descriptive sub-headings
- Using lists wherever appropriate
- Ensuring that plain and simple language is used
Can't check many coding issues
The vast number of accessibility guidelines tend to be related to how the site is coded. Automated accessibility testing tools are unfortunately unable to test for many of these too. Examples of HTML-related accessibility considerations which these tools can't check for include:
- Ensuring that text is real text and isn't embedded within images
- Providing equivalent text links if using server-side image maps
- Ensuring that the structure within the HTML reflects the visual appearance (e.g. headings are labelled as headings within the HTML code)
Outdated guidelines are used
Automated accessibility testing tools generally use the W3C accessibility guidelines, which by now are over five years old. As such, a number of these guidelines are outdated and don't apply anymore. In fact, some of them are now thought to hinder accessibility rather than help, so it's best to totally ignore these outdated guidelines.
For example, an automated accessibility testing tool will probably insist that form items contain default place holding text. It may also insist that links need to be separated by non-link text. Neither of these guidelines are relevant anymore and their implementation could make accessibility worse rather than better.
Most guidelines aren't properly checked
Automated accessibility tools can check for a number of guidelines, and can tell you when a guideline isn't being adhered to. However, when the tool claims that a guideline is being fulfilled this may in fact be a false truth.
For example, if all images contain alt text then the software will report a pass for this guideline. But what if the alt text isn't descriptive of its image? What if alt text is crammed full of nonsensical keywords for search engines? How can an automated accessibility tool possibly know this?
Warnings may be misinterpreted
The reports generated by automated accessibility tools provide warnings, as well as errors. These warnings are basically guidelines that the automated tool can't check for, but which may be errors. Often they're not, and in fact they're often not even relevant. However, some people reading a report may try to get rid of these warning messages by making the appropriate changes to their site. By doing so, they may be implementing guidelines that needn't be implemented and inadvertently lowering the website's accessibility.
Automated accessibility testing tools can be useful as they can save a large amount of time in performing some very basic checks for accessibility. However, they must be used with caution and they cannot be used as a stand-alone guide for accessibility checking. Indeed, some expert accessibility knowledge should always be applied in evaluating a site's accessibility, perhaps in conjunction with the fantastic web accessibility toolbar to help dramatically speed up manual checks.
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Hino Nacional Brasileiro
On September 7 1822, Brazil declared its independence from the Portuguese Empire, and the music of the anthem was written close to this time by Francisco Manuel da Silva.
In the mid-1800s, the anthem was used as a royal anthem by Emperor Pedro II, but it was adopted by Brazilian republicans, and after the establishment of the Brazilian republic in 1889, the song remained as the anthem.
It existed with at least two sets of unofficial lyrics before a 1922 decree by President Epitácio Pessoa gave the anthem its definitive, official lyrics, by Osório Duque-Estrada.
The mention in the opening line of the Ipiranga river is a reference to the stream near São Paulo where Dom Pedro declared Brazilian independence.
Ouviram do Ipiranga as margens plácidas
De um povo heróico o brado retumbante,
E o sol da Liberdade, em raios fúlgidos,
Brilhou no céu da Pátria nesse instante.
Se o penhor dessa igualdade
Conseguimos conquistar com braço forte,
Em teu seio, ó Liberdade,
Desafia o nosso peito a própria morte!
Ó Pátria amada, Idolatrada, Salve! Salve!
Brasil, um sonho intenso, um raio vívido,
De amor e de esperança à terra desce,
Se em teu formoso céu, risonho e límpido,
A imagem do Cruzeiro resplandece.
Gigante pela própria natureza,
És belo, és forte, impávido colosso,
E o teu futuro espelha essa grandeza.
Terra adorada Entre outras mil
És tu, Brasil, Ó Pátria amada!
Dos filhos deste solo És mãe gentil,
Pátria amada, Brasil!
The placid banks of Ipiranga heard
the resounding cry of a heroic people
and in shining rays, the sun of liberty
shone in our homeland’s skies at this very moment.
If the assurance of this equality
we achieved by our mighty arms,
in thy bosom, O freedom,
our chest shall defy death itself!
O beloved, idolized homeland, Hail, hail!
Brazil, an intense dream, a vivid ray
of love and hope descends to earth
if in thy lovely, smiling and clear skies
the image of the Cross shines resplendently.
Giant by thine own nature,
thou art beautiful, thou art strong, an intrepid colossus,
and thy future mirrors thy greatness.
Beloved Land amongst a thousand others
art thou, Brazil, O beloved homeland!
To the sons of this land thou art a gentle mother,
beloved homeland, Brazil!
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We all like to talk about ourselves! Being able to say your name and information about yourself is vital if you want to get to know French-speaking people.
This topic focuses on words you learnt when you first started French. Most of the content is straight forward and if you know this topic really well, you can pick up lots of points on basic stuff - like spellings and numbers. So, make sure you know this topic inside out!
You need to be able to use the correct way of saying hello to people, depending on the time of day or who they are. In addition, you may want to say how you are feeling (good, bad...). This may come up in your speaking exam in a role-play or in a listening exam.
In the next exercise, look at the English text in blue and type in the French translation. Make sure that you write both the question and the response before you mark your answer.
Knowing your numbers is absolutely essential, whether you want to tell the time, understand how much something costs or tell someone how old you are.
This next exercise will help you revise. Look at the word in the speech bubble, then click on the correct number in the blue boxes and mark your answer. Then move on to the next question and try another!
So, you thought you were just doing some French revision and you had left your Maths behind!
Practising your numbers can be fun - honest! And they are extremely useful things to know in your exams. You can be guaranteed that they will turn up in some form in several parts of your exams, so make sure you know them really well!
When you're talking about yourself, you may want to say when your birthday is. In order to do so correctly, you must know your French words for months.
Luckily, a lot of the names are the same, or nearly the same as the English words!
This exercise will help you to see how good you are at spelling the words for months.
Type the correct French word for each month (don't worry about the accents on letters - however, if you would like to check where they are, click on "Show answer" if you get it wrong). Mark your answer and then press "next question":
Knowing how to say the date in French is essential, whether saying when your birthday is, booking into a hotel, or saying when you are going on holiday.
Remember: When saying a date, you say...
1. le then add the number.
So, on 5th November = le cinq novembre.
Unfortunately, exceptions do exist, but there's only one - this is:
On 1st = le premier.
How to say when your birthday is:
Mon anniversaire est le vingt et un octobre. = My birthday is on the 21st October.
Your name, age and birthday are important facts about yourself. It is very likely you will have to say these things in your speaking exam. Or, you may have to understand details about other people in the reading or listening exam. These are very straightforward things, so learn them carefully - you can then guarantee yourself easy marks.
In this exercise, read the statement in the speech bubble, select the person that you think it is describing and then mark your answer. Then move on to the next question and try another:
Knowing your countries is essential, especially as you could be tested on them in your speaking, listening or reading exams. Learn the spellings carefully.
As well as knowing the words for countries, it is essential to know how to say your own nationality and be able to recognise the words for other people's nationalities.
If you are asked the question, "Tu es de quelle nationalité?" (Where do you come from?), you can answer by saying, "Je suis + nationality" (don't forget 'e' on the end for feminine).
For Example, "Je suis anglais (m)/ anglaise (f)"
Remember: The words are always slightly different depending on whether the person speaking is masculine or feminine - make sure you know the difference!
This exercise will help you remember how to say nationalities...
Look at the map below. Drag the correct person onto their home country (symbolised by the flashing red dots) and mark your answer:
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I often hear friends say “I’d like to eat organic, but it’s just too expensive.” Well, if you are reading this I doubt I have to tell you of the dangers of the pesticides, herbicides and fungicides sprayed on our foods. And you may also know that the jury is now in on the fact that organic fruits and vegetables are higher in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. Given the choice between two apples, who wouldn’t grab the organic one if price weren’t an issue? So the big question is: Can I afford to change? While some would say from a health perspective alone, you can’t afford not to change. But for this post, I’ll keep it to helping you bring more organic food into your life while minimizing the financial impact. Fortunately, there are some hints and ideas that I’ve learned over my 20 years of eating organic.
Avoid The Worst Offenders
If you can’t afford a complete conversion to organic, you need to identify those categories of food where you’ll receive the greatest benefit. For example, consider buying only the fruits and vegetables found to be the least contaminated. A group called The Environmental Working Group reviewed more than 100,000 tests performed by the USDA and found that the following fruits and vegetables consistently showed the highest levels of toxic chemicals on and in them. This doesn’t mean not to eat them; it means to buy this produce in organic whenever you can or pass them up for something different.
Listed in order from most to least toxic, the following list contains the produce you want to avoid or substitute if organic is not available:
- bell peppers
Here are the least toxic according to USDA testing.
- sweet peas
While “local” alone says nothing about food integrity or levels of contamination, it can have financial advantages. It can often be cheaper than mass-produced versions. Also, it’s not uncommon to find organic produce at a farmer’s market that is of similar or better value than conventional produce. Perhaps you can pass up the trendy and expensive non-organic Honey Crisp apple and grab the equally yummy organic Empire apple? Also, isn’t it frustrating when you have to toss out perfectly good fruit or vegetables because they’ve gone bad? Buying locally means that product likely has about a thousand fewer miles on it’s odometer. Studies have shown that buying local produce means less goes to waste due to it’s longer shelf life. So even if the price is a bit higher, it may cost you less.
Get Involved in Community Supported Agriculture
Join an organic CSA (find one near you here). In my community there are more than a few organic CSAs. By buying shares in a CSA you will likely end up with a very good value, saving you money over conventionally-grown fruits and vegetables at your local grocery store. And it’s freshly-picked every week of the growing season. In my view this is truly one of the best ways to have a personal relationship with your grower, save money and be assured of the quality and integrity of your food. It’s like having your own private gardener!
Buy in bulk at your local natural food Co-op.
Fresh produce aside, the price gap between some basic staples is narrowing and in some cases , non-existent. At my natural food co-op, organic rice, oats and dried beans are so cheap it hardly registers on my grocery bill. A big pot of organic oatmeal that feeds my family of four costs about .40 cents. That’s .10 per serving and is a fraction of the cost of boxed conventional cereals. It’s a regular feature at my house, especially in the winter. Check out my recipe here.
Furthermore, if processed and packaged food such as instant rice, frozen entrees, boxed cereals and canned goods make up the bulk of your grocery cart, you are likely paying a lot more than an organic shopper who is buying fresh or in bulk. “Instant” anything may save you some time, but you’ll pay dearly for it.
Join a Buying Club
Buying clubs are a great way to eat organic and save lot of money. When you join one, you are basically making a monthly purchase of bulk items and you pay wholesale,
the same price the food stores pay. If you are willing to buy some of your regular commodities, like pasta, canned goods, grains etc, in case quantities you’ll end up with organic food that cost much less than you pay for conventional at the grocery store. And once a month you get to hang out with other people from your club as you collect your orders. It can be a fun social gathering. Check out the Organic Consumers Association website where you can read their Buying Club Primer and find a buying club near you.
Consider Canning or Gardening at Home
Start a garden. It doesn’t take much. From a window box or rooftop pots to a plot tilled in your yard, there’s an opportunity, fun and a rewarding experience for you and your kids. Spinach and peppers, both members of the most toxic list, are easily grown in a window box or decorative pot. Any plans to plant some trees in your yard? Consider fruit bearing trees. You can’t beat the spring blossoms of most fruit trees and I’ll never forget the look on my daughter’s face when she picked the first apple from a tree she helped me plant.
Consider canning at home. I do it for fun, educating my children and as a means of spreading my grocery budget further. You can do it when there’s abundance or just about any time of year. When I cook a pot of soup or pasta sauce, its not that much more work to make a double or triple batch, leaving enough for canning. Organic dried beans are very inexpensive. For bean canning recipes with no overnight soaking, drop me an email and I’ll send you some recipes I’ve developed, or watch this blog as I intend to post some soon.
Two of my favorite books, which cover freezing, drying and canning, include:
- Stocking Up: The Classic Preserving Guide: Hupping, Carol.
- Putting Food By: Greene, Hertzberg and Vaughan.
Take It Slowly
Will moving toward organic require some lifestyle changes? Yes. Creatures of habit that we are, change is often a greater barrier than cost or convenience. So take it easy. Any change in life is better viewed as a journey, not a destination. Take it one step at a time, have fun and don’t neglect to take the time along the way to smell the organic roses.
Do you have some tips for going organic on budget that you’d like to share? Or if you have any comments or suggestions abou this post, please click on “Comment” below and share your thoughts.
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Tools of Characterization
Direct or Indirect Characterization
Direct characterization is when the text just gives you information, such as "Jack is a jerk." (Or, “everyone around me is a phony.”) And Holden says things like that all the time—but Holden is a character himself, so any information we get through him is actually indirect. It passes through his filter and comes out fictional. There is no unbiased and omniscient narrator to give us direct characterization; there's just Holden. As such, much of what he says about other people is really as much of a commentary about himself as it is anything else.
Physical descriptions are a pretty good indication of character in The Catcher in the Rye. Stradlater is big, athletic, and good-looking; accordingly, he's a player. Ackley is pimply and un-hygienic, and everyone dislikes him. Holden is small for his age, and this seems to be a source of insecurity for him; he always tries to act older. Phoebe is cute adorable and she's a joy to be around. See a pattern here?
Or, do you see a pattern of how Holden seems to see the world?
Thoughts and Opinions
Want to know something about Holden? You’re in luck: you have pretty much unfiltered access to his entire brain. We get to hear what Holden thinks about everything. He thinks Jesus' disciples were useless, that the movies are phony, that most girls are dopey but still attractive, that getting a job and being an adult sounds like just about the worst racket he's ever heard, etc. Holden is defined by his impressions—and the way he presents those impressions to us.
Speech and Dialogue
We already know what Holden's real speech sounds like—it's the voice he uses in his narration to us. But check out how he speaks when he's talking to people like Mr. Spencer. He says "sir," holds himself back from digressions, and tries his best to placate and please. That's a far cry from "You'll probably want to know […] all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I don't feel like going into it" (1.1).
"Suave as hell, boy."
This is how Holden describes his initial interaction with Sunny and how he tries to talk to women, or bartenders, or adults in general whom he wants to impress. Holden tries to present an older persona by using what he considers socially adept phrases ("Allow me to introduce myself," "How do you do," and "Come in, won't you?"). Given the reaction of the women in the Lavender Room, we're not sure how convincing he is. But he gets points for trying.
Holden definitely has an ear for little kids' speak, which "kills" him. We're looking in particular at the scene in the museum in Chapter Twenty-Five, when one of the two "bruddas" asks where the "toons" (“tombs”) are (25.22). Holden understands exactly what the kid's saying, which reinforces what we already knew about Holden and his ability to interact with children.
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The effects of an interdisciplinary curriculum unit on the environmental Decision-making of secondary school students
Woods-McConney, A., McConney, A. and Horton, P.B. (1994) The effects of an interdisciplinary curriculum unit on the environmental Decision-making of secondary school students. In: 67th Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST), 26 - 29 March 1994, Anaheim, CA
In the first phase of this study an interdisciplinary curriculum unit was developed centered on the concept of sustainable development in tropical rainforests. The centerpiece of the interdisciplinary unit was the investigation of a simulated environmental problem which required students to develop and then decide on a solution, having weighed a spectrum of possibilities previously explored in class activities and discussions. In the second phase of the study, nine science teachers implemented the curriculum unit in their classrooms after attending a two-day training workshop. Teachers first administered environmental decision-making pretests to their students who had been randomly assigned in intact classes to experimental (interdisciplinary rainforest curriculum unit) and control (conventional curriculum) groups. On completion of the three-week unit, environmental decision-making posttests were completed by both experimental and control students. Inferential results implied that students exposed to the interdisciplinary curriculum unit offered more supporting statements for their environmental decisions as compared to control students. It was evident that females used more alternative reasoning categories than their male counterparts when reaching an environmental decision. These results support the use of interdisciplinary curricula for enriching the environmental decision-making of secondary students.
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The Independent: First ever human brain-to-brain interface successfully tested
Using the internet, one researcher remotely controls the finger of another, using it to play a simple video game.
What they actually did
University of Washington researcher Rajesh Rao watches a very simple video game, which involved firing a cannon at incoming rockets (and avoiding firing at incoming supply planes). Electrical signals from his scalp were recorded using a technology called EEG and processed by a computer. The resulting signal was sent over the internet, and across campus, to a lab where another researcher, Andrea Stocco, watches the same video game with his finger over the “fire” button.
Unlike Rao, Stocco wears a magnetic coil over his head. This is designed to invoke electrical activity, not record it. When Rao imagines pressing the fire button, the coil activates the area of Stocco’s brain that makes his finger twitch, thus firing the cannon and completing a startling demonstration of “brain to brain” mind control over the internet.
How plausible is this?
EEG recording is a very well established technology, and takes advantage of the fact that the cells of our brain operate by passing around electrochemical signals which can be read from the surface of the scalp with simple electrodes. Unfortunately, the intricate details of brain activity tend to get muffled by the scalp, and the fact that you are recording at one specific point in space, so the technology’s strength is more in telling us that brain activity has changed, rather than in saying how or exactly where brain activity has changed.
The magnetic coil which made the receiver’s finger twitch is also well established, and known in the business as Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS). An alternating magnetic field is used to alter brain activity underneath the coil. I’ve written about it here before.
The effect is relatively crude. You can’t make someone play the violin, for example, but activating the motor cortex in the right region can generate a finger twitch. So, in summary, the story is very plausible. The researchers are well respected in this area and open about the limitations of their research. Although the experiment wasn’t published in a peer-reviewed journal, we have every reason to believe what we’re being told here.
This is a wonderful piece of “proof of concept” research, which is completely plausible given existing technology, but yet hints at the possibilities which might soon become available.
The real magic is in the signal processing done. The dizzying complexities of brain activity are compressed into an EEG signal which is still highly complex, and pretty opaque as to what it means - hardly mind reading.
The research team then managed to find a reliable change in the EEG signal which reflected when Rao was thinking about pressing the fire button. The signal - just a simple “go”, as far as I can tell - was then sent over the internet. This “go” signal then triggered the TMS, which is either on or off.
In information terms, this is close to as simple as it gets. Even producing a signal which said what to fire at, as well as when to fire, would be a step change in complexity and wasn’t attempted by the group. TMS is a pretty crude device. Even if the signal the device received was more complex, it wouldn’t be able to make you perform complex, fluid movements, such as those required to track a moving object, tie your shoelaces or pluck a guitar. But this is a real example of brain to brain communication.
As the field develops the thing to watch is not whether this kind of communication can be done (we would have predicted it could be), but exactly how much information is contained in the communication.
A similar moral holds for reports that researchers can read thoughts from brain scans. This is true, but misleading. Many people imagine that such thought-reading gives researchers a read out in full technicolour mentalese, something like “I would like peas for dinner”. The reality is that such experiments allow the researchers to take a guess at what you are thinking based on them having already specified a very limited set of things which you can think about (for example peas or chips, and no other options).
Real progress on this front will come as we identify with more and more precision the brain areas that underlie complex behaviours. Armed with this knowledge, brain interface researchers will be able to use simple signals to generate complex responses by targeting specific circuits.
The original research report: Direct Brain-to-Brain Communication in Humans: A Pilot Study
Previously at The Conversation, another column on TMS: Does brain stimulation make you better at maths?
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At a trail crossing, users may change directions, encounter other user groups, experience a narrower or wider trail width, or encounter automobile traffic. Designers should carefully develop trail crossings to ensure that they are accessible to the full range of trail users. It is recommended that any type of trail crossing be designed using right angles to maximize visibility and accessibility. In addition, design elements, such as clear sight lines and accessible information, should also be incorporated. The following chapter provides specific design recommendations for the following types of trail crossings:
The following chapter applies to recreation trails and shared use paths. The term trail is used to address both types of outdoor pathways. If a design strategy does not apply to both shared paths and recreation trails, a specific remark will be provided.
At the intersection of two trails, different user groups often meet one another. To enhance safety, users should be aware that they are approaching an intersection and there is a potential for encountering users from a variety of directions. This can be done through a combination of signs and unobstructed sight lines. To accomplish unobstructed sight lines, trails should intersect at 90-degree angles. Furthermore, designers should verify that sight lines are unobstructed from both a seated standing position. If the trail also includes equestrians, higher sight lines should cleared. On shared use paths, longer lines should be provided for users, such as bicyclists, that may be traveling at higher speeds.
In addition to clear sight lines, other design strategies can also be implemented to reduce conflicts at trail intersections, including:
Figure 16-3. Off-setting trail intersections minimizes potential conflicts between trail users by creating multiple three-way intersections as opposed to a single four-way intersection.
Bridges are common trail structures used to traverse waterways or other trail barriers, such as ravines or rivers. Bridges should be designed for the various types of anticipated trail users. Additional skills and abilities should not be necessary to negotiate the bridge. For example, a trail that provides adequate tread width and access to pedestrians with mobility impairments should not rely on a log bridge or step stone crossing. The following considerations should be included when designing bridges:
Figure 16-5. PROBLEM: The design of a trail crossing should be consistent with the trail leading up to it. In this illustration, a split log crossing is provided, but a bridge would be more appropriate.
Trails intersecting a street create a greater safety hazard than intersections with other trails because of the higher volume and speed of the street traffic. In order to maximize the safety and accessibility of trail-to-street intersections, the following trail design considerations are recommended:
At a road and trail intersection, raising the level of the road up to the level of the trail can eliminate the need for curb ramps and contributes to traffic calming because of the raised crosswalk that is created (see Section 8.4). If this design is used, detectable warnings should be included between the edge of the trail and the roadway to ensure that users with vision impairments can identify the intersection.
When trails intersect roads, the design of trail curb ramps should, as a minimum, follow the recommendations provided in Chapter 7, with the exception of ramp width. The width of the ramp should be at least as wide as the average width of the trail to improve safety for users who will be traveling at various speeds. In addition, the overall width of the trail should be increased, so the curb ramp can be slightly offset to the side. The increased width reduces conflict at the intersection by providing more space for users at the bottom of the ramp. Apply truncated domes when providing a wider curb ramp width. The offset design of the curb ramp allows individuals with vision impairments to follow a straight path of travel to a curb. In general, curbs are more detectable for people with vision impairments than curb ramps. If the offset design cannot be used and the curb ramp must extend the full width of the beaten path, a detectable warning should be provided to alert users with vision impairments to the changing conditions (see Chapter 6, Accessible Information).
Figure 16-9. GOOD DESIGN: Curb ramps on trails should be slightly offset whenever possible to reduce conflict at an intersection and make it easier for people with vision impairments to detect the street.
If a grade crossing between a trail and street is not desirable, a grade separated crossing should be considered. In most situations, motorists will cross at grade and the trail will be routed over or under the roadway. However, designers should also consider allowing the trail to cross at grade and create an underpass or overpass for motorists. Refer to Section for additional information on designing grade separated crossings. When the trail is rerouted, the grade separated crossings must be accessible (any constructed facility must be accessible). The choice of an underpass or overpass is largely determined by the terrain, type of trail/road use, and available funding.
In most cases, underpasses provide a greater level of access because the required elevation changes are usually less severe than changes for an overpass. When an underpass is used, attention must be paid to:
If an overpass is selected, long approaches or switchbacks should be used to maintain grades that provide access to people with mobility impairments.
Trails that cross railroads pose potential hazards to all trail users, but particularly those who rely on wheeled forms of mobility because the size of the flangeway gap 51 mm (2 in) exceeds the recommended width for openings 13 mm (0.5 in). Getting a wheel caught in the flangeway gap is a safety hazard (for more information, see Section 8.11).
To minimize the impact of the flangeway gap, it is important that trails should intersect the tracks at a right angle. In addition, the following design strategies should be used:
Figure 16-12. POTENTIAL PROBLEM: Broken surfaces should be avoided at railroad crossings. A surface material that will not buckle, expand, or contract significantly should be used near railroad tracks.
Currently there are no design strategies that can completely eliminate the flangeway gap for high speed, regulation size trains. The gap could be eliminated in the future with further research to develop a system similar to what is currently available for low speed, light rail trains. A rubber insert is available to fill the flangeway gap for light rail tracks that have trains traveling at low speeds (e.g., approaching a transit stop). The flangeway fillers provide a level surface for pedestrians and other trail users but deflect downward with the weight of the train. In this way, pedestrians have a "gap free" surface and the trail and rail function is unaffected.
Figure 16-14. The above "flangeway filler" eliminates the gap in the path of travel for pedestrians when crossing railroad tracks. The filler, consisting of a rubber insert, will deflect downward with the weight of a train and, therefore, does not affect low speed rail function.
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