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Robert McNamara is dead. McNamara, born in Oakland, CA, will be largely known (and reviled) for his role in the US war in Vietnam (he was secretary of defense for JFK and LBJ). McNamara was also on the staff for Curtis Le May during the bombing of civilian targets in Japan during World War II.
Monday, July 06, 2009
But McNamara was a complicated villain. He did good things too. When he was an executive at Ford, he pushed for making seat belts standard for safety reasons. By the time he was tapped to be Secretary of Defense for JFK, he was President of Ford and one of the highest paid executives in the world. After leaving the Johnson administration, he was the director of the World Bank, an IGO dedicated to the alleviation of world poverty, for years. Before World War II, McNamara was one of the youngest professors of economics at Harvard.
Basically, this is a man that - regardless of what you think of him - achieved three or four things any one of which would make him the most interesting person in the room to talk to in almost any room you can think of. He's also recently famous for the documentary, Fog of War. It is a long interview about the morality and rationality of war and decision making. It's really fascinating and thought provoking and I strongly encourage you all to watch it.
Posted by Raised By Republicans at 7:15 AM
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Sep 30, 2010
Silver siliqua of Gratian (AD 367-83) © Somerset County CouncilIn April 2010, Dave Crisp started to find some late Roman silver coins scattered across a field near Frome – these 62 coins represent a scattered hoard, probably from the same find as 111 similar coins found on the farm in 1867.
Dave immediately contacted his Finds Liaison Officer in Wiltshire, Katie Hinds, who then contacted her opposite number in Somerset, Anna Booth. Somerset County Heritage Service quickly organised for a local archaeologist, Alan Graham, to lead on the excavation of the hoard. Between April 23rd and 25th, Alan, the FLOs, Dave Crisp and members of the landowner’s family excavated the hoard. I first heard about the hoard during the excavation, when Katie Hinds informed me that the pot was about 25 inches in diameter – it was then that we realised that this hoard was comparable with the Cunetio hoard of 54,951 coins (found in Wiltshire in 1978).
There was a major debate over the phone on how to remove the hoard. The pot was already broken and it would have been extremely expensive and time-consuming to extract the hoard intact. Instead, Alan had the pot excavated in layers, enabling us to reconstruct the spatial composition of the hoard – 66 labelled bags of coins were collected.
On April 26th, Roger and I drove down to collect the coins. There was certainly a tear in the eyes of the Somerset team as they watched my car leave. We still had no idea how large the hoard was, but when we reached the British Museum I realised how down on the rear axle my car was. Next morning we weighed the coins – there was about 160kg of metal, the weight of two average-sized people!
It was quickly decided that the coins should be washed and dried so as to stabilise them. This work was carried out by the Dept of Conservation under the direction of Metals Conservator Pippa Pearce – she completed the task in six weeks, surely a record. However, the coins will still need full conservation, for which we are raising extra funds. As the coins came from Pippa, Roger and I started to sort each bag, creating an overall listing by emperor. This took us just over two months. The listing is as follows;
The coins range from c. AD 253 to c. 293 and except for five silver coins are all base-silver or bronze ‘radiate’ coins. There were struck at a time of high inflation when the empire was being torn apart by barbarian invasions and civil wars. Over 760 of the coins belong to the emperor Carausius, a general in the Roman army who usurped against the Central Empire – he set up his own empire in northern Gaul and Britain, striking coins at Rouen, London and an unidentified mint we call ‘C Mint’. This group of coins represents the largest ever known group of Carausian coins found anywhere. Amongst them are five of the finest silver denarii ever seen and other rare coins; I eagerly await seeing all of his coins after conservation. What is certain is that the hoard will shed new light on Britain’s ‘forgotten emperor’.
Because the coins were excavated by layer, we know that most of the latest coins (those of Carausius) were positioned over half-way down the pot. This tells us that the hoard was almost certainly buried in one event. The pot could not have held 160kg of metal without breaking, so it had to be buried in the ground before the coins were tipped in from smaller containers. The top of the pot was sealed with a small pottery dish before the whole hoard was buried. To recover the coins would have been a lengthy and difficult process. These factors lead us to suggest that the hoard represents a ritual deposit to the gods, possibly to help the local farming community. The hoard was buried on the edge of a ridge and it is probable that the ground was waterlogged in antiquity – both factors consistent with religious sites in ancient Britain.
The hoard was declared ‘Treasure’ at a Coroner’s Inquest in From on July 22nd. News of the hoard was published in the press and broadcast worldwide on radio and TV. Dan Pett produced a micro-site for the hoard on the Portable Antiquities Scheme website (http://finds.org.uk/blogs/fromehoard/) and this has been the source for numerous other web articles. An event in Frome Library on July 22nd attracted over 2,000 people and two schools; further events are planned for the autumn.
In July, Anna Booth, Roger and I started to write a book on the hoard which is being published on September 30th by the British Museum Press with wonderful support from Butler Tanner and Dennis in Frome. Proceeds from the book will go towards funding conservation of the hoard – we need £30,000 – and acquisition by Somerset County Heritage Service for display their new museum in Taunton. Roger and I are meanwhile preparing to use the Frome Hoard as a core element for a major British Museum research project on Roman coin hoarding, work which will continue for several years to come.
It is a real privilege to be involved in work with such a major discovery, a find which will undoubtedly provide much new information about Roman coins and Roman Britain.
Sam Moorhead, Anna Booth and Roger Bland, The Frome Hoard (British Museum Press, 2010, £4.99). 50p from each sale will go to the Frome Hoard Appeal. Available now at www.britishmuseumshoponline.org/invt/cmc23349/
Sam Moorhead is National Finds Adviser for Iron Age and Roman coins in the Department of Portable Antiquities and Treasure at the British Museum.
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At its peak, the Providence, Warren & Bristol Railroad (owned by the New Haven Railroad) was an electrified commuter rail line, seeing about 100 trains daily. In 1937, the company switched over to gas-electric cars. Ultimately, passenger service was completely discontinued by 1938 due to irreparable damage done by a hurricane that year, rendering the PW&B a freight-only railroad.
The PW&B's northern terminus was at India Point Park, where it branched from the New Haven Railroad (now AMTRAK's Northeast Corridor); this junction formed a wye on the east side of the Seekonk River, with the southern leg leading to PW&B. From there, its line ran over to East Providence, then through Riverside, Barrington, and Warren, with double track between Providence and Warren, a distance of 10 miles. From Warren, the line split into two single-track branches, one going east to Fall River, MA (10 miles) via the Slades Ferry swing bridge, the other to the railroad's southern terminus at Bristol, RI (4.5 miles).
Providence's Union Station was located just west of the PW&B's northern terminus. Attempts were made to run full size freight cars over the trolley tracks to Union Station, which resulted in frequent derailments. This spurred the construction of a massive lift bridge, a mile-long tunnel under East Providence, and a viaduct, in that order, to facilitate freight cars. Both the bridge and the tunnel were abandoned and the viaduct demolished when the Northeast Corridor was re-routed to facilitate some remodeling of the downtown area in Providence. The lift bridge is still in place, and the tunnel portals have since been sealed.
One interesting technical aspect of the electrification was the power system; the power house was located approximately at the center of the system, just north of the station location by a few blocks; the foundation remains for the boilers are just about 50 feet or so off the right side of the bike trail heading north out of Warren. The overhead was a standard 600 Volt DC trolley system (single-wire, not catenary, the cars used trolley poles). To handle peak rush-hour power demands, two battery stations were built close to the Providence & Fall River ends of the line; off-peak, the batteries were "float-charged" by the power plant in Warren. During rush hour periods, the battery stations would pick up some of the load, easing the burden on the powerhouse. Amazingly, the battery house on the Fall River end, which was located just a few hundred feet west of the Slades Ferry Bridge, in Swansea MA., is still in existence as a derelict building; it is believed to have been a machine shop (not railroad-related) for a while after the electrification was abandoned.
The Slades Ferry swing bridge on the Falls River branch was a double-decker affair with automobile traffic running inside the truss, and trains running atop. The bridge was destroyed when a passing ship attempted to navigate past the swing section and collided with it. This in effect ended PW&B passenger service to Falls River, as the bridge's railroad part was abandoned. The bridge was subsequently bought by the state of Massachusetts as a highway bridge, with a lift drawbridge replacing the original swing section. The completion of the much higher Braga bridge (I-195) rendered the Slades Ferry bridge a hazard to navigation and was demolished around 1965. Only the end abutments of the bridge exist today, along with a lone rusty semaphore mast that marks the line's path.
Rhode Island's East Bay Bike Path makes use of the PW&B's former right-of-way. Where the right-of-way was double-tracked, the bike path occupies one of the main lines; the parallel main line and its tracks is often visible running alongside. The track passes the original station in Riverside, which now houses a tanning salon.
The railroad tracks just north of the PW&B's northern terminus, which was owned by the Providence & Worcester, was recently abandoned and removed to make way for the reconstruction of the I-195 George Washington bridge, which flies over the line.
Thanks to Tom Lapointe for contributing information about this route.
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General Impacts of mining on the environment
The purpose of this article is to educate people on how mining can affect our environment. We are not in anyway against mining but we’re here to inform every reader that somehow mining can be harmful to our environment, all images are used for educational purposes only.
Air: Mining has a great effect on the quality of the air. Since mines need to blast through rock to get to an ore, dust may be produced in the process. Coal mines release methane, which contributes to environmental issues because it is a greenhouse gas. The methane is sometimes captured, but only where it is economically feasible to do so. Some cooling plants may release ozone-depleting substances, but the amount released is very small. Non-vegetated or uncapped tailings dams release dust, and when radioactive elements are found in the ore, radiation is emitted. Heavy metals, such as sulfur dioxide, may be polluted into the air by unsafe smelter operations with insufficient safeguards. The gold mining industry is one of the most destructive industries in the world, because of all of the toxins that are released into the air. Acid rain and smog are also some side-effects of mining. Every year, 142 million tons of sulfur dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere because of smelting. That’s 13% of total global emissions.
Water: Mines use a lot of water, though some of the water is reusable. Sulfide – containing minerals, when oxidized through contact with air, via mining, form sulfuric acid. This, when combined with trace elements, negatively impacts groundwater. This happens from both surface and underground mines. Another way surface and underground water are affected is through tailings dams and waste rock heaps, because they are a source of acidic drainage water.
Leftover chemical deposits from explosives are usually toxic, and increase the salinity of mine water, as well as contaminating it. Groundwater can be directly contaminated through “in situ” mining, in which a solvent seeps into un-mined rock, leaching minerals. In the extraction of minerals, some toxins (for example cyanide and mercury) are used that can permanently pollute the water, making it hard for fishers to find fish. Spills into oceans and lakes add toxic heavy metals and sulfuric acid into the environment, which can take ages to fix. Also, Acid Mine Drainage lowers the pH of the water, making it more acidic.
Land: There are many environmental concerns about the effects mining has on the land. Trees need to be cut down in order to have a mine built, and whole forests could be destroyed. Mining involves moving large quantities of rock, and in surface mining, overburden land impacts are immense. Overburden is the material that lies overtop of the desirable mineral deposits that must be removed before the mining process begins. Some mines make an effort to return the rock and land to its original appearance by returning the rock and overburden to the pit that they were taken out of. Copper mines sometimes extract ore that has very little copper actually in it (less than 1%). Almost all of the mined ore of non-ferrous metals becomes waste. A lot of areas are pock marked by thousands of small holes by people digging in search of precious minerals. Mining activities also may lead to erosion, which is dangerous and bad for the land. It destroys river banks, and changes how the river flows, where it flows, what lives in it, etc. Toxins used in the extraction of minerals (for example cyanide and byproducts like mercury) can permanently pollute the land, which makes people not able to farm in certain places. Open-pit mining leaves behind large craters that can be seen from outer-space.
Ecosystem Damage: Mines are highly damaging to the ecosystems surrounding them. Many different types of mines affect many different types of ecosystems. For example, deep-sea mines are at high risk of eliminating rare and potentially valuable organisms. Mining destroys animal habitats and ecosystems. Pits that mines create could have been home to some animals. Also, the activity that surrounds the mine, including people movement, explosions, road construction, transportation of the goods, the sounds made, etc. are harmful to the ecosystems and will change the way the animals have to live, because they will have to find a new way to cope with the mine and live around it. Spills of deadly substances obviously have a very negative effect on animals and ecosystems in general. Many of the toxins and tailings that are discharged from the mines can disrupt and disturb the way animals live, and their health. Mining can completely destroy ecosystems by adding or taking out something from the animals’ everyday lives, therefore throwing the whole thing out of balance.
All credits belong to the writer/s of this articles Posted here under
If you want to learn more about benefits of mining and its harmful effect to environment just visit the link above.
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Filed under: Resilience
Meditation can actually change how your brain functions, building resilience and improving your performance. Much the same way you strengthen your muscles, when you exercise different parts of your brain, you make subtle changes to its structure. These physical changes lead to changes in your thoughts, feelings, and actions. Specifically, it can change those parts of the brain associated with anxiety, mind wandering, mood, fear, stress, empathy, emotion, and pain.
Meditation uses thinking strategies to better manage stress, using your mind to tune into sensations in your body, accept feelings, and observe thoughts without judgment. However, meditation is about much more than just relaxation. It actually creates a state of calm alertness. With the regular practice of meditation, you can bring about structural changes in your brain that make this condition last longer.
If you repeat the same thought or action many, many times, your brain forms new pathways—a process known as “neuroplasticity.” Whether you’re finding your way around a new base, or your children are learning their multiplication tables, skills become ingrained as the brain changes. Meditation helps by affecting the parts of your brain responsible for attention, the ability to think and act with flexibility, and managing emotions. In fact, the emotion regulation center of your brain can grow with meditation, the self-control center becomes more active, and as you become less stressed and fearful, the fear center in your brain can actually shrink in size.
You might not be aware of changes overnight, but persistence will yield rewards. And some meditation is better than none. Just as you get stronger with more time at the gym, the more you meditate, the better your brain becomes equipped to reach that state of calm alertness. To learn more about how to meditate, visit HPRC’s Mind-Body Techniques section.
When a wounded, ill or injured service member returns home, his or her life has significantly changed, and so have the lives of the caregivers and family. DoD recognizes the importance of the caregiver and family in the recovery process. However, caregiving can be stressful, and you run the risk of burnout when you focus solely on others without time to recharge. So it’s important to take time for yourself too. Read on to learn HPRC’s top tips for caregivers and families.
Mental toughness is a psychological edge that some are born with and others develop. It’s a mixture of traits that are important for all who want to overcome adversity and be successful. These traits include a strong belief in yourself and an unshakable faith that you control your own destiny. It allows you to consistently cope with training and lifestyle demands better than those who don’t have it.
If you have these 4 Cs, you’re mentally tough:
- Control: You feel in control of your emotions and are influential with the people in your life.
- Commitment: You embrace difficulty rather than running from it.
- Challenge: You believe that life is full of opportunities, not threats.
- Confidence: You know you have what it takes to be successful.
How to get it? You can gain mental toughness through a long-term process of developing mental skills. Leaders can specifically promote mental toughness by creating a learning environment centered on the mastery of the 4 Cs. They also can help by generally supporting and encouraging service members to maintain positive relationships. Over the long haul, to maintain and improve your mental toughness, you need to constantly hone your mental skills. And finally, you need a self-driven, insatiable desire to succeed.
Have you heard the terms “resilience” and “Total Force Fitness,” but you’re not quite sure what they mean or where they fit into the health and performance picture? Read on.
Your health is the foundation. The 2010 article "Why Total Force Fitness?" states, “nothing works without health.” Health is not just physical and not just something to worry about when you’re sick. Health is a combination of physical, mental, spiritual, and social well-being and includes practices that promote wellness in addition to those that help you recover from sickness or injury.
Resilience is next. Resilience is the ability to bounce back—or even better, forward—and thrive after experiencing hardship. It is not the ability to completely withstand hardship but rather the ability to come back from it and grow stronger through the experience.
Next is human performance optimization (HPO). Unlike resilience, which typically requires the experience of hardship, HPO involves performing at your best for whatever goal or mission you have (whether that is your PT test, a combat mission, or raising children). It goes beyond simply resisting challenges; it means functioning at a new optimal level to face new challenges.
Health, resilience, and optimal performance are the foundations of Total Force Fitness, which is defined in the “Physical Fitness” chapter of “Total Force Fitness for the 21st Century” (see link above) as a “state in which the individual, family, and organization can sustain optimal well-being and performance under all conditions.” Being totally fit requires a holistic approach—that is, an approach that doesn’t focus on just one aspect alone such as nutrition or physical fitness, but on multiple domains of fitness. It means attending to your mind (including psychological, behavioral, spiritual, and social components) and your body (including physical, nutritional, medical and environmental components). In order to achieve Total Force Fitness, these factors come together to enhance your resilience and/or performance.
This is where HPRC can help you on your quest for total fitness. By visiting each of our domains—Physical Fitness, Environments, Nutrition, Dietary Supplements, Family & Relationships, and Mind Tactics—you can get evidence-based information on a variety of holistic topics to help you achieve and sustain total fitness. But remember that total fitness is a life-long process that will ebb and flow. And it isn’t just about you; your loved ones are an important piece of the picture, too.
Not everyone is affected the same way by exposure to injury and death. Many who do experience psychological wounds, however, come out stronger as a consequence, and so can you. If you’ve experience a traumatic event or experiences, there can be an upside: It’s called “post-traumatic growth” or PTG. It’s about finding a “new normal” that is even better than how things used to be. PTG can mean better relationships, openness to new possibilities, personal strength, spiritual change, or heightened appreciation of life. In addition (and researchers are still trying to understand why), if you get PTSD, you’re actually more likely to experience PTG. Nobody wants to experience PTSD, but if it happens, you may have an amazing opportunity to come out the other side with some unique strengths.
Why do some people with devastating injuries do well in their recoveries and others do not? People often focus on the negative fallout, but there can be positive consequences called post-traumatic growth. Scientists use the term “disability paradox” to refer to how some people with devastating illness or injuries are still able to enjoy a good quality of life. The characteristics of these folks describe someone with a “survivor mentality.” Characteristics include:
- Subscribing meaning to one’s disability or lot in life and sharing this meaning with others.
- Not choosing to live as a victim but instead to feel empowered and motivated to deal with struggles and come out as a victor.
- Being flexible, adaptable, resilient, and rolling with the punches.
Many factors play into developing a survivor mentality. Here are some tips to help:
- Create a strong support system: family, church, community, fellow Warfighters, healthcare providers, etc. A support system should be just that—supportive, encouraging, and a promoter of independence, not an enabler for being or feeling like a victim.
- Maintain a “can do” attitude. See challenges or setbacks as an opportunity to learn and grow. Focus on strengths and abilities, not on limitations. Survivors exhibit the 4 Cs of mental toughness.
- Maintain hope and optimism; focus on the future and move from thinking about the negative aspects of injury/illness to focusing on the positives or possibilities.
Having a resilient family isn’t something that just happens—it takes some effort. You can develop and improve your family’s resiliency by honing the skills you already have and developing new ones as needed. To give you a jump start, try doing 30 days of activities that will improve your relationships. The Families Overcoming Under Stress (FOCUS) resiliency program created a calendar of events you can do with your children that covers an entire month. Each activity teaches a skill that will strengthen your family over time. They highlight activities such as family fun nights and family meetings and teach skills such as deep breathing, goal setting, communication, and self-care. They also have many activities specifically for military families and children.
To learn other family-strengthening skills and activities, check out HPRC’s Rock Solid Families section.
Building family resilience is a process that lasts a lifetime, but it can be immensely rewarding. But what is resilience and how can military families in particular build it? HPRC has a resource called “Building Family Resilience” that can give you answers to these questions. The article covers military-specific stressors for families—including how deployment and reintegration impact family relationships, war-related physical and mental health conditions, and individual stress responses and risky behaviors in family members, both adults and children. It also highlights three key resilience-building skills—mind-body, cognitive-behavioral, and communication—and highlights resources to build resilience. Check it out.
For more information on building family resilience, check out the Family Resilience section of HPRC’s website.
A new app for promoting military family resilience—Focus On The Go—has been released in partnership with the FOCUS (Families Overcoming Under Stress) resiliency program. It has a variety of activities and resources for your entire family, including skill-building games with more than 40 levels for a variety of ages, including parents.
For more resources to help build family resilience, check out HPRC’s Family Resilience section.
The Air National Guard has launched a new resiliency resource—Ready54—designed for Airmen and their families. The website provides centralized information about the ANG, resiliency resources, and help finding the closest Wing Director of Psychological Health, Chaplain, or Family Readiness Program Coordinator. You can also submit ideas for articles and videos. Why “Ready54”? The Air National Guard motto is “Always Ready, Always There,” and the program provides resources for all 54 states and territories.
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AMSI-Mahler Public Lecture 2013: How to stack oranges in three dimensions, 24 dimensions, and beyond
- Full Description:
- How can we pack balls as tightly as possible? In other words: to squeeze as many balls as possible into a limited space, whatís the best way of arranging the balls? Itís not hard to guess what the answer should be ó but itís very hard to be sure that it really is the answer! Iíll tell the interesting story of this problem, going back to the astronomer Kepler, and ending almost four hundred years later with Thomas Hales. I will then talk about stacking 24-dimensional oranges: what this means, how it relates to the Voyager spacecraft, and the many things we donít know beyond this.
About the speaker: Akshay Venkatesh is Professor of Mathematics at Stanford University. He received his PhD in 2002 from Princeton University and his undergraduate degree from The University of Western Australia. His research interests are in the fields of counting, equidistribution problems in automorphic forms and number theory, in particular representation theory, locally symmetric spaces and ergodic theory. In 2008, he won the SASTRA Ramanujan Prize. This annual prize is for outstanding contributions to areas of mathematics influenced by the genius Srinivasa Ramanujan.
About the Mahler Lectureship: Professor Kurt Mahler made major contributions to Australian Mathematics from his arrival in the 1960s, until his death in 1988. The Mahler Lectureship is awarded biannually to a distinguished mathematician. Find out more at www.austms.org.au/The+Mahler+Lectureship.
To secure your seat at this free event, please register online at: http://ems.gs/3iGO0kzJMJ
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While they say early detection is one of the best ways to combat cancer, a lot of people – especially those in poorer countries – can’t afford the expensive medical checkups required to detect the disease, assuming they have access to such facilities in the first place. Well, an engineering researcher and global health expert from Michigan State University is trying to solve this problem by creating a low-cost, hand-held device for such nations.
Called the Gene-Z device, it will work in conjunction with an iPod Touch or Android-based tablet to perform genetic analysis on microRNAs (single-stranded molecules that regulate genes; changes in microRNAs have been linked to cancer and other health-related issues) and other genetic markers. The Gene-Z is also small, portable, and powered by a battery (that is chargeable by solar power) – not to mention cheap, which makes it perfect for low-income, resource-limited countries.
No word on when we’ll start seeing the Gene-Z on the market, but it’s being tested right now and developed to diagnose other diseases as well. Cheap healthcare, affordable by everyone – what’s there not to like? The next step is reducing the cost of cures and medication.
Filed in cancer.. Read more about
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Every Man's Life Should be the Best
That which a man takes in, both his food and physical environment, shapes the man. A wholesome environment as well as wholesome nourishment contributes to the well being of the mind and body. Avoiding toxins is a readily accepted dietary practice, but spiritual toxins can be be just as predatory and more insidious.
Oft times more difficult to achieve than sound physical health is the peace of mind that comes from a nurturing environment. An abundance of unwholesome, and/or toxic forces exist in American society today. They cause a multitude of males to live less than the well balanced lives a nurturing environment would convey.
- What anti-male toxins lurk in the social institutions and sociological pseudo-sciences, that comprise American society?
- How can males deal with negative technological forces that are assailing their well being?
- How can harmful anti-male forces in American society be changed to make them wholesome toward males. Identifying the maladies must precede the cure(s).
- What can males do, or not do, to be their best as nature intended?
Masculinity in America today (in many cases) has become nothing more than a political prisoner of the prejudices and laws of a gender feminized, police state. Research has repeatedly shown that men get higher criminal sentences than women even when all other factors are accounted for.
America has passed Russia in its rate of incarceration. More than 90 percent of the prison population is male. Yet nowhere do we hear any shouts of outrage across mass media about the status of males. Why?
When politicians fight for civil rights, men and boys are ignored. In the gender feminized world of politics, males are late comers to the political arena. More advocacy for men's and boy's rights is urgently needed.
Since the major ascension of genderfeminized politics in all areas of society in the 1960s, males have left the debates, policies and laws about gender based issues largely to the gender feminists. The results are a debacle. It's no mystery that today in 2011, from TV commercials, to classrooms, to courts of law, prejudices against males abound. Where is the outrage?
Journey in the realm of Well Being
No one has ever defined what the optimum state of well being is for a human being, and if they ever did it would probably change with the advent of the next stressful, computerized innovation, or the next anti-male, gender feminist pronouncement.
In an exponentially evolving, technological society, filled with inventions to boggle the mind of a wizard, it's impossible to stay attuned to the rhythms of electronic engineering, let alone personal biorhythms. And given the organized gender feminist political forces arrayed against men, it's unlikely America will any time soon extend to the male sex: equal rights, equal protection, or equal justice in law or social institutions.
Many modern males are left wondering why the present day government and social order doesn't benefit their lives anywhere near the level that feminists and other females enjoy. The challenge to innovate for the betterment of all the human specie has never been greater. The need for positive, enlightened nurturing has never been greater for the male sex.
It is time for males to reject the many unhealthy roles that gender feminists and societal institutions have cast on them and journey on a new road -one concerned with the well being of all humans.
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<urn:uuid:440d33ec-8ca2-4d5d-97fe-da9731fa03af>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://manamongoaks.com/index.html
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en
| 0.953047
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Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
Felony sexual assault refers to any form of sexual assault that constitutes a felony charge rather than a misdemeanor charge. Most forms of sexual assault are felonies though. The distinction between these different forms of sexual assault is typically established by the laws of a particular country, or state in the US. Felony sexual assault usually involves situations of assault on children, the use of a weapon to threaten or attack someone during the commission of a sexual assault, and sexual assault against those who cannot give consent.
The exact way in which felony sexual assault is defined in a given country or state will depend on its specific laws. There are general guidelines that tend to be consistent among areas, however, and the majority of sexual assaults are felonies in many areas. Anyone with particular concerns about the distinction between felony sexual assault and a misdemeanor charge should consult a lawyer or attorney knowledgeable about the laws of a specific country or state for more information.
Felony sexual assault, in general, refers to those forms of sexual assault seen as the most serious and offensive in nature. Aggravated sexual assault is typically a felony, and this usually refers to any type of sexual assault in which a deadly weapon is used to inflict life threatening or permanent injuries. The use of a deadly weapon to intimidate or threaten a victim can also indicate that a sexual assault will be considered a felony. Sexual assault against children, especially those under age 12, is also typically a felony sexual assault.
In many areas, felony sexual assault also applies to any type of sexual assault made against someone who cannot legally give consent, such as someone with a mental impairment or who is unconscious. Someone who uses a position of authority, such as a teacher or doctor, to convince a victim into allowing him or her to commit a sexual assault is typically guilty of a felony. Felony sexual assault can also involve someone helping another person commit sexual assault, as well as a sexual assault that occurs during the commission of another felony. There are a few types of sexual assault that are not typically felonies, and these include voyeurism, exhibitionism, and making obscene phone calls; though if the victim of such actions is a child then it may become a felony.
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<urn:uuid:616d73a7-70dc-4ac2-8a5d-8c97b1a5e4fd>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-felony-sexual-assault.htm
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Greater Philadelphia Chapter is one of the many chapters of the society. Our chapter sponsors flower shows, plant sales, cut flower competitions (truss shows), annual banquets, picnics, program meetings with expert speakers providing exchange of advice and expertise as well as good fellowship among fellow gardeners.
Every year, volunteers from our chapter collect cuttings of native and hybrid rhododendrons from the gardens of members and friends of the chapter. We root the cuttings and later transplant them into four-inch pots. We then sell these rare, unusual and generally unavailable varieties at a minimal cost to our members at our Plants for Members sale. We have also begun to propagate some varieties by grafting and offer these for sale.
In case you were wondering, azaleas are rhododendrons. In botany, the genus is Rhododendron, with roughly 1,000 species and uncountable hybrids. The genus is divided into four sets of garden plants: large-leaf rhododendrons (the classic, also known as elepidotes), little-leaf rhododendrons (lepidotes), evergreen azaleas, and deciduous azaleas. There is a fifth group of rhododendrons, vireyas, which are tropical plants with growing conditions similar to those of orchids.
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<urn:uuid:049fd15e-055a-4fd0-8955-510eba60b1ba>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.gpchapterars.org/
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en
| 0.958113
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What nutrients are important during puberty?
1. CALCIUM- Girls during puberty lack calcium. To avoid calcium related problems like osteoporosis later in their life, calcium rich food must be consumed. Food like low fat curd or milk, low fat cheese can be consumed to avoid calcium deficiency. Yogurt is also a good source of calcium. Green leafy vegetables are the best source of nutrition. Nutritious food like these must be consumed to avoid problems at later stages of life.
2. IRON- Is very important during puberty in girls. Teen girls need iron to replace the blood lost during menstruation. So certain food items that are rich in iron like whole grain, beans, lean beef and fish must be consumed. Iron in these nutritious food items is a must for your teens speedy growth. Girls need to avoid high calorie food during puberty as there is a tendency to put on weight due to rising levels of hormones.
3. PROTEINS- Is very essential for the growth of your teen. During puberty in girls proteins build muscles and other body tissue. It prepares them for their daily activities. School, sports and other extra co curricular activities requires energy. Proteins will come from protein enriched food items like fish, meat and poultry products. Girls health during puberty must be taken care of because it affects their future health.
4. FATS- Proper amount of fats are also needed by girls during puberty. Foods with the correct amount of fats are needed for growth and energy. Unsaturated fats that occur naturally, in salmon, nuts and olive oil are best source of energy. Fats are also equally important for your body's growth so they should be consumed in proper quantity.
5. Healthy Weight- Puberty hormones causes fats to deposit in areas like breasts, hips and thighs. This leads to girls thinking that they are getting fat. This in turn will cause them to adopt crash diets and unhealthy weight loss methods. Health during puberty must be considered, girls might fancy bodies like fashion models. It will only lead to eating disorders like Bulimia and anorexia. So during puberty nutrition needs are high and consumption of calories must be avoided. In the later stages to avoid eating disorders girls must eat right, exercise and drink smart.
These are the factors why girls need nutrition during puberty.
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<urn:uuid:ea8b1b0a-0bf3-41fd-91a6-7813113cdc22>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.boldsky.com/health/nutrition/2012/girls-puberty-nutrition-160312.html
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Hosted by AmericanTrails.org
Every kind of trail activity is represented in the listing of designated NRTs. Besides hiking and bicycling, the system includes water trails, motorized routes, snow tracks, greenways, and equestrian paths. The NRT program showcases the diversity of trails across America, from our cities and suburbs to the deserts, waterways, and high mountains.
150,000 visitors per year use the Wildlilfe Viewing Trail and the adjacent Auto Tour Route on the Lee Metcalf National Wildlife Refuge.
Click on map or link to see detailed map of the area
A red-naped sapsucker inspecting the National Recreation Trail sign
photo by Kimi Smith
The Wildlife Viewing Area (WVA) of the Lee Metcalf National Wildlife Refuge began as an access trail to the Bitterroot River for local farmers. With the establishment of the refuge in 1963, the WVA took on its present function and identity.
Consisting of 160 acres of ponds, sloughs, and river bottom woodland, it has two nature trails (.9 mi. and .7 mi.), and a half-mile, paved, wheelchair-accessible trail from the parking lot to the picnic area. Equipped with a wildlife "gazebo" viewing/fishing structure, outdoor restroom facilities, benches, and information kiosk, the WVA and Refuge attract over 150,000 visitors a year.
During the spring, the WVA hosts activities of the local STOKED Program (Students Teaching Other Kids Ecological Dynamics). This hands-on, experiential method of teaching and learning has Stevensville High School students conducting field trips for groups of elementary students (grades 2-5).
Together, through direct observation, posters and pictures, furs and skulls, they absorb the lessons of the natural world of the Bitterroot Valley. Lessons center on aquatic invertebrates and mammals, trees, fish migration, and animal forms, function, and movement
Kids learning about the local environment
Although it is one of the nation’s smaller refuges, encompassing 2,800 acres, it is one of the few remaining undeveloped areas in the Bitterroot Valley. The refuge lies along the meandering Bitterroot River and is comprised of wet meadow and gallery and riverfront forest habitats and has created and modified wetlands.
Common breeding wildlife species there include wood duck, hooded merganser, pileated woodpecker, eastern kingbird, yellow warbler, porcupine, yellow-pine chipmunk, and red squirrels.
Maintenance of the trail areas is performed by Refuge staff and dedicated volunteers from the local communities of Stevensville, Florence, Hamilton, and Missoula.
Over 140,000 visitors come to this refuge annually to view and photograph wildlife, archery deer hunt, walk the refuge trails, or participate in interpretive programs in the indoor and outdoor classrooms.
From Missoula, take US 93 south about 30 miles to Stevensville. At the Stevensville cutoff road (269), turn east. Travel one mile to Eastside Highway (203) and again turn east. Travel a quarter-mile to Wildfowl Lane and turn north. The Refuge boundary is 2 miles from this intersection. Travel another 2 miles on this road to visit Refuge Offices and Visitor Center.
For more information:
Lee Metcalf National Wildlife Refuge
4567 Wildfowl Lane Stevensville, MT 59870
Phone: (406) 777-5552
Wildlife photos by Kimi Smith, Trail Volunteer at Lee Metcalf National Wildlife Refuge. See more photos of her Lee Metcalf NWR photos in the 2012 National Recreation Trails Photo Contest
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.americantrails.org/nationalrecreationtrails/trailNRT/leemetcalf-MT.html
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en
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The coconut palm is affected by a number of
diseases, some of which are lethal while others
gradually reduce the vigour of the palm causing
severe loss in yield. A brief account of the
important coconut diseases is given.
female flowers and immature nuts.
on the young fruits or buttons near stalk
which later result in decay of the
Bordeaux mixture on the crown of the palm
once before the monsoon and later after 40
destroy fallen nuts.
palms, apply Dithane M-45 in place of
Characterised by emergence of shorter leaves
with fascinated and crinkled leaves.
The leaflets show severe tip necrosis and fail
to unfurl. In many cases, it gives a choked
appearance to the frond.
Ultimately the affected palm dies.
Application of 50 g Borax at half-yearly
intervals (Feb-Mar and Sept-Oct) along with
recommended fertilizer in the basins will
control the disease when it is in the early
stage. In root wilt affected areas a dosage of
200gm - 300gm per palm per year is
blight or Grey Leaf Spot
Minute yellow spots encircled by greyish bands
appear on the surface of mature leaves of the
Later they become greyish white. These spots
coalesce into irregular necrotic patches.
Complete drying and shrivelling of the leaf
blade are common when the infection is severe.
Removal of the older 2-3 disease affected
leaves and spraying the foliage with 1%
Bordeaux Mixture will check the spread of the
First appeared in Tatipaka village of East
Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh, following
a cyclone in 1949. Palms in the age group of
25 to 60 years are more susceptible.
Development of an abnormally large crown with
dark green inner leaves and higher yield is
the precursor of disease incidence.
Subsequently the crown becomes smaller in size
producing progressively shorter leaves.
The stem begins to taper. The leaves give a
fascinated appearance due to improper
unfolding of leaflets. The affected tree
produces smaller bunches with atrophied barren
The causal agent is suspected to be Phytoplasm.
of Coconut click
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<urn:uuid:e0f3e2c0-b13b-437f-9c3d-06a5733404b0>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://coconutboard.nic.in/diseases1.htm
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en
| 0.889888
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| 3.625
| 4
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The STARTWAVE atmospheric water database
1Institute of Applied Physics, University of Bern, Sidlerstrasse 5,Bern 3012, Switzerland
2MeteoSwiss, Atmospheric Data Department, Les Invuardes, Payerne 1530,Switzerland
*now at: BKW FMB Energie AG, Switzerland
Abstract. The STARTWAVE (STudies in Atmospheric Radiative Transfer and Water Vapour Effects) project aims to investigate the role which water vapour plays in the climate system, and in particular its interaction with radiation. Within this framework, an ongoing water vapour database project was set up which comprises integrated water vapour (IWV) measurements made over the last ten years by ground-based microwave radiometers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers and sun photometers located throughout Switzerland at altitudes between 330 and 3584 m. At Bern (46.95° N, 7.44° E) tropospheric and stratospheric water vapour profiles are obtained on a regular basis and integrated liquid water, which is important for cloud characterisation, is also measured. Additional stratospheric water vapour profiles are obtained by an airborne microwave radiometer which observes large parts of the northern hemisphere during yearly flight campaigns. The database allows us to validate the various water vapour measurement techniques. Comparisons between IWV measured by the Payerne radiosonde with that measured at Bern by two microwave radiometers, GPS and sun photometer showed instrument biases within ±0.5 mm. The bias in GPS relative to sun photometer over the 2001 to 2004 period was –0.8 mm at Payerne (46.81° N, 6.94° E, 490 m), which lies in the Swiss plains north of the Alps, and +0.6 mm at Davos (46.81° N, 9.84° E, 1598 m), which is located within the Alps in the eastern part of Switzerland. At Locarno (46.18° N, 8.78° E, 366 m), which is located on the south side of the Alps, the bias is +1.9 mm. The sun photometer at Locarno was found to have a bias of –2.2 mm (13% of the mean annual IWV) relative to the data from the closest radiosonde station at Milano. This result led to a yearly rotation of the sun photometer instruments between low and high altitude stations to improve the calibrations. In order to demonstrate the capabilites of the database for studying water vapour variations, we investigated a front which crossed Switzerland between 18 November 2004 and 19 November 2004. During the frontal passage, the GPS and microwave radiometers at Bern and Payerne showed an increase in IWV of between 7 and 9 mm. The GPS IWV measurements were corrected to a standard height of 500 m, using an empirically derived exponential relationship between IWV and altitude. A qualitative comparison was made between plots of the IWV distribution measured by the GPS and the 6.2 µm water vapour channel on the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) satellite. Both showed that the moist air moved in from a northerly direction, although the MSG showed an increase in water vapour several hours before increases in IWV were detected by GPS or microwave radiometer. This is probably due to the fact that the satellite instrument is sensitive to an atmospheric layer at around 320 hPa, which makes a contribution of one percent or less to the IWV.
Morland, J., Deuber, B., Feist, D. G., Martin, L., Nyeki, S., Kämpfer, N., Mätzler, C., Jeannet, P., and Vuilleumier, L.: The STARTWAVE atmospheric water database, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2039-2056, doi:10.5194/acp-6-2039-2006, 2006.
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<urn:uuid:42b7f56b-01a3-4789-93c8-74554d76a1d5>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/2039/2006/acp-6-2039-2006.html
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en
| 0.918533
| 833
| 2.609375
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|
“Thus in the ministration of the tabernacle, and of the temple that afterward took its place,
the people were taught each day the great truths relative to Christ’s death and ministration, and once each year their minds were carried forward to the closing events of The Great Controversy between Christ and Satan, the final purification of the universe from sin and sinners.”—Ellen G. White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 358.
Read Leviticus 16:29-31 and 23:27-32. What did God expect the Israelites to do on Yom Kippur? How do these principles apply to us today, living as we are in what has been called the “antitypical Day of Atonement”?
If someone in ancient Israel did not follow these instructions, he was to be cut off and destroyed (Lev. 23:29-30). The Day of Atonement was truly about nothing less than life and death. It demanded the believer’s complete loyalty to God.
Imagine that someone had confessed his sins during the first phase of atonement during the year; that is, the daily sacrifices, but then did not take the Day of Atonement seriously. By his disregard of what God had planned to demonstrate on this day, such a person proved himself to be disloyal to God.
What this means is that a person who professes faith in God can still lose salvation. As Seventh-day Adventists, we do not believe in once-saved-always-saved, because the Bible does not teach it. We are secure in Christ just as long as we live in faith, and we surrender to Him, claiming His power for victory when tempted and His forgiveness when we fall.
Read Matthew 18:23-35. What lesson should we take away from this powerful parable?
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<urn:uuid:6b9cb6dd-bd37-425c-8353-90b7ac8a62da>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://ssnet.org/blog/wednesday-on-the-day-of-atonement/
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|
en
| 0.973847
| 391
| 3.0625
| 3
|
Synonyms for canton
- 1. Guangzhou, Kuangchou, Kwangchow, Canton
- usage: a city on the Zhu Jiang delta in southern China; the capital of Guangdong province and a major deep-water port
- 2. canton, administrative district, administrative division, territorial division
- usage: a small administrative division of a country
WordNet 3.0 Copyright © 2006 by Princeton University.
All rights reserved.
- 1. quarter, billet, canton, lodge, accommodate
- usage: provide housing for (military personnel)
- 2. canton, divide, split, split up, separate, dissever, carve up
- usage: divide into cantons, of a country
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<urn:uuid:3af8967e-6df5-4be9-9ad2-1ed8d46d2c58>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://thesaurus.infoplease.com/canton
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|
en
| 0.81018
| 156
| 2.546875
| 3
|
A laboratory study presented early this year reported that the nicotine-laced vapor generated by an electronic cigarette promoted the development of cancer in certain types of human cells much in the same way that tobacco smoke does.
Researchers involved in the little-noticed study emphasized that their findings were preliminary and that the study did not involve people but specially treated human lung cells. Many researchers have expressed the belief that e-cigarettes pose a far lower cancer risk than conventional cigarettes because they do not burn tobacco, a major source of carcinogens.
However, the findings, which were presented in January at a meeting of lung cancer researchers, may attract the interest of federal officials who are considering how to regulate e-cigarettes. In a report to investors sent Tuesday, David J. Adelman, an industry analyst at Morgan Stanley, said the report, while preliminary, could “result in legitimate questions from public health officials.”
The study involved scientists from Boston University, the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas and the University of California, Los Angeles and was funded by the National Institutes of Health.
The Food and Drug Administration, which has oversight over tobacco, is expected to soon issue rules laying out a framework under which e-cigarettes will be regulated. Hundreds of e-cigarette brands are on the market, some of them made by major companies and others made by mom-and-pop shops.
In the study, researchers modified human lung cells to have specific genetic mutations that are associated with an increased risk for cancer. They then grew the cells in a liquid medium exposed for four hours to the vapor generated by an e-cigarette. Similarly treated cells were grown in a medium exposed to tobacco smoke.
The scientists reported that the cells exposed to e-cigarette vapor, like those exposed to tobacco smoke, exhibited changes associated with cancer.
Dr. Steven M. Dubinett, a professor at U.C.L.A. who led the study, emphasized in a telephone interview that the study’s findings were preliminary and did not establish a link between e-cigarettes and cancer. He added that the findings did underscore, however, how little is known about long-term effects of e-cigarette use or the specific effects of ingredients within the devices.
“There is a lot that we don’t know about e-cigarettes, and one concern is that some of the substances within e-cigarettes could contribute to negative health effects,” Dr. Dubinett said.
He added that it was not clear which ingredient or ingredients in the e-cigarette tested were responsible for causing the cellular changes.
Dr. Neal L. Benowitz, a leading nicotine researcher at the University of California, San Francisco, said it was hard to apply the findings of test-tube studies to people.
“Isolated cell systems may respond differently than organs in a person,” he said.
While e-cigarette vapor damaged human lung cells that were not modified to have the cancer-related mutations, it did not produce reactions in them associated with cancer, researchers reported. Such mutations, however, are found in some people who are smokers or who have stopped smoking.
Dr. Dubinett added that researchers were collecting additional data before submitting the findings to a medical journal for publication.
Clinical trials involving users of e-cigarettes are underway to determine what, if any, genetic changes occur in the tissue lining their lungs. Those studies are expected to continue for another year, Dr. Dubinett said.
Producers of e-cigarettes, including some major cigarette makers, are also conducting clinical trials in an effort to quantify their products’ health risks, particularly in contrast to those of conventional cigarettes.
Asked for a response, David M. Sylvia, a spokesman for the tobacco company Altria, parent company of Philip Morris USA, said in a statement: “Given that only an abstract of the study has been released, which contains limited information, we are unable to comment” on the study’s findings.
R. J. Reynolds did not respond to a request for comment, and a spokesman for Njoy, an e-cigarette company, said officials were not available Tuesday to comment.
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<urn:uuid:f6e28ddf-9c61-4f78-ade3-87f3825c4cbe>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://mobile.nytimes.com/2014/04/16/business/e-cigarette-study-data-may-raise-concerns.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.963999
| 856
| 2.96875
| 3
|
A Perilous Voyage
Not just for Black History Month
History is filled with half-truths, especially about our heroes.
Abraham Lincoln, for instance, wasn’t the stern, humorless man that old photos lead you to believe. Queen Victoria was very definitely “amused” quite often. Roosevelt made mistakes, Boudica had her fears—even Churchill undoubtedly had his doubts.
Or so we hope, because we want our heroes to be human, too. And for that, author Marcus Rediker dug deep to present a few surprises in his new book The Amistad Rebellion.
It should’ve been a routine trip for Ramon Ferrer, captain of the Amistad. He was hired to accept cargo, sail it from Havana to another port in Cuba and drop it off, where it would be sorted and sold. Routine, but it cost him his life because the cargo—49 men and four children—had other ideas.
Until then, the journey for these men and children had been like that of every other slave who came through the Middle Passage: most had been snatched by slave hunters (although some had been taken in exchange for a family member’s debt), they were crammed beneath the deck of the ship, stacked on shelves with little-to-no room to move, often with less than three feet of headroom. Food was scarce, water was often denied, the stench of bondage choked them, and many died. Of those who did not, it was said that their bodies sometimes never recovered from the voyage.
But on the moonless night of July 2, 1839, the Amistad Africans, as Rediker calls them, had had enough. One broke a padlock that held them below deck and, through the leadership of four men from various tribes who shared membership in a cultural society, they snatched cane knives, snuck up from below and immediately killed the ship’s slave-cook, who had been taunting them for days. They attacked other crew members, slashed at the captain, seized the ship, and forced their Spanish “owners” to sail back to Sierra Leone.
But the surviving Spaniards tricked the Africans and kept the Amistad near American shores, hoping U.S. authorities would help. And they did—which ended in a major trial, political wrangling and a 19th century media circus that changed history.
So you saw the movie and you know all about what happened on the Amistad. But you don’t—until you’ve read this book.
Rediker does an exceptional job in putting individual faces on each of the ship’s passengers and those who assisted them on their journey home. We come to see their strength, wisdom and playfulness, which softens this story with personality and turns these men into more than just historical figures.
I appreciated that Rediker didn’t stop there, but carefully explains how the Amistad Rebellion affected slavery and history in general.
Though I must admit that I liked the first two-thirds of this book better than the latter part, I think it’s an exciting, horrifying, triumphant tale overall, and definitely worth reading.blog comments powered by Disqus
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<urn:uuid:069746e2-abe1-48ee-bb81-2813632b702a>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.cascadiaweekly.com/currents/not_just_for_black_history_month
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|
en
| 0.980969
| 672
| 2.953125
| 3
|
How to sew
Learning how to sew some basic stitches is an important life skill you can pass on to your children. Why not spend a quiet afternoon showing them these two simple stitches to teach them how to sew.
What you need:
- a needle and thread
- a piece of felt or fabric
There are two simple stitches that are a great starting point for how to sew. You can watch the how-to video tutorial to find out how to do a running stitch and a backstitch. Both stitches are very useful for a wide variety of craft projects for kids.
1. Running stitch
A running stitch is the most basic in-and-out even stitch. It is used for gathering, hand darning and fine seaming and tucking.
Secure the thread either with a knot or a backstitch. Bring the needle up through the fabric. Insert the needle through the fabric to make a 5mm stitch. Now come from the back through to the front, 5mm along. Make another stitch along the top of the fabric. That’s it.
Notice that if you pull on the thread the fabric gathers together.
A backstitch is a very strong secure stitch that can be used at the beginning of your stitching to secure your thread instead of knot.
Stitches are even and evenly spaced along the top of the fabric. On the underside they overlap and form a chain-like look.
Begin by securing the thread. Bring the needle through to the right side of the fabric. Make a 5mm stitch from front to back. Now with your needle at the back of the fabric, bring it back through to the right side, leaving a 5mm gap along the front of the fabric.
Now stitch backwards, meet up with the end of the last stitch to form two even stitches, placed side by side.
Keep going like that. Backstitching is a good basic stitch when you’re sewing along edges.
Once you've mastered these two stitches you can try making your own sock monkey here.
Find more how to videos on Kidspot:
- How to make kids cubbies
- How to turn trash to treasure
- Kids string games
- How to make paper planes
- How to make great ocean crafts
- How to halloween
- How to garden with the kids
- How to have fairy fun
- How to baby videos
- How to make great art projects
- Active play for kids
- Parenting discussions
- Printables for kids
- Science fun for kids
- How to make paper crafts
- Getting outdoors
- Staying indoors
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Documentary heritage submitted by India and recommended for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register in 2007.
The Vedas are generally known as the scriptures of the Hindu community. However, being among the first literary documents in the history of humankind, they transcend far beyond their identity as scriptures. The Rigveda, the oldest among the four Vedas, is the fountain source of the so-called Aryan culture in all its manifestations that spread beyond the Indian subcontinent to large parts of South and South East Asia, as well as parts of Central Asia. This valuable treasure of the ancient world has been preserved in the form of manuscripts in India, and handed down over centuries from generation to generation.
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Chemical Warfare (cont.)
Mustards Treatment and Prognosis
Treatment of mustard exposure is based on symptoms. Because the effects of mustards typically are delayed, people with complaints immediately after exposure may have an additional injury.
- For those with signs of upper airway obstruction, doctors may treat by using a tube in the person's throat or perform surgery to open the airway.
- Mustard-induced burns are especially painful. Doctors will use strong pain relievers. Adequate burn care is essential, because skin lesions heal slowly and are prone to infection. Severe burns may require removal of dead tissue, irrigation, and placement of antibiotics, such as silver sulfadiazine, directly on the burned area. The victim may need a tetanus shot.
- Severe eye burns may be treated with daily irrigation, topical antibiotic solutions, topical corticosteroids, and drugs that dilate the pupil. Petroleum jelly may be applied to prevent eyelids from sticking together. More severe corneal injuries may take as long as 2-3 months to heal. Permanent visual problems are rare.
- Although no antidotes currently are available to treat mustard toxicity, several agents are under investigation.
- Victims with bone marrow suppression following mustard exposure may be treated with medication to stimulate the bone marrow, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor.
Victims with significant respiratory tract burns usually require admission to the hospital’s intensive care unit. Also, victims with several skin burns will be admitted to the burn unit for burn care, pain relief, and supportive care. Blood cell counts will be monitored for 2 weeks following significant exposures. Most people recover completely. Only a small fraction have long-term eye or lung damage. About 2% of those exposed to sulfur mustard in World War I died, mostly due to burns, respiratory tract damage, and bone marrow suppression. Sulfur mustard is known to cause cancer, yet a single exposure causes only a small risk.
Medically reviewed by Jon Glass, MD; American board of Psychiatry and Neurology
1. Borak J, Sidell FR.Agents of chemical warfare: sulfur mustard.Ann Emerg Med.Mar1992;21(3):303-8.[Medline].
2. Brennan RJ, Waeckerle JF, Sharp TW, Lillibridge SR.Chemical warfare agents: emergency medical and emergency public health issues.Ann Emerg Med.Aug1999;34(2):191-204.[Medline].
3. Burgess JL, Kirk M, Borron SW, Cisek J.Emergency department hazardous materials protocol for contaminated patients.Ann Emerg Med.Aug1999;34(2):205-12.[Medline].
4. Haley RW, Kurt TL.Self-reported exposure to neurotoxic chemical combinations in the Gulf War. A cross-sectional epidemiologic study.JAMA.Jan 151997;277(3):231-7.[Medline].
5. Heyndrickx A.Chemical warfare injuries.Lancet.Feb 161991;337(8738):430.[Medline].
6. Holstege CP, Kirk M, Sidell FR.Chemical warfare. Nerve agent poisoning.Crit Care Clin.Oct1997;13(4):923-42.[Medline].
7. Levitin HW, Siegelson HJ.Hazardous materials. Disaster medical planning and response.Emerg Med Clin North Am.May1996;14(2):327-48.[Medline].
8. Murray VS, Volans GN.Management of injuries due to chemical weapons.BMJ.Jan 191991;302(6769):129-30.[Medline].
9. Nakajima T, Ohta S, Morita H, Midorikawa Y, Mimura S, Yanagisawa N.Epidemiological study of sarin poisoning in Matsumoto City, Japan.J Epidemiol.Mar1998;8(1):33-41.[Medline].
10. Nozaki H, Hori S, Shinozawa Y, Fujishima S, Takuma K, Kimura H.Relationship between pupil size and acetylcholinesterase activity in patients exposed to sarin vapor.Intensive Care Med.Sep1997;23(9):1005-7.[Medline].
11. Okudera H, Morita H, Iwashita T, Shibata T, Otagiri T, Kobayashi S.Unexpected nerve gas exposure in the city of Matsumoto: report of rescue activity in the first sarin gas terrorism.Am J Emerg Med.Sep1997;15(5):527-8.[Medline].
12. Okumura T, Takasu N, Ishimatsu S, Miyanoki S, Mitsuhashi A, Kumada K.Report on 640 victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack.Ann Emerg Med.Aug1996;28(2):129-35.[Medline].
13. Pons P, Dart RC.Chemical incidents in the emergency department: if and when.Ann Emerg Med.Aug1999;34(2):223-5.[Medline].
14. Ruhl CM, Park SJ, Danisa O, Morgan RF, Papirmeister B, Sidell FR.A serious skin sulfur mustard burn from an artillery shell.J Emerg Med.Mar-Apr1994;12(2):159-66.[Medline].
15. Sidell FR.Chemical agent terrorism.Ann Emerg Med.Aug1996;28(2):223-4.[Medline].
16. Sidell FR.What to do in case of an unthinkable chemical warfare attack or accident.Postgrad Med.Nov 151990;88(7):70-6, 81-4.[Medline].
17. Sidell FR, Borak J.Chemical warfare agents: II. Nerve agents.Ann Emerg Med.Jul1992;21(7):865-71.[Medline].
18. Smith KJ, Hurst CG, Moeller RB, Skelton HG, Sidell FR.Sulfur mustard: its continuing threat as a chemical warfare agent, the cutaneous lesions induced, progress in understanding its mechanism of action, its long-term health effects, and new developments for protection and therapy.J Am Acad Dermatol.May1995;32(5 Pt 1):765-76.[Medline].
19. Tucker JB.National health and medical services response to incidents of chemical and biological terrorism.JAMA.Aug 61997;278(5):362-8.[Medline].
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 8/5/2014
Jeffrey L Arnold, MD, FACEP
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD
Raymond J Roberge, MD, MPH, FAAEM, FACMT
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Chemical burns to the eye or eyelid make up roughly 10% of all eye injuries. Depending on the type of chemical and how long the eye was exposed to it, chemical ...learn more >>
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Shipwreck Webcast - Sarah Ellen
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(It helps us continue to offer these webcasts AT NO COST to you!)
This shipwreck broadcast takes you deep under the cold dark waters of Lake Champlain to the wreck of the Sarah Ellen. Hear the tragic story of the schooner's sinking in the winter of 1860. Then meet our nautical archaeologists who tell of her underwater discovery in 1989. See footage captured by a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), over 300 feet below the surface.
GREAT for all ages. Families, teachers, students, and entire classrooms. Check out our Educator Resources for follow-up information, lesson plans, and curricula.
This hour-long program was broadcast live at LCMM in Vergennes, VT on November 5, 2009. Many thanks to Vimeo.
THANK YOU to all the students and viewers who wrote us questions. We didn't have time to answer all of them on the program, but below are the answers to some of the top questions.
Frequently Asked Questions:
Why did you choose to investigate the Sarah Ellen? This vessel was one of many shipwrecks discovered with side scan sonar. Because of its high quality of preservation, and the fact that the wreck has not been frequently shown to the public, we wanted to share this unique wreck site for our first webcast.
Were there any animals on the boat? No animals that we know of.
Are there any other sunken ships like the Sarah Ellen that you have explored? Yes! We know of over 300 shipwrecks in Lake Champlain. Some are military vessels, some are commercial boats like the Sarah Ellen, and others are more modern. Many of these shipwrecks are as exciting and well-preserved as the Sarah Ellen. We've written about some of Lake Champlain's shipwrecks here.
Have any "treasures/gold" been found? No gold has been found within the shipwrecks in Lake Champlain. Many of the lake's boats were used to carry heavy cargoes like stone, iron ore, bricks and lumber.
How many levels does the Sarah Ellen have? There is main or upper deck, with a raised aft (back) section, and a lower deck. Down below the lower deck was probably divided into three compartments. There was a cargo hold in the middle of the boat, a cabin - living quarters - in the stern, and although buried, it's likely the boat had a small storage area in the bow section known as the forecastle, or fo'c'sle .
What speeds could the ship reach? Although it was greatly influenced by wind and other conditions, the Sarah Ellen could probably sail as fast as 8 knots (that's 9.2 miles per hour). (One knot is 1.15 miles per hour.)
How long do the air tanks last? There are many variables that affect how long tanks of air will last underwater. Pressure increases as you go deeper, which means that you consume more air the deeper you dive. Another factor is how much work you are doing underwater. A diver that is working hard underwater, or is very cold, will consume more air than someone who is relaxed. But to give you an example, a standard tank which holds 80 cubic feet of air would last approximately 40 minutes in 40 feet of water (such as on the shipwreck General Butler) but would only last 26 minutes on a dive to 80 feet (such as the shipwreck Water Witch).
How far was the boat from land? The wreck is somewhere in the middle of the lake between Willsboro, NY and Burlington, VT.
Why were the fish glowing on the video? The fish are silvery colored, so the light from the remotely operated vehicle (ROV) reflects off their shiny skin.
Was the boat a house or just for business? Both. The crew members lived on board while using the boat to deliver heavy cargoes from one port to another on Lake Champlain.
Were there weapons on the ship? No weapons that we know of.
How did people keep warm on the ship? These boats were usually equipped with wood or coal-burning stoves. This kept them warm, but also allowed them to cook on board.
If they knew there was going to be a storm, would they have kept going? They probably didn't know in advance that there was a storm approaching. In 1860, the technology did not exist to have an accurate weather forecast. Also, this was a working boat; the crew depended upon these deliveries for their livelihood. If they didn't take any risks with the weather, they probably would not have had enough money to get through the long winter.
How much has the Sarah Ellen changed since the video was shot in 1989? This wreck was examined again with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) in 1992, and little had changed during those three years. It has not been examined since then.
If the ROV were able to go inside the ship, would it find bottles, dishes or anything else? Most certainly. This boat sank in a hurry, so the crew had no time to remove any items. Everything would be left on board: the cargo of stone, dishes, lamps, bottles, tools, perhaps even clothing and bedding. It's likely that most of these small personal affects are buried in the soft silt (mud).
How big is Lake Champlain? Lake Champlain is 120 miles long. It is 12 miles wide at its widest point in the Burlington, VT - Plattsburgh, NY area, although much narrower in most places. The Lake Champlain Basin Program has great information, data, and maps about Lake Champlain in their Lake Champlain Basin Atlas - online and free.
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In 2012, Rosh Hashana begins the evening of Sunday, Sept. 16, and ends the evening of Tuesday, Sept. 18. During Rosh Hashana, families and friends gather for meals that include a variety of traditional foods, from honey to fish heads to pomegranates.
The most recognized foods associated with Rosh Hashana are apples and honey. In the Bible, Israel was often referred to as the land of milk and honey, and honey was a symbol of good living and wealth. On the first night of Rosh Hashana, it is customary to dip challah (braided egg braid) into honey and also dip apple slices into honey — saying a prayer for a sweet year.
Challah is an egg bread that is typically eaten by Jews on Shabbat, on special occasions and during holidays. Challah can be braided with just two strands of dough, or up to six. Challah is braided into round, oval or rectangular shapes. It can also be shaped into spirals, birds, books, keys and other symbols. On Rosh Hashana, challah is baked in braided rounds to symbolize the never ending cycle of life. At Rosh Hashana raisin, honey and other spices are often added to Challah to make it sweeter — representing a wish for a sweet new year.
Rosh Hashana can be translated to "head of the year" in Hebrew. Some Jewish households and communities eat the head of a fish (or lamb) during the Rosh Hashana meal in the hope that everyone will be at the "head" (not the tail) of whatever they are doing in the upcoming year. Fish is also a symbol of abundance and fertility.
Another sweet treat that represents sweet wishes for the New Year is honey cake. Many Jewish families serve honey spice cake. Often, these cakes are created from family recipes that have been handed down for generations.
On the second night of Rosh Hashana, it's traditional to eat a "new fruit." This should be a fruit that the participants haven't tasted in a long time. While eating this fruit (which is often pomegranate or another exotic choice), families and friends say the "shehecheyanu" blessing, which thanks God for life, health and bringing everyone into the new season. Eating the new fruit is a reminder to appreciate the wonderful fruits of the earth and being alive to eat and enjoy them. Pomegranate is often chosen because its seeds can represent all the good deeds to be done in the new year.
And you'll see personalized content just for you whenever you click the My Feed .
SheKnows is making some changes!
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As thousands of marchers made their way to the nation's capital in August 1963 for what was officially billed as the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Maria Varela stayed put in the Deep South with no plans to participate.
Many of her fellow activists in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee felt the march was largely symbolic and would do little to change things, Varela said. She continued her work in Alabama, and eventually moved on to Mississippi.
"A lot of us in SNCC did not support the march at the time," said Varela, 73, who now lives in Albuquerque. "So we were going to have this huge gathering of people. Then what?"
Latinos were scarce among the 250,000 people who turned out in Washington on Aug. 28, 1963, mainly because they were caught up in pursuing their own causes. Some of the larger Hispanic civil rights organizations even considered publicly denouncing the mass protest. But after seeing the heavily black throngs gathered around the Lincoln Memorial they learned some lessons from that show of political force, historians said.
"They were uncomfortable with marches. But that was about to change," said Iowa State University history professor Brian Behnken, author of a book on the civil rights struggles of blacks and Mexican Americans in Texas. A big factor in the lack of large-scale Hispanic participation, Behnken said, was that groups such as the League of United Latin American Citizens simply had not quite evolved to such a level of national protest.
"Eventually, a new movement would emerge," Behnken said. "And new coalitions would form."
The national march didn't go entirely unmarked by Hispanics. A coalition of black and Mexican Americans held a companion march on that same day in Austin, Texas, which drew roughly 900 people, according to the Texas State Historical Association. The marchers, including Hispanics, blacks and whites, protested Gov. John Connally's opposition to civil rights legislation pending in Congress.
Individual Hispanics who did attend the March on Washington "did so out of personal choice," said Lauren Araiza, history professor at Denison University in Granville, Ohio.
At least two photographs in the Bridgeman Art Library in New York depict Latino presence at the 1963 march. In one photo, photographer Nat Herz captured images of marchers holding aloft Puerto Rican flags as they walked down Constitution Avenue. A second photo shows a man holding aloft a handwritten cardboard sign that said "Mexico Agrees."
Singer Joan Baez, whose father was originally from Mexico, was joined by Bob Dylan and Len Chandler in performing at the 1963 march.
Raul Yzaguirre, former president of the National Council of La Raza, was a student volunteer at a first aid station on the National Mall. In a 2003 interview with NPR on the march's 40th anniversary, Yzaguirre said the eloquence of Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech moved him to take his civil rights advocacy beyond Latino causes.
"Although the focus was on the African-American community at that time, I think his thoughts, his sense of justice resonated with those of us who had perhaps a broader sense of inclusion, who wanted Latinos and Native Americans and other minorities to be an integral part of a civil rights movement," Yzaguirre said.
Certainly, Hispanics in America were experiencing discrimination. Like blacks, Mexican Americans were being subjected to poll taxes in order to vote, and in Texas, some restaurants posted signs that read, "No Dogs, Negroes or Mexicans."
Latino farm workers in California toiled in the fields for low wages, and Puerto Ricans in New York suffered in substandard housing, sometimes without basic services.
A copy of the original organizing manual for the March on Washington, under the heading "Why We March," showed that organizers did try to include the plight of Latinos in their statement of purpose for the massive gathering.
"Discrimination in education and apprenticeship training renders Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Mexicans, and other minorities helpless in our mechanized, industrial society," the manual read. "Lacking specialized training, they are the first victims of automation."
Varela, one of the few Latino activists to participate in both the black civil rights movement and the Chicano Movement, said the direction of the movement after the march was over was of primary concern. The Chicano movement was a period of activism by Mexican Americans in the late 1960s and early 1970s which focused on the empowerment of that group.
"We were not about developing one charismatic leader to take charge, but instead encouraged many leaders who would be there long after the charismatic leaders were gone," Varela said. "I was in Alabama at the time, and learned that each region in the South was different in how they went about creating their movements."
Blacks and Mexican Americans had long been working together on civil rights causes. The NAACP joined with the League of United Latin American Citizens in the 1947 Mendez v. Westminster case in California, which helped lay the groundwork for Brown v. Board of Education, the landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision that struck down segregation in public schools.
Mike Herrera, son of the late Houston civil rights attorney John Herrera, said his father wanted to see Latinos organized nationally to press for change, and he was excited by the March on Washington.
"We just didn't have the numbers yet and we were way out here in Texas where no one paid much attention," the younger Herrera said.
Others, like Latino farm workers in California, drew greater inspiration from protests such as the voting rights marches in Selma, Ala., Araiza said, because "those were much more grass-roots oriented and something they could relate to."
Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, co-founders of the United Farm Workers of America, would launch their own marches in California and adopt nonviolent strategies like boycotts and picketing.
King sent Chavez a telegram in 1966, while Chavez was fasting for collective bargaining rights for farmworkers. In the telegram King told Chavez he was moved.
"The plight of your people and ours is so grave," King said, "that we all desperately need the inspiring example and effective leadership you have given."
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A majority of Americans said they were better off financially than their parents were at the same age, although older adults were more positive about their wealth than younger people were, according to a Gallup poll.
Of 1,012 adults surveyed, 69 percent said they're better off financially than their parents, down from the 74 percent who said so in 1998, the last time Gallup asked this question.
Gallup asked adults age 18 and older: "Think of your parents when they were your age. Would you say you are better off financially than they were, or not?"
"Most Americans still think they are doing better financially than their parents did when they were the same age," Elizabeth Mendes, deputy managing editor at Gallup, wrote in a blog post. "This is positive news, given the difficult state of the U.S. economy over the past several years -- with millions of Americans seeing their home values deteriorate and jobs evaporate."
Homes in the U.S. are expected to lose $681 billion in value in 2011, according to Zillow. Meanwhile, the national unemployment rate is 8.6 percent, the lowest this year but still higher than many economists had hoped. Unemployment has remained persistently high since the recession began in 2008, with the country witnessing the longest stretch the jobless rate has stayed over 8 percent since 1948.
Older Americans were more positive in their response than younger respondents for the survey. The poll of Americans 18 and older was taken Nov. 28 to Dec. 1.
For respondents age 65 and up, 78 percent said they were better off than their parents while 64 percent of those age 18 to 29 said so.
The Gallup poll results echo a survey from Pew Research Center last month which indicated wealthy older Americans are better-off than those three decades ago in income, employment, homeownership and housing values.
Pew analyzed the economic well-being of older and younger adults and found that the age-based wealth gap, comparing the net worth of those over 65 with those under 35, skyrocketed. In 1984 it was 10:1, and in 2009 it jumped to 47:1.
Perhaps not surprisingly, wealthier Americans said they were better off than their parents than poorer respondents. Eighty percent of those making $75,000 or more per year said they were better off than their parents. Of those making $30,000 per year or less, 52 percent said they are better off.
Gallup said the age and income patterns in this year's survey are "the same" as they were in 1998.
There are generational differences in perceptions of wealth. Earlier this month, Gallup released the results of another poll asking, "how much money per year would you need to make in order to consider yourself rich?"
While the overall median response of the 1,012 adults was an income of $150,000, younger respondents age 18 to 49 had a median amount of $160,000. Those 50 and older said they would feel rich with $100,000.
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Scrabble word: DRILLS
In which Scrabble dictionary does DRILLS exist?
Definitions of DRILLS in dictionaries:
- noun - a tool with a sharp point and cutting edges for making holes in hard materials (usually rotating rapidly or by repeated blows)
- noun - similar to the mandrill but smaller and less brightly colored
- noun - systematic training by multiple repetitions
- noun - (military) the training of soldiers to march (as in ceremonial parades) or to perform the manual of arms
- verb - make a hole, especially with a pointed power or hand tool
- verb - train in the military, e.g., in the use of weapons
- verb - learn by repetition
- verb - teach by repetition
- verb - undergo military training or do military exercises
- verb - to bore a hole in
There are 6 letters in DRILLS: D I L L R S
All anagrams that could be made from letters of word DRILLS plus a wildcard: DRILLS?
Scrabble words that can be created with letters from word DRILLS
Images for DRILLS
SCRABBLE is the registered trademark of Hasbro and J.W. Spear & Sons Limited. Our scrabble word finder and scrabble cheat word builder is not associated with the Scrabble brand - we merely provide help for players of the official Scrabble game. All intellectual property rights to the game are owned by respective owners in the U.S.A and Canada and the rest of the world. Anagrammer.com is not affiliated with Scrabble. This site is an educational tool and resource for Scrabble & Words With Friends players.
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Preventing Progression and Complications of Renal Disease
Authors: Sidney Kobrin, MD, and Shreeram Aradhye, MD, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania (BUT...Altered for this venue by C. Newman)
A comprehensive, practical approach to managing renal failure and its complications, with a focus on slowing the rate of progression. [Hospital Medicine 33(11):11-12, 17-18, 20, 29-31, 35-36, 39-40, 1997. © 1997 Quadrant HealthCom, Inc.]
In this new age of managed health care, generalists have had to assume increasing responsibility for managing problems previously tackled by specialists. Although timely referral to and collaboration with a nephrologist is vital in caring for patients with renal disease, it is important for the primary care physician to be familiar with measures aimed at preventing the progression and complications of renal failure.
The number of patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is rising rapidly in the United States. The cost of providing renal replacement therapy for these patients is about $12 billion per year. Early recognition of renal disease and appropriate interventions to delay its progression may decrease both human suffering and the financial costs associated with ESRD. Primary care physicians usually treat patients with diabetes and hypertension, the two leading causes of ESRD in this country. Since most patients with early renal failure are asymptomatic, awareness and vigilance on the part of the primary care physician are essential for the early diagnosis, appropriate referral, and collaborative management of these patients.
The clinical management of the patient with progressive renal failure may be divided into several components: (1) early recognition of renal failure; (2) monitoring the progression of renal failure; (3) detection and correction of reversible causes of renal failure; (4) institution of interventions to delay progression of renal failure; (5) avoidance of additional renal injury; (6) treatment of complications (ie, acid-base, mineral, and fluid-electrolyte abnormalities) of renal failure; and (7) planning ahead for renal replacement therapy (dialysis or transplantation).
Glomerular filtration rate. GFR is the standard indicator of renal function. Normal values for GFR are 130 ±15 mL/minute in males and 120 ±15 mL/minute in females. In both sexes, a GFR of 56 to 100 mL/minute constitutes mild renal failure, 25 to 55 mL/minute constitutes moderate renal failure, and 24 mL/minute or less constitutes severe renal failure. Although the GFR cannot be measured directly, it can be calculated based on the renal clearance of a marker such as inulin, which is freely filtered by the glomerulus. However, measuring the clearance of inulin or a radiolabeled marker such as iothalamate is cumbersome and expensive and is therefore not used routinely in clinical settings. Instead, GFR can be estimated by using the value for either serum creatinine concentration or 24-hour urinary creatinine clearance.
Normal values for serum creatinine concentration are <1.3 mg/dL in males and <1 mg/dL in females. Values of 1.3 to 1.9 mg/dL in males and 1 to 1.9 mg/dL in females constitute mild renal failure, values of 2 to 4 mg/dL in both sexes constitute moderate renal failure, and values >4 mg/dL in both sexes constitute severe renal failure. This measurement has limitations, however. First, although a serum creatinine level above the normal range may suggest underlying renal failure, so too may a serum creatinine value within the normal range that is higher than a patient's previous value. (Any creatinine measurement performed while the patient has been an adult is helpful; it may be necessary for the physician to perform diligent detective work to locate a prior value.) Thus, an increase in serum creatinine from 0.6 to 1.2 mg/dL represents a 50% decline in renal function, which might be missed if only the more recent value were noted, since it lies within the so-called normal range for a male. Thus, comparison with prior laboratory data is important when interpreting a serum creatinine level. In the early stages of renal failure, major decreases in GFR are often associated with what appear to be minor changes in serum creatinine.
GFR declines with age at a rate of about 10 mL/minute for each decade beyond the third: expected values (in mL/minute) are 120 for individuals in their 20s, 110 for those in their 30s, 100 for those in their 40s, 90 for those in their 50s, 80 for those in their 60s, and 70 for those in their 70s. Although this lattermost value does not constitute clinically important renal failure, it does reflect a diminished renal "reserve" that renders an older person more susceptible to renal injury.
Second, changes in serum creatinine level do not necessarily reflect changes in GFR. For example, serum creatinine levels may be elevated by (1) the use of cimetidine or trimethoprim, either of which competitively inhibits the tubular secretion of creatinine; (2) ingestion of large quantities of cooked meat; or (3) increases in muscle mass. These elevations do not reflect a decline in GFR. Conversely, severely malnourished patients lose muscle mass and may not manifest an elevation in serum creatinine, despite progression of renal disease and a decline in GFR. Serum creatinine levels correlate with GFR only in the steady state. Therefore, significant errors in the estimation of GFR may occur if the serum creatinine level is rapidly changing.
Creatinine clearance. This is usually calculated on the basis of a 24-hour urine collection. For practical purposes, this value closely correlates with the GFR in patients with mild to moderate renal failure; in those with severe renal failure, however, creatinine clearance is about 50% more than the true GFR (thus, about 35 mL/minute in these cases). When interpreting these data, you should assess the adequacy of the collection based on the expected creatinine excretion, which equals creatinine production in the steady state. Daily creatinine excretion is 20 to 25 mg/kg lean body weight in males and 15 to 20 mg/kg lean body weight in females. (Lean body weight is derived from standard height/weight tables or is represented by "ideal" weight.) Significant differences in the amount of creatinine excreted from that expected suggest the possibility of an error in urine collection. Under steady-state conditions, creatinine clearance can be estimated without a urine collection by using a formula that accounts for the influence of age and body weight on creatinine production:
Creatinine clearance = ([140 - age in years] x lean body weight [kg]) / (plasma creatinine [mg/dL] x 72)
In equating creatinine clearance with GFR, one assumes that creatinine is excreted by filtration alone. However, creatinine is also secreted by the tubules; the proportion of creatinine excreted by this process increases with worsening renal failure, leading to overestimation of GFR, especially at lower levels of renal functioning.
Practical methods. Despite all the caveats outlined above, measurements of serum creatinine and creatinine clearance are practical methods for monitoring renal failure in clinical practice. It may also be useful to follow the reciprocal of serum creatinine (1/SCr) over time. The slope of this line reflects the rate of deterioration in renal function. A sudden increase in the slope should alert the physician to additional injury. In contrast, a decrease in the slope may reflect the beneficial effects of interventions to retard progression of renal failure. Predictions regarding the timing of renal replacement therapy may be made by extrapolating the course of this line.
It is important to identify and correct reversible causes of renal failure in patients with newly diagnosed disease and in those with known renal failure in whom the rate of progression may have accelerated (Figure 1).
First, identify and treat underlying conditions (eg, urinary tract obstruction in an elderly man with symptoms of prostatism). Next, determine whether the patient is taking drugs with potentially nephrotoxic effects and stop their use if possible. Common culprits include nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), aminoglycoside antibiotics, and certain antiviral agents. Finally, investigate other causes of reversible renal injury: volume depletion; atherosclerotic vascular disease causing renal ischemia; superimposed interstitial nephritis caused by drug use; and some forms of glomerular disease that may respond to therapeutic intervention.
Renal injury. Renal disease is characterized by inexorable progression despite the elimination of the original cause of injury; the rate of deterioration depends on the nature of the primary renal disease. The progressive nature of renal disease is thought to arise from "adaptive" responses of the remnant renal tissue; apparently, these responses are counterproductive and lead to progressive and irreversible renal damage.
Glomerular hyperfiltration (due to increased intraglomerular pressure) and glomerular hypertrophy are important mediators of renal injury. Glomerular hypertension is the result of dilatation of the afferent arteriole and selective constriction of the efferent arteriole (mediated by angiotensin II). The etiology of glomerular hypertrophy is unclear; it may be due to glomerular hyperfiltration or to the local release of growth factors by the remnant renal tissue. This change can contribute to injury by further increasing glomerular wall stress. It should also be noted that proteinuria is not merely a marker of glomerular injury and hyperfiltration, but also a cause of interstitial inflammation and scarring, leading to further renal injury. Furthermore, systemic hypertension, acidemia, protein intake, hyperphosphatemia, hyperlipidemia, and immune mechanisms have all been shown to contribute to renal injury.
The progression of renal disease is presumed to involve a final common pathway, which appears to be a combination of the adaptive responses (glomerular hyperfiltration, hypertension, and hypertrophy) and some of the consequences of renal disease (proteinuria, systemic hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hyperphosphatemia, and acidosis) which, in turn, aggravate injury.
Regardless of the primary etiology, interventions to delay progression aim at controlling some of these maladaptive responses, as summarized in the Table and as discussed in the following sections.
Dietary protein restriction. Dietary protein modulates renal function in healthy as well as diseased kidneys. Protein load increases GFR and protein restriction decreases basal GFR in animal and human models. The effects of protein intake on glomerular hemodynamics are mediated by decreased afferent arteriolar tone leading to enhanced renal blood flow. Since the efferent arteriole does not dilate to the same degree, glomerular capillary pressure and filtration rate are enhanced. Protein restriction has been shown to retard progression of renal disease in a variety of animal models of renal injury. This protective response is mediated by favorable effects on glomerular hyperfiltration, hypertrophy, proteinuria, and renal inflammation. Unfortunately, the leap from animal data to human application is not easy and the data in human studies remain somewhat controversial.
Several small studies have shown a benefit of protein restriction on renal disease progression in diabetic and nondiabetic renal disease.[4,5] The largest study to date was conducted by the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study Group. In this randomized, multicenter trial, the effect of dietary protein restriction and blood pressure (BP) control on the progression of renal disease was studied in 840 nondiabetics with renal failure of diverse etiology. In part A of this study, which included 585 patients with moderate renal failure (GFR, 25 to 55 mL/minute), protein intake of 0.58 g/kg/day, as compared with 1.3 g/kg/day, did not significantly slow the rate of decline in GFR at 3 years.
However, in part B of the same study, which enrolled 255 patients with more severe renal failure (GFR, 13 to 24 mL/minute), a protein intake of 0.28 g/kg/day, as compared with 0.58 g/kg/day, tended to slow the decline in renal function. Study limitations included the lack of diabetics, the presence of many patients with polycystic kidneys, and the use of ACE inhibitors as antihypertensive therapy. Secondary analysis of part B data based on protein intake achieved, as opposed to that prescribed, did show a beneficial effect of protein restriction on the progression of renal disease in patients with severe renal failure. Furthermore, when these results were combined with prior reports and subjected to a meta-analysis, a protein intake of 0.7 to 0.8 g/kg/day was found to reduce the risk of ESRD in both diabetics and nondiabetics with renal failure.
Protein restriction has several advantages in addition to the favorable effects on glomerular hemodynamics. Dietary protein is the major source of phosphate and also results in an acid load which may worsen the metabolic acidosis seen in renal failure. Protein-restricted diets may thus reduce the risk of hyperphosphatemia and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Decreased metabolic acidosis also leads to reduced protein breakdown and bone mineral loss.
The main concern with protein restriction in patients with renal failure is the risk of malnutrition. Although this concern is warranted, it is noteworthy that malnutrition was not diagnosed in any patient enrolled in the MDRD study. The World Health Organization has recommended a daily protein allowance of 0.8 g/kg for adults (daily protein requirement for the average adult, 50 to 70 g). Most American adults consume significantly greater amounts of protein than that.
Once renal failure is detected, the patient's protein intake should be limited to 0.8 g/kg/day. Patients' nutritional status should be monitored to ensure that body weight and other indicators such as serum albumin and serum transferrin remain stable. When a protein-restricted diet is implemented, the protein ingested should be of high biologic value. Adequate energy intake will guard against breakdown of endogenous muscle protein and prevent malnutrition. Unfortunately, many patients will not be able to comply with this relatively unpalatable diet. It is particularly challenging for diabetics, who may also have to restrict intake of potassium, refined carbohydrates, salt, fluids, and lipids.
In sum, patients with early renal failure should limit daily consumption of high-biologic-value protein to 0.8 g/kg. In those with a GFR <55 mL/minute but >25 mL/minute, daily protein intake should be kept between 0.7 and 0.8 g/kg, despite the fact that clinical evidence thus far is inconclusive. In patients with severe renal failure (GFR <=24 mL/minute), daily protein intake should be limited to 0.6 g/kg.
Control of systemic hypertension. Systemic hypertension is an important mediator of progressive renal injury; there is unequivocal evidence that lowering elevated BP slows the progression of renal disease, especially in patients with proteinuria. A subgroup analysis of MDRD study data showed that, in patients with urinary protein excretion >1 g/day, the rate of decline in renal function was slowest in those whose BP was maintained at 125/75 mm Hg. In patients without proteinuria there appeared to be little additional renal benefit to maintaining BP below 135/85 mm Hg.
Whereas BP control with any agent appears to slow the progression of renal disease, there is mounting evidence that ACE inhibitors are more renoprotective than other antihypertensive agents. Some calcium channel blockers (CCBs) may also have renoprotective properties. Other antihypertensive drugs should be added if monotherapy with ACE inhibitors does not lower BP adequately. Also, other agents should be used if ACE inhibitor-related adverse effects cannot be overcome. Adequate BP control, no matter how it is accomplished, is better than uncontrolled hypertension.
Use of ACE inhibitors. The renoprotective effect of ACE inhibitors appears to be independent of their antihypertensive action. These drugs decrease proteinuria and delay the progression of renal disease. Although initial data were acquired in patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN), encouraging results have also been obtained in nondiabetics with renal disease. The salutary effects of ACE inhibitors may be related to their ability to dilate efferent arterioles, thereby reducing intraglomerular pressure. The beneficial effects may also be the result of the restoration of glomerular permselectivity in proteinuric nephropathies.[11,12] This may explain why ACE inhibitors delay the progression of renal disease in normotensive diabetics with microalbuminuria.
Many studies have compared ACE inhibitors with placebo or other antihypertensive drugs at each stage of DN in patients with in-sulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Most of these studies have shown that ACE inhibitors can (1) prevent the progression of microalbuminuria to overt proteinuria; (2) reduce proteinuria in patients with overt DN; (3) slow the deterioration in GFR; and (4) delay the progression to ESRD and death.
The largest study conducted in patients with IDDM and microalbuminuria showed that captopril, relative to placebo, reduced the progression to overt proteinuria by 75%. In a landmark study of patients with IDDM, overt nephropathy, and serum creatinine values <2.5 mg/dL, captopril, relative to other antihypertensives, significantly reduced the doubling of serum creatinine values and the progression to ESRD. Based on these findings, most authorities recommend the use of ACE inhibitors in both hypertensive and normotensive patients with IDDM and any degree of DN.
Hypertensive patients with NIDDM and any degree of DN should probably be treated with ACE inhibitors. Despite evidence that ACE inhibitors slow the progression of microalbuminuria to overt proteinuria, it is debatable whether normotensive patients with NIDDM and microalbuminuria should receive ACE inhibitors; since only 10% to 20% of these patients progress to ESRD, 80% to 90% of them may be exposed to unnecessary therapy. A reasonable strategy in these patients is to monitor them closely and commence ACE inhibitor therapy if they develop hypertension or overt proteinuria. Although several small studies have suggested that ACE inhibitors retard the progression of renal disease in patients with NIDDM and overt proteinuria, no large, prospective, randomized study has been conducted. However, since histologic features appear to be identical in patients with DN secondary to IDDM or NIDDM (Figure 2), it is reasonable to assume that ACE inhibitors will have a similar effect in both patient populations.
Although not all ACE inhibitors have been tested in DN, there is no compelling evidence or physiological reason to indicate that any particular member of this class of drugs is superior to the others. Given the complicated regimens these patients follow, once-a-day agents may be preferable. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists probably have the same efficacy as ACE inhibitors and they do not cause the troubling cough that is relatively common with most ACE inhibitors (except perhaps fo-sinopril). However, the angiotensin II receptor antagonists have not yet been extensively studied in patients with DN. Currently, two studies are underway to compare angiotensin II receptor antagonists with other antihypertensives in patients with NIDDM and DN.
The ACE Inhibition in the Progression of Renal Insufficiency (AIPRI) study randomized patients with renal failure to receive benazepril or placebo after a run-in period during which strict BP control was attained. Nearly all patients in this trial were nondiabetic. During a 3-year follow-up, the risk of doubling of serum creatinine was 50% lower in the benazepril group than in the placebo group. Patients with urinary protein excretion >1 g/day and those who received therapy relatively early in the course of their renal disease appeared to derive the greatest benefit from benazepril. This advantage persisted after correction for lower mean BP in the ACE inhibitor group than in the placebo group. Patients with polycystic kidney disease did not appear to benefit from ACE inhibition, a finding previously reported in other trials.
In the Ramipril Efficacy in Ne-phropathy Trial, ramipril slowed the rate of progression of renal failure over 1 year in nondiabetics with massive proteinuria (urinary protein excretion >3 g/day); this portion of the trial was terminated prematurely because of this clear-cut benefit. The study has not been terminated for patients with urinary protein excretion between 1 and 3 g/day.
Primary care physicians often hesitate to prescribe ACE inhibitors in patients with renal failure, mainly because they fear provoking adverse reactions such as the acute worsening of renal function and hyperkalemia. However, acute renal failure occurs primarily in a subgroup of patients with bilateral renovascular disease or in those who have decreased effective circulating volume. Provided that renal function is monitored in such patients after initiation of ACE inhibitor therapy, there is no contraindication to starting therapy since the renal dysfunction is reversible. The same considerations apply to the risk of hyperkalemia. In the AIPRI study, of 300 patients given benazepril, three had a rapid increase in serum creatinine requiring drug withdrawal and five developed clinically significant hyperkalemia. Neither adverse event occurred significantly more often in the benazepril group than in the placebo group.
In sum, ACE inhibitors slow the progression of renal failure in patients with a wide variety of renal diseases and should be started early in the course. Patients with proteinuria are likely to derive the greatest benefit. The risk of adverse reactions is small but warrants close monitoring after the start of therapy. The specific agent used is not important, provided appropriate dosage adjustments for renal dysfunction are made when necessary.
Use of calcium channel blockers. Although not as well studied as the ACE inhibitors, CCBs may also have renoprotective properties. The mechanism of this protective effect may differ between the dihydropyr-idines (eg, amlodipine, nifedipine, felodipine) and other CCBs such as verapamil or diltiazem. The latter two drugs may reduce intraglo-merular pressure in a manner similar to that of ACE inhibitors; studies in patients with renal disease have shown that these drugs, as compared with the ß blocker atenolol, led to a greater reduction in proteinuria and a slower progression of renal disease. One study has demonstrated an additive reduction in proteinuria when a low-dose ACE inhibitor and verapamil were combined.
The dihydropyridines, although effective and well tolerated as antihypertensive agents, do not consistently reduce proteinuria. Never-theless, experimental and human data in nondiabetics have shown that they are as effective as ACE inhibitors in slowing the progression of renal disease. The dihydropyr-idines may mediate their beneficial effect by reducing glomerular hypertrophy rather than by reducing intraglomerular pressure. At pres-ent, ACE inhibitors should probably be the first-line agents in patients with renal failure. CCBs may be added to ACE inhibitors when BP control is suboptimal or they may be used in patients who cannot tolerate ACE inhibitors.
Phosphate restriction. Al-though a role for hyperphospha-temia in the progression of renal failure has been postulated and demonstrated in animal models, clinical data concerning the role of phosphate restriction in the prevention of the progression of renal disease in humans are scant. It should be noted that most protein-restricted diets are also low in phosphorus content. At the current time, the primary goal of phosphate restriction in these patients is to prevent secondary hyperparathyroidism and significant bone disease.
Hyperlipidemia control. There is an extensive body of literature on the role of hyperlipidemia in accelerating renal injury; this problem may be particularly relevant in patients with significant proteinuria. Proteinuria in the nephrotic syndrome has been shown to result in multiple abnormalities of lipid metabolism. Hyperlipidemia in turn aggravates the renal injury by increasing mesangial proliferation and matrix production, as well as by altering glomerular hemodynamics and increasing local inflammation. All these factors interact to increase glomerulosclerosis and hasten the progression of renal failure.
Although there is a sound biological basis for treating hyperlipidemia with a secondary aim of delaying progression of renal failure, prospective clinical data are lacking. Nevertheless, given the high rate of atherosclerotic disease in patients with renal failure, it may be wise to prescribe lipid-lowering drugs for the prevention of cardiovascular disease, with the possible simultaneous benefit of delaying the progression of renal failure.
Glycemic control in diabetics. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial showed that stringent control of blood glucose early in the course of IDDM significantly delayed the onset of microalbuminuria. This study also showed that this intensive therapy decreased or stabilized protein excretion in patients who already had microalbuminuria. Similar reductions in the incidence of overt DN in patients with IDDM who had sustained excellent glucose control throughout their illness were obtained in a long-term study conducted in Sweden. Both of these studies aimed for a glycosylated hemoglobin value of approximately 7%. A recent Jap-anese study demonstrated benefits of similar magnitude in patients with NIDDM.
This degree of diabetic control requires multiple injections (or an insulin pump) and fingerstick glucose estimations each day. Only highly motivated and compliant patients will be able to adhere to this regimen. Unfortunately, intensive therapy may not slow the progression of renal injury following the development of overt dipstick-positive proteinuria.
Other consequences of hyperglycemia, for example, sorbitol and advanced glycosylation endproduct (AGE) accumulation, may play a role in the onset and progression of DN. Pilot studies using aldose reductase inhibitors and aminoguanidine to reduce the accumulation of sorbitol and AGEs, respectively, suggest that these agents may retard the progression of DN. The safety and efficacy of these agents, which are not yet marketed in the United States, are currently being evaluated in large clinical trials.
Smoking cessation. DN is 3 to 4 times more common in smokers than in nonsmokers; former smokers appear to have an intermediate risk. Smoking may also increase the relative risk for progression of renal disease in nondiabetics. Therefore, all patients with renal disease who smoke should be encouraged to quit the habit.
Volume depletion. When patients with any degree of renal failure present with a sudden deterioration from their baseline function, physicians should be alert to the possibility of volume depletion. Renal blood flow in these patients is reduced, triggering alterations in intrarenal hemodynamics which, in turn, decrease the GFR. Renal function is often promptly restored to baseline when the volume depletion is corrected, although some degree of transient or permanent damage may occur.
Urinary tract obstruction. Obstruction of the urinary tract should be suspected when patients experience a sudden deterioration in renal function. Common culprits include prostatic disease in elderly males and neurogenic bladder dysfunction in diabetic patients. Useful tests to determine the presence of urinary tract obstruction include palpation of the suprapubic area, assessment of postvoiding residual urine volume by catheterizing the bladder, and ultrasound scanning of the bladder and kidneys.
Iatrogenic injury. Compared with a person who has normally functioning kidneys, a patient with early renal failure is likely to suffer greater harm from additional renal insults. Certain drugs and radiocontrast media commonly aggravate renal disease.
NSAIDs. These drugs are common offenders, usually causing acute renal failure on a hemodynamic basis. If detected early, this form of renal injury is reversible. However, acute tubular necrosis may occur with prolonged ischemia. Among NSAIDs, sulindac has been shown to be relatively less nephrotoxic; regardless, caution needs to be exercised when using this drug.
Aminoglycosides. These antibiotics (eg, gentamicin, streptomycin) are obligate nephrotoxins and inevitably cause renal failure during prolonged use. Patients with preexisting renal failure are more susceptible to aminoglycoside nephrotox-icity. Dosing of aminoglycosides based on pharmacokinetic parameters does not necessarily prevent renal injury since the drug is cumulatively concentrated in the tubules. The measurement of trough serum aminoglycoside levels appears to be useful since sustained elevations correlate with renal damage. There-fore, monitoring these levels may enable physicians to discontinue or reduce the dose of the aminoglycoside prior to the development of significant additional renal failure.
It has been recommended that aminoglycosides be given on a once-daily basis; this approach has been shown to decrease the risk of nephrotoxicity in patients with normal renal function. Since the uptake of aminoglycosides by the proximal tubules is saturated, once-daily dosing, relative to multiple daily doses, causes a greater proportion of drug to be excreted and lesser amount of drug to accumulate in the cortex.[27,28] Unfortunately, this strategy has not yet been tested in patients with underlying renal failure; thus, it is probably prudent to avoid aminoglycosides in these patients when possible. If these drugs are used, the duration should be restricted and renal function should be monitored closely.
Other drugs. Antibiotics, cimetidine, anticonvulsants, and diuretics may cause acute interstitial nephritis. A high index of suspicion is necessary to make this diagnosis and a renal biopsy may be needed for confirmation. In the patient with underlying renal failure, early recognition of this condition, cessation of the offending agent, and possible therapy with corticosteroids can help avoid additional irreversible renal injury.
Radiocontrast media. Preexisting renal failure is the main risk factor for the development of radiocontrast-induced acute tubular necrosis. Although this injury is usually reversible, transient dialysis may be required; in patients with advanced renal failure, baseline renal function may not be restored. Measures to avoid radiocontrast injury include the use of imaging studies that do not involve dye and the avoidance of multiple studies performed in rapid succession. Low-osmolality contrast media may be relatively less nephrotoxic in patients with renal failure.
The best way to minimize the risk of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity is to ensure that the patient is volume replete at the time of the procedure. This is accomplished by administering normal saline at a rate of 75 to 100 mL/hour intravenously, for 8 to 10 hours before the study, and then continuing the fluids after the procedure. It is important to avoid volume depletion caused by the osmotic diuresis that the contrast material may induce.
Other measures, such as the use of diuretics, mannitol, or low-dose dopamine, are not always helpful and some have actually been shown to exacerbate the injury in patients with DN. (Theoretically, diuretics such as furosemide and mannitol might help prevent acute renal failure. Furosemide decreases oxygen consumption by the kidney, thereby protecting it from ischemic insults. Mannitol is also osmotically active and decreases cell swelling, a problem believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of acute renal failure. Both diuretics are thought to flush out cellular debris from tubules--this debris is believed to block tubules and contribute to the development of acute renal failure.)
Pregnancy. The effect of pregnancy on renal function depends upon the degree of underlying renal failure. In normotensive women with mild renal failure (serum creat-inine, 1 to 1.5 mg/dL), renal function is not likely to be compromised; nevertheless, these patients should be monitored closely for the development of hypertension or pre-eclampsia. In women who have greater renal failure, the risk of significant worsening of their renal status is high. Women who have severe proteinuria and hypertension may be at the greatest risk for pregnancy-related exacerbation of renal dysfunction.
Patients with renal failure experience myriad complications related to almost all organ systems. They are also prone to a variety of disorders of fluid, electrolyte, mineral, and acid-base balance, depending upon the degree of renal failure and the cause of renal disease. Most problems arise with a severe decline in renal function.
Most fluid and electrolyte disorders occur late in the course of renal failure, when there has been a significant decline in GFR. Impaired sodium excretion may manifest as hypertension and volume overload leading to edema. Diuretic therapy is often necessary. In contrast, excess salt wasting may occur in some patients, which predisposes them to volume depletion and which, in turn, may lead to a worsening of renal failure. Impaired tubular concentration and dilution may cause these patients to become hyponatremic with excessive intake of hypotonic fluids and hypernatremic when access to water is limited.
Potassium balance is usually maintained in early renal failure; hyperkalemia does not usually develop until renal disease is advanced, provided that potassium intake is not excessive and urine output and aldosterone secretion are adequate. However, patients with tubulointerstitial disease may become hyperkalemic with mild renal failure. Hyperkalemia commonly occurs in patients with diabetic nephropathy related to associated hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. Drugs such as ß blockers, NSAIDs, ACE inhibi-tors, potassium-sparing diuretics, trimethoprim, and salt substitutes may exacerbate hyperkalemia. Die-tary potassium restriction, loop diuretics, alkali therapy, and potassium exchange resins may be needed to treat it.
Net acid excretion declines with progressive renal failure despite enhanced ammonia production by the kidney. A decrease in serum bicarbonate reflective of a metabolic acidosis occurs relatively early in the course of renal failure and worsens with progression of renal disease. Decreased protein intake may improve the acidosis, but when serum bicarbonate levels fall below 16 to 17 mEq/L, it may be prudent to initiate alkali supplementation to maintain serum bicarbonate levels around 22 mEq/L. This can be done by administering either sodi-um bicarbonate or sodium citrate, at a dosage of 1 mEq/kg/day orally. Since sodium citrate markedly increases aluminum absorption, sodium bicarbonate may be preferable. Alkali supplementation may alleviate the many known ill effects of metabolic acidosis, including excessive bone loss, muscle breakdown, and tubulointerstitial inflammation.
Decreased filtered phosphate load with resultant hyperparathyroidism is seen relatively early in renal failure. Although frank hyperphosphatemia may not occur until the GFR drops below 25 to 30 mL/minute, the elevated parathyroid hormone levels seen in the earlier stages are harmful. Dietary phosphate restriction is thus important even in patients with mild renal failure.
With worsening renal failure it may become necessary to give phosphate-binding antacids to decrease the absorption of ingested phosphate. Because of the risk of hypermagnesemia and diarrhea, magnesium-containing antacids are best avoided. Aluminum-containing ant-acids should also be avoided since prolonged use may lead to aluminum intoxication. Calcium carbonate and calcium acetate are the formulations of choice. When given with meals, either compound serves as an effective phosphate binder as well as a source of alkali and calcium. Early management of abnormal phosphate and calcium metabolism can decrease the risk of bone disease and may even delay the progression of renal failure.
Anemia in renal failure may be multifactorial in origin, but the primary abnormality is diminished erythropoietin (EPO) production, which occurs with moderate to severe renal failure. Hence, significant anemia in the patient with early renal failure should prompt an evaluation for other causes. Recombinant human EPO is effective when used in the predialysis population and may improve a number of anemia-related symptoms. Furthermore, correction of anemia may reverse and prevent left ventricular hypertrophy, which may contribute to the high mortality in patients who progress to ESRD. Maintenance of adequate iron stores is important to secure optimal response to EPO.
Timely referral of the patient with renal failure to a nephrologist with a view to discuss options regarding renal replacement therapy is paramount. Outcomes are optimal when renal replacement therapy is initiated in a planned manner. Patients should be educated about the various modalities of dialysis including hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. When hemodialysis is planned it is important that an arteriovenous fistula be created in a timely manner. The option of transplantation should also be discussed. With adequate planning and when living donors are available and willing, it may be possible to perform a renal transplant prior to the need for dialysis.
Dr Kobrin is Associate Professor of Medicine and Dr Aradhye is Assistant Professor of Medicine, Renal-Electrolyte and Hypertension Division, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
|Protein restriction||Reduces glomerular hyperfiltration, hypertrophy, proteinuria, and inflammation|
|Control of systemic hypertension||Uncontrolled systemic hypertension injures glomeruli by directly transmitting high pressure to these structures|
|ACE inhibitors||Reduce intraglomerular pressure and proteinuria|
|Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers||Reduce glomerular hypertrophy|
|Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers||May reduce intraglomerular pressure and proteinuria; may also reduce glomerular hypertrophy|
|Control of hyperphosphatemia||May prevent calcium phosphate deposition in the kidney|
|Control of hyperlipidemia||Prevents hyperlipidemia-induced mesangial proliferation, matrix production, altered glomerular hemodynamics, and renal inflammation|
|Glycemic control in diabetic patients||Hyperglycemia causes mesangial expansion, glycosylation of tissue proteins, and glomerular hyperperfusion|
|Smoking cessation||Improves oxygen delivery to the already ischemic glomeruli|
|Avoiding additional "insults" such as NSAIDs, aminoglycosides, radiocontrast materials, volume depletion, and pregnancy||Patients with underlying renal failure are most susceptible to the nephrotoxicity of these insults|
Figure 1: Classification of Renal Disease
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Figure 2a: Nodular Glomerulonephritis
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Figure2b.. Diffuse Glomerulosclerosis
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Figure 2c: Exudative Glomerulonephritis
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The Obama administration has secretly dispatched young Latin Americans to Cuba using the cover of health and civic schemes to spur political change.
Beginning as early as October 2009, the project sent Venezuelan, Costa Rican and Peruvian young people to Cuba in hopes of ginning up rebellion, the AP news agency reported.
The programme was overseen by the US Agency for International Development.
In one case, the workers formed an HIV-prevention workshop that memos called "the perfect excuse" for the programme's political goals, the report said.
The alleged scheme is only the latest aimed at bringing social change in the island since Fidel Castro led a revolution there in the 1950s and swept to power.
Here are some other US moves and alleged plots - though some have been debunked as urban legends - to bring about change in Cuba.
:: BAY OF PIGS
In 1961, a CIA-backed US paramilitary group attempted to invade the island to overthrow Castro.
The 1,500-strong group landed at a beach in the Bay of Pigs.
But Cuban armed forces fended off the US group in three days, imprisoning many Americans and questioning them before they were sent back.
The failed invasion was a major embarrassment for US president John F Kennedy.
:: ECONOMIC EMBARGO
The US imposed a trade embargo in the early 1960s, which affected virtually all imports.
Recently there has been debate among the Democratic Party over whether the embargo should be lifted.
Since taking over for his ailing older brother Fidel in 2008, Raul Castro has enacted widespread market-oriented reforms that have helped the economy. However, he blames the embargo for the country's lingering economic trouble.
:: CUBAN TWITTER
The AP news agency revealed that a Cuban version of Twitter was set up by the US government in an attempt to push the communist island's young people towards dissent.
The project, which dates to 2009, was dubbed ZunZuneo which is a slang term for a Cuban hummingbird's tweet.
:: EXPLODING CIGAR?
Some plans allegedly involved killing Castro, the leader of the revolution and the island's charismatic leader.
Many of these plans are shrouded in mystery, or are little more than urban legends, or never left the planning stages.
Among these was an alleged plan to poison Castro's cigars with a toxin, or to hire Mafia killers to do the job.
:: FEMME FATALE
In 1960, the CIA allegedly recruited one of Castro's mistresses to poison him.
Marita Lorenz claimed that she was recruited by the CIA to kill Castro with poison capsules. She became a witness in the probe into the JFK assassination.
Ms Lorenz has written autobiographies and has been the subject of a TV movie and a documentary.
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Journal Article Detail Page
written by Guangtian Zhu and Chandralekha Singh
The Stern–Gerlach experiment can play an important role in teaching the formalism of quantum mechanics. In the context of a finite-dimensional Hilbert space students can learn how to prepare a specific quantum state starting from an arbitrary state, issues related to the time evolution of the wave function and quantum measurement. The Stern–Gerlach experiment can also be used to teach the distinction between the physical space where the experiment is performed and the Hilbert space where the state of the system lies, and how information about the state of the system in the Hilbert space can be exploited to interpret the possible outcomes of the experiment in physical space. Students can learn the advantages of choosing an appropriate basis to make predictions about the outcomes of experiments with different arrangements of Stern–Gerlach devices. The latter can also help students understand that an ensemble of identically prepared systems is not the same as a mixture. We discuss student difficulties with the Stern–Gerlach experiment based on written tests and interviews with advanced undergraduate and graduate students in quantum mechanics courses. We also discuss preliminary data which suggest that the Quantum Interactive Learning Tutorial on the Stern–Gerlach experiment is helpful in improving student understanding of these concepts.
American Journal of Physics: Volume 79, Issue 5, Pages 499-507
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Translation of wartime in Spanish:
- during or in wartimedurante la guerra
en tiempo de guerra(before noun) (experiences/memories)
de la guerraExample sentences
- The first photograph shows soldiers being conscripted during wartime as victims on an army production line.
- Victims of the disaster and their rescuers saw sights normally seen only by the military in wartime.
- Since it was reopened last week, the site has resembled a military base during wartime.
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.
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“The vilest deeds like poison weeds bloom well in prison air” – Oscar Wilde.
The best psychological experiments ask timeless questions about human nature, like what makes a person evil? Can a good person commit evil acts? If so, what can make people cross the line? Is there some set-point which when crossed unleashes the evil? Or is it something about the situations in which people are placed that determines our behaviour?
This nomination for the best social psychology research – the famous ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’ – argues a strong case for the power of the situation (Zimbardo, 1971). Not only that but the experiment has also inspired a novel, two films, countless TV programs, re-enactments and even a band. More on that later, first the experiment.
Prisoners and guards
The idea was simple: to see how ordinary men, chosen to be the most healthy and ‘normal’ would respond to a radical change to their normal roles in life. Half were to become prison guards, the other half their prisoners. In this experiment there were no half-measures, for it to be effective it had to closely approximate the real experience of prisoners and guards. These participants were in for the ride of their lives.
‘Prisoners’ were ‘arrested’ by a police car with sirens wailing while they were out going about their everyday business. Then they were fingerprinted, blindfolded and put in a cell, then stripped naked, searched, deloused, given a uniform, a number and had a chain placed around one foot.
The other participants were made into guards who wore uniforms and were given clubs. A prison was mocked up in the basement of a Stanford University building.
And so the experiment began.
All was quiet until the second day when the ‘prisoners’ rebelled against their incarceration. The guard’s retaliation was swift and brutal. Guards stripped the prisoners naked, removed the beds from the prison, placed the rebellion’s ringleader in solitary confinement and began harassing all the ‘prisoners’.
Soon the ‘prisoners’ began behaving with blind obedience towards the prison guards. After only a few day’s realistic role-playing participants reported it felt as though their old identities had been erased. They had become their numbers. So too had the ‘guards’ taken on their roles – taunting and abusing their prisoners.
Even the lead researcher, Philip Zimbardo, admits he became submerged in his role as the ‘prison superintendent’. In fact, Zimbardo believes the most powerful result of his experiment was his own transformation into a rigid institutional figure, more concerned with his prison’s security than the welfare of his participants.
Other members of the experimental team became engrossed in their new role. Craig Haney, like Zimbardo, explained he became completely engaged in the day-to-day crises they were facing in running the ‘prison’ and forgot about the aim of their experiment.
Playing the roles
It was only when one of his colleagues intervened that the experiment was finally stopped. In total it only lasted six of the planned 14 days. Young men previously found to be pacifists were, in their roles as guards, humiliating and physically assaulting the ‘prisoners’ – some even reported enjoying it. The ‘prisoners’, meanwhile, quickly began to show classic signs of emotional breakdown. Five had to leave the ‘prison’ even before the experiment was prematurely terminated.
The psychological explanation for the participant’s behaviour was that they were taking on the social roles assigned to them. This included adopting the implicit social norms associated with those roles: guards should be authoritarian and abuse prisoners while prisoners should become servile and take their punishment.
Inevitably the experiment has attracted criticism for being unethical, involving a small sample size, lack of ecological validity and so on. Despite this it’s hard to deny that the experiment provides important insights in to human behaviour, perhaps helping to explain the abuses that occurred in situations like the Abu Ghraib Prison.
Does this experiment mirror what occurs in real prisons? Probably. Writing in Inside Rikers: Stories from the World’s Largest Penal Colony Jennifer Wynn interviews prison guards from New York City’s largest penal colony, Rikers Island. One captain explained that guards easily become used to the level of violence inflicted on inmates – it’s part of the job and they soon become immune. Some can’t understand how they become different people at work.
Levels of violence against prisoners were so bad in one unit, called the ‘Central Punitive Segregation Unit’ of Rikers’, that almost a dozen guards were officially charged with assaulting inmates in 1995. Eventually the inmates won $1.6 million dollars in compensation. This is just one example.
Popular culture and the Stanford Prison Experiment
The study is now so well-known it has crossed over into popular culture. It has inspired a novel, Das Experiment by Mario Giordano, which was later filmed, and a new movie by the writer of the Usual Suspects is slated for filming. The experiment has also been covered or recreated in countless TV shows, most notably on the BBC.
Not only this, but the experiment has even inspired the name of a band. ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’ released their first eponymously titled album in 1994, following up a year later with ‘The Gato Hunch’. What other psychology study can say it’s got a band named after it?
Image credit: gluemoos
10 Brilliant Social Psychology Studies
→ This post is part of a series on 10 brilliant social psychology studies:
- The Halo Effect: When Your Own Mind is a Mystery
- How and Why We Lie to Ourselves: Cognitive Dissonance
- War, Peace and the Role of Power in Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment
- Our Dark Hearts: The Stanford Prison Experiment
- Stanley Milgram: Obedience to Authority Or Just Conformity?
- Why We All Stink as Intuitive Psychologists: The False Consensus Effect
- Why Groups and Prejudices Form So Easily: Social Identity Theory
- How to Avoid a Bad Bargain: Don’t Threaten
- Why We Don’t Help Others: Bystander Apathy
- Conforming to the Norm
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3 Ways to Keep Shame From Blocking Deeper Learning
This post is by Kathleen Cushman. Her most recent book, with WKCD colleague Barbara Cervone, is Belonging and Becoming: The Power of Social and Emotional Learning in High Schools (Harvard Education Press).
When students complain to me about their school experiences, sometimes I realize that they are really talking about shame.
They might say, "It was stupid" about a test, or declare, "No one cares" about a classroom activity. But another message often comes across, either in words or in the expressions on their faces. It says, "I couldn't do it" or "I didn't dare."
That sense of shame--just as with anxiety, fear, confusion, and guilt--has the power to stop learning in its tracks. Andrea Chiba, Director of Science at the Temporal Dynamics of Learning Center at the University of California, San Diego, once explained it to me this way: "The organism does not learn if it is threatened."
To young learners, humiliation constitutes a powerful threat to emotional and even physical safety. With the brain focusing on that, not much else gets through.
As I document learning in schools around the country, I now watch closely for the structures and practices their leaders put in place to help students overcome their fears of humiliation, to create a shame-free learning environment, and to build their capacity as deeper learners. In my two posts this week, I'll set out some examples, starting with classroom practices and moving on to whole-school structures.
1. Teach protocols for respectful discourse. "You have to be confident that you won't be criticized for your opinion," said Makayla, describing how her English teacher at East Side Community High School in New York City has students gather seminar-style to analyze a text. That "creates a safe place," Makayla explained. "She doesn't allow people to call people's ideas stupid or like completely disregard your opinion." A classmate added: "But we've also learned how to defend, because it's not enough to just state your opinion. We also have to provide evidence. Like where do you see that? Where do you see that happening?" (Students talk about making argument safe in the video below.)
UPDATED: New video link
2. Prioritize participation. A top priority at Quest Early College High School in Humble, Texas, is that students join in any learning activity without fear of humiliation. At the time of enrollment, students and parents sign a contract agreeing to participate in "open exchanges of ideas, discussions, debates, and class assignments concerning every possible subject matter." Quest's mixed-age advisory groups (known as "family") engage in purposeful play, to build community and trust and to release the tension that comes with high-stakes cultures. They make it safe for students to share their worries, whether it's a conflict with parents, a tendency to procrastinate, or the feeling of being "not smart enough."
3. Assess often and lower the stakes. Frequent classroom quizzes, tests, and short-answer writing prompts provide an opportunity for timely and specific feedback. Grades and scores invite humiliation through comparisons and ranking; some research shows that they actually nullify the impact of substantive comments. Instead, soon after a test, engage the class in reviewing what thinking led to their responses. Both you and the students will gain insight into their thought processes. You can use what you learn in follow-up lessons, and they can reflect and plan on what to do differently next time.
These three examples have to do with classroom practices that reject fear, threat, and humiliation in favor of stretch, reflection, and coaching. (You can find more examples in The Motivation Equation, the e-book that documents my collaboration with the UCSD learning scientists and their advisory panel of master teachers.)
In my next post this week, I'll describe how whole-school structures for performance and promotion can honor--rather than shame--the developmental differences among students that affect the pace of their progress through school.
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Noise from our personal computing can be lowered by many ways. Here's some points that usually aren't discussed much.
- Reduce the amount of computers. Less computers = less noise. For most of us, one is enough. If it's a notebook, you can have your computing environment with you always, and use wireless keyboards/mouse, external or networked storage and 24" lcd or crt or whatever you want at desktop. In light desktop use, many laptops run without fan. Then again some can be very noisy.
- Keep them off/hibernated/in standby when not in use. Computer that's powered off makes 0 db noise
- If you must run a server, you can usually put it to garage or someplace else where the noise doesn't bother, or even better: use a webhotel/other service provider to get rid of the box completely. With virtualization (like the free VMware server) you can run multiple operating systems and servers in one box.
- Lower room ambient temperature. This will help with automatically controlled fans and also lower your heating bill (or make your air conditioning raise your utility bill, depending on your climate). Added bonus: you'll sleep better in 18 degrees celsius than 25.
- If you have multiple rooms and must really have systems running 24/7,
place such systems instead of bedroom to rooms where noise doesn't bother much.
- One hard disk (system disk) per machine is usually enough. If you need more storage for multimedia or whatever, use NAS boxes or fileservers put somewhere where the noise doesn't bother. Performance is lower, but for just storing stuff you don't need that much speed as for system disk. Solid state disk as system (and only) disk will eliminate HDD as noise source.
- Some older components are still powerful enough for most use and power efficient. Added bonus is that they're almost free nowadays. Old P3 boxes don't use much power, and thus it's possible to build systems with just one or two fans. It's recommended to add more memory and faster/larger/more silent hard drive too. Installing modern coolers can be painful though. Additional bonus: saved cash.
- When buying new system, lower end components are usually less power-hungry, and thus easier to silence. Even that in same CPU family CPUs are usually rated at same wattage, lower-end models will use less power, usually directly relative to clock speed.
- Reduce system load: Idle system produce less noise. [email protected]
, folding, prime95 should go if you want to keep the computer more at idle. Use hardware firewall instead of software, they're quite cheap. There's also units integrated with router, adsl modem and wlan. Disable GUI effects. Use firefox with adblock and noscript to block flash on web pages. Disable unnecessary services. Put virus scanner to check only created/modified files with extension list. You can use windows task manager to check most resource hungry tasks (cpu time, memory usage) or top on linux.
- Don't overclock, as same system running on stcck speed would produce less noise. This way you can also use cheaper motherboard and RAM and spend that money on more RAM and possibly silent storage (or beer).
- Make sure you have enough RAM. This will reduce HDD seek noise, as swapping won't occur and modern operating systems will use spare RAM to cache HDD content.
- Spend less time near computers, this is extremely effective if nothing else works
Now some of these things might seem obvious or silly to some of you, while they could be useful to someone else. Nevertheless these methods will reduce the noise you'll experience.
Anyone else got something along these lines?
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MANHIGH II - (Simons)
Responsable institution: U.S. Air Force Aero Medical Field Laboratory
Principal Investigator: Dr. John Paul Stapp
Project Manhigh was a United States Air Force balloon flight program designed to investigate the human factors of space flight by taking men into the stratosphere. Since space is considered a hostile environment, in the middle 50's the Air Force needed to know how humans could survive there and sought to discover more of the design principles for space capsules and how to study men and their reactions when in space. The collection of such data would permit intelligent planning of future space flight experiments.
Dr. John P. Stapp, who was then chief of the Aeromedical Field Laboratory, Air Force Missile Development Center, had approved the project at the local level and forwarded it through channels to obtain the necessary headquarters approval. Dr. David G. Simons of the Aeromedical Field Laboratory, was appointed the Air Force Project Officer.
Contracts for the construction of the balloon and capsule, the balloon training of the pilots and the launch support were let to Winzen Research Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota. Planning was jointly conducted by Holloman AFB and Winzen personnel.
As the Air Force has always considered safety to be paramount, before men were allowed to ascend in the capsule, there were six unmanned flights to test all portions of the system. Also the pilot went trought a hard preparation including a parachute jump, a 24 hour claustrophobia test in the capsule, and numerous ground tests using the capsule climate control system, including a test in the high-altitude, low-temperature test chamber at Wright Air Development Center (now Wright-Patterson AFB).
The capsule used in the project was basically the same with some improvements from flight to flight (click over the top image to see a detail of it). It was an aluminum-alloy, hermetically-sealed unit 8 feet high and 3 feet in diameter, with hemispherically-shaped ends. The capsule was supported in an upright position by a tubular aluminum structure with various expendable equipment attached. This structure was especially designed to serve as a shock-absorbing system during landing operations. The capsule shell was constructed of three separate sections hermetically sealed together by two circumferential clamps. The turret casting, with six portholes, was the load-carrying member for almost all the internal structure and equipment.
The capsule was attached to an open, 40.4 foot extended skirt parachute with six suspension fittings positioned circumferentially around the turret casing. The parachute was, in turn, attached to the balloon by a stabilizing suspension system to retard any capsule oscillations during the flight.
The internal pressure of the capsule was the equivalent to that of 26,000 feet, line oxygen for the pilot's breathing and for cabin pressurization was provided by a 5-liter liquid oxygen converter and a 205-cubic-inch, high-pressure bottle. An emergency 90-cubic-inch bailout supply was installed in the personal parachute harness worn by the pilot. The sealed atmosphere in the capsule was chemically treated to remove carbon dioxide and moisture, and an external water evaporation cooling system was used to maintain the capsule temperature at a comfortable level.
Electrical and communications equipment was primarily installed inside the capsule. The main exception was the lead acid battery power supply. The batteries, mounted on the lower undercarriage ring and equipped with individual parachutes, were used as ballast when expended. In addition to the battery ballast, fine control was made possible by dropping steel shot through a metering valve mounted below the ballast container.
Manhigh II used the same capsule configuration as that of Manhigh I, with some changes about from data obtained from the first flight. The pilot of Manhigh I had complained about the relatively low level of illumination inside the capsule at altitude. The Manhigh II capsule, therefore, represented the first attempt at astrochromatics, the interior decoration of a space ship. The upper hemisphere was painted white on the inside over-layer of insulation material. The various emergency controls were color-coded, as were the portholes and instrument panels.
Pastel colors of restful hues were chosen to generate a feeling of a pleasant, cheerful surrounding. Tests showed the illumination resulting from the white hemisphere in Manhigh II was roughly three times as high as that resulting from the light blue surface used in the Manhigh I upper hemisphere. The balloon vehicle used for the Manhigh II flight represented the largest plastic balloon in production at that time. It had a volume in excess of three million cubic feet and at ceiling altitude reached a diameter of 200.2 feet. It was constructed of 1.5 mil gage (0.0015 inch) polyethylene.
The pilot's seat was the first operational application of an integrated body support system for the achievement and maintenance of optimum comfort and accommodation over an extended period of time.
Special instrumentation was added as required by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale for the purpose of establishing an official world's altitude record, and also was fitted out with a five-inch telescope for astronomical observations, another noteworthy new item of equipment.
This second flight included a battery of at least twenty-five distinct scientific experiments to be performed involving everything from physical data on the upper atmosphere to whatever psychological reactions the pilot might wish to transcribe on the capsule's tape recorder. The most important single scientific instrument was Major Simons himself. He was subjected to complete physical examination in order to establish a basis of comparison with his post-flight physical condition. This included blood and urine samples to be compared with post-flight samples. Photographic plates were taped to his arms and chest to record the impact of cosmic ray particles in an effort to determine if they would have adverse effects on the pilot. Instrumentation also recorded his pulse and respiration rates.
Dr. Simons almost had a copilot on his flight; at one point it had been decided to send up a monkey in the capsule, not so much to keep Dr. Simons company, but to provide another cosmic radiation test subject. The monkey had already been selected and shipped to Wright Air Development Center for a final chamber test of the capsule. However, at this point, Dr. Stapp grounded the monkey and Dr. Simons went up solo.
Details of the balloon flight and scientific outcome
Launch site: Portsmouth Mine, Crosby, Minnesota, US
Balloon launched by: Winzen Inc. / HAFB
Balloon manufacturer/size/composition: Zero Pressure Balloon Winzen - 3.000.000 cuft
This was the second flight of the program and was piloted by Major David Simons, at the time was part of the Aeromedical Field Laboratory, and also was the Air Force Project Officer for project MANHIGH.
The mission started at 22.00 CDT on 18 August 1957 when Simons seated in the capsule at the Winzen Research Inc. plant in Minneapolis. After completion of the checklist, the capsule with the pilot inside was lifted into the air and lowered into its shell at 23:45. The usual cap of dry ice was placed on top of the capsule for cooling purposes, and the process of elimination of nitrogen from the atmosphere was begun. Then, at 00:37 on 19 August 1957, the capsule was loaded on the back of a truck for the 150 mile trip from the Winzen plant to the launch site at a deep open pit iron mine at Crosby, Minnesota.
At 5.00 the truck, capsule, and pilot arrived at the pit. The pilot reported that he had managed to obtain only brief naps during the five hour trip to the pit because the combination of dry ice and the cool night air had created an uncomfortably cold environment in the capsule Also Simons was soaking wet under his pressure suit, so it was even more uncomfortable.
During the launch preparations a reefing sleeve, which tightly sheathed the uninflated part of the balloon to protect loose folds from being caught by the wind, malfunctioned. When the balloon was inflated and was ready for launch, the upper band of the reefing sleeve tore loose and was binding the balloon 30 feet above its bottom. This problem was resolved by Vera Winzen (Otto Winzen's wife) who climbed a ladder supported solely by ropes and cut the band with her scissors. At the launch time a slight wind had come up, so it was necessary for the launch crew to walk the capsule and balloon to one side of the pit to ensure it would clear the sides of it after release.
Moving the balloon worked, and a successful launch was accomplished at 9:22. The balloon ascended at a rate of 1,200 feet per minute and, after valving some gas an slowly ascent rate of 1,000 feet per minute was attained. Dr. Simons took pictures and readings and, as the balloon ascended, the chilled capsule became colder. The pilot's cold fingers led to an interruption in the planned schedule of events and also he was unable to operate the tape recorder from 8:15 until 10:15, so valuable comments by Simons were lost.
Two hours and 18 minutes after launch, the balloon reached its 100,000 foot ceiling. Simons made numerous observations, took photographs, and recorded data. One of the data items recorded was the capsule temperature. The side of the capsule facing the sun was warm, while the side away from the sun was cold. Portholes on the shadow side of the capsule exhibited moisture condensation, and those on the sunlit side remained clear. In addition, ice that had accumulated on the inside surface of the dome was melting, allowing the water to drip on Simons and on much of the instrumentation and throwing an additional load on the air regeneration system desiccants.
At 16:30, the balloon started to lose altitude because of the decrease in the warming effects from the sun. In the meantime, internal capsule temperature had risen. A radio conference between the ground command Post and Dr. Simons resulted in the decision to remain airborne all night. At 16:50 the sun set and the pilot viewed the spectacular sight of thunderheads illuminated from within by lightning. The balloon started descending more rapidly than anticipated, so ballast was released.
Simon's knew he had to remain above the storm clouds or the balloon would be torn to pieces. The temperature in the capsule dropped to 55 degrees F by 2:30, and Simons felt cold and clammy. He spent about 30 minutes in an intense, patient effort to get into his thermal suit, which he did slowly and carefully to avoid sending thermal shocks to the brittle balloon above him. Then, after making observations at about 3:10 Simons fell asleep. When he awoke, the capsule was rotating, an indication that it was changing altitude. The altimeter revealed that the descent rate was too great and the balloon was approaching thunderheads. More batteries were dropped and the balloon began to rise again.
At 6:50, the sun broke across the horizon, providing the sight of a green flash and causing the gas in the balloon to heat and expand which raised it to a higher altitude.
After eating and obtaining the required data, Simons noted the capsule internal temperature had gone from near freezing to 55 degrees F so he removed his thermal clothing. The pilot and the ground crew became aware that it was taking an excessively long time to him to obtain readings, and these were prone to error. A check of the level of carbon dioxide revealed it was high, at four percent, so Dr. Simons went on pressure suit oxygen and resolved the problem.
The flight was originally expected to drift westward to the area of Miles City, Montana, but as movement was slower than anticipated the balloon never got beyond the eastern part of the Dakotas. Also the flight was supposed to endure 24 hours but finally dragged on almost a half day longer, as Major Simons in his balloon capsule and tracking parties on the ground looked for a suitable opening in the clouds through which to descend.
Descent was initiated at 11:04 by valving off helium. During the descent, Simons noted an uncomfortable feeling just below the shoulder on his right arm. He later discovered that the telescope mirror was adjusted at the precise angle to catch the sun, and the image was focused on his right arm. Fortunately, the pressure suit avoided burning.
After stowing all equipment and preparing for landing, Simons was ready to release the balloon after the capsule touched down. The force of landing threw his arm into his lap, and since the jettison switch was operated with an upward motion, the capsule was dragged a few hundred feet along an alfalfa field before balloon separation. The landing spot was near Frederick, in northeast South Dakota. Simons released the top of the capsule and crawled out at 17:32. Though tired, having had only brief snatches of sleep, Major Simons emerged from the ordeal in good shape.
The flight had lasted thirty-two hours and ten minutes, but Simons had actually been forty-four hours in the capsule, including the time spent in it before launch. During this flight, Simon's balloon achieved a world's altitude free balloon record of 101,516 feet (30,942 meters). For this achievement, he was awarded a certificate from the Federation Aeronautique Internationale. In 1962 Simons wrote a book about his experience entitled MANHIGH.
Simons retired from the Air Force in 1965 as a Lieutenant Colonel and turned his attention to another line of research - the diagnosis and treatment of myofascial pain. He co-authored ''The Trigger Point Manual'', the first definitive textbook on the diagnosis and management of myofascial pain. Dr. Simons went on to author more than 200 publications about trigger points and chronic pain management and became an internationally recognized authority on the subject.
He passed away on April 5, 2010 at his home in Covington, Georgia, USA
External references and bibliographical sources
- Touching Space: The history of the project MANHIGH a Book wich offers the most comprehensive history of the project by Gregory Kennedy
- 50th anniversary of a forgotten space mission: Project Manhigh at The Space Review Magazine
- Colour pictures of the balloon launch taken by Bernard Thomas Johnson
- David G. Simons profile International Space Hall of Fame :: New Mexico Museum of Space History
- David Simons Obituary by Gregory Kennedy
- History of research in Space Biology and Biodynamics 1946-1958 Air Force Missile Development Center, Holloman AFB, New Mexico (1958)
- MANHIGH a book wrote by David G. Simons at Amazon
- Manhigh II balloon flight Stratocat's channel on Youtube
- Manhigh Project Capsule on exhibition National Museum of the Air Force
- Project Man High - David Simons, the father of radiobiology Duane Graveline web site
- Simons experienced isolation in space Holloman AFB website
- Space Pioneer TIME Magazine - Sep. 2, 1957
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The WWF in the UK has called on the government to take swift action to establish further marine protected areas to help dolphins.
The conservation charity made its comments following new European legislation that allows for the designation of areas of ‘key natural value’.
The network of sites, known as Natura 2000, can include areas of land or water. The first offshore site has just been unveiled.
Marine Special Areas of Conservation, as they are also known, are set up to protect natural phenomena such as reefs, lagoons or intertidal areas. Innovative conservation methods are employed to ensure that such areas are not over-fished, or polluted by shipping traffic or waste disposal, and so provide places where dolphins can thrive.
But WWF believe the measure is far from adequate. Without strengthening and expansion, it will serve only to hasten the destruction of Britain's marine wildlife, they say. WWF’s main concern is that the sites selected do not represent the full breadth of biodiversity in UK waters, so that many other precious sites will continue be exposed to over-fishing and oil development. Currently, only 1% of EU oceans are protected by law. WWF would like to see this percentage massively increased.
Natasha Barker, Senior Marine Policy Officer for WWF UK, said: “The UK’s proposals are but a drop in the ocean and are insufficient to fully protect our seas and the rich biodiversity they support. We need the UK Government to fulfil its duty to create a network of marine protected areas, otherwise many marine species and habitats will remain at risk. Further sites are needed to contribute to the Natura 2000 network but we also need the UK Marine and Coastal Access Bill to be strong enough to fill any gaps and ensure a healthy marine environment. WWF is calling for an ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas which represents the full range of biodiversity in UK waters.”
One of the creatures that is particularly at risk is the dolphin – an animal WWF has long worked to protect. WWF have asked that breeding grounds in Scotland and England be added to the list of the UK’s Natura 2000 sites. This will help to ensure the strength of bottlenose dolphin and harbour porpoise populations.
If you would like to support the work of WWF, you can help by adopting a dolphin. This can be done for as little as £3 a month. In return you will receive:
• A soft toy of your selected animal
• A certificate
• A print of your animal
• A greetings card
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API Links you to ...
News on pregnancy (reduce your risk of C-section),
infancy (make your baby smarter through touch),
childhood (keep your child from becoming a bully),
adolescence (keep your child from smoking),
all the way through the teen years into adulthood (expect to have your children around for a long time).
A Mother's Touch Can Improve Cognitive Function and Stress Resilience
For an infant, a mother's touch provides a feeling of security, comfort and love. But research at UC Irvine is showing that it does much more. Caressing and other sensory input triggers activity in a baby's developing brain that improves cognitive function and builds resilience to stress. "What's noteworthy about this study is that it reveals that brain structure is influenced by the environment early in life, and especially by maternal care," says researchers.
Help Further Research on Adult Attachment
Adult attachment has been found to be strongly associated with child psychological, socio-emotional, and behavioral outcomes. Currently, the only measurement of adult attachment that has been proven reliable in this area can often cost $400-$700 per person to administer; this is money that most child advocacy agencies do not have. Researchers are working to develop a low-cost measurement of adult attachment to eventually be made available to agencies that advocate for child welfare and safety. There are many uses for such a questionnaire, such as: a) helping place at-risk children (e.g., abused, neglected, diagnosed) with safe and nurturing parents, b) potentially reducing the number of failed adoption placements, c) protecting children from at-risk adults, and d) screening foster/adoptive families to reduce the possibility of abuse and/or neglect.
Learn more about this research opportunity by contacting L. Brooks McKenzie or going directly to the survey site.
How Not to Raise a Bully: The Early Roots of Empathy
Increasingly, neuroscientists, psychologists and educators believe that bullying and other kinds of violence can indeed be reduced by encouraging empathy at an early age. Over the past decade, research in empathy--the ability to put ourselves in another person's shoes--has suggested that it is key, if not the key, to all human social interaction and morality.
Parental Involvement Is Key to Preventing Child Bullying
Communities across the United States are developing programs to address child bullying. New research shows that parents can play an important role in preventing their children from becoming bullies in the first place.
"Communicative Fathers" Help Reduce Teenage Smoking
Children who talk to their fathers about the issues that are important to them are less likely to take up smoking during early adolescence, a new study has found.
Give That Special Father the Recognition He Deserves!
Want to prepare early for Father's Day and give that special father in your life a gift to last? Did Mother's Day flash by so fast that you missed the chance to give a cherished present? Do you want to remedy that in a memorable way? Come look at API's unique and lasting gift packages we have available for Mother's and Father's Day. Give a gift that's not only memorable but also meaningful!
The Slow, Winding Path to Adulthood: Flashback to the 1900s?
Many a parent believes that their children are growing up too fast. Eight is the new 12, and 12 is the new 18. Today's middle schoolers dress like adults, know how to swear like adults, are exposed to drugs, and reach puberty earlier than we ever did. But then, they stop. And reverse. One study finds that "despite living in an age of iPads and hybrid cars, young Americans are more like the young adults of the early 1900s than the baby-boom generation: They are living at home longer, are financially insecure, and are making lower wages."
When the Ties That Bind Unravel
Therapists for years have listened to patients blame parents for their problems. Now there is growing interest in the other side of the story: What about the suffering of parents who are estranged from their adult children?
API Live--The Gift of Being a Flawed Parent:
How to Use Our Mistakes, Fears and Anger to Raise Kids with Big Hearts, Emotional Security, and Inner Resilience, with author Lu Hanessian, Founder of Parent2ParentU
Have we got a teleseminar for you! Don't miss this month's API Live on May 24th!
On this call, API founders Lysa Parker and Barbara Nicholson talk with Lu about how:
--our "flaws" are actually pathways to raising resilient, secure, connected kids;
--without an awareness of how our story drives our fears, our kids re-enact it;
--without self-understanding and empathy, parents then tend to manage rather than engage, control rather than connect, in a chronic practice of "defensive parenting";
--we can turn our old wounds to new wisdom and free our kids from repeating our stories;
--the gift of our anger, fear, doubt, chaos, anxiety, struggles, and conflicts is that they can shed compassionate light on our old wounds and we can use this light to "heal" our inner conflicts, and pave our path for ourselves and our kids; and
--doing this paving work "keeps our light on" ... and our children's light on, and teaches them the power of forgiveness, humility, and humanity.
Working at Home: Family-Friendly?
Our lives were supposed to be more flexible and family-friendly thanks to the technology at our fingertips. But in this age of BlackBerrys and recession pressures and working from home after hours and on weekends, family time may not be working out the way we thought.
Test Leads to Needless C-Sections
A 2006 analysis found that fetal heart monitoring failed to reduce the risk of a baby's dying late in pregnancy, during birth, or shortly after birth--and increased cesarean section rates and forceps deliveries, compared with listening to a baby's heart rate intermittently.
The Danger of Pharmaceuticals
In April 2005, Rani Jamieson gave birth to a healthy baby boy, Tariq. She was given Tylenol #3, a medication containing acetaminophen and codeine, for postpartum pain. She took two pills twice a day, less than the prescribed amount, and cut this dose in half two days later after experiencing fatigue and constipation. She was told it was safe to take this medication while breastfeeding, and did so. On his 13th day of life, Tariq died.
We Have All You Need Right in Our Store!
Visit our online store today to find invaluable resources to support you and your family on your AP journey.
We have two new books:
The Warmest Place of All, by Licia Rando and illustrated by Anne Jewett, is a lovely children's book (ages 4-8). Sophie discovers that true warmth and comfort is found in the abundance of family love.
The Five Love Languages of Children, by Gary Chapman and Ross Campbell, MD, will help you understand how you can most effectively communicate unconditional love, respect, and commitment in ways that resonate with your particular child.
These books are just the newest examples of quality Attachment Parenting products available for purchase through the API Store. Please stop by today!
Join Us As We Read Our Founders' Book
We're beginning to read Attached at the Heart by Barbara Nicholson and Lysa Parker, and we have a special running just for this occasion! (Wow! Check out the sale price!) Don't miss out on the opportunity! We'll be reading Attached at the Heart for the months of May, June, and July. Take the opportunity to read about the Eight Principles of Parenting, backed up by scientific data, that are presented in their book, as well as additional resources to further your research in the principle of interest. We truly look forward to joining the discussion with you.
To Tackle Childhood Obesity, Focus More on Pregnancy and Infancy
Childhood obesity campaigns such as First Lady Michelle Obama's "Let's Move" program are good, but they may not be enough to truly stem the tide of obesity.
Simple, Low-Cost Steps Enhance Adolescents' Health
Simple, low-cost measures such as wearing a pedometer to inspire walking and spending a few minutes a day meditating can put adolescents on the track toward better health, researchers report.
What Parents Say about Family Vacations
You need a vacation now more than ever, and you shouldn't feel the least bit guilty. In fact, you've got lots of company, according to a new family-travel poll. The majority of the 1,100 people who responded said that vacations are as important now as they were before the recession, and nearly one-fourth of respondents said vacations are more important now.
API in the News!
API Comments on Baby Sling Safety
The recall of 1 million Infantino baby slings following three infant suffocation deaths may have some parents questioning whether baby-wearing is safe. But baby-wearing and breastfeeding experts say the practice not only can be done safely, but it also makes for happier, healthier babies.
Slings Still Have Place for Parents Despite Recall
"My thought when I heard Wednesday that Infantino was recalling more than 1 million baby slings because of concerns about suffocation: Why didn't they do this earlier?"
Just for Fun ...
How Babies Are Delivered
Scroll down to the Humour section; then click on "How Babies Are Delivered." Oh, were it that easy ...
Clap, Baby, Clap!
A researcher in Israel conducted the first study of hand-clapping songs, revealing a direct link between those activities and the development of important skills in children and young adults, including university students.
Need Ideas on How to Keep the "Play" Factor in Your Family This Summer?
Check out these ten great ideas, including a laugh-off and beach ball golf!
API's 2010 Blog Carnival Continues!
Are you a blogger? Join the carnival! API Speaks, Attachment Parenting International's blog, begins its series of blog carnivals. These carnivals will center on API's Principles of Parenting. Interested? Here's the schedule:
June: Ensure Safe Sleep, Physically and Emotionally
(Deadline for submission: 06-11; Carnival date: 06-18)
July: Provide Consistent and Loving Care
(Deadline for submission: 07-09; Carnival date: 07-16)
August: Practice Positive Discipline
(Deadline for submission: 08-13; Carnival date: 08-20)
September: Strive for Balance in Personal and Family Life
(Deadline for submission: 09-10; Carnival date: 09-17)
October: October is Attachment Parenting Month so we'll be hosting an AP Month-themed carnival this month. Details will follow as AP Month 2010 nears.
May is all about Mom and Mother's Day! And while we moms aren't perfect--after all, what child would want a perfect parent? (see Lu's teleseminar)--it's comforting to know that our instincts are spot on.
So many of us have found ourselves swimming against mainstream parenting advice and having to defend our choices. How refreshing to find that the research is finally catching up with us!
These days I find myself smiling more and more frequently, as time and time again I stumble across research that confirms what AP parents already know--that our instincts and the API Principles of Parenting are right on the money.
This month's Links is chock-full of just such research--and information you can use to improve your life today!
You can even help further research into adult attachment!
Finally, see how babies are really delivered in our Just for Fun section (located at the bottom of this newsletter).
And let's not forget about June--Dad's month. Next month's Links will be all about how important fathers are in their children's lives. Too often Dad's role gets overshadowed by Mom's, but often their influence is just as important--and sometimes even moreso--than Mom's.
Please let us know what you like and what you don't about Links; contact us.
Alice Miller, Psychoanalyst and Author, Dies at Age 87
Alice Miller, 87, a European psychoanalyst whose influential book The Drama of the Gifted Child brought new attention to the long-term consequences of child abuse, died April 14 at her home in Provence, in southern France. Her book was originally published in the United States as Prisoners of Childhood in 1981 and sold more than 1 million copies. Jargon-free and easy to read, it was credited with sending a generation of readers on a quest to confront the past. It also convinced countless parents that spanking or screaming at their children--or quietly humiliating them--could have serious consequences.
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By: Gurjit Rai, Brent Vivier, and Danielle Letkeman
Who: North and South Vietnam, America and
the Soviet Union.
What: After the rise of Ho Chi Minh and his
communist Viet Minh party in North Vietnam,
and an intense Cold War between two global
superpowers: the United States and the
Soviet Union, war broke out against South
Vietnam in efforts to inflict communism upon
all of Vietnam.
The Containment Policy and the Cold War
would be the driving reason why the USA
would get involved in the Indochina War
At the time of the containment policy there was
already a war underway in South Asia, The Indochina
War. French colonists had conquered Cambodia, Laos
and Vietnam. French Colonists had established almost
complete control of Vietnam when the ICP
(Indochinese Communist Party) was created by Ho Chi
Minh in 1930 after WW1 (Willbanks 2013).
This domination by Colonial France caused the roots
of Vietnamese nationalism and resistance.
1940’s- Ho and the ICP eventually waged full warfare
on the French and eventually leading to war on the
Americans as well. This was known as the first
When North Vietnam attacked US destroyers in August of 1964, the Americans
retaliated by strategically launching their own series of attacks on North
Vietnamese ammo bases and oil fields.
After these multiple attacks came the Tonkin Gulf Resolution which gave the US
army authority to deal with communist attacks anyway they see fit (Willbanks
The Tonkin Gulf incidents were seen as a turning point for the Americans. Not
only did it conclude with several North Vietnamese coastal base air raids but, it
resulted in the first deployment ground troops in South Vietnam In March 1965
(Willbanks 2013) . They were sent to protect US coastal bases.
Operation Rolling Thunder!
Some sources state that the events in the Tonkin Gulf were not as dramatic as the
US army reported. There is controversy if the majority of the attacks against the
US ships even happened due to communication issues (Willbanks 2013).
My Lai Massacre
March 16, 1968
504 civilians killed
Perpetrators: US Army
Viet Cong thought to be hiding in My Lai
Dak Son Massacre
December 6, 1967
252 civilians killed
Viet Cong vengeance attack on anti-communist
Differences between terrorism and warfare
Laws of war
Civilians and non-combatants not deliberately targeted
“Once a terrorist, is not always a terrorist. Yet the opposite is
also true: once a soldier, is not always a soldier.”
Terrorism and Politics
Revolutionary terrorism (activities aimed at philosophical
and political nature of government)
Reactionary terrorism (activities concerned with
preventing societal and governmental changes)
This was a plan to strike all the major cities within south
Vietnam, they had some victories in the beginning, but
they lost a lot more when the US and South Vietnam
With media being more readily available for reporters,
news of the US soldiers causing massacres in the name of
fighting the viet cong came to light in the United states.
This caused massive protests across the US and across the
world and under this pressure President Nixon put into
place the plan “Vietnamization” , this was a plan to slowly
reduce the soldiers in Vietnam but at the same time help
reinforce South Vietnamese army with giving them arms.
With the US forces pulling
out, and giving less and
less financial aid and not
providing as many arms to
the forces of South
Vietnam, it was evident
that the south was going to
loose to the north.
In January of 1973 the Paris
peace accord was signed
and this ended any direct
US military involvement in
With the Americans not being allowed to be
directly involved in the war the Viet Cong
continued to attack major cities, and when
they attacked the capital city of Saigon which
was the capital of south Vietnam and were
able to takeover the central buildings and had
the NLF(nation liberation force) flag waiving
from the Presidential palace in Saigon
Willbanks, James H., ed. The Vietnam War: The Essential Reference Guide. Santa Barbara: Library of Congress
Cataloging-In-Publication Data, 2013. Pages 15-19.
P. Schmid Alex (2004) Frameworks for Conceptualising Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence, 16:2, 197-221,
The VN Center Archive. (n.d). Dak Son Massacre. Retrieved from http://vnafmamn.com/VNWar_atrocities.html
Feltz, J. (1967). Dak Son burned huts after VC attack [Online image]. Retrieved October 13, 2013 from
BBC News. (1998). Murder in the name of war – My Lai. Retrieved from
Everett. (2013). Young Victim of Dak Son Massacre [Online image]. Retrieved October 13, 2013 from
[Untitled illustration of My Lai Massacre]. Retrieved October 13, 2013 from
[Untitled illustration of woman and gun]. Retrieved October 13, 2013 from
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Book review: Teaching Mathematics with ICT, written by Adrian Oldknow and Ron Taylor, Continuum Press, 2000,
ISBN 0-8264-4806-2 (pbk).
MicroMath, 18, (1), .
This book aims to provide practical advice on ways of using ICT to improve pupils' learning in mathematics. It covers the use of spreadsheets, TI Interactive, Derive, Logo, dynamic geometry software, and graphing calculators. The book is primarily aimed at teachers of mathematics in the secondary age-range, although teachers working outside this age-range should find plenty of food for thought. It is a book that should certainly appeal to mathematics teachers. It is not an easy book with instant answers but a book that will reward working with over time.
||Teaching Mathematics with ICT
Adrian Oldknow and Ron Taylor
Published by Continuum Publishing
(published 2000, paperback ISBN 0-8264-4806-2)
||teaching, learning, pedagogy, curriculum, ICT, IT, computers, mathematics, spreadsheets, TI Interactive, Derive, Logo, dynamic geometry, DGS, DGE, graphing, graphics, calculators, teachers, secondary school, high school
||L Education > LB Theory and practice of education > LB2361 Curriculum
L Education > LB Theory and practice of education
L Education > L Education (General)
||University Structure - Pre August 2011 > School of Education > Professional Practice & Pedagogy
||23 Aug 2006
||31 Mar 2016 12:12
Actions (login required)
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THE LAST YEARS.
The story of the remainder of Mr. Webster’s public life, outside of and apart from the slavery question, can be quickly told. General Taylor died suddenly on July 9, 1850, and this event led to an immediate and complete reorganization of the cabinet. Mr. Fillmore at once offered the post of Secretary of State to Mr. Webster, who accepted it, resigned his seat in the Senate, and, on July 23, assumed his new position. No great negotiation like that with Lord Ashburton marked this second term of office in the Department of State, but there were a number of important and some very complicated affairs, which Mr. Webster managed with the wisdom, tact, and dignity which made him so admirably fit for this high position.
The best-known incident of this period was that which gave rise to the famous “Huelsemann letter.” President Taylor had sent an agent to Hungary to report upon the condition of the revolutionary government, with the intention of recognizing it if there were sufficient grounds for doing so. When the agent arrived, the revolution was crushed, and he reported to the President against recognition. These papers were transmitted to the Senate in March, 1850. Mr. Huelsemann, the Austrian charge, thereupon complained of the action of our administration, and Mr. Clayton, then Secretary of State, replied that the mission of the agent had been simply to gather information. On receiving further instructions from his government, Mr. Huelsemann rejoined to Mr. Clayton, and it fell to Mr. Webster to reply, which
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A recent report from The Royal College of Psychiatrists of London detailed the problems of unrecognized alcohol misuse among the elderly and the importance of identifying and treating seniors misusing alcohol and drugs. Following the report’s release, experts from the Boston University Medical Center offered additional information to present a more comprehensive overview about alcohol intake by the elderly. They point out that in general very elderly people, especially those with chronic diseases, lower muscle mass or a poor diet for instance, may be more sensitive to the effects of alcohol, however they add, in moderation, drinking has benefits that shouldn’t be ignored.
One of the problems in the British report is the recommendation of "sensible limits" for drinking among people over 65 in comparison with younger people. The BU team explains that the International Forum on Alcohol Research scientific reviewers pointed out how difficult it is to come up with guidelines geared only to age since in the over 65 group individuals can vary from marathon runners to very sick, frail people.
It’s important to keep in mind the benefits of moderate drinking. It can play an important role in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease, ischemic stroke, diabetes, dementia and osteoporosis. Say the experts at BU, advising healthy people aged 65 years or older who are moderate, responsible drinkers to stop drinking or to markedly reduce their intake would not be in their best health interests, especially in terms of their risk of cardiovascular diseases. Because the risk for cardiovascular diseases notably increases with age, the beneficial or protective effect of light to moderate drinking on cardiovascular diseases is actually greater in the elderly than in younger people.
There is also growing evidence that the risk of Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia is lower among moderate drinkers than among abstainers—these neurodegenerative disorders are key causes of disability and death among elderly people. Regular dietary intake of flavonoid-rich foods and/or beverages (like red wine) has been associated with a 50 percent reduction in the risk of dementia, a preservation of cognitive performance, a delay in the onset of Alzheimer's disease and a reduction in the risk of developing Parkinson's disease.
On a day to day level, some scientific data shows that quality of life is better and total mortality is lower among moderate drinkers than among abstainers—one study demonstrated that regular moderate alcohol consumption increases life span and quality of life for men up to 80 years of age and for women indefinitely.
In another study of almost 25,000 Americans over age 65, those was said they had between 8 and 14 drinks a week did not differ significantly in their characteristics from drinkers consuming 1 to 7 drinks a week, though it’s important to note that heavier drinkers and binge drinkers did not do as well.
The BU statement concluded that since the absolute effects of moderate drinking on cardiovascular disease are much greater in older people than in younger adults, the current limitations on alcohol intake for the elderly may not be appropriate and attempting to persuade elderly people who currently drink moderately, especially healthy moderate and responsible drinkers, to decrease their current intake may not be advisable or in their best health interests.
If you or a loved one are concerned about the amount of alcohol being consumed, keep a record of daily intake over the course of two weeks and talk to your doctor about the totals and about your quality of life and outlook—moderate drinking can be protective, but if the drinking is heavy and could be masking depression or feelings of isolation, those issues need to be addressed.
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Beyond Stereotypes: Poverty in the LGBT Community
By Brad Sears and Lee Badgett
Published by TIDES | Momentum
Issues 4, June 2012
Some LGBT people are poor. In fact, after controlling for a number of factors associated with poverty, rates for LGB adults are higher than for heterosexual adults.
This fact should not be surprising. After all, LGBT people are born into all types of families, including those who are poor. LGBT people face the same socio-economic challenges that other people who share their sex, race, ethnicity, age, and disability face. But they also face unique obstacles because of their sexual orientation and gender identity. These include a higher risk of being homeless when they are young, harassment and discrimination at school and at workplace, and being denied the economic benefits of marriage.
To envision the LGBT poor, you only have to think about the young gay man who is kicked out of his home and ends up at the Greyhound Bus Station in Hollywood; the transgender woman being turned down in job interview after job interview for entry level jobs; or an elderly lesbian whose partner’s death means less social security income and possibly the loss of her home.
However, LGBT poverty remains surprising because these are not the dominant images of the community, and stereotypes remain resilient. Most directly implicated is the myth of affluence that historically has been pinned on several marginalized communities, including Jews and Asian-Pacific Islanders. However, for LGBT people, this stereotype rests on a number of other ones. For many, when they think about LGBT people, they envision gay, white, young men who do not have children. Think “Will” on Will & Grace. Breaking down that dominant image provides both an understanding of LGBT poverty and the work and coalitions needed to address it:
Women. There are approximately 9 million LGBT people in the United States, and almost half of these are lesbian and bisexual women. In addition to facing sexual orientation discrimination, these women also face sex discrimination in education and the workplace and the persistent wage gap in the US. Twenty-four percent of lesbians and bisexual women are poor, compared with only 19% of heterosexual women. (It’s not that gay and bisexual men aren’t poor, but their poverty rates are roughly equal (13%) to those of heterosexual men.)
People of Color. According to a Williams Institute analysis of Census 2000 data, almost one in five members of same-sex couples in the United States are people of color, and one in eight are Latino/a. Like people of color more generally, LGBT people of color are more likely to live in poverty. For example, African-American same-sex couples are significantly more likely to be poor than African-American married heterosexual counterparts and are roughly three times more likely to live in poverty than white same-sex couples.
The Young and the Old. LGBT people are of all ages, and the young and the old are particularly economically vulnerable. An estimated 1.6 million youth in the U.S. experience homelessness each year, and research suggests that between 20% and 40% of them identify as LGBT. Among members of same-sex couples in the United States, 7% are 65 years of age or older and 28% are disabled. Nearly 6% of individuals in same-sex couples receive Medicaid or other government assistance for those with low incomes or a disability.
Parents and Children. Approximately 17% of same-sex couples are raising their “own” children. Williams Institute research has consistently shown that children of same-sex couples have poverty rates twice those of children in heterosexual married couple households. For these families, being denied the legal protections and economic safeguards provided to married couples and parents and children could contribute to higher poverty rates.
Transgender People. According to the National Transgender Discrimination Survey, transgender people are four times as likely to have a household income under $10,000 and twice as likely to be unemployed as the typical person in the U.S. Ninety percent of those surveyed reported experiencing harassment, mistreatment, or discrimination on the job. Almost one in five reported being homeless at some point in their lives.
While these are among the most economically vulnerable within the LGBT community , they, of course, are not discrete groups. Those who lie at the intersections face even greater economic challenges. For example African-American lesbians have the highest rates of poverty among same-sex couples, and the National Transgender Discrimination Survey found that transgender people of color had an unemployment rate of four times the national average.
Understanding the diversity within the LGBT community is both the key to breaking down the myth of affluence and to beginning to understand where and how to combat LGBT poverty. It also points to a network of progressive collations, among women, people of color, the young and the old, parents, and LGBT people, who must all work together to fight poverty. Work focused on just one, or even a few, of these groups will not produce a solution that will work for any single group or that will address poverty as a whole.
Brad Sears is the Executive Director of the Roberta A. Conroy Scholar of Law and Policy and The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law. Lee Badgett is the Research Director at The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law and the Professor of Economics & Director, Center for Public Policy & Administration University of Massachusetts Amherst Gordon Hall.
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Because severe weather can threaten the lives and property of Minnesotans at any time, Governor Mark Dayton has proclaimed April 15 through 19 as Severe Weather Awareness Week. Houston County will mark this important week with two severe weather alert siren tests on Thursday, April 18 at 1:45 and 6:55 p.m.
Since 2000 disasters have claimed the lives of 21 Minnesotans and caused more than $373 million in federally declared damages. Houston County has been included in four of these declared disasters.
“It takes the whole community to prepare for, respond to and recover from tornadoes, straight-line winds, floods and heat waves,” said Deputy Kurt Kuhlers, Houston County Emergency Management director.
“We hope all residents will take time during this week to re-assess their personal emergency plans and supplies.”
Houston County partners with the National Weather Service and various state agencies to present comprehensive life saving information on websites. Each day of Severe Weather Awareness Week is devoted to a specific topic to help keep Minnesota ready.
Monday – alerts and warnings
• Today’s technology is providing notification about approaching severe weather more than ever. The HSEM website has information explaining the new wireless emergency alerts that provide tornado warnings on cell phones.
• Learn when and why your community sounds its outdoor warning sirens and what action to take when they are activated.
• Review what action to take if you are driving during a tornado warning. Severe Weather Awareness Week is a great opportunity to talk with your children and elderly parents to ensure they know proper procedures.
Tuesday – severe weather,
lightning and hail
• Every thunderstorm produces lightning. Learn more about myths and facts surrounding lightning.
Wednesday – floods
• Spring flooding and flash flooding combine to produce some of the most dangerous and costly disasters in Minnesota. Review this important checklist to learn how you and your family can prepare for and respond to flooding.
Thursday – tornado drill day
• Review the tornado safety information
• 1:45 p.m. – The National Weather Service will issue a simulated tornado warning for Minnesota counties. Businesses, schools and local and state agencies are encouraged to use this warning as a time to review emergency procedures.
• 6:55 p.m. – The National Weather Service will issue a second simulated tornado warning. The second drill is issued to allow families to practice their emergency plan at home.
Friday – extreme heat
• Heat-related illness accounted for 35 deaths in Minnesota from 2000 to 2010. The Minnesota Department of Health says residents 65 and older are most vulnerable to heat-related hospitalizations. The MDH website includes an extreme heat toolkit to help communities better prepare for the hot summer months.
Severe Weather Awareness Week is a time to join together as a community and share ideas to keep all Minnesotans ready.
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While paying homage to the man considered to be Michigan’s greatest writer, it’s worth noting that the organization behind the Little Traverse History Museum has been around longer than Ernest Hemingway himself.
The Little Traverse Historical Society was founded in 1905. Through the years, these local historians collected hundreds of artifacts and over 6,000 scanned photographs of the region, all of which led to the opening of the museum in 1971.
Still going strong today, the museum offers windows into the roots, growth, and culture of Petoskey, Harbor Springs, Bay View, and Walloon Lake. It’s the perfect fall destination to team up with a leaf-peeping drive before it closes for the season in October.
And it’s your last chance to see the museum’s Hemingway exhibit - run by a true Hemingway expert - before it departs at the end of September.
Did we mention that you also get to visit an historic train depot at the same time?
“The depot building that now houses the museum was built in 1892 by the Chicago and West Michigan Railroad company,” says Mike Federspiel, the Historical Society’s executive director.
That depot would eventually be taken over by the Pere Marquette Railroad and then later the C&O Railroad. Yet, by the 1960s, trains were no longer running to Petoskey’s waterfront, and there were plans afoot to destroy the station.
“The LTHS stepped in, bought the building and surrounding land, and forged a deal with the city that turned the building over to the city with the Historical Society having ongoing use of it for the museum,” Federspiel says.
The transformation took approximately two years, and in 1971, the Little Traverse History Museum was opened to the public.
PIGEONS TO HEMINGWAY
Located on the sidewalk path in Petoskey’s Waterfront Park, the museum features permanent exhibits, including Native Americans, lumbering, and passenger pigeons, the latter of which is Federspiel’s favorite.
“Not many people know about how the pigeons were hunted into extinction, and that their last nesting area was the Little Traverse region,” he says. “We have two display cases and a large, hand-painted mural that tell the story, and an extremely rare actual passenger pigeon that was preserved by a taxidermist.”
Elsewhere in the museum the exhibit, Hemingway’s Michigan Story, details the writer’s personal and literary ties to Northern Michigan. Federspiel, who has a background as a history professor, has also served as the Michigan Hemingway Society’s president since 2001, and has authored a book on Hemingway. So the expertise that he brought to the exhibit itself really shows.
“Our Hemingway exhibit has been especially popular,” he says. “In June, over 300 scholars attended the International Hemingway Society’s conference in Petoskey, and that generated a great deal of local and tourist interest in Hemingway.”
Both locals and tourists are part of what keep Federspiel enthused about his work. The interest from new and out-of-town visitors, as well as the feedback that he gets, are just one part of what make his job rewarding. As far as the locals go, he welcomes residents who take the time to learn more about their town. And the efforts of his own team right at the museum is something that he especially appreciates.
“There are two things I like best about my job. The first is working with people - we have a talented core of volunteers that make it possible to run the museum, and I learn something new every day from the people I work with and meet.”
The second, he says, is simple - sharing the area’s history.
“Knowing the past gives an important context for the present, and it’s great when someone realizes how interesting and useful the past can be.”
The Little Traverse History Museum is located at 100 Depot Court in Petoskey’s Bayfront Park, telephone 231-347-2620. They are open M-F 10 a.m.-4 p.m., Saturdays 1 p.m.-4 p.m., and are closed Sundays. The museum will close for the season in October.
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© Geoff Nichols
This graceful palm with its characteristic slender, leaning stems
is a feature of riverine bush and forest in the eastern parts of
the country. It is almost always associated with water, either on
riverbanks or in swamps.
reclinata can reach up to 12 m but is most often between 3 and
6 m. It may be either single or multi-stemmed, sometimes forming
a dense, bushy clump. The leaves are arching, bright green fronds
and form crowns at the top of the stems. The old fronds remain on
the tree and become 'petticoats' as they hang straight down beneath
the crown. The flowers appear during August, September and October.
Male and female plants are separate. The inflorescences form attractive
yellow sprays. Male flowers produce masses of pollen which is released
in clouds. The orange-brown fruits are borne during February, March
and April. They are oval in shape and smaller than the commercial
date. It is a protected tree in South Africa.
The wild date palm grows naturally from the Eastern Cape extending
as far north as Egypt. Its natural habitat is riverbanks and swamps,
although it is occasionally found in grasslands if the water table
is high enough. The roots are usually in water, therefore it would
be tolerant of waterlogged conditions in cultivation. It will also
take light frost but this will most likely affect the ultimate shape,
making the palm dense and bushy rather than tall and elegant.
Derivation of name and historical aspects
Phoenix is the Greek name for the date palm and reclinata
is Latin for bending down, and refers to the arching fronds. The
wild date palm is a relative of the commercial date palm, P.
dactylifera which probably originates in North Africa and the
Arabian Penninsula . The Canary Island palm (P. canariensis)
is often seen in older gardens in South Africa and the dwarf date
palm (P. roebelenii from Laos in the Far East) is grown as
a container plant. Phoenix palms characteristically have sharp spines
on the basal portion of the fronds. These are leaflets which have
changed, taking on a protective function.
Birds, monkeys and baboons eat the ripe fruit. Bushpig, nyala and
bushbuck feed on fallen fruit. This is possibly a means of seed
dispersal. The leaves are eaten by the palm-tree nightfighter butterfly
Uses and cultural aspects
The leaves are used to make mats, baskets and hats. Brooms for sweeping
around rural dwellings are made from the dried inflorescences. The
midrib of the frond is used to construct fish enclosures (kraals).
Palm wine is made from the sap. The heart of the crown is sometimes
eaten by people. Children enjoy the gum produced by the roots. Special
skirts made from the leaves are worn by Xhosa boys when undergoing
their initiation rites. The fruits are edible and apparently taste
quite similar to the commercial date. The spines apparently have
traditional medicinal use.
© Geoff Nichols
Growing Phoenix reclinata
This palm could be used as a specimen tree in a large garden with
sweeping lawns. It may also form part of a dense wildlife garden
planting. When fruiting, it will attract birds and other animals
if they are in the vicinity. In smaller gardens ensure that the
plant is given sufficient space to spread. When young it could be
used as a container plant. As mentioned before, the wild date will
tolerate light frost and waterlogged conditions. In colder areas
the young plants will need protection from frost for the first few
For propagation by seed, mature fruit should be selected and all
the pulp removed. Sow in a mix of river sand and compost. The seeds
can either be pressed gently into the medium or covered lightly.
Do not allow the medium to dry out. Germination should begin after
about a month. Transplanting can be carried out when the first leaf
is 50 mm long. Young plants grow quite slowly and will need slow
release fertilizer in the growth medium. For vegetative propagation,
suckers from an adult plant can also be removed and planted.
The wild date is best planted in full sun but does grow in light
shade. The growth rate is variable, depending on a good water supply
which will also probably affect the ultimate size and shape of the
References and further reading
- Coates Palgrave, M. 2002. Keith Coates Palgrave Trees of
southern Africa, edn 3. Struik, Cape Town.
- Ellison, D. & Ellison, A. 2001. Cultivated palms of the
world. Briza Publications, Pretoria
- Joffe, P. 2001. Creative gardening with indigenous plants.
A South African guide. Briza Publications, Pretoria.
- Palmer, E. & Pitman, N. 1972. Trees of southern Africa,
vol. 1. Balkema, Cape Town.
- Schmidt, E., Lötter, M. et al. 2002. Trees and shrubs
of Mpumalanga and Kruger National Park. Jacana, Johannesburg.
- Venter, F. & Venter, J-A. 1996. Making the most of indigenous
trees. Briza Publications, Pretoria.
Walter Sisulu National Botanical Garden
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We all know that the Microsoft Kinect is one of the most complete motion-control platforms ever created. By pairing a simple camera with sophisticated software, the Kinect team has brought skeletal tracking to gaming (and soon business operations) like never before. But there's one part of the body that the Kinect's standard software has overlooked: the tongue.
Researchers from the University of Elecro-Communications in Japan are in the process of programming the Microsoft Kinect to detect tongue movements and build software around that function. The team has already developed a simple turret game that can be played using your tongue to direct shots fired from the turret in the middle of the screen. Researchers hope that such games will help train tongues in people with speech and swallowing disorders.
The tongue-tracking system is built on some of the basic Microsoft Kinect functions. First, the system detects a person's eyes. The system is able to estimate the position of a person's nose based on the position of their eyes. The researchers have programmed the Kinect to estimate the position of a person's mouth area relative to their eyes and nose. When a person's tongue begins moving in the area that the machine assumes is the mouth area, movement values are obtained. Voila! The system is tracking a person's tongue. The movement values recieved by the system can be programmed to execute a variety of functions.
To hear more about this burgeoning technology, watch the video below.
Continue Reading Below
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|People and Topics||Biographical Data|
George Jacobs, Sr.
George Jacobs, Sr. was about 72 years old when he was hanged as a wizard on August 19, 1692, along with three other men and one woman -- the first time men were executed for witchcraft in Salem. He was accused, among many others, by his granddaughter, Margaret Jacobs who was also accused and imprisoned. Depending on scholarly opinion, he has been seen as the victim of personal grudges, the casualty of the socio-political climate of Salem, or the target of cultural system's effects on young, socially subordinate women.
George Jacobs, Sr.
Written By Kristin Buckstad
Salem Witch Trials in History and Literature
An Undergraduate Course, University of Virginia
Spring Semester 2001
George Jacobs, Sr. was born ca. 1620. Not much is known about when he came to Massachusetts Bay Colony, or about his first wife. He had three children from his first marriage, all born in Salem. George Jr. (b. ca. 1649), Mary (b. ca. 1650), and Ann (b. ca. 1655). He bought land in Salem around 1658 and married his second wife, Mary, about 1673. He had lived in Salem for a little over thirty years when he was accused of witchcraft.
George Jacobs, Sr. was arrested on May 10, 1692, along with his granddaughter Margaret Jacobs. He was examined twice, on the day of his arrest and on the following day. His trial took place in early August, and he remained in prison from the time of his arrest until his execution on August 19.
His primary accuser was Sarah Churchill, who was a servant in his home. She came from a wealthy family of English gentry in Maine but was most likely orphaned in Indian Wars. She, like Margaret, had been accused of witchcraft and, in her confession, accused others. George Jacobs granddaughter Margaret herself confessed to witchcraft and accused her grandfather among others who had already been accused in order, she wrote, "to save my life and to have my liberty." The list of accusers against Jacobs did not end there. It swelled to include Abigail Williams, Ann Putnam, Mercy Lewis, Elizabeth Hubbard, Mary Walcott, Sarah Bibber, Mary Warren, Joseph Flint, Thomas Putnam, John Putnam, Jr., and John DeRich.
The women accused his Jacobs' specter of beating them with his walking stick and other physical abuses. Not only did the women testify that Jacobs afflicted them, they also testified to witnessing the afflictions of the others. During his testimony, John DeRich, a sixteen-year old boy, was the only person to claim that Jacobs afflicted him. The Putnam men testified that they witnessed the afflictions that Mary Walcott and the other women suffered on May 11 at the hands of Jacobs' specter.
The Puritans believed that witches and wizards had proof of their covenants with the Devil on their bodies. Doctor George Herrick was sent to examine Jacobs' body for the witch's "teat," and found one on his right shoulder. This slight protuberance on his skin combined with the spectral evidence made the case strong enough for indictment.
George Jacobs, Sr. emerges as an interesting person from the records of his examinations on May 10 and 11. He was incredulous from the moment the first accuser, Abigail Williams, cried out against him. He laughed in court, always a risky response and said: "Because I am falsely accused.-Your worships all of you do think this is true?" One of his most famous protest was the defiant assertion, "You tax me for a wizard, you may as well tax me for a buzzard I have done no harm." Emphatically portraying his unwavering Christian faith, he declared, "Well: burn me, or hang me, I will stand in the truth of Christ, I know nothing of it." Several times he argued that "The Devill can go in any shape" or "can take any likeness." This was sound theological doctrine at the time, warning the court that it was doing the Devil's work by accusing innocent people. The judges, however, believed that the Devil cannot take a person's form "without [his] consent."
George Jacobs, Sr. was then indicted, tried, and found guilty of witchcraft. He was hanged on August 19, 1692 with George Burroughs, John Proctor, John Willard, and Martha Carrier. This was the first time men were executed as witches in Salem. Meanwhile, Jacobs' granddaughter Margaret Jacobs was free from danger after confessing and accusing her grandfather but remained in jail. Her father, George Jacobs, Jr., was also accused but fled from Salem Town. When he did so, he left behind his wife, Rebecca, in jail facing witchcraft charges. She became severely emotionally disturbed and was most likely ruled mentally incompetent and escaped conviction. George Sr.'s second wife, Mary, survived him and remarried on June 23, 1693 to John Wilds whose wife had been hanged as a witch on July 19, 1692. Jacobs body was retrieved from Gallows Hill by his family and buried on his land. In the 1980's his body had to be moved quickly, due to the sale of the Jacobs family property,. His bones were kept in storage in the Danvers Archive until 1992 when he was finally put to rest in the Rebecca Nurse Cemetery.
George Jacobs, Sr.'s role in the witch trials has been interpreted in several ways. Bernard Rosenthal views him as the victim of fabrication. For example, Ann Putnam and Abigail Williams knowingly put pins in their hands and accused his specter of putting them there to add to evidence against him (Salem Story). He was also a victim of the life-saving strategy that the accused learned during the early course of the trials: confess and your life will be spared. Two of his primary accusers were among the accused who confessed to save themselves..
Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum interpret the trials in socio-economic and political terms. They argue that many members of the more rural and agricultural Salem Village (e.g. the Putnam family) were threatened by those with economic and political connections to Salem Town (e.g. the Porter family), the seaport and center of emerging capitalism. Salem Village had been trying to assert its independence from the Town by establishing its own church, and inhabitants of the Village with ties to the Town were seen as threats to the cause of Village independence. As such, the majority of accusers was from the Village and the majority of the accused who lived on the western side of the Village nearer to the Town. George Jacobs, Sr.'s son, George, was good friend of the Porters, making the family vulnerable to accusations, particularly from the Putnams. The phenomenon of the accused becoming accusers was due, they argue, to the swarm of accusations made in the heat of politics and economics. Eventually the confusion had to fall back on itself.
Carol Karlsen offers a more gender-oriented analysis. The "possessed accusers" were usually subordinate members of society such as servants. Many of them, like Sarah Churchill, were orphans. Their prospects for improving their social standings were virtually nonexistent since they had no families and no dowries to support them. Totally dependent upon the will of others, their discontent and anxiety would have been quite marked. Puritan society, however, did not tolerate socially aggressive and assertive women. Their fears were then converted, psychologically, into the belief that they were either witches or were possessed. After all, Carol Karlsen argues, a society that teaches the existence of possession will invariably contain persons who think they are possessed and are believed to be so by others. As for the specific reason that Sarah Churchill accused George Jacobs, he may have been seen as a tormentor or harsh master since most of the accusations contained charges of physical abuse.
All of these explanations fall short, however. None of them explains why Jacobs own granddaughter would accuse him of all people or why such a large number of accusations flew at Jacobs, except for the fact that he publicly denounced the circle of "afflicted" girls, thus opening them to charges of fraud and compliance with the Devil. If modern students and scholars find it hard to explain why so many people would spend their time accusing a 70 year-old man, it is quite easy to see why George Jacobs, Sr. laughed and told the judges that he could not believe this was happening.
Boyer, Paul and Stephen Nissenbaum. Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, 1974.
Jacobs family. Home page. March 2001.
Karlson, Carol. F. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England, 1998.
Rosenthal, Bernard. Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692, 1993.
Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., The Salem Witchcraft Papers, 1977.
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), a son of Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. We know nothing of the time of his birth, but we find him already grown up to manhood in B. C. 272, when Antitgonus advanced into the Peloponnesus to oppose the schmes of Pyrrhus, and he accompanied his father on that expedition. During the night attack on Argos, by which Pyrrhus attempted to force his way into the city, Halcyoneus was dispatched by Antigonus with a body of troops to oppose him, and a vehement combat took place in the streets.
In the midst of the confusion, word was brought to Haleyoneus that Pyrrhus was slain; he hastened to the spot, and arrived just as Zopyrus had cut off the head of the fallen monarch, which Halcyoneous carried in triumph to his father. Antigonuts upbraided him for his barbarity, and drove him angrily from his presence. Taught by this lesson, when he soon after fell in with Helenus, the son of Pyrrhus, he treated him with respect, and conduscted him in safety to Antigonus. (Plut. Pyrrh. 34
It appears from an anecdote told by Aelian (Ael. VH 3.5
) and Plutarch (De Consolat.
33) that Halcyoneus was killed in battle during the lifetime of Autigonus, but on what occasion we are not informned.
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Definition of Exercise, isotonic
Exercise, isotonic: Exercise when a contracting muscle shortens against a constant load, as when lifting a weight. Isometric exercise is one method of muscular exercise. In contrast, isotonic exercise is when muscular contractions occur without movement of the involved parts of the body.
Isotonic comes from the Greek "iso-", equal + "tonos", tone = maintaining equal (muscle) tone. The muscle maintains equal tone while shortening in isotonic exercise.
Last Editorial Review: 6/14/2012
Back to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List
Need help identifying pills and medications?
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- Life Experience. Lincoln was hardened by life on the American frontier. He spent most of his notable life as a lawyer, but also served in the military (without seeing any real action) before entering law and then politics. Washington, born a Colonial American, was also something of a frontiersman, looking to become a planter before becoming a messenger for the then British army. At the start of the French and Indian War, he was commissioned into the military and would eventually become the figurehead of the American Revolution. If the argument is about a fight, Washington has the battle-hardened experience which Lincoln does not.
- Warfare and tactics. While Lincoln utilized the new technology of the day, the telegraph, to become the first President to command a war exclusively from his offices, Washington was a battlefield commander. Granted, he wasn’t always at the front once he became a commanding officer, but he rode along with his boys on more than one occasion. While Lincoln essentially created the “central command” aspect of the military, Washington helped to break the traditional Rules of Engagement and, through his experience fighting the French and Indians, created the beginnings of American guerilla warfare. I’m thinking that this is starting to be a very slanted comparison.
- Monuments. I’m thinkin’ Lincoln here. Giant statue of yourself forever enshrined in a Parthenon-like structure versus a huge white phallus sticking abruptly out of the ground? Ok, so Washington’s is bigger. Fine. But, Lincoln’s is the one everyone thinks about when you say “Presidential monument”. Having been there, I will say that one gets a more reverent feeling walking into the Lincoln Memorial. Just my opinion.
On the other hand, Washington has both the nation’s capital and a whole state named after him, plus a TON of small towns, schools, and colleges. Lincoln has the nickname of Illinois, logs, and a handful of towns with at least one city. Much more important than any tactile monuments.
-Cinematic Portrayal. Washington has always been something of a myth. There hasn't been one real stand-out portrayal of him in cinema. Even when he's included in a movie, he's usually in the background just to let you know that he's there and he's a badass and that's all you need to know. Lincoln, on the other hand, seems to be everywhere. I think Lincoln definitely gets the upper hand here, as he's got Daniel Day Lewis playing him seriously in one upcoming movie and he's slaying vampires to preserve the Union in another. Not to mention the Bill and Ted Lincoln. Party on, dudes.
In the end, I think it comes down to the fact that, while both of them had seen hardship, Washington was a true warrior. Lincoln may have been a brain, but he never proved that he was any kind of brawn outside of a vampire killing semi-autobiographical movie or internet meme photoshop jobs of cyber-steampunk Lincoln carrying an assault rifle riding on the back of a bear. They're out there, go find them.
Vote Winner – Washington (9 – 4)
Debate Winner – Washington
Overall Winner – George Washington
Fight of the Week is written by Justin Bidula
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June 3, 2010
A weekly feature provided by scientists at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory.
Should Maui residents be concerned about lava flows?
Molten lava flows downhill. This simple fact has spurred many residents on the Island of Hawai`i, where Kīlauea Volcano has been erupting for more than 27 years, to think about the likelihood of an eruption occurring upslope of their homes. But what about residents on the other Hawaiian islands? Should they worry about lava flows, too?
For the most part, probably not. The exception is Maui, the only other island with a volcano classified as "active."
Haleakala, the volcano that forms East Maui, erupts every 200 to 500 years. This estimate is reached by averaging the number of eruptions over the past 10,000 years. Because little has changed about the volcano during this time, future eruptions should be expected. In fact, the probability of renewed eruptive activity is sufficiently large that the need for lava flow hazard zones on East Maui cannot be ignored.
Volcano hazard assessment always fails to answer the one question raised most frequently by island residents and visitors, namely, when and where the volcano will erupt next. In the absence of volcanic or seismic unrest, scientists can offer only statistical information-probabilities-about future volcanism.
On East Maui, the most likely site of the next eruption will be along a line of vents that ascends the southwest rift zone from La P?rouse Bay and crosses the length of Haleakala Crater. The volcano's east rift zone is generally less active, but an area of vents upslope of Wai`anapanapa and the Hana airport has matched the extent of eruptive activity in the Crater area and southwest rift zone.
Each of these areas has seen at least five eruptions in the past 1,500 years and, on this basis, are assigned to Maui lava flow Hazard Zone 1. No eruptions have occurred in the last 450 years ago, however.
Lava invades the other three hazard zones even less frequently. Zone 2, which encompasses the north and south flanks of Haleakala's southwest and east rift zones, includes land that was covered by lava at least once in the past 13,000 years. Ke`anae Valley and the Kaupo area are also in Zone 2, because they are downslope of lava flows that might erupt within Haleakala Crater.
Maui zones 3 and 4—most of East Maui—encompass areas with essentially no hazard under most lava-inundation scenarios. In large part, Haleakala Crater gets the credit for sheltering so much of East Maui because it blocks rift-zone lava flows from any but a few paths downslope. Also, new vents pop up infrequently within zone 4.
The numbers assigned to lava flow hazard zones are unique to each island. East Maui's eruptive potential pales in comparison to that of many places on the Big Island. In terms of eruptive frequency, Maui's Zone 1 is most like Hawai`i Island's Zone 4, a zone that corresponds to Hualalai volcano.
But even this correlation is imperfect because, when Hualalai erupts, lava flows tend to coat substantially larger areas. In the past 1,500 years, Hualalai eruptions (on Hawai`i) have paved twice the area covered by Haleakala lava flows (on Maui) in the same interval of time-174 versus 89 square km; or 67 versus 34 square miles. All parts of Hualalai's rift zones seem capable of eruptive activity, whereas some parts of Haleakala's rift zones have been inactive for more than 50,000 years, a fact that further diminishes the likelihood of future lava inundation on East Maui.
None of this discussion is intended to raise or lower concern for Maui residents. Haleakala is currently inactive and shows no sign of disturbing the peace in the near future. However, Maui residents should know that Haleakala has experienced lava-producing eruptions in the past and will do so in the future. Our safety is always heightened by knowledge of the environment in which we live.
Kīlauea Activity Update
Over the past week, most of the activity on the east rift zone flow field has been focused on the construction of low shields, topped by lava ponds. This activity was located high above the Pulama pali over the breakout point of the Quarry flow, which is still weakly active on the pali and coastal plain. As of Thursday, June 3, small breakouts had reached to within a few hundred meters (yards) of the ocean just west of the Ki ocean entry, which is now inactive. In addition to that lava erupting and flowing through the TEB tube system, lava is also erupting from two vents within Pu`u `Ō `ō. These vents are supplying lava to a growing lava pond that is slowly filling Pu`u `Ō `ō's crater.
At Kīlauea's summit, a circulating lava pond deep in the collapse pit within the floor of Halema`uma`u Crater was visible via Webcam throughout the past week. The baseline lava level has been slowly rising, and was also punctuated a few times by short-lived lava-level increases that brought the lava surface to its highest level yet recorded. Volcanic gas emissions remain elevated, resulting in high concentrations of sulfur dioxide downwind.
Four earthquakes beneath Hawai`i Island were reported felt during the past week. Three of them—a magnitude-3.2 earthquake at 3:05 a.m., a magnitude-3.1 at 1:24 p.m., and a magnitude-2.9 at 6:54 p.m. on Friday, May 28, 2010, H.s.t.—were located in the same area 10-19 km (6-12 miles) northwest of Na`alehu at a depth between 7-10 km (4-6 miles). A magnitude-2.6 earthquake occurred at 10:52 a.m. on Tuesday, June 1, and was located 7 km (4 miles) east of Captain Cook, at a depth of 8 km (5 miles).
Visit our Web site (http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov) for detailed Kīlauea and Mauna Loa activity updates, recent volcano photos, recent earthquakes, and more; call (808) 967-8862 for a Kīlauea activity summary; email questions to askHVO@usgs.gov.
Updated: June 8, 2010 (pnf)
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Disposal Of Waste
( Originally Published 1918 )
If the daily disposal of waste is attended to, there will he no undesirable accumulation of garbage. Scraps of food that cannot be utilized for the table should be fed to the pigs or the chickens and should not be allowed to stand and gather flies. A covered pail or pan should be used for holding the garbage, until final disposal is made of it. Those portions that are badly spoiled and will be of no value in feeding the stock should be burned at once. Waste vegetable substances. if suitable, should be fed to the stock, and if' nut, should be buried in a thin layer on the ground at some distance from the house, so that they may enrich the soil.
Old papers that are badly soiled should he burned, but all others should be kept for use in cleaning the stove, starting the fires, etc. Empty cans should be well washed and buried, so that they will not prove a breeding-place for flies. It is well to pierce them through the bottom immediately after opening them, so that they will not hold water. Dish-water should he emptied at some distance from the house, unless there is a drain nearby. All receptacles that hold water should be carefully emptied, and all depressions in the soil should be tilled, in order to prevent mosquitoes from breeding. All waste water should he used on the garden.
Protection of the water supply.—Only the water from deep wells should be used for drinking purposes, because all surface water and water in shallow wells becomes dangerous through seepage from compost, pig-pens, privies, and other places where decayed organic matter may accumulate. In order that the water may be kept clean, the well must he supplied with a tight-fitting top %Odell need not he opened and a metal pump to bring up the water. A well platform that allows the water spilled on it to run back into the well is unsafe, for any filth carried on the platform in any way will be washed directly into it. Rats, mice, and other animals get into the well if the top is nut tight, and these, in addition to being unpleasant. are liable to introduce disease germs.
Simple disinfectants.-Sunshine and fresh air are nature's disinfectants and should be freely admitted to every part of the house. Windows should be left open whenever possible. The windows in the sleeping rooms should always be opened at night. The interior of the Louse should be kept perfectly dry. Decay does not easily take place in dry places. A damp cellar should be drained. and the grounds around the house should not be allowed to drain into the cellar. Coarse coal ashes should be used to fill in around the house, on the walks, etc., to help in scouring thorough drainage. Wood ashes may be used as a simple disinfectant to cover decayed organic matter. Whitewash is a good disinfectant and should he frequently used both inside and outside the house and on all out-buildings. Kerosine and creosote also make good dis- infectants.
Care of out-of-door closets.—The privy should be so arranged that it may be cleaned often and all excreta disposed of in a safe way. The building should he so constructed that there will be no cracks for the admission of flies. In a poorly constructed building, old paper can be pasted over the cracks, to make the structure fly-proof. Dry earth. street dust, or lime should he frequently sprinkled over the excreta, and the seat should be closed to prevent the entrance of flies or mosquitoes. The seat should he washed frequently, and both the seat and the floor scrubbed at least once a week,
It will be well to teach this lesson at a time when improvements are necessary in the care of the school-house. house. The discussions in regard to ont-of-door closets will, of course be taken when the girls are alone with the teacher.
METHOD OF WORK
Discuss the disposal of waste, the care of garbage, etc., in the home and the school. Talk over the care of waste from the school lunch and discuss method of keeping the school in a sanitary condition. Follow this by a general cleaning of the school-house.
Household Science in Rural Schools:
Arrangement And Care Of The Kitchen
Care Of Cupboards And Utensils
Care Of Foods
Disposal Of Waste
Setting And Clearing The Table
Waiting On Table
General Cleaning Of A Room
Care Of The Bedroom
Care Of Lamps
Read More Articles About: Household Science in Rural Schools
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No flights of fancy... the threat of extinction is very real.
Australia has lost 27 bird species since European settlement, and another 20 are considered at "imminent risk of extinction", according to a global report on the health of the world's birdlife.
Compiled by BirdLife International, the report lists habitat loss, agricultural expansion, climate change and pollution as among the main threats.
Released on Thursday in Canada, the State of the World's Birds report estimates that 1313 of the globe's 10,000-plus bird species are threatened. BirdLife International director of science, information and policy Leon Bennun said this equated to 13 per cent of global bird species, or one in eight.
Victoria's vulnerable hooded plover represents a rare success story in a global report that paints a grim picture for many of the world's bird species. Photo: Justin McManus JZM
"This assessment overall shows that birds are not in good shape," Dr Bennun said. "Birds are declining around the globe."
BirdLife Australia head of conservation Samantha Vine said Australia currently had 20 birds on the critically endangered list.
Among them is the orange-bellied parrot, which breeds in Tasmania and travels to south-eastern states in winter; and the regent honeyeater, which has a patchy distribution range stretching from south-east Queensland, through New South Wales to Victoria.
Numbers boosted: The glossy black cockatoo. Photo: Allan Richardson
She estimated that on average $380,000 per year was needed for conservation projects to keep each of the critically endangered birds off the extinct list, which includes the Norfolk Island ground dove.
Ms Vine said Australia's birds were struggling, with woodland birds experiencing rapid decline due to land clearing. Invasive species such as introduced rats are also threatening species such as the critcally endangered green parrot on Norfolk Island. Meanwhile, seabirds like albatross and several types of petrels were experiencing high mortality rates due to commercial fishing.
The report estimates that around 160,000 seabirds a year die after being caught in longlines, which can stretch for many kilometres. Birds get caught in the line's hooks and drown. About 70 albatross and petrel species are affected by the tuna fishing technique.
Critically endangered: the orange-bellied parrot. Photo: Gary Sissons
However Ms Vine said there were success stories, such as the education and conservation campaign devised for the hooded plover.
Listed as vulnerable, the Victorian shorebird's population numbers little more than 500. Dogs, people and four-wheel-drives pose the greatest threat to the 20-centimetre bird. But Ms Vine said a program to protect the Victorian nesting and feeding sites had helped chick survival rates increase from 2 per cent to 55 per cent.
Similarly, glossy black cockatoo numbers on Kangaroo Island in South Australia have doubled within 15 years from around 150 birds in 1995. The population boost was due to conservationists putting collars on nesting trees, which stopped the brush-tailed possum from raiding the nests for eggs and chicks.
"Conservation works and it doesn't cost the earth," she said. "It's probably likely that we will be able to down-list [the status of glossy black cockatoos] at the next assessment in 2020."
The international organisation's head of science Stuart Butchart said $US4 billion a year could improve the status of the world's known threatened species and virtually halt human-driven extinctions.
"This is not a bill, it's an investment," he said. "The dividends that we get back are hundreds to a thousand times larger, in terms of the services that nature provides. Things like the food that we eat, purifying the water that we drink and regulating our global climate."
Mr Butchart said a further $US76 billion could help protect and manage all known sites of global conservation significance.
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The property of a magnet that interacts with an applied field to give a mechanical moment.
- The holmium atoms in this salt all behave like tiny magnets and, in the absence of a magnetic field, their magnetic moments point in random directions.
- At very low temperature this metal develops magnetic order, whereby the magnetic moments of its electrons align with one other.
- Recent experiments support the idea that crystal defects may be responsible for the quantum tunnelling of magnetic moments in molecular magnets at low temperatures.
For editors and proofreaders
Syllabification: mag·net·ic mo·ment
Definition of magnetic moment in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.
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"Now there seems to be consensus among those studying mitochondrial DNA and [chromosome records] of modern native Americans that it happened pretty late, after the last glacial maximum, maybe as late as 15,000 calendar years ago," Goebel said.
(Related: "First Americans Arrived Recently, Settled Pacific Coast, DNA Study Says" [February 2, 2007].)
Meanwhile, archaeologists for years had considered sites belonging to the so-called Clovis culture, which dates back 13,000 years, to represent evidence of the first Americans.
The Clovis culture was named after flint spearheads found in the 1930s at a site in Clovis, New Mexico. Clovis sites have been identified throughout the contiguous United States as well as in Mexico and Central America.
But several sites, from Wisconsin to Monte Verde in Chile, have been discovered in recent years that predate Clovis by at least a thousand years.
"There probably has to have been some time before Clovis in which people were here, but they didn't leave much of a record behind because there just weren't that many people," Goebel said.
Archaeological evidence shows that there were people occupying the Asian side of the Bering land bridge area as early as 30,000 years ago.
"That tells us that once early modern humans spread out of Africa around 50,000 years ago and colonized temperate Eurasia, it wasn't very long before they had developed the technology and the skills needed to be able to make a go of it in the Arctic," Goebel said.
Modern humans spread across the land bridge about 22,000 years ago, according to the new article.
But then the group got stuck for up to 5,000 years, blocked by thick ice sheets across Canada.
It was only when the ice had melted sufficiently that humans began to spread south, either along the coast or though an interior corridor in western Canada, the authors say.
"That might have been the bottleneck that kept people from draining south from Alaska into temperate North America," said Goebel, adding that geological evidence suggests the Pacific coastal corridor would have become ice-free perhaps as early as a thousand years before the interior corridor.
"This suggests that the first Americans may have spread through the New World along a coastal route," he said.
Henry Harpending is an anthropologist and population geneticist at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City who was not involved in the study.
He agreed that there is a consensus emerging among researchers studying the first Americans.
"But there are still outstanding questions," he said.
For example, there are some "puzzling anomalies" in the Alaskan archaeological record dating back to before the glacial melt, he pointed out.
And there are several possible reasons other than ice why people did not venture south earlier, including a "ferocious army of predators" living in North America that might have had a role in keeping humans away.
"We all have open minds, and we will leave them open," Harpending said.
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Sign up for our Inside National Geographic newsletter. Every two weeks we'll send you our top stories and pictures (see sample).
SOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES
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KUTANI (KAGA) CHINA - 1664-1750; 1779-1822; 1832
TO PRESENT DAY
HISTORY. The Kutani factory in the province of Kaga was established by the feudal lord of Daishoji in 1666. Several different sorts of ware were made. One was distinguished by a beautiful green glaze, along with soft greenish blue, purple and yellow glazes, disposed in scrolls, diapers and floral patterns over outlines traced in black on the biscuit. Another sort was painted with red, green, blue, yellow and purple enamel colors, along with silver and gold. Landscapes, flowers, a single bird on a twig, and similar naturalistic subjects supplied the themes together with symbolical ornaments and diaper patterns. In still another sort, red was predominant. The decoration of red scrolls and diapers was disposed in panels containing landscapes, mythical animals and flower motifs in green,yellow, purple and red. A subdivision of this variety had a red ground colour, with patterns wrought in gold, silver, bright green, yellow and purple. The making of these wares came to an end about 1750. After that date several revivals took place, one of which had a red ground color whereon the patterns appeared in gold.
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Fort Meade (1)
Fort Meade (1) (1878-1944) - First established in 1878 as Camp Ruhlen by Maj. Henry M. Lazelle, 1st U.S. Infantry, and named after Lt. George Ruhlen (Cullum 2426), quartermaster in charge of construction. Renamed Fort Meade on 30 Dec 1878 after MG George G. Meade (Cullum 804) of U.S. Civil War fame. Transferred to the Veterans Administration in 1944.
Fort Meade (1) History
Established 28 Aug 1878 as Camp Ruhlen by Maj. Henry M. Lazelle, 1st U.S. Infantry on a site selected by Lt. Gen. Philip H. Sheridan in present day Meade County, South Dakota. The Fort's mission was to control hostile Sioux Indians and protect the Black Hills mining operations.
Camp J.G. Sturges was first established nearby to house the troops building the post. The troops moved to Camp Ruhlen on 28 Aug 1878 and construction began. The new post was renamed Fort Meade by Department of Dakota General Order 27 on 30 Dec 1878. The initial post construction was complete in August 1879.
The plan of the fort was reportedly laid out by General Sheridan pointing out the locations of the buildings with his sword as he rode around the site. The post was laid out around a central parade that was a rounded rectangle. The officer's quarters were on the south side, the enlisted barracks on the north side and the administrative buildings were at the ends with a headquarters building in the center of the north side. Nine stables, each housing 86 horses, lined the north side behind the barracks. The quartermaster had a commissary and a root cellar on the west side. Most of the early buildings were frame construction and they were replaced with stone and brick buildings over the years.
Fort Meade served as a training camp and a POW camp during World War II. In 1944 the post was turned over to the Veterans Administration and a new hospital complex was built north of the old post.
Currently occupied by the Veterans Administration and the South Dakota Army National Guard. Many of the old post buildings are preserved and repurposed including many of the 1880s officer quarters and enlisted mens barracks. Seven of the original 1878-1879 buildings remain.
Visited: 29 Sep 2010
Fort Meade (1) Picture Gallery
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You know the story immortalized by Shakespeare’s Henry V: a small force of scrappy but proud Englishmen (we few, we happy few) beat the arrayed force of French nobility on October 25, 1415, St. Crispin’s Day.
Well, some French historians beg to differ, and they’re holding a conference at the Medieval History Museum in Agincourt on October 25th, the 593rd anniversary of the battle, to rewrite the history the victors claimed.
First, the few:
In fact, detailed bureaucratic records of French king [sic] Charles VI’s army reveal that they were made up of 9000 travelling soldiers, perhaps with another 3000 locals from the Picardy region where the battle took place.
This compares to the total force of 12000 who travelled to France with Henry, although some 3000 were lost during the preceding siege of Harfleur, and through dysentery.
Then, the happy:
Mr Gilliot said notably horrific acts perpetuated by the English included placing prisoners in a barn and setting in [sic] on fire, with the permission of Henry V.
When the Duke of Alençon, who commanded the second division of the French army, had failed to put an axe through Henry, he tried to surrender but was killed by the King’s 40-strong bodyguard.
Forty to one. I like them odds.
No British academics were invited to the conference; I can’t imagine why. This isn’t an exclusively French nationalist revision, though. The article cites a British professor, Anne Curry, who has written a book debunking the pro-England propaganda surrounding Agincourt.
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Arts in Education (V-D-15)
The Arts in Education program supports education reform by strengthening arts education as an integral part of the school curriculum. Its intent is to help all students meet challenging state academic content and achievement standards in the arts.
Children learn in many different ways. Findings from the NAEP 1997 Arts Report Card indicate that artistic experiences provide visual, kinetic, aural, and spatial learning. College Board data show that students who have participated in sequential arts programs perform significantly better on both the verbal and mathematics sections of the SAT than their nonparticipating peers.
How It Works
If funding is greater than $15 million, the Arts in Education program is authorized to provide assistance--either through discretionary grants, cooperative agreements, or contracts--to state education agencies, school districts, institutions of higher education, museums or other cultural institutions, and other public or private organizations. Arts education funds may be used for activities such as research on arts education, disseminating models of best practice, developing state arts education assessments based on a state's standards, or developing curriculum frameworks.
If funding is $15 million or less, direct noncompetitive grants are provided to the John F. Kennedy Center and Very Special Arts arts only.
Grantees are required to coordinate to the extent practicable with public or private cultural agencies, institutions, and organizations such as museums, arts education associations, libraries, and theaters. They are also required to supplement and not supplant any other assistance made available from nonfederal sources for program activities.
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The fourth phase of U.S. Grant’s overland campaign against Robert E. Lee. Grant had spent all of May attempting to get past Lee’s right flank, suffering and inflicting heavy casualties on the way (Battles of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania and North Anna River). However, by Cold Harbor, both armies had been reinforced back up to their original sizes (although on both sides some of these reinforcements came from other armies). For many in the north, Grant was failing just as badly as his predecessors, and at much higher cost.
In reality, Lee’s army was being badly mauled. He was losing experienced officers at a dreadful rate. The pool of potential reinforcements was being to run dry. After the Battle of the Wilderness his army rarely took the initiative, instead tending to wait in its defences for Union attacks. This tended to cancel out Lee’s own great abilities, removing the chance for him to influence a battle with a flash of inspired strategy. Each apparent Union ‘failure’ was driving Lee back towards Richmond and a potential siege. Grant’s simple refusal to be beaten now began to pose a potentially mortal threat to Lee’s army.
Grant’s army had also suffered during May. Combat had been so intense and so constant that men began to develop shell shock, more familiar from the Western Front. Just as Lee’s army was beginning to lose its ability to attack, Grant’s was beginning to slow down. This was to cost it dearly at Cold Harbor (and again soon after at Petersburg).
This was not immediately apparent. On 31 May Sheridan’s cavalry managed to force a Confederate force out of Old Cold Harbor. The next day he was able to hold on until the first infantry units began to arrive to reinforce him. Grant now ordered his army to concentrate at Cold Harbor, with the hope of launching an attack on 2 June. He was to be disappointed in this. Partly due to exhaustion and partly due to confusion on the roads, the Union army was not in place in time for an attack on 2 June.
3 June saw one of only two attacks that Grant admitted to regretting ordering (the other was the second assault on Vicksburg). By 3 June, Lee’s men had had time to fortify their seven mile long line using all the experience gained over the last month. Despite an almost 2-1 advantage in numbers (although not in the actual attack itself), Grant’s men had no chance of success unless their enemy was utterly demoralised. The attack went forward early in the morning of 3 June. In one hour of fighting the Union army suffered 7,000 casualties. Confederate losses were at most 1,500. Although the two armies stayed in the trenches around Cold Harbor for some days after 3 June, the failed assault effectively ended the battle.
With it ended the overland campaign against Richmond. There was very little potential left for flanking manoeuvres in the vicinity of Richmond, and the swamps around the Chickahominy were just as big a barrier as they had been two years earlier. However, one of the many ways in which Grant differed from McClellan was that he was not easily discouraged. Once it was clear that he would not achieve his aims outside Richmond, he began to look for another target. He soon found that target. In mid-June, Grant’s men crossed the James River, shifting the focus of their attack from Richmond to Petersburg.
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- Historic Sites
Westmoreland County Historical Society
Westmoreland County gets its nickname because for many years it was considered the gateway to the western frontiers of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. Founded in 1773, it was also the the last county to be established in Pennsylvania while the colony was still under British rule. Today, the society upholds the history of the county with the historic "Hanna's Town" as well as special productions and a variety of resources for visitors.
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4 steps to help your kids feel good about their bodies and eating well
Flipping the calendar provides many of us with the motivation to reinvent ourselves, which often manifests in the form of a New Year’s resolution. While motivations may be well-intentioned, attempts to change weight or body size could lead to a negative body image and the adoption of unhealthy weight loss regimens. Some people who implement weight-loss or body-focused resolutions may recognize the dangers associated with doing so – including fad diets, over-exercise and in some cases, the development of an eating disorder – most fail to acknowledge the negative impact these resolutions can have on their children.
According to the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (ANAD), more than half of teenage girls and a third of teenage boys rely on unhealthy weight control behaviors. These behaviors are only amplified at the start of the new year with the overwhelming presence of weight-loss themed resolutions.
Thomson Reuters and National Public Radio confirmed the popularity of these types of resolutions with a recent poll, which found that one-third of Americans have made a New Year’s resolution to lose weight in the last five years. The overabundance of weight-loss focused goals in the early months of a new year makes it increasingly important for parents to pursue their resolutions in a healthy manner in order to promote a positive body image and self-concept among their children.
These four strategies can help parents model healthy behaviors to their children in the new year and minimize the risk of children developing disordered eating habits.
1. Minimize dieting habits. Though dieting may be the go-to weight loss regimen, this sort of eating is not practical for children. Rather than giving up certain foods or entire food groups, make New Year’s resolutions that focus on moderation and incorporate healthy, well-balanced meals for the entire family.
2. Make exercise fun. Sighing at the mere mention of the gym is not an effective means of promoting a healthy lifestyle. Get away from stationary workout machines by making a New Year’s resolution to simply get outside more often. Plan a family hike or bike outing or get together with others in the neighborhood to play a game of kickball or volleyball.
3. Limit “fat talk.” It is no secret that children often mimic their parents’ behaviors. Negative commentary about your appearance, known as “fat talk,” is no exception. Make a New Year’s resolution to avoid negative comments and instead, make a point to offer comments that convey confidence and positivity in regards to your own body image and that of your children as well.
4. Be conscientious when commenting on the appearance of others. Both criticism and compliments can suggest that there are “good” and “bad” body shapes and sizes. Make a New Year’s resolution to avoid these types of comments in order to help children develop their own positive definition of beauty. Remember, it is not how your body looks in the mirror, but what your body does for you that matters.
An important note: Eating disorders have a strong genetic component. Therefore, children with a family history of anorexia, bulimia or binge eating disorder can have an increased susceptibility to disordered eating behaviors and body image issues.
Regardless of family history, parents should be mindful of how their own comments and actions may affect their children—particularly during this weight-focused time of year. Early recognition of eating disorders warning signs can increase a child’s chances of lasting recovery. Should a child demonstrate any sort of troubling food or body image behaviors that may indicate disordered eating, parents are encouraged to seek treatment from a qualified eating disorders professional.
More from GalTime.com:
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October 18, 2010
Mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot Dies At 85
The famous fractal mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot died of cancer on October 14 at the age of 85.
Mandelbrot developed fractals as a mathematical way of understanding the infinite complexity of nature.The concept has been used to measure coastlines, clouds and other natural phenomena and had far-reaching effects in physics, biology and astronomy.
His family said that he died in a hospice in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
The visionary mathematician had joint French and U.S. nationality and was born into a Jewish family in Poland, but moved to Paris at the age of 11 to escape the Nazis.
He spent most of his life in the U.S. working for IBM computers and eventually became a professor of mathematical science at Yale University.
His seminal works were published in 1977 and 1982. He argued that seemingly random mathematical shapes followed a pattern if broken down into a single repeating shape.
The concept enabled scientists to measure previously immeasurable objects, including the coastline of the British Isles, the geometry of a lung or a cauliflower.
"If you cut one of the florets of a cauliflower, you see the whole cauliflower but smaller," he explained at the influential Technology Entertainment and Design (TED) conference earlier this year.
"Then you cut again, again, again, and you still get small cauliflowers. So there are some shapes which have this peculiar property, where each part is like the whole, but smaller."
Fractal mathematics also led to technological developments in the fields of digital music and image compression.
It also helped influence pop culture with the patterns being used to create intricate pieces of art.
Mandelbrot was highly critical of the world banking system, saying that the economic model was unable to cope with its own complexity.
French President Nicolas Sarkozy said in a statement that Mandelbrot was a "powerful, original mind that never shied away from innovation and battering preconceived ideas."
"His work, which was entirely developed outside the main research channels, led to a modern information theory," he said.
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Outdoor physical activity: a natural mood-booster
With spring just around the corner, there’s no better time to start being active outdoors. A growing body of evidence shows that outdoor physical activity not only improves mood and enhances well-being, but relieves stress and improves memory.
Recent studies by Dr. Elizabeth Nisbet show that our experiences in nature, including how comfortable we are in nature and how much time we spend there, influence our well-being. Individuals with a strong sense of connection to nature report more happiness than those who are less connected. Richard Louv, in his book “Last Child in the Woods,” notes that lack of time outdoors is linked to rising rates of depression, attention deficit disorder, Vitamin D deficiency, obesity and other health conditions.
Canadian researcher Marc Berman adds to the evidence through his Attention Restoration Theory (ART). His studies show that we naturally relax when we’re surrounded by nature and that our attention becomes focused on our surroundings: a process that’s energizing, rejuvenating and refreshing.
Most of us live busy lives and finding the time for outdoor recreation can be challenging. However, we can incorporate outdoor physical activity into our daily routines by enjoying local parks and trails, going for a power walk at lunch, walking or biking to and from work and spending time with the family outdoors. Making physical activity a part of our day makes it easier to get the amount that we need to stay healthy.
Additionally, CMHA Ontario programs promote physical activity outdoors. Mood Walks reduces barriers and creates opportunities for older adults living with mental health conditions to be physically active. Mood Walks works in partnership with mental health agencies as well as Hike Ontario and Conservation Ontario to launch new walking programs, connect individuals with local hiking clubs, and improve access to parks, hiking trails, conservation areas, and other resources in the community.
Mood Walks is linked to Conservation Ontario’s Healthy Hikes Challenge. Healthy Hikes takes place from May 1 to October 31, 2014 and encourages Ontarians to spend time hiking in the 270 conservation areas available in the province. The program also gives participants the opportunities to track their progress online for a chance to win great prizes.
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"America is in the midst of two major changes to its population: We are becoming majority non-white at the same time a record share is going gray. Explore these shifts in our new interactive data essay."
The findings for England and Wales from the 2011 British Census have now been released. The BBC provides a handy guide to changes by area while The Guardian has a neat infographic and a set of Top 10 Charts. [more inside]
The history of the Sikh Diaspora in USA and Canada goes back to Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 1897. Emerging as a casteless alternative to the ongoing Hindu Muslim wars in India, the Sikhs have always been known as a martial tribe, their prowess and courage respected by the British and others alike. Colloquially addressed respectfully as Sardarji, the men take Singh (lion) as their middle name while the women bear the name Kaur (princess). This custom further confirmed the equality of both genders as was the tradition set by the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak. The first Sikh Organization was The Pacific Coast Khalsa Diwan Society organized in the spring of 1912. [more inside]
The Netanyahu government has paid for US TV ads saying US Israelis will never understand what it means to be Israeli, and American Jews will lose their religion
Recent troubles with Muslim women's clothes have lead to the Quebec Government to begin proposing legislation on the issue of face covering and access to public services. The niqab has become a central symbol in the anti-muslim rhetoric of nationalist parties in Europe (political poster examples: France, Switzerland, and Britain) about the threat Islam poses to tolerant secular societies. [more inside]
Marwa el-Sherbini testified in court against a neighbor who had called her a "terrorist" because she wore the hijab. As she spoke, the man she had accused walked across the courtroom and stabbed her 18 times. In the Muslim world, she is now being referred to as "the headscarf martyr." [more inside]
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How to Lead Games
While this may seem to be a simple task, teaching games to either your troop or at an event, can become a bit over whelming based upon your level of experience. I am by far, no a Game Instructor, but I have led enough games to know when I am in control and when I am not. It is through these experiences that I have learned ‘tactics’ that have worked best for me.
Like songs, games are another element of Girl Scouting that seems to be a natural part of the experience. It also has another great quality, you can virtually teach any type of game in any type of environment. Whether it is indoors or outdoors, races or quiet games, you can rest assure the most significant factor in a game, is in the leadership.
#1. Preparing to Lead Games.
Know your games thoroughly. This cannot be emphasized enough. Plan not only what games you are going to do, but how you are going to present them. Games require almost as much thought, as you would plan a presentation. You should be well versed in each game, its rules or requirements, items or objects needed (if any) and a copy of the game to fall back on in case of memory loss. You also want to vary your games. Active games are great, but add some quiet games in as well. This will keep the environment from becoming far too energetic. Other important factors to remember in leading games are; space requirement, the number of people involved, the age level(s) of the participants, and the average length of each game.
#2. Explaining the Game
The most important part in explaining a game is having the undivided attention of the group participating. There are many ways of getting their attention. For small groups, the Girl Scout Sign should be enough. Larger groups, whether indoors or out, you can use the classic ‘two bits’– (*the leaders calls–dut dut-dut dut-dut, the group replies DUT-DUT!). Last (and this should be used in outdoor environments with either a very large group for relays and races only) – use a whistle.
Once you have the group’s attention, begin explaining the game. You should have your voice loud enough to be heard from the back row, yet speaking slowly enough and distinctly enough so they can hear you the first time. Make sure you have seen or performed the game before hand or have a few people demonstrate the basics (step by step), if you feel it would greatly aid in getting the girls to understand.
Another important factor is to have assistance. Whether it is other leaders, older girl scouts, or parents, make sure they are aware of the game before hand as well. Use their help in spreading the knowledge of the game and its rules. Once the game is in play – let the girls be girls. Shouting and screaming (to a point) is part of the excitement, just making sure you can still gain control of the situation at any time. Remember to encourage fairness and sportsmanship and last but not least, DON’T wear the game out. QUIT while they are still having fun.
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I have two blogs--Mystery Fanfare and DyingforChocolate, and I find that they sometimes overlap. While checking twitter for chocolate news, recipes and info, I came across the Blog Sweets Foods. Yesterday there was a list of natural foods that contain substances potentially harmful to the body. Now, this was a warning, of course, to all the people in cyberspace, but I thought mystery writers and readers could certainly use the knowledge. To what end? Well, that's up to them.
Beans: Favism or fabism or favismo or fabismo is a genetic disease for having a different gen that codify and react against the fava beans producing blood problems and other important ones. Favism (an incurable disease) is found mainly in the contour of the Mediterranean sea with some focus in Africa.
Cassava or yuca (Spanish) or mandioca (Portuguese) and many other names in the world. A staple food tuber that originated in South America and an important source of carbohydrates globally. It has a little quantity of cyanide. Avoid eating raw; cyanide doesn’t need more explanation!
Almonds, the so-called sweet almonds aren’t toxic but a bitter variety has some cyanide. They both can become poisonous in very damp environments…cyanide has the smell of almonds (but you knew that!)
Apricot kernels and other fruit seeds like peaches, pears, cherries, plums, apples contain natural cyanide but the problem begins with exaggerated quantities that have a toxic effect.
Fugu, a Japanese famous fish, contains lethal toxins in several parts of its body. Not available in most pantries.
Green potatoes are poisonous. Avoid using green potatoes or take away the green part of a normal potato. Store potatoes in dark, fresh and dry places because when they're exposed to light, they generate natural toxins.
Nutmeg a classic in cooking, has a narcotic and toxic side in your heath if it's taken in large amounts.
The Jamaican fruit, ackee, can emit a toxic gas if it is forced open before it's ripe!
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A new study published online in the journal Nature Methods finds that the smell of male researchers causes a stress response in mice and rats equivalent to making them swim for three minutes, while female researchers have no effect
Scientists have long used mice and rats as test subjects before developing clinical trials for humans, but a new study suggests the gender of the researchers can influence rodent behavior in a way that could skew their findings.
In a Monday article published online in the journal Nature Methods, researchers at McGill University found that male experimenters cause increased stress levels in lab rodents, while female experimenters does not.
In the presence of men, rats and mice experience a stress response equivalent to swimming for three minutes or being restrained in a tube for 15 minutes. That’s because men secrete many more pheromones, which alert the rodents to the proximity of male animals, than women do. The increased stress makes lab animals of both genders less sensitive to pain, which can influence the results of an experiment.
“Our findings suggest that one major reason for lack of replication of animal studies is the gender of the experimenter — a factor that’s not currently stated in the methods sections of published papers,” Robert Sorge, a psychology professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham who led the study at McGill, said in a statement.
The study marks the first time researchers have directly demonstrated what scientists have long suspected: the rodents’ awareness of the researchers, according to senior author Jeffrey Mogil, who joked that one solution to the discovery was to “fire all the men.”
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The Wall Street Journal Guide to Information Graphics
The Dos and Don'ts of Presenting Data, Facts, and Figures
The definitive guide to the graphic presentation of information.
In today’s data-driven world, professionals need to know how to express themselves in the language of graphics effectively and eloquently. Yet information graphics is rarely taught in schools or is the focus of on-the-job training. Now, for the first time, Dona M. Wong, a student of the information graphics pioneer Edward Tufte, makes this material available for all of us. In this book, you will learn:
- to choose the best chart that fits your data;
- the most effective way to communicate with decision makers when you have five minutes of their time;
- how to chart currency fluctuations that affect global business;
- how to use color effectively;
- how to make a graphic “colorful” even if only black and white are available.
The book is organized in a series of mini-workshops backed up with illustrated examples, so not only will you learn what works and what doesn’t but also you can see the dos and don’ts for yourself. This is an invaluable reference work for students and professional in all fields.
- December 2013
- 7.1 × 9.3 in
/ 160 pages
- Sales Territory: Worldwide
Endorsements & Reviews
“An essential reference for anyone who needs to effectively convey quantitative information using graphs. Everyone will learn something from reading this book.” — Joseph Tracy, executive vice president and director of research, Federal Reserve Bank of New York
“Dona Wong’s outstanding new book artfully blends lessons on data analysis and graphic design. She shows us how to make our complex, confusing graphs and presentations both simple and powerful.” — Peter Tufano, Coleman Professor of Financial Management, Harvard Business School
“We live in an increasingly data-driven world, and Dona Wong does a masterful job of explaining how to make data come alive and tell the truth in an engaging way.” — Mark Zandi, chief economist, Moody’s Economy.com
“Dona Wong’s professional advice advances the art of information graphics.” — Gene Zelazny, director of visual communications, McKinsey & Company
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Historically, penguins were hunted for their meat, feathers, fat and eggs. Plus, their droppings (guano) were highly valued as garden fertilizer. Layers of clay-like guano, hundreds of feet deep, were removed, depriving temperate penguins of nesting burrows. Penguin populations never fully recovered from these activities. Today there are new threats to penguins, and many species are in danger.
Big oil spills are horrible events. The Treasure oil spill put nearly 40,000 penguins at risk. But, perpetual small leaks, illegal dumping and poor regulations are actually much greater threats to penguins and other marine life.
Oil tankers are designed to travel the open seas fully laden with oil, and they would be dangerously unstable with empty holds. In order to counteract this risk, empty oil tankers will pump ocean water into their holds. This ballast water provides the necessary weight to allow the ship to move safely to its next port, where it should pump the water from its tanks in order to prevent it from polluting the sea.
This process is highly regulated, but unevenly enforced, and many tankers empty their tanks directly into the sea before entering port. Illegal dumping saves the ship some time, and often some money, but it puts local marine life at significant risk. The ballast water is contaminated with oil from the ship’s hold. No oil spill has occurred, but an oil slick has been created. This unsavory practice is all too common, and extremely difficult to prevent. As a result, oil slicks are a nearly constant feature near many of the world’s
Oil kills penguins. It coats their feathers, leaving them without much-needed insulation. Penguins then ingest the toxic oil when they attempt to clean their feathers. The swallowed oil can cause stomach lesions and may depress their immune systems. The oiled penguin is helpless to save itself. Being rescued and cleaned is their only hope.
In many parts of the world, penguins nest on the same beaches where people work, play or relax. In the past, penguins would lose when penguins and people wanted to use the same stretch of beach or scrub habitat. Today, penguin nesting habitats are beginning to be protected, although habitat loss remains a significant threat for many of the world’s penguins.
In recent years, as commercial fishing has become more efficient, people have been catching and eating more fish than ever before. Commercial fishing has depleted some fish populations to such a degree that there are sometimes not enough fish left to feed penguins and other fish-eating marine animals. This is a particular problem near popular penguin breeding sites. There, hundreds or thousands of adult penguins may be concentrated for weeks or months, fishing heavily to feed themselves and their growing chicks.
Most birds can escape to the safety of the air if a predator threatens, but flightless birds can only walk, run, waddle or swim away from their predators. Because of this, flightless birds have a long and tragic history of extinctions following the introduction of nonnative predators or competitors. Many flightless birds evolved on small, predator-free islands, and have no natural defenses. Such was the case for the dodo, which survived barely 200 years past its discovery.
Today, introduced predators are threatening many penguin species. On New Zealand, introduced rats steal little blue penguin eggs and newly hatched chicks, while foxes, dogs and cats stalk adult penguins. In New Zealand and elsewhere, scientists and conservationists are working on the nearly impossible task
of finding ways to control or remove introduced species.
Global climate change may result in shifting ocean currents, rising temperatures, melting ice caps and a myriad of other threats to penguins and other creatures. Antarctica’s penguins—which have been largely spared most other human-caused threats—may suffer the most from climate change. These birds like the cold. They need the cold.
Emperor penguins, the lovable stars of the blockbuster March of the Penguins, rely on the shrimplike krill for the majority of their diet. These krill, in turn, rely on sea ice, which leads to greater algae production. Less algae is produced in summers when the sea ice shrinks due to rising temperatures. Less algae leads to less krill, which means hungry penguins and starving chicks.
How people can help penguins
Penguins are cute and lovable. But, as much as we adore them, many penguin species are facing multiple threats in the wild. And, people are a big part of the problem. Thankfully, people can also be a big part of the solution.
Take care of the oceans
The world’s oceans are all connected and no matter where we live, our daily actions have an impact on them. Help keep the oceans clean by disposing of your trash properly, and picking up litter on the beach or in the street.
Help slow climate change
Global climate change may cause temperatures to increase, ice caps to melt and ocean levels to rise. Help slow climate change by reducing your daily energy use and driving less often.
Make a donation
By supporting the New England Aquarium, you support penguins and conservation efforts here and around the world.
Sponsor a penguin
Sponsor a penguin through our Proud Parent Animal Adoption Program. For more information, call 617-
The Aquarium relies on volunteers to help feed our fishes, care for our penguins and educate our visitors. For more information see our Volunteering section or contact us at firstname.lastname@example.org or 617-973-5235.
Share your knowledge with others
When you introduce your friends and family to penguins, you are helping by sharing your knowledge with others. Bring a friend or family member to visit the penguins at the Aquarium. Talk with your friends about the threats facing penguins and other sea creatures. And stay informed about conservation efforts.
Other conservation measures
Currently all 18 species of penguins are legally protected from hunting and egg collecting. At least 10 of the 17 species are considered at risk. The Antarctic Treaty was signed by 12 nations in 1959 and reauthorized in 1991 to protect Antarctica and preserve its living resources. The treaty makes it illegal to harm, or in any way interfere with, a penguin or its eggs. Every penguin specimen collected with a permit must be approved by and reported to the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research. Education and
awareness programs play a significant role in conservation. Many aquariums, zoos and other organizations are constantly educating people about penguins.
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Although gastric cancer has declined dramatically in the US, the disease remains the second leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. A better understanding of reasons for the decline can provide important insights into effective preventive strategies. We sought to estimate the contribution of risk factor trends on past and future intestinal-type noncardia gastric adenocarcinoma (NCGA) incidence.
Methods and Findings
We developed a population-based microsimulation model of intestinal-type NCGA and calibrated it to US epidemiologic data on precancerous lesions and cancer. The model explicitly incorporated the impact of Helicobacter pylori and smoking on disease natural history, for which birth cohort-specific trends were derived from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Between 1978 and 2008, the model estimated that intestinal-type NCGA incidence declined 60% from 11.0 to 4.4 per 100,000 men, <3% discrepancy from national statistics. H. pylori and smoking trends combined accounted for 47% (range = 30%–58%) of the observed decline. With no tobacco control, incidence would have declined only 56%, suggesting that lower smoking initiation and higher cessation rates observed after the 1960s accelerated the relative decline in cancer incidence by 7% (range = 0%–21%). With continued risk factor trends, incidence is projected to decline an additional 47% between 2008 and 2040, the majority of which will be attributable to H. pylori and smoking (81%; range = 61%–100%). Limitations include assuming all other risk factors influenced gastric carcinogenesis as one factor and restricting the analysis to men.
Trends in modifiable risk factors explain a significant proportion of the decline of intestinal-type NCGA incidence in the US, and are projected to continue. Although past tobacco control efforts have hastened the decline, full benefits will take decades to be realized, and further discouragement of smoking and reduction of H. pylori should be priorities for gastric cancer control efforts.
Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary
Cancer of the stomach (gastric cancer) is responsible for a tenth of all cancer deaths world-wide, with an estimated 700,000 people dying from this malignancy every year, making it the second most common cause of global cancer-related deaths after lung cancer. Unfortunately, the projected global burden of this disease estimate that deaths from gastric cancer will double by 2030. Gastric cancer has a poor prognosis with only a quarter of people with this type of cancer surviving more than five years. In order to reduce deaths, it is therefore of utmost importance to identify and reduce the modifiable risk factors associated with gastric cancer. Smoking and chronic gastric infection with the bacteria Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), are known to be two common modifiable risk factors for gastric cancer, particularly for a type of gastric cancer called intestinal-type noncardia gastric adenocarcinoma (NCGA), which occurs at the distal end of the stomach and accounts for more than half of all cases of gastric cancer in US men.
Why Was This Study Done?
H. pylori initiates a precancerous process, and so infection with this bacteria can increase intestinal-type NCGA risk by as much as 6-fold while smoking doubles cancer risk by advancing increasing progression of existing lesions. Changes in these two risk factors over the past century (especially following the US Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health in 1964) have led to a dramatic decline in the rates of gastric cancer in US men. Understanding the combined effects of underlying risk factor trends on health outcomes for intestinal-type NCGA at the population level can help to predict future cancer trends and burden in the US. So in this study, the researchers used a mathematical model to estimate the contribution of H. pylori and smoking trends on the decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence in US men.
What Did the Researchers Do and Find?
The researchers used birth cohorts derived from data in two national databases, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) to develop a population-based model of intestinal-type NCGA. To ensure model predictions were consistent with epidemiologic data, the researchers calibrated the model to data on cancer and precancerous lesions and using the model, projected population outcomes between 1978 and 2040 for a base-case scenario (in which all risk factor trends were allowed to vary over time). The researchers then evaluated alternative risk factors scenarios to provide insights on the potential benefit of past and future efforts to control gastric cancer.
Using these methods, the researchers estimated that the incidence of intestinal-type NCGA (standardized by age) fell from 11.0 to 4.4 per 100,000 men between 1978 and 2008, a drop of 60%. When the researchers incorporated only H. pylori prevalence and smoking trends into the model (both of which fell dramatically over the time period) they found that intestinal-type NCGA incidence fell by only 28% (from 12.7 to 9.2 per 100,000 men), suggesting that H. pylori and smoking trends are responsible for 47% of the observed decline. The researchers found that H. pylori trends alone were responsible for 43% of the decrease in cancer but smoking trends were responsible for only a 3% drop. The researchers also found evidence that after the 1960s, observed trends in lower smoking initiation and higher cessation accelerated the decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence by 7%. Finally, the researchers found that intestinal-type NCGA incidence is projected to decline an additional 47% between 2008 and 2040 (4.4 to 2.3 per 100,000 men) with H. pylori and smoking trends accounting for more than 80% of the observed fall.
What Do These Findings Mean?
These findings suggest that, combined with a fall in smoking rates, almost half of the observed fall in rates of intestinal-type NCGA cancer in US men between 1978 and 2008 was attributable to the decline in infection rates of H. pylori. Rates for this cancer are projected to continue to fall by 2040, with trends for both H. pylori infection and smoking accounting for more than 80% of the observed fall, highlighting the importance of the relationship between risk factors changes over time and achieving long-term reduction in cancer rates. This study is limited by the assumptions made in the model and in that it only examined one type of gastric cancer and excluded women. Nevertheless, this modeling study highlights that continued efforts to reduce rates of smoking and H. pylori infection will help to reduce rates of gastric cancer.
Please access these Web sites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001451.
Citation: Yeh JM, Hur C, Schrag D, Kuntz KM, Ezzati M, Stout N, et al. (2013) Contribution of H. pylori and Smoking Trends to US Incidence of Intestinal-Type Noncardia Gastric Adenocarcinoma: A Microsimulation Model. PLoS Med 10(5): e1001451. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001451
Academic Editor: Jonathan M. Samet, University of Southern California, United States of America
Received: November 16, 2012; Accepted: April 5, 2013; Published: May 21, 2013
Copyright: © 2013 Yeh et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: JMY was funded by the National Institutes of Health's National Cancer Institute (K07-CA143044). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Abbreviations: GC, gastric cancer; NCGA, noncardia gastric adenocarcinoma; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NHIS, National Health Interview Survey; SEER, Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results
Gastric cancer (GC) is the second most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, responsible for an estimated 700,000 deaths each year (10.4% of all cancer deaths) . Based on current age-specific rates of GC and projected demographic changes, the annual number of expected deaths worldwide will increase to 1.4 million in 2030. Once diagnosed, the prognosis and treatment options are poor, with less than 27% surviving more than 5 y . Reducing GC incidence through modification of risk factors may therefore be the most effective way to reduce GC mortality.
In the US, GC was the leading cause of cancer-related deaths among men in the early 1900s. While it has fallen dramatically since then, the precise reasons for the “unplanned triumph” are not well-established , though broadly attributed to improvements in living conditions and availability of refrigeration. The decline has been more pronounced for noncardia cancers, in particular intestinal-type tumors for which H. pylori infection is the leading risk factor . Recent evidence suggests that cardia cancers may be increasing in frequency ,. Although histologic subtypes are sometimes difficult to distinguish, these trends in cancer incidence may suggest possible differences in tumor biology.
Intestinal-type noncardia gastric adenocarcinoma (NCGA), which accounts for over 50% of all GC cases in the US , develops through a series of relatively well-defined histological steps over several decades , and the influence of H. pylori and smoking influence on the carcinogenesis process have been well-described by epidemiologic studies –. By initiating the precancerous process, H. pylori infection increases intestinal-type NCGA risk by as much as 6-fold , while smoking elevates cancer risk by 2-fold by increasing progression risk of existing lesions to more advanced lesions . As intestinal-type NCGA incidence has fallen over the past century, prevalence of both risk factors has also drastically changed. Only 33% of adults are currently infected with H. pylori , and after peaking to more than 50% in the 1955, smoking rates have declined to 20% since the 1964 publication of the first US Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health –. Other risk factors, including genetic factors and diet (e.g., low intake of fresh fruits and vegetables and/or high salt intake), are also important, although their effects on the gastric carcinogenesis are less well-understood.
Understanding the combined effects of underlying risk factor trends on population-level intestinal-type NCGA outcomes can help to predict future cancer trends and burden in the US and globally. While data on H. pylori prevalence and smoking rates in the US are available from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) , these databases do not contain information on GC. Similarly, the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program provides estimates of population-based cancer incidence, but lacks data on risk factors.
We employ a mathematical modeling framework capable of integrating available epidemiologic, clinical, and demographic data to understand the effect of risk factor trends on past and future population-level intestinal-type NCGA incidence rates among US men. Specifically, we aim to estimate the contribution of H. pylori and smoking trends on the decline in cancer incidence and explore the magnitude by which anti-smoking campaigns following the US Surgeon General's 1964 Report on Smoking and Health accelerated the decline.
We developed a population-based microsimulation model of intestinal-type NCGA to estimate the impact of observed risk factor trends on past and future cancer incidence for US men (Figure 1). We focused on this subset of GCs, defined by criteria proposed and used by Lauren , Henson et al., , and Wu et al. , as the precancerous process and role of risk factors for this histologically distinct subgroup of distally located tumors has been well-established. The model explicitly incorporated the impact of H. pylori and smoking on disease natural history. To accomplish this, birth cohort trends were derived from NHANES and NHIS data, and the model was calibrated to US data on precancerous lesions and cancer to ensure model predictions were consistent with epidemiologic data. Using the model, we projected population-based intestinal-type NCGA outcomes between 1978 and 2040 in which all risk factor trends were allowed to vary over time (base-case scenario). We then used the model to evaluate alternative risk factor scenarios to provide insights on the potential benefit of past and future GC control efforts.
This figure depicts the three components of our trend analysis: (1) development of a population-based intestinal-type NCGA microsimulation model, which explicitly incorporates birth cohort-specific risk factor trends, background mortality rates, and population size, and identifies natural history progression rates via model calibration to US epidemiologic data; (2) projection of intestinal-type NCGA outcomes between 2008 and 2040 for the base case (all risk factor trends) using a subset of 50 randomly selected good-fitting parameter sets (identified via model calibration); and (3) estimation of intestinal-type NCGA outcomes under alternative risk factor or tobacco control scenarios for insights on GC control.
Intestinal-Type NCGA Natural History Microsimulation Model
To allow for greater flexibility in capturing multiple dimensions of heterogeneity, we refined a previously described intestinal-type NCGA natural history model to function as a microsimulation model that simulates individuals within multiple 5-y birth cohorts (born between 1881 and 2025) to generate population-based cancer outcomes for men between 1978 and 2040. In the model, intestinal-type NCGA develops through a series of precancerous lesions, which may progress to dysplasia and eventually invasive cancer (Figure 2). At the start of the simulation, 20-y-old individuals are assigned a birth cohort-specific risk factor profile and enter the model. Each month, using rates derived via previously described model calibration methods (see Table 1 and Text S1) , individuals face a risk of progression among the health states. On the basis of epidemiologic studies, we assumed that in addition to causing gastritis, H. pylori increases the risk of atrophy , while smoking increases the risk of progression to intestinal metaplasia and dysplasia ,.
Intestinal-type NCGA develops through a series of precancerous health states as depicted. Each month, individuals face a risk of progression among the health states. Before invasive cancer develops, individuals can also regress to less advanced precancerous lesions. Individuals with preclinical (asymptomatic) cancer can remain asymptomatic or progress to symptomatic clinical cancer. Once individuals develop symptomatic cancer, they are assumed to receive treatment and do not progress to more advanced cancer states. All probabilities are constant, except for the age-specific transition from dysplasia to preclinical cancer.
For each individual, we assigned H. pylori status at age 20 based on NHANES data (Figure 3). As H. pylori infection is acquired in childhood and persists unless treated with antibiotics ,, we assumed that an individual's status remained unchanged throughout their lifetime. Smoking profiles for each individual, including initiation and cessation age, were derived from the NHIS-based Smoking History Generator (SHG) developed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Cancer Intervention and Surveillance Modeling Network (CISNET) (Figure 3) ,. As the impact of smoking on disease progression varies by intensity ,, we categorized smokers into four subgroups: low (<10 cigarettes per day [CPD]), moderate (10–19 CPD), heavy (≥20 CPD), and former smokers. The effect of smoking cessation on disease progression was also assumed to be immediate upon quitting, with progression rates declining and remaining at former smoker levels.
(A) H. pylori prevalence at age 20 for birth cohorts between 1881 and 2020 based on NHANES III and Continuous NHANES (1999–2000) data. For pre-1900 and post-1980 birth cohorts for which data were unavailable, we extrapolated the observed 7.1% rate of decline between successive 5-y birth cohorts between the 1901–1905 and 1976–1980. (B) The proportion of current smokers by 5-y birth cohorts between 1891 and 2020 (starting at age 20). For birth cohorts born after 1983 (and cohorts with individuals still alive past calendar year 2000) for which data from the NHIS-based Smoking History Generator were unavailable, we extrapolated observed trends and extended profiles until all individuals either died or reached 100 y of age. Specifically, for post-1983 birth cohorts, we assumed that smoking rates peaked at age 20, initiation rates declined by 5.7% every 5 birth cohort years, and the annual risk of cessation remained constant at 2% ,.
Given the multifactorial etiology of intestinal-type NCGA, factors other than H. pylori and smoking have contributed to the observed decline in cancer incidence. As such, we allowed birth cohort-specific disease risk to vary over time, an approach commonly used in population-based microsimulation models . Specifically, as multi-stage models of gastric carcinogenesis suggest exposures early on are likely responsible for incidence declines among successive birth cohorts ,,, we operationalized the “all other risk factors” effect as a constant exponential rate of decline on the risk of developing atrophy beginning with the 1901 birth cohort.
To reflect changes in all-cause background mortality, we used birth cohort-specific life tables obtained from the Berkeley Mortality Database (http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/~bmd/) and US Social Security Administration , and adjusted for smoking intensity using relative risk estimates from the American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study II (CPS-II) (see Text S1) .
Model Outcomes and Uncertainty Analysis
Model outcomes included age-standardized incidence, number of annual cases, and number of total cases for intestinal-type NCGA. For age-standardized cancer incidence, we used the US 2000 standard population for comparability to SEER estimates (assuming cancer risk among individuals less than 20 y old was negligible) . For annual number of cases, we incorporated population size estimates from the US Census Bureau into the model to reflect the impact of population growth and ageing on cancer cases . The model also projected the prevalence of precancerous lesions among individuals 20 y and older.
To reflect the impact of disease natural history uncertainty on modeled outcomes, using previously described calibration methods , we identified multiple parameter sets that fit equally well to epidemiologic data on age-specific precancerous lesions prevalence and GC incidence . Among the good-fitting parameter sets identified, we randomly selected a subset of 50 parameter sets for this analysis and report the mean and range (minimum, maximum) for all model outcomes. See Text S1 for additional details on model development and calibration.
Intestinal-Type NCGA Projections between 1978 and 2040: Scenarios
For our base-case scenario, we incorporated all observed risk factor trends and projected intestinal-type NCGA outcomes over two time periods: 1978–2008 and 2008–2040. To explore the impact of alternative risk factor scenarios, we re-ran the model for several other risk factor scenarios and compared model outcomes with the base-case scenario. First, to estimate the combined contribution of H. pylori and smoking trends on cancer outcomes over time, we allowed only H. pylori and smoking trends to vary (e.g., “all other risk factors” halted at pre-1900 levels). We also estimated the contribution of individual risk factors by allowing each risk factor to vary (i.e., H. pylori) while holding the rates of the other two risk factors (i.e., smoking patterns and “all other risk factors”) constant at pre-1900 birth cohort levels.
For insight on the relative impact of the lower smoking initiation and higher cessation rates that were observed after the 1964 Report on Smoking and Health , we evaluated two additional hypothetical scenarios, previously described in the context of lung cancer ,: (1) no tobacco control, in which mid-century tobacco control efforts were assumed to have never been implemented, and (2) complete tobacco control, in which all smoking ceased abruptly in 1965, with all smokers quitting permanently in 1965 and no smoking initiation after 1964.
For each scenario, we calculated the percent decline in cancer incidence over two time periods: 1978–2008 and 2008–2040. To understand the effects of risk factors and tobacco control, we also report the relative contribution of alternative risk factor scenarios to the base-case scenario decline in cancer incidence (defined as the risk factor scenario percent decline divided by base-case scenario percent decline, and reported as a percentage).
Age-Standardized Intestinal-Type NCGA Incidence
Historical trends, 1978 to 2008.
For our base case, reflecting all observed risk trends, the model estimated that the age-standardized intestinal-type NCGA incidence declined from 11.0 to 4.4 per 100,000 men between 1978 and 2008 (60% decline), less than a 3% discrepancy with SEER estimates for that period (Table 2) .
When only observed H. pylori prevalence and smoking trends were incorporated in the model (e.g., “all other risk factors” held constant at pre-1900 birth cohort levels), intestinal-type NCGA incidence decreased by 28% (12.7 to 9.2 per 100,000 men). This suggests that H. pylori and smoking trends are responsible for 47% (range = 30%–58%) of the observed cancer decline (Figure 4). Evaluated individually, H. pylori (43%; range = 35%–48%) and “all other risk factors” (82%; range = 70%–93%) were responsible for a significant proportion of the cancer decline; in contrast, smoking was responsible for a much smaller fraction (3%; range = 0%–17%). Among the 50 good-fitting parameter sets, the proportion attributable to “all other risk factors” was consistently greater than for H. pylori, and the proportion for H. pylori was greater than for smoking.
(A–C) Age-standardized intestinal-type NCGA incidence for select scenarios. Mean (solid line) and range (shaded area) among the 50 randomly selected good-fitting parameter sets are shown. (A) Cancer incidence for the base-case scenario (all risk factor trends) (black) and H. pylori and smoking only scenario (light blue). (B) Cancer incidence for the base-case scenario (black) and “no tobacco control” scenario (light blue). (C) Cancer incidence for the base-case scenario (black) and “complete tobacco control” scenario (light blue). Ranges were calculated across all 50 parameter sets and smoothed with a 3-y moving average.
Under the “no tobacco control” scenario, the model estimated that age-standardized intestinal-type NCGA incidence declined 56% (11.4 to 5.0 per 100,000 men) (Figure 4). This finding suggests that the lower smoking initiation and higher cessation rates observed after the 1960s accelerated the relative decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence by 7% (calculated as the base case percent decline divided by the “no tobacco control” percent decline = 107.4); the relative decline ranged from 0% to 21% among the 50 good-fitting parameter sets. Under the “complete tobacco control” scenario, compared with the base case, the relative decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence would have been greater by 6% (range = 0%–14%) (Figure 4).
Projected trends, 2008 to 2040.
For the base case, with continuation of risk factor trends, intestinal-type NCGA incidence is projected to decline an additional 47% between 2008 and 2040 (4.4 to 2.3 per 100,000 men) (Table 2). During this period, H. pylori and smoking trends would account for 81% (range = 61%–100%) of the observed cancer incidence decline. Evaluated separately, trends in H. pylori (46%; range = 35%–66%), smoking (42%; range = 29%–67%), and “all other risk factors” (40%; range = 12%–69%) would each account for a substantial proportion of the projected decline. H. pylori trends were responsible for a greater proportion of the observed decline in 22 of the 50 good-fitting parameter sets (44%) than either of the other two risk factors.
Under the “no tobacco control” scenario, the model projected that between 2008 and 2040, intestinal-type NCGA incidence would decline 30% (5.0 to 3.5 per 100,000 men). This implies that during this time period, smoking behavior changes beginning in the 1960s would accelerate the relative decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence by 56% (range = 20%–117%) (as compared to 7% [range = 0%–21%] between 1978 and 2008). Similarly, had “complete tobacco control” occurred in 1965, the relative decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence between 2008 and 2040 would also be greater by 16% (range = 0%–41%) (versus 6% [range = 0%–14%] between 1978 and 2008).
Number of Intestinal-Type NCGA Cases
Reflecting the combined effects of changing risk factor trends and population growth and ageing on cancer outcomes (in contrast to age-standardized cancer incidence), the model estimated that between 1978 and 2008, the annual number of intestinal-type NCGA cases for the base case fell by 33% (6,180 to 4,160 cases) (range = 24%–41%) (Table 3). Between 2008 and 2040, the number of cases continued to decline by 10% (to 3,760 cases). As a result of the uncertainty in the combined effects of continued risk factor trends and population growth, the percent change among the 50 good-fitting parameter sets ranged from a 31% decline to a 12% increase during this period.
Under the “no tobacco control” scenario, the relative annual number of intestinal-type NCGA cases decreased by 30% (range = 21%–38%) between 1978 and 2008, and by 12% between 2008 and 2040 (Figure 5). Among the 50 good-fitting parameter sets, there was considerable uncertainty in the 2008–2040 estimates, ranging from a relative 8% decrease to a relative 30% increase in annual number of cases. Compared to base-case estimates, this suggests that anti-smoking efforts averted a total of 5,770 cases (3%; range = 0%–7%) between 1978 and 2008, and potentially as many as 22,470 cases (15%; range = 6%–23%) between 2008 and 2040. Had “complete tobacco control” in 1965 been possible, compared to the base-case scenario, an additional 19,890 cases (7%; range = 0.2%–13%) could have been potentially averted during the overall 1978 to 2040 time period (Figure 5).
These figures show the number of annual incident intestinal-type NCGC cases. Mean (solid line) and range (shaded area) among the 50 randomly selected good-fitting parameter sets are shown. (A) Cancer cases for the base-case scenario (black) and “no tobacco control” scenario (light blue). (B) Cancer cases for the base-case scenario (black) and “complete tobacco control” scenario (light blue). Ranges were calculated across all 50 parameter sets and smoothed with a 3-y moving average.
Prevalence of Precancerous Gastric Lesions
Between 1978 and 2008, the model estimated that age-standardized prevalence of intestinal metaplasia and dysplasia both declined by approximately 50% between 1978 and 2008 (intestinal metaplasia range = 41%–56%; dysplasia range = 48%–58%). The decline is projected to continue, though at slower rates between 2008 and 2040 (intestinal metaplasia range = 20%–39%; dysplasia range = 30%–46%) (Figure 6).
For individuals 20 y and older, age-standardized prevalence of intestinal metaplasia (dark blue) and dysplasia (light blue) are shown in this graph. Mean (solid line) and range (shaded region) among the 50 randomly selected good fitting parameter sets are shown to reflect the impact of natural history uncertainty on prevalence estimates.
The US decline in GC has been remarkable over the past century. While H. pylori is estimated to be responsible for the majority of distal tumors , the effect of declining childhood infection rates on intestinal-type NCGA over time has not been previously estimated. Incorporating the best available epidemiologic, etiologic, and demographic data, our microsimulation model analysis suggests that, in combination with changes in smoking patterns, nearly 50% of the observed cancer decline between 1978 and 2008 is attributable to the decline in H. pylori infection rates. Further, the decline in cancer incidence is projected to continue through 2040, with the contribution of H. pylori and smoking increasing to 80%. As with intestinal-type NCGA risk, the absolute number of cancer cases has also declined each year, though at a projected slower rate between 2008 and 2040 due to the combined effects of continued risk factor trends and demographic changes.
Our model-based findings highlight the challenges and successes of prevention efforts for GC. We found that a significant time lag exists between the implementation of any risk factor modification and population-level effects, even those that target progression rates of advanced lesions. For example, our model estimated that following the US Surgeon General's first report on the consequences of smoking, tobacco control efforts beginning in the mid-1960s accelerated the decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence by only 7% between 1978 and 2008. However, in the following 22-y period, the decline may increase by 8-fold to 56%. In addition, we estimate that tobacco control efforts will avert 9% (28,000 cases) of intestinal-type NCGA cases between 1978 and 2040. In conjunction with the estimated 34% of lung cancer deaths averted among men between 1975 and 2000 , our estimates for GC provide further evidence of the health benefits of tobacco control.
Several other important insights can be gained from our findings. First, compared to smoking, the contribution of H. pylori on the decline in intestinal-type NCGA was several-fold greater between 1978 and 2008, but equal in magnitude between 2008 and 2040, reflecting the differential time trends for each risk factor. H. pylori prevalence began to decline in the early 1900s while smoking rates increased until the mid-1950s and declined in the following decades. In addition, the sum of the individual contributions for H. pylori and smoking exceeded the decline estimated with both concurrent trends. This illustrates the underlying risk factor dynamics on gastric carcinogenesis. Because H. pylori affects disease progression early on, and smoking at more advanced stages, as H. pylori prevalence declines, fewer people develop advanced lesions and benefit from lower smoking rates. As such, reductions in these two risk factors do not appear to be additive in their effects on cancer incidence, which is consistent with each risk factor influencing a different but sequential step in gastric carcinogenesis. These findings could have significant implications for GC control strategies.
Second, we attempted to calibrate our model by incorporating only H. pylori and smoking trends, but were unable to fit to the decline observed in SEER between 1978 and 2008 until we allowed the probability of developing atrophy to decline exponentially among consecutive 5-y birth cohorts. This finding suggests that changes in other risk factors are needed to explain the decline in intestinal-type NCGA incidence over time, and, according to our model, specifically risk factors that changed substantially during the first half of the 20th century. Availability of refrigeration may be one of these risk factors. Rates of US refrigeration rose steadily during the early 20th century , and data from Japan suggest that GC mortality rates declined as the proportion of households with refrigeration increased . The underlying mechanism of refrigeration on intestinal-type NCGA risk likely stems from reduced salt consumption, and possibly increased intake of fresh fruits and vegetables . Consistent with our findings, clinical studies suggest that the salt intake may act synergistically with H. pylori to promote the development of GC –. In addition, our model suggests that H. pylori is largely responsible for the progression of gastritis to atrophy (relative risk ranged from 16 to 41 among the good-fitting natural history parameter sets identified via model calibration).
Other risk factors that may explain the observed decline in intestinal-type NCGA include genetic profiles, virulence of H. pylori strain, and bacterial/host genotypic features . However, these factors are not likely to have dramatically changed over time. Use of histamine-2-reception antagonists and proton pump inhibitors, the most common treatment for gastric acid production reduction, has changed over time. Yet evidence on the associated intestinal-type NCGA risk for these pharmacological treatments is inconclusive . In addition, with both not having been introduced until the 1970s or 1980s, they are unlikely to explain the decrease in risk that our model suggestions should have started in the early 1900s.
Third, our model demonstrates the importance of considering the temporal relationships between risk factor changes and the attainment of long-term benefits on cancer outcomes. As the decline in H. pylori infection rates (albeit at different rates) and the tobacco epidemic are global phenomena, and the multifactorial etiology of intestinal-type NCGA is largely driven by these two risk factors, our findings provide important insight on the potential expected declines in other countries and may be in particular generalizable for countries experiencing similar risk factor trends. Because of the variability in risk factor trend magnitude and timing, the contribution of H. pylori and smoking to the decline of cancer incidence will depend on country-specific trends and the underlying temporal relationship between the risk factors. For example, countries experiencing declines in H. pylori prevalence during the initial stages of the tobacco epidemic (where uptake of smoking has not yet plateaued) will likely have smaller reductions in cancer outcomes than countries that are undergoing declines in both risk factors at the same time. The influence of other risk factor trends in each country will be an important consideration as well.
Fourth, recent trend analyses suggest that while age-standardized NCGA rates are declining overall ,,–, age-specific rates may be increasing ,. Our analyses found that among younger individuals, age-specific intestinal-type NCGA rates have declined and are projected to continue to decline because of H. pylori, smoking, and other risk factor trends. This was true even in the “no tobacco control” scenario (see Text S1). The increase is likely not related to changes (or rather lack of changes) in smoking behaviors. We also found that along with age-standardized intestinal-type NCGA incidence, prevalence of intestinal metaplasia and dysplasia has significantly declined over time. This is relevant from a clinical standpoint as the rise in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and endoscopy use has resulted in detection of incidental precancerous lesions. Our model suggests that with continued risk factor trends, between 2008 and 2040, the prevalence will not vary greatly for intestinal metaplasia (4%–6%) or dysplasia (<1%), and are similar to estimates for the Netherlands (9.5% and 0.7% in 2004).
While simulation modeling has been used to better understand the impact of lifestyle changes and cancer control measures on colorectal , lung , and breast cancer incidence and mortality, our approach has several limitations. First, we assumed all other risk factors influenced gastric carcinogenesis as one factor early on in the precancerous process. Other environmental factors, or rather a combination, may in reality have affected the probability of developing atrophy and/or other disease transitions over time. Smoking may have affected gastric carcinogenesis at other points as well. As data on additional risk factors and their impact on precancerous process become available, our model can be updated and revised to reflect these changes. In particular, incorporating salt intake or other dietary risk factors into the model may help to further understand the contribution of risk factor changes to the decline in cancer incidence. We focused only on intestinal-type NCGA, and H. pylori and smoking affect the risk for other types of GC, including mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas . However, a strength of our study is to look specifically at trends in noncardia intestinal gastric adenocarcinoma, as previous descriptive studies of SEER have been unable to examine trends by individual subsite or by Lauren classification due to incomplete reporting and small numbers .
In addition, our natural history parameters are based on model calibration, and are surrounded by uncertainty. We sought to explicitly capture the impact of natural history uncertainty on modeled outcomes by using a random subset of 50 good-fitting parameter sets to provide upper and lower bounds of results. Our model-based approach required several simplifying assumptions, such as assuming the effect of smoking cessation on disease progression rates was immediate or that the relative risk associated with smoking for background mortality was constant across birth cohorts, but were based on the best data available ,,. Birth cohort risk factor trends were estimated from national surveys, which may be biased and underestimate the true prevalence of H. pylori or smoking. For example, we also did not account for changes in H. pylori treatment and/or endoscopy rates, which may have caused us to underestimate the proportion of intestinal-type NCGA incidence attributable to changes in H. pylori prevalence.
We also only focused on men. While the decline in H. pylori prevalence has been similar, the smoking epidemic among women has been quite distinct from men ,. Absolute intestinal-type NCGA risk is also lower among women . As such, our results likely provide an upper bound estimate on the proportion of intestinal-type NCGA incidence among women attributable to declining H. pylori and smoking trends; specific analyses are needed to provide more accurate estimates for women and the overall population. In addition, our projections may not fully account for the impact of projected rates of immigration of individuals from high GC risk countries. As GC risk is largely determined by exposures early on in life, cancer projections may be especially sensitive to the increasing proportion of individuals who migrate to the US after childhood, particularly if their risk factor profiles differ from the average NHANES and NHIS patterns on which our model was based. NHANES and NHIS data also suggest that H. pylori and smoking trends have varied by race/ethnicity, and it is unclear whether risk factor trends have widened or narrowed observed disparities in intestinal-type NCGA risk. As such, next steps in our efforts to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the US decline of GC include expanding our model-based approach to women and race/ethnicity subgroups by incorporating underlying differential risk factor trends to explore their combined effects on population-level cancer outcomes and disparities.
In conclusion, trends in modifiable risk factors explain a significant proportion of the decline of intestinal-type NCGA incidence in the US, and will contribute to future decline. While lower H. pylori infection rates have reduced cancer risk, other environmental factors may be equally important. Although past tobacco control efforts have hastened the decline, the full benefits will take several decades to be realized, and further discouragement of smoking and reduction of H. pylori infection should be priorities for GC control efforts.
Additional supporting information.
We gratefully thank the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Cancer Intervention and Surveillance Modeling Network (CISNET) Lung Group for pre-publication access to the Smoking History Generator. We also thank John Ayanian and Ellen McCarthy for their guidance with secondary dataset analysis.
Conceived and designed the experiments: JMY CH DS KMK ME NS ZW SJG. Performed the experiments: JMY ZW. Analyzed the data: JMY CH DS KMK ME NS ZW SJG. Wrote the first draft of the manuscript: JMY. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: JMY CH DS KMK ME NS ZW SJG. ICMJE criteria for authorship read and met: JMY CH DS KMK ME NS ZW SJG. Agree with manuscript results and conclusions: JMY CH DS KMK ME NS ZW SJG.
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Philip Landrigan Delivers Presentation on Environmental Contributors to Autism
Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Center Director, Philip J. Landrigan, MD, MSc, outlines the need for expanding research into environmental causes of autism.
Philip J. Landrigan, MD, MSc, Director of the Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Center (CEHC), delivered a presentation titled “What Causes Autism? The Case for an Environmental Contribution,” on July 16 at the Meeting of the Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee in Bethesda, Maryland. The presentation outlined the need to expand research into environmental causes of autism.
As a federal advisory committee, the Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee coordinates all efforts in the Department of Health and Human Services regarding autism spectrum disorder, and facilitates dialogue between public and federal investigators to ensure that these ideas are presented in a public forum.
Today’s children are surrounded by thousands of synthetic chemicals. According to Dr. Landrigan, 200 of these chemicals have been identified as neurotoxic in adult humans, and 1,000 additional chemicals have been identified as neurotoxic in laboratory models. However, fewer than 20 percent of these high-volume chemicals have been tested for neurodevelopmental toxicity.
To explore the possible contribution of early environmental exposures, Dr. Landrigan proposes a “targeted discovery strategy.” In a transdisciplinary effort, this research strategy focuses on highlighting target chemicals in today’s environment and devising a list of those that need to be studied most urgently as possible causes of autism.
Dr. Landrigan’s presentation builds on the Children’s Environmental Health Center’s newest initiative, the Autism and Learning Disabilities Discovery and Prevention Project, which was launched in May 2010.
Led by Dr. Landrigan and involving researchers from Mount Sinai, this project investigates the undiscovered causes of autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders, building the research infrastructure that we need to support our studies to examine the impacts of environmental chemicals on children’s health and early development.
Using results from these studies, the Autism and Learning Disabilities Discovery and Prevention Project seeks to turn these discoveries into a blueprint for prevention, employing skillful, evidence-based advocacy.
About the Children's Environmental Health Center
Mount Sinai's Children's Environmental Health Center conducts research to protect children against environmental threats to health. Our investigations seek to discover the environmental causes of such diseases as asthma, learning disabilities, autism, obesity, and childhood cancer. We transmit our research to pediatricians, policy makers, parents, and all who care for children.
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Although there's no way to prevent porphyria, if you have the disease, these steps may help prevent symptoms:
- Avoid medications known to trigger acute attacks. Ask your doctor for a list of safe and unsafe drugs.
- Don't use alcohol or illegal drugs.
- Avoid fasting and dieting that involves severe calorie restriction.
- Don't smoke.
- Minimize sun exposure. When you're outdoors, wear protective clothing and use a broad-spectrum sunscreen with a high sun protection factor (SPF).
- Treat infections and other illnesses promptly.
- Take steps to reduce emotional stress.
Because porphyria is an inherited disorder, your siblings and other family members may want to consider genetic testing to determine if they have the disease.
May 20, 2014
- Information for professionals. The Porphyrias Consortium. https://rarediseasesnetwork.epi.usf.edu/porphyrias/professionals/index.htm. Accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Learning about porphyria. National Human Genome Research Institute. https://www.genome.gov/19016728. Accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Porphyria. National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC). http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/porphyria/. Accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Anderson KE. Porphyrias: An overview. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Overview of porphyrias. The Merck Manuals: The Merck Manual for Health Care Professionals. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine_and_metabolic_disorders/porphyrias/overview_of_porphyrias.html. Accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Porphyria. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/porphyria. Accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Riggin, EA. Decision Support System. Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Nov. 21, 2013.
- Panhematin hemin for injection (prescribing information). Lebanon, N.J.: Recordati Rare Diseases, Inc.; 2013. http://www.aiporphyria.com/. Accessed Feb. 12, 2014.
- Porphyrin tests. Lab Tests Online. http://labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/porphyrins/tab/sample. Accessed Feb. 17, 2014.
- Tracy JA, et al. Porphyria and its neurologic manifestations. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2014;120:839.
- Pittelkow MR (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Ariz. March 17, 2014.
- Solberg LA Jr. (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Fla. March 18, 2014.
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Krisha McCoy, MS
Tachycardia is a rapid heart rate of more than 100 beats per minute. Sinus tachycardia, from the heart's sinus node, is a normal response to exercise, illness, or stress.
There are several types of abnormal tachycardias or
arrhythmias. These can come from two places:
This condition can be life-threatening, but it can be treated. If you think you or someone you know has this condition, call for emergency medical services right away.
This condition is caused by abnormal electrical impulses that control the heart.
Factors that may increase your chance of tachycardia include:
Tachycardia may cause:
Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done.
Tests may include:
Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include the following:
Medications to treat tachycardia include:
is done during an electrophysiology study. Radiofrequency energy or cold energy is used to destroy the abnormality and possibly cure the problem.
An electric shock is applied to the heart to stop the abnormal rhythm. This treatment may be done for life-threatening rhythms, such as
ventricular fibrillation. It is also done for milder arrhythmias, such as
can be surgically placed into your body. This device monitors your heartbeat. It can apply a shock to correct an irregular heartbeat.
To help reduce your chance of tachycardia:
Heart Rhythm Society
Society of Thoracic Surgeons
Canadian Cardiovascular Society
Arrhythmias. American Heart Association website. Available at:
Accessed December 30, 2014.
Cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed.
Updated November 12, 2014. Accessed December 30, 2014.
Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD). EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed.
Updated November 19, 2014. Accessed December 30, 2014.
Risk factors and prevention. Heart Rhythm Society website. Available at:
Accessed December 30, 2014.
Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT). EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed.
Updated June 5, 2014. Accessed December 30, 2014.
Ventricular tachycardia. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed.
Updated August 8, 2013. Accessed December 30, 2014.
Last reviewed December 2014 by Michael J. Fucci, DO
Please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.
Copyright © EBSCO Publishing. All rights reserved.
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On April 26th, 1986, one of the two worst nuclear disasters in human history (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi disaster) took place at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the then Soviet Union.
26 years later, the 30km exclusion zone surrounding the power plant is still one of the most radioactively contaminated areas in the world and will remain uninhabitable for the foreseeable future.
In May and October 2012, СмdяСояd visited the Chernobyl exclusion zone to take the eerie, but at the same time moving photographs you see above. When the authorities finally evacuated the area, people were told they could presumably return after just three days, which is why most residents left their personal belongings behind. Despite the decay, it almost feels like the city of Pripyat that nearly 50,000 people once called their home has been frozen in time.
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EDOM (Heb. אֱדוֹם), a land in the south of eastern Transjordan, the southeastern neighbor of Palestine.
"The land of Edom" is the most common name for the Edomite territory. It had, however, other names and appellations, both prosaic and poetic, i.e., "the field of Edom" (Judg. 5:4), "Seir" (ibid.), "Mount Seir" (Deut. 1:2), "the land of Seir" (Gen. 36:30, "the lands of Seir," cf. mâtātid še-e-riki, in el-Amarna letter no. 288, line 26; Pritchard, Texts, 488; J.A. Knudtzon, Die El-Amarna-Tafeln, 2 (1915), 1340), and a combined name, "the land of Seir the field of Edom" (Gen. 32:3). There are also in Egyptian sources the equivalents of two names: Seir (Pritchard, Texts, 262) and Edom (Papyrus Anastasi VI, Pritchard, Texts, 259). It is possible to establish, according to the Egyptian and Akkadian sources, that the name Seir is chronologically first, since it is mentioned at the beginning of the 14th century B.C.E. in the Tell el-Amarna document, as well as in an Egyptian list from the time of Ramses II, i.e., from the first half of the 13th century B.C.E. On the other hand, the first mention of the name Edom in Egyptian sources occurs only at the end of the 13th century B.C.E.
The name Seir is apparently related to the Horites; this is especially evidenced by Genesis 36:20: "These were the sons of Seir the Horite, who were settled in the land" (cf. Deut. 2:12). The name Edom is related to the Western Semitic settlers who came after them.
It appears that the Edomite territory consisted of the mountain which extends from the Dead Sea in the north to the Red Sea in the south. The northern border of Edom was the Zered River (Wadi al-Hesa), which was also the southern border of Moab (Deut. 2:13). Its eastern border was the desert and its inhabitants were the Kedemites. Its southern border was Elath and Ezion-Geber (Deut. 2:8), i.e., the gulf of Elath. There was probably no fixed western boundary; during the Exodus from Egypt, the Israelites who requested permission to pass through Edom said to the king of Edom: "Now we are in *Kadesh, the town on the border of your territory" (Num. 20:16). Another place mentioned as being on its western border is "Mount Hor on the boundary of the land of Edom" (Num. 20:23). The western border is described more comprehensively as "the boundary of Edom to the wilderness of Zin at the farthest south" (Josh. 15:1), and in an abbreviated manner as "south, toward the boundary of Edom" (Josh. 15:21).
In later periods there was an Edomite expansion beyond Mount Seir, especially after the fall of the kingdom of Judah (see below). Ezekiel thus terms the Edomite territory "Mount Seir and all Edom" (Ezek. 35:15). The capital of Edom was probably Bozrah (see especially Amos 1:12, "the palaces of Bozrah," similar to the palaces of other capital cities mentioned in this prophecy). Bozrah was the principal city, the other cities of Edom being called Bozrah's cities: "For I have sworn by myself, says the Lord, that Bozrah shall become a horror, a taunt, a waste, and a curse; and all her cities shall be perpetual wastes" (Jer. 49:13). Among the other cities of Edom mentioned in the Bible are Teman, which is used as a parallel for Bozrah (Amos 1:12), and Dedan (Jer. 49:8). The principal cities of Edom, which were also the royal cities, can be learned from the list of kings, who reigned "before any king reigned over the Israelites" (Gen. 36). In this list, Bozrah and Teman are mentioned with other towns such as Avith, Rehoboth Hanahar, Masrekah, and Pau, about which nothing is known from the Bible or from other sources.
In the biblical tradition about the origin of the Edomites or, more precisely, in accounts about the eponym "Esau who is Edom" (Gen. 36:1), the Edomites are related to the Hebrews. Esau was the grandson of Abraham the Hebrew and the son of Isaac. The close relationship of *Esau to Israel is especially emphasized in the narratives which point out his closeness with Jacob-Israel, and describe their birth as twins. In parenthetical narrative comments and especially in genealogical lists, the complexity of the Edomites' ethnic composition is demonstrated. In the accounts of Esau's marriages, which should be viewed as etiological-ethnological stories, it is told that Esau married Canaanite-Hittite women (Gen. 26:34; cf. 36:2). It is likewise told that he married Ishmaelite women (Gen. 28:9; cf. 36:3). He also took Hivite wives (Gen. 36:2). These parenthetical narrative remarks substantiate and confirm the contents of the genealogical lists of Edom. The ethnic composition appears to be even more heterogeneous when in addition to the Canaanite-Hittite, Hivite, and Ishmaelite elements, Kenazite (Gen. 36:15), Amalekite (36:16), and especially Horite (36:20, 21, 29, 30) elements are found in the genealogical list of Esau's descendants and in the list of the chiefs of Esau. A similar picture is reflected in the names appearing in the genealogical lists of Edom. West-Semitic names are listed side by side with Horite names. It is possible to distinguish earlier and later elements in the ethnic composition of Edom. Traditions, whose authenticity is beyond doubt, have been preserved in the Bible about the antiquity of the Horites in Edom. In the Deuteronomic tradition about the ancient settlers of eastern Transjordan before the advent of the Hebrews, it is stated: "Seir was formerly inhabited by the Horites; but the descendants of Esau dispossessed them, wiping them out and settling in their place" (Deut. 2:12). This tradition is reported in brief also in the chapter specifically dealing with Edom, Genesis 36, where a parenthetical remark is made: "these were the sons of Seir the Horite, who were settled in the land" (36:20). Thus, the ancient ethnic element of Edom is the Horites, to whom were later added those descendants of Esau who were from a Western-Semitic origin. This is corroborated by epigraphic sources and archaeological findings. From Akkadian and Egyptian epigraphic sources it is known that toward the first half of the second millennium B.C.E. "Horite" (Akk. ḥurru) tribes penetrated all the areas of the Ancient East and settled in these areas including Canaan and eastern Transjordan. There is also information about waves of migration of Western-Semitic elements who infiltrated western Asia, including Transjordan, and apparently conquered these territories and defeated the Horite population. According to biblical tradition, Esau and his descendants first inhabited the land of Canaan (Gen. 36:5), and when "the land in which they sojourned could not support them because of their livestock," Esau, together with Jacob and his children, "took … all the members of his household … [and] settled in the hill country of Seir" (36:6–8). From the archaeological survey of eastern Transjordan conducted by Nelson Glueck the same picture emerges. It appears that the settlement which existed from the 23rd to the 20th centuries B.C.E. was highly civilized, but the 19th century B.C.E. saw a steep decline and the total extinction of all the great fortresses and settlements. The blow was final and the destruction, total. The cities were not rebuilt and most of Transjordan became a camping spot for shepherds and nomads until the end of the 14th century B.C.E. The archaeological survey demonstrated that at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 13th centuries B.C.E., there was a revival of an agricultural civilization among the Edomites, the Moabites, the Ammonites, and the Amorites, who quickly divided into national groups within defined territorial boundaries. Thus, Transjordan was divided into the kingdoms of Edom, Ammon, and Moab, which were separated mainly by the deep and wide natural boundaries of the Zered, Arnon, and Jabbok rivers. These kingdoms underwent a fast development of prosperity and growth, primarily material, from the 13th to the 8th centuries B.C.E. There followed a period of decline which ended in utter destruction in the sixth century B.C.E.
These latter comments would have exhausted our knowledge about Edom had the Bible not preserved much information about this kingdom, more so than about any of the other kingdoms neighboring Israel. This great amount of material in the Bible is very valuable from both the historical and historiographical points of view. Biblical information about Edom may be divided into two types, which are distinctly separable. The first type is the original and authentic material, which apparently originated in Edom itself and somehow made its way to Israel, and which is found mainly in Genesis 36. The second type is information about Edom which is connected with the
history of Israel. These two types of material give a chronological coverage of the two periods of Edom's history (see below). The original and authentic material about Edom is from the period before the monarchy was established in Israel (it is not intended here to discuss R.H. Pfeiffer's Edomite-Seirite, or Southern source (S); for its scope, character, and time see *Pentateuch). This material describes the history of Edom until its conquest by David. On the other hand, the material about Edom which is contained in the Israelite history covers the period of the monarchy in Israel and Judah, and, in fact, beginning with the time of David, the history of Edom is contained within the history of Israel.
History until Its Conquest by David
From the information contained in Genesis 36, it may be learned that the Edomites were governed by chiefs (allufim) and kings in the period which preceded its conquest by David. The question arises as to whether chiefs and kings ruled at one and the same time, the kings being only the most powerful of the chiefs, or whether there were two periods, a first of chiefs and a subsequent one of kings. It appears that two periods should be distinguished, the "period of the chiefs" and the "period of the kings," typologically paralleling the "period of the judges" and the "period of the monarchy" in Israel.
THE PERIOD OF THE CHIEFS (Allufim)
It appears that the chiefs were the heads of the thousands (alafim), which were tribes or clans (in the broad sense of the word), and later, heads of regions. This form of organization was prevalent among nomadic tribes. Actually, only 11 chiefs of Edom are mentioned, but there is reason to accept the opinion that a 12th name, which is found in the Septuagint, was left out. The tradition of the 12-fold organization in Edom is based on, and confirmed by, the organization of other tribes which are closely related to Edom in terms of race and origin. This 12-fold organization is found among the Nahorites (Gen. 22:20–24), the Ishmaelites (25:13–15), and the Israelites, and it is M. Noth's opinion that this system is based on "principles such as were customary in tribal societies which were still lacking settled political institutions" (Noth, Hist Isr, 87; for details). Taking as a starting point the conclusion of Nelson Glueck's survey that the Edomites arrived in Edom at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 13th century B.C.E., it may then be assumed that the rule of the chiefs lasted approximately 150 years, until the middle of the 12th century B.C.E. Actually, the Bible appears to contain information to the contrary, since in the narrative on the Exodus from Egypt and the penetration of Canaan it is told that the Israelites had dealings with the king of Edom (Num. 20:14; if it is assumed, as is the accepted opinion today, that the Exodus was during the second half of the 13th century B.C.E.). It is known, however, that the source for the narrative (Num. 20) is late and "the king of Edom" is an anachronism. More authentic evidence from a very early poetic source, the Song of the Sea, testifies that at the time of the Exodus the chiefs were ruling in Edom: "Now are the chiefs of Edom dismayed" (Ex. 15:15). There are also sources outside the Bible which confirm this. In the Papyrus Anastasi VI from the time of Merneptah (end of the 13th century B.C.E.) the population of Edom and its adjuncts is divided into "tribes" or shasu: "[We] have finished letting the Shasu (šʾsw) of Edom (ʾidm) pass the Fortress [of] Merneptah" (in Pritchard, Texts, 259). Ramses III (beginning of the 12th century B.C.E.) boasts: "I destroyed the people of Seir among the nomad tribes. I razed their tents: their people, their property, and their cattle as well, without number, pinioned and carried away in captivity, as the tribute of Egypt" (see Papyrus Harris I, in: Pritchard, Texts, 262). In any event, it becomes evident from these two Egyptian sources that there was a tribal organization, the population was nomadic, and there was no monarchy.
THE PERIOD OF THE MONARCHY
The genealogy of Edom in Genesis 36 contains a list of the kings of Edom who ruled "before any Israelite king reigned" (probably meaning "before any Israelite king ruled over Edom"). It is not certain whether "kings" were merely judges or tribal chiefs, or whether they were literally kings. Those scholars who hold that they were judges point to the following supporting evidence: the absence of succession, the absence of a fixed capital city, the parallelism of melekh / shofet ("king"/"judge") in Ugaritic and the Bible, as well as the formula "in those days there was no king over the Israelites," which recurs repeatedly in the Book of Judges in reference to the period of the judges. Thus, king here means judge (this opinion has been expressed by S. Talmon). It appears that the second opinion is the correct one, however, and that kings is meant literally.
The list of the Edomite kings (36:31–39) resembles a "royal chronicle" in that it includes various details found in the Judean and Israelite chronicles contained in Kings and Babylonian Chronicles. Details given in this list – though not all the details are given for every king – are the name of the king, his father's name, the name of his city (or place of origin), and an informative comment. This list includes eight kings. The names of the fathers of four of them are given, and the city (or place of origin) of seven out of the eight is mentioned. An informative comment is made about two of them. The informative comment about Hadad son of Bedad is distinctly historical. It is stated that he "defeated the Midianites in the country of Moab" (36:35), while the comment about Hadar, the last king, refers to his wife's genealogy: "and his wife's name was Mehetabel daughter of Matred daughter of Me-Zahab" (36:39). This list has been analyzed by numerous scholars in an attempt to derive from it information about the history of Edom, its chronology and the possibility of synchronization, its monarchy, and its character. It is clear from this list that the monarchy in Edom was not dynastic. Not one of the kings of Edom is said to be son of the former king. However, it should not be deduced from this, as has been done by several scholars, that the monarchy was not consistent. The formula: "when … died, … succeeded him as king" attests to the consistency and continuity of the monarchy. Further, it should be pointed out that there was no central authority based in one capital city. The fact that the king's capital or place of origin is mentioned shows that there was no common ruling city for even two of the kings (cf. the absence of a regular capital city in the kingdom of Israel until the establishment of Samaria by Omri). The two informative statements were variously interpreted by scholars. From the statement about Hadad son of Bedad E. Meyer tried to establish a synchronistic connection with events in Israel, namely that Hadad, who defeated the Midianites, was a contemporary of Gideon who defeated the Midianites. On the basis of this they attempted to derive chronological conclusions with regard to the history of the kings of Edom. There is no certainty, however, about Gideon's time, and even less about the time of the kings of Edom, concerning whom there is no chronological information. From the information about Hadar's wife's lineage on her mother's side, and from the naming of her mother and grandmother, W.F. Albright attempted to deduce the existence of a royal dynasty in Edom which passed in succession on the side of the mother and not the father. Thus, the king's son-in-law because he marries the queen's daughter is heir to the throne. A general conclusion of this nature, derived from a single comment, is, however, difficult to maintain. Moreover, there are no examples of such a custom in the ancient Near East to support this hypothesis (the example of Saul-Michal-David cannot be explained in this way).
It is most difficult to assess the dating of Edom's kings since, as has been stated, there is no chronological information given in regard to this period. It is only known that it ended at the time of David's conquest of Edom. If this assumption is correct, namely, that at the time of the Exodus, Edom was ruled by chiefs and not by kings, then the period of these kings can be set from the middle of the 12th century to the end of the 11th century B.C.E., i.e., a period of around 150 years, and an average of approximately 20 years per king.
During this period of chiefs and kings, Edom was strong and its borders well-fortified by a series of border fortresses which prevented the penetration of nomadic tribes from the desert. A series of fortresses was discovered during the archaeological survey in eastern and southern Edom, and some also in western Edom. (In the north, Edom shared a common border with Moab, with which it apparently had close and good neighborly relationships.) There is almost no biblical information in regard to contacts between Israel and Edom during this period, except that Edom is listed among the nations oppressing Israel which Saul defeated at the end of this period (I Sam. 14:47; it is possible that this refers to Amalek which is related to Edom). In Psalm 83, which is assumed by B. Mazar and S. Feigin to be from the period of the judges, Edom (as well as Amalek and Gebal which belong to Edom) is also mentioned as joining with Israel's other neighbors against Israel. It appears, however, that these two mentions are schematic and it is difficult to arrive at historically valid conclusions from the appearance of Edom in these lists.
From David until the Destruction of Judah
THE TIME OF DAVID AND SOLOMON
In David's wars of expansion, Edom was conquered after a decisive defeat in the Valley of Salt. This is echoed in three biblical sources – actually three accounts of the same battle. According to II Samuel 8:13 it was David who defeated Edom (this should be read instead of Aram) in the Valley of Salt, slaying 18,000 Edomites. According to I Chronicles 18:12, "Abishai son of Zeruiah slew 18,000 Edomites in the Valley of Salt," while according to Psalm 60:2, it was Joab who defeated Edom, and here there is a different number given for Edom's casualties – 12,000. While a few scholars held that these are accounts of battles led by the different people mentioned, it appears that they are, in fact, different accounts of the same event, and the numbers are schematic. In any event, in order to clarify the historical aspects, it appears that the original historical version is that Joab defeated Edom. The introduction of Abishai in Chronicles is aimed against Joab and is based on the wars in eastern Transjordan in which Joab and Abishai led the armies. The war was attributed to David because it appears that the victories of Joab, his military commander, were credited to the king, David, as was the case in the defeat of Rabbath-Benei-Ammon (II Sam. 12:26–31). Edom suffered a decisive defeat, apparently after a difficult battle. Contrary to his custom with regard to the other nations of Transjordan, David did not leave the Edomite monarchy in power but made Edom into an Israelite province ruled by appointed governors (II Sam. 8:14; I Chron. 18:13). There is additional information about this battle in I Kings 11:15–16 which states that "For six months did Joab remain there with all Israel, until he had cut off every male in Edom." His reasons for turning Edom into a province which rendered tribute and was ruled by governors were probably primarily economic, since Edom controlled the trade routes, both overland – the "King's Highway" – and maritime – the port of Ezion-Geber-Elath. Israel's rule of Edom by means of governors lasted throughout David's reign and apparently also through most of Solomon's time, until Hadad, a descendant of the last Edomite king, rebelled against Solomon. (It is difficult to determine whether Hadad was the son or the grandson of the last king of Edom. Actually, this was the introduction of a dynastic monarchy in Edom. In the opinion of Edward Meyer the Edomites were loyal to their last king.) This Hadad, who fled to Egypt during the conquest of Edom, received personal aid and political support in Egypt, and returned to Edom after David's death (I Kings 11:14–22). According to the Septuagint, what is said about Aram in I Kings 11:25 refers to Edom, and it thus turns out that this Hadad rebelled at the beginning of Solomon's reign and ruled Edom. It is difficult to accept this version, however, since it would mean that at the beginning of his reign, a time of prosperity and growth, of the development of the Negev and Arabah, and of maritime and inland trade, Solomon did not have absolute control over Edom and over the routes which crossed its territory. It would therefore appear that Edom's liberation was possible only at the end of Solomon's reign.
FROM JEHOSHAPHAT TO AHAZ
There is no information about Edom from the end of Solomon's reign until Jehoshaphat's, either from the Bible or from other sources. It may be assumed that after the collapse of Solomon's kingdom and its division, and especially after Shishak's campaign in Judah and Israel, Edom finally overthrew the yoke of Israel's rule and established an independent kingdom, which lasted around 50 years, until the time of Jehoshaphat. With the expansion of Judah southward in the time of Jehoshaphat, the submission of the Arabian tribes (II Chron. 17:11), and the institution of a mercantile fleet at Ezion-Geber (I Kings 22:49), Edom was probably conquered. In fact, there is an explicit statement in this regard from which it can be understood that not only was Edom conquered by Jehoshaphat but he dealt with it as did David and turned it into a province ruled by governors. Chronicles writes in connection with Jehoshaphat that "there was no king in Edom; a deputy was king" (I Kings 22:48 (47)). The conquest of Edom probably stemmed from the same economic motivations which existed at the time of David and Solomon. Edom became subject to Judah, and, during the period of subjection, "the king of Edom" (probably the "deputy" mentioned above) joined the campaign of Joram king of Israel and Jehoshaphat king of Judah against Mesha, the rebellious king of Moab, which passed "through the wilderness of Edom" (II Kings 3:8). The participation of the "king of Edom" angered the king of Moab, who attempted first and foremost "to break through opposite the king of Edom" (3:26). The failure of this campaign led to the weakening of the rule of Judah and Israel in eastern Transjordan, as well as Judah's rule in Edom. It is explicitly stated that during the time of Joram, Edom rebelled against Judah: "In his days Edom revolted from under the hand of Judah, and madea king over themselves" (II Kings 8:20). Joram attempted at the beginning of his reign (probably in 848 B.C.E.) to reinstate Israel's hegemony over Edom in a great campaign including "all the chariots" (8:21–22), which apparently failed (the biblical text is corrupt here), and Edom was completely liberated from the domination of Judah. Edom maintained its independence for about 60 years, until the middle of Amaziah's reign. At the time of Amaziah, Judah recovered from the pressure of Aram, to which it paid heavy taxes. This recovery is expressed in the undertaking of a military campaign against Edom in order to renew the rule of Israel there. It is said of Amaziah that "He slew of Edom in the Valley of Salt 10,000, and took Sela by war, and called the name of it Joktheel unto this day" (II Kings 14:7). The battle was waged in northern Edom, the Valley of Salt (as in David's time), and in Sela. Amaziah (like Joab) treated the Edomites with cruelty, as is recounted in II Chronicles 25:11–12: "…and [Amaziah] smote 10,000 men of Seir. The men of Judah captured another 10,000 alive and took them to the top of a rock and threw them down from the top of the rock; and they were all dashed to pieces." It seems that the changing of Sela's name can be interpreted not only as a symbol of renewed domination but perhaps also as the introduction of Judahite settlers in the new important town Joktheel which "on account of its geographic conditions, its distinctly strategic location, its close proximity to the capital Bozrah which lay south of it, and its control over the approach to the mines of the Arabah, … was subject to a violent controversy between Israel and Edom" (S. Abramsky). With the conquest of Sela, Amaziah assured Judah of control over northern Edom and the copper mines of the Punon area. It appears that Uzziah son of Amaziah completed his father's activity by conquering Edom. Uzziah, who expanded his kingdom in the direction of south and the Negev, "built Elath and restored it to Judah" (II Kings 14:22); this was the climax of his activity in the Negev and the Arabah, in developing agriculture, industry, and commerce, which has been confirmed by archaeological excavations and surveys. Apparently, in the days of Jotham son of Uzziah as well, Judah ruled over Edom. The "ליתם" (lytm) seal found at Ezion-Geber may have belonged to Jotham. This period of Judah's rule over Edom did not last long, and ended with the establishment of the Aramean-Israelite coalition between Rezin king of Aram and Pekah king of Israel: "At that time the king of Edom recovered Elath for Edom (the MT text reads Aram instead of Edom) and drove the men of Judah from Elath; and the Edomites came to Elath, where they dwell to this day" (II Kings 16:6). The Edomites took the opportunity to penetrate Judah itself: "For again the Edomites had come and smitten Judah, and carried away captives" (II Chron. 28:17). There was probably a final attempt on the part of Judah, during the time of Hezekiah, to renew its hegemony over Edom. In the genealogical list of Simeon's descendants, it is stated parenthetically that "some of them, 500 men of the Simeonites, went to Mount Seir … and they destroyed the remnant of the Amalekites that had escaped, and they have dwelt there to this day" (I Chron. 4:42–43). This attempt, however, was probably limited to the western border district of Edom and had no real results since Edom, like Judah, was subjugated by Assyria.
FROM AHAZ UNTIL THE DESTRUCTION OF JUDAH
From the time of Ahaz, Edom became an Assyrian vassal state, like the other nations of Palestine and Syria. Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 B.C.E.) mentions, together with the kings of Palestine and Syria, Qosmalaku, king of Edom, who surrendered to him (Pritchard, Texts, 282). Sennacherib mentions the king of Edom, Aiarammu (ibid., 287), who surrendered to him in his campaign against Jerusalem (701 B.C.E.). Esarhaddon (680–669 B.C.E.) mentions Qosgabri king of Edom together with the 22 vassal kings whom he swore to loyalty at Nineveh (ibid., 291). In addition to its subjugation to Assyria, Edom was, beginning with the eighth century B.C.E., under pressure from the Arabian tribes that impoverished the land and brought about its decline in material culture. Toward the end of the kingdom of Judah (beginning of the sixth century B.C.E.), when Judah was rising up against Babylonian rule, Edom was among the peoples preparing to rebel against the Babylonian king. The king of Edom sent messengers to a meeting of rebels called in Jerusalem by Zedekiah king of Judah (Jer. 27). Later, however, during the destruction itself, Edom was on the other side, sending its troops against Judah (II Kings 24:1; "the bands of Edom" should be read in place of "the bands of Aram"), and even participating in its destruction. This is verified from the recently discovered Arad letters, in which Judah is guarding itself against Edom's penetration into the land (Y. Aharoni). Edom's participation in the destruction of Judah aroused the great anger and strong condemnation of the poets (Ps. 137; Lam. 4:21–22) and prophets (Isa. 34, which is to be dated to this period; Jer. 49; Obad.) of Judah. The anger and condemnation continued in the following generation in the prophecies of Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 63).
Edom, too, was subject to destruction in the sixth century B.C.E. Nomadic tribes infiltrated Edom and exerted pressure on the Edomites, who turned toward Judah and settled in its southern region. This settlement was long known in Hellenistic sources as *Idumea.
Religion and Culture
The gods of Edom were mainly fertility gods, as is evidenced by the numerous clay figures found in Edom. Like Ammon and Moab, Edom had one chief god, Qos. This name is known to be a theophoric element, both from the names of the Edomite kings mentioned in the inscriptions of the Assyrian kings (see above) and from names which are preserved in the Bible (e.g., Barkos, Neh. 7:55). This name also appears as a first name in a seal in Hebrew-Edomite script on oil jugs from the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E. which were found at Tell al-Khalayfa "לקוסענל עבד המלך," "lqwsʿnl servant of the king." There are some scholars who read instead of the unclear name Alqum in Proverbs 30:31, Alqus, on the assumption that the name is included here in the context of Edomite wisdom. Although Edom had one national god, it cannot be described even as monolatry. Biblical evidence emphasizes Edomite polytheism. It is told of Amaziah after "he came from the slaughter of the Edomites, he brought the gods of the men of Seir, and set them up as his gods, and worshipped them, making offerings to them" (II Chron. 25:14).
Apparently there was an early connection between the religion of the men of Seir and the early religion of Israel, a connection deduced from an Egyptian list from the time of Ramses II (13th century B.C.E.) from a statement in which there is the unusual juxtaposition "the land of the Shasu of JHW" (see Herrmann in bibl.). In the same list there is the equivalent juxtaposition "the land of the Shasu of Seir." (The connection between YHWH and Seir can be learned from a number of early biblical verses, e.g., Deut. 33:2; Judg. 5:4.) Of course, one cannot speak of the identification in this period of this name with YHWH but rather about the origin of YHWH from the same area and ancient contacts between the people of Israel in its early period and the sons of Seir. In this way the biblical tradition is confirmed.
From the archaeological excavations and surveys in Edom it appears that its material culture was developed. The only evidence with regard to its spiritual culture is biblical. The wisdom of Edom was held in esteem by the prophets. Jeremiah asked in amazement: "Is wisdom no more in Teman? has counsel perished from the prudent? has their wisdom vanished?" (49:7); Obadiah 8 repeats the same idea: "destroy the wise men out of Edom, and understanding out of the mount of Esau."
In Second Temple Times
The geographical conception of Edom during the Second Temple period differs radically from that at the time of the First Temple. Following the movement of Edomites from southern Transjordan and into southern Palestine, across the Arabah, in the late seventh and early sixth centuries B.C.E. (II Kings 24:2; Ezek. 35:6), the area to the south of the territory of Judah came to be referred to as Edom/Idumea. The territory of "Darom" ("south") in Talmudic literature usually refers to Idumea. Idumea in Second Temple times was further north than in the previous period and covered a considerable part of the territory of the tribe of Judah, including Hebron. The border with Judea passed south of Beth-Zur. This change came about on the one hand in consequence of the invasion of Old Edom by new tribes from the desert and the establishment there, in the course of time, of the Nabatean kingdom; and secondly through the weakening of Jewish resistance during the time of the destruction of the Temple and the Babylonian exile. The return only changed the situation slightly; in general the returning exiles did not settle south of Beth-Zur. Even in the list of those who built the walls of Jerusalem in the days of Nehemiah, there is no mention of men from places south of the line Tekoa-Beth-Zur-Keilah-Zanoah.
During the Hellenistic period the Idumean region formed a separate administrative district and is mentioned as such by Diodorus in connection with the period of the Didache (Bibliotheca Historica, 19, 98, 1). Marissa and Adorah were the main Idumean settlements in the Hellenistic era. Marissa became an important junction during the Ptolemide era and served, as can be inferred from one of the Zenon papyri (C.C. Edgar, Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du Musée de Caire, 1 (1925), 34, no. 59015 verso), as the seat of the government administration. From the inscriptions and painted designs in one of the tombs, it is possible to follow in great measure the process of Hellenization of Marissa during the Ptolemide era. Among other things, a Phoenician settlement, which was the standard-bearer of the Hellenistic movement in Idumea, existed in the town, and had organized itself as a politeuma of Sidonians in Marissa (W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, 2 (1905), 284–5 no. 593). The Ptolemide government of the country also helped in the migration of many Idumeans to Egypt. Hostile relations between the Idumeans and the Jews persisted throughout the Hellenistic period. Ben Sira enumerates the Edomites among the "nations whom his soul abhorred" (50, 25–26). The same enmity is reflected in the quotation from the Greek writer Mnaseas given by Josephus (Apion 2:112ff.) describing how Zabidus of Dorii fooled the people of Jerusalem. During the Hasmonean wars the Idumeans assisted the Seleucids against the Jews. Judah Maccabee fought the Idumeans, and was particularly active against Hebron (I Macc. 5:65).
A decisive change in the relations between the two nations took place in the days of John *Hyrcanus (end of second century B.C.E.). Hyrcanus conquered the whole of Idumea and undertook the forced conversion of its inhabitants to Judaism (Jos., Ant., 13:257ff.). Thenceforth the Idumeans became a section of the Jewish people, Idumea becoming one of the ordinary administrative districts of the Hasmonean state. It appears that the Hasmonean dynasty used some of the respected families of Idumea to establish its dominion in that country. During the reigns of Alexander Yannai and his wife Alexandra Salome, *Antipas, who was an Idumean, served as ruler of Idumea on behalf of the Hasmoneans (Ant., 14:10). *Herod, appointed king of Judea by the Romans in 40 B.C.E., was his grandson. During the reign of Herod, Idumea served in general as the firm basis of his authority. He considered the Idumeans to be much more loyal to him than the Jews, and also depended upon them for the military settlement in Transjordan; three thousand Edomites being settled in Terakhan (Ant., 16:285). Despite this, even during his reign, an attempt was made to sever the link between Idumea and Judea. The king's brother-in-law, Costobar, entered into a conspiracy with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, for the purpose of annexing Edom directly to Egypt, but the plot was foiled by Herod. After the death of Herod in 4 B.C.E. Idumea was included with Judea and Samaria in the ethnarchy of Archelaus. When the latter was deposed in 6 C.E., Idumea became part of the Roman province of Judea. Furthermore Gaza was severed from any administrative connection with Idumea and added to the province of Syria. Consequently, the size of Idumea was reduced – and in view of the fact that by degrees the differences between the Idumeans and their northern neighbors became blurred – the Roman government decided to abolish the separate status of Idumea as an administrative district equal in status to Judea or Samaria. Toward the end of the Second Temple era, Idumea appears as one of the 11 ordinary toparchies of Judea (Jos., Wars, 3:55).
The Idumeans participated in the Roman War of 66–70 C.E. They were organized into their own detachments and, at the time of the fratricidal war in Jerusalem between the Zealots and their opponents under the leadership of Anan b. Anan, hastened to the help of the Zealots, on the assumption that Anan and his associates intended to deliver the city into the hands of the Romans. The Idumeans were led by four commanders. They penetrated into Jerusalem on a rainy night and freed the Zealots who were besieged in the Temple, thus triumphing over their enemies. During the siege of Jerusalem by Titus they constituted a special division, numbering 5,000 men. They were led by ten officers, the most prominent among them being *Jacob b. Sosas and Simeon b. Katala. They acted under the high command of Simeon b. Giora (Jos., Wars, 5:249). Johanan, the brother of Jacob, was killed during the siege (6:290), and the Idumeans were prominent in the defense of Jerusalem (9:358–6:92, 148). Titus, too, regarded them as an important element of the Judean military force (8:379). It is not known which were the most important Idumean centers of settlement at the end of the days of the Second Temple. At the time of the Parthian invasion in 40 B.C.E., Marissa had already been destroyed, and Adorah no longer appears in the sources of the period. On the other hand Hebron is mentioned (4:529, 554).
Idumea is frequently mentioned in Latin poems of the period, usually as a synonym for Judea.
In the Aggadah
Edom appears sometimes in the aggadah as referring to the actual Edomites and sometimes to the Romans, who are identified with them (see *Esau aggadah).
THE HISTORICAL EDOM
The historical Edom is chiefly discussed from the point of view of its relations with the Israelite people as these are reflected in the books of the Bible. Beside the enmity and hatred already stressed there, the aggadah emphasizes that Edom oppressed the people most closely akin to him. There are interesting aggadot which discuss, for example, the legal aspects of Israel-Edom relations in the time of King David (Gen. R. 74:15; ed. Theodor-Albeck, p. 872ff.), and also attempt to justify David's wars against Edom despite the biblical command laying down that Edom was not to be a heritage of the people of Israel (Deut. 2:5).
EDOM AS ROME
The identification of Edom with Rome is never found in the literature of the Second Temple period. It appears for the first time close to the Bar Kokhba revolt (cf. Margolioth, p. 610/2). R. Meir even connects it with the verse (Isa. 21:11), "The vision of Dumah" = the vision of Dome (דומי = רומי, Rome, TJ, Ta'an. 1:1, 64a see ed. princ.); also "The re'emim [wild-oxen] shall come down with them" (Isa. 34:7) is read as "The Romans shall come down with them" (PdRK 7, 11, ed. Mandelbaum, p. 134). The previous verses (5–6) speak of Edom (cf. also Targ. Jon. ed. Sperber, Isa. 9, "The streams thereof shall be turned into pitch": "The streams of Rome shall be turned into pitch"). Many scholars are of the opinion that the source of this identification lies in the connection between *Herod, a descendant of Edomite proselytes, whose evil rule over Judea left a harsh impression and the intensification of Roman rule in Judea, especially as Herod was virtually a vassal of Rome. However these conjectures cannot be accepted. Not only are substantial proofs lacking, but the identification appears only in the second quarter of the second century C.E., more than four generations after the death of Herod. It seems, therefore, that its source is to be sought elsewhere.
In the Bible Edom is described as the eternal enemy of Israel (and Judah, Amos 1:11; Ezek. 35:5) who not only always oppressed Israel, but at the time of the destruction of the First Temple took advantage of the situation and seized control of parts of Judah (Ezek. 25:12; 35:5, 10, 2; Obad. 11–16), and it is hinted that Edom also took part in the destruction of Jerusalem (Ps. 137:7; Obad. 11) and even in that of the Temple itself (Obad. 16). In consequence, during the Second Temple period there spread a belief that it was actually the Edomites who burned the First Temple (I Esdras 4:45; Ethiopian Enoch 89:66), and also interfered with the building of the Second Temple (ibid., 72). Hence the intense enmity toward Edom which grew stronger in the course of time (Ecclus. 50:25–26), until the conquest of Edom and its conversion to Judaism in the time of John Hyrcanus – a conquest which is the background to the descriptions of the wars of Jacob and his sons with Esau and his sons in the Book of Jubilees (37–38) and in the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs (Judah 9). Edom is even compared to a black boar (I En. 89:12, 42–43, 49, 66; Jub. 37:20, 24). The intense hatred of Rome after the cruel crushing of the revolt of the Diaspora in the time of Trajan and still more after the harsh suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt and the decrees of persecution in Hadrian's days; the fact that Rome, like Edom, had destroyed the Temple; the similarity of Edom, compared to a pig, with Rome, for whom the pig (or, more correctly, the sow) was a most important symbol; the allusions to Edom dwelling on high like an eagle and the fact that the eagle, too, was an important Roman symbol; and perhaps finally even the similarity to the name Rome and Romans in several verses that speak of Edom, Seir, and Esau – all these apparently combined to cause the application to Rome of the biblical references to Edom, the eternal enemy of Israel.
At the end of the tannaitic period, and still more in the amoraic, the identification became very widespread, and the overwhelming majority of homilies about Edom speak explicitly of Rome. Thus it was stated that Rome was founded by the children of Esau, and Rome was identified as one of the cities of the chiefs of Esau enumerated at the end of Genesis 36 (these identifications occur not only in the Midrashim and the Talmuds but also in the Palestinian *Targums of the Torah and in the Targums to Lamentations and Esther). At a still later period the term became a synonym for Christian Rome and thence for Christianity in general, and allusions were even found to *Constantinople among the cities of Edom (and see *Caesarea).
[Moshe David Herr /
Carl Stephen Ehrlich (2nd ed.)]
F. Buhl, Geschichte der Edomiter (1893); M. Noth, Das System der Zwoelf Staemme Israels (1930); N. Glueck, The Other Side of the Jordan (1940); R.H. Pfeiffer, Introduction to the Old Testament (19522), 159–67 (on the S. Document); S. Abramsky, Mesillah ba-Aravah (1959); J. Liver (ed.), in: Historyah Ẓeva'it shel Ereẓ Yisrael … (1964), 190–205; S. Herrmann, in: Fourth World Congressof Jewish Studies, Papers, 1 (1967), 213–6 (Ger.); Y. Aharoni, in: Eretz Israel, 9 (1969), 10–21 (Heb. pt.), 134 (Eng. summ.). SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD: Klausner, Bayit Sheni, index; S. Klein, Erez Yehudah (1939), 249–54. IN THE AGGADAH: M. Gruenbaum, in: ZDMG, 31 (1877), 305–9; A. Epstein, Kol Kitvei, ed. A.M. Habermann, 2 (1957), 33; Ginzberg, Legends, 5 (19476), 272–3; Schuerer, Hist, 3 (19094), 320–11; I. Heinemann, Darkhei ha-Aggadah (1954), index, S.V. Esau; H. Fuchs, Der geistige Widerstand gegen Rom (19642), 69ff., 78. ADD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Kasher, Jews, Idumeans, and Ancient Arabs (1988).
Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group.
All Rights Reserved.
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On May 20, 2013, a mass of swirling wind gouged a path of destruction across Oklahoma, killing 24 people and causing $2 billion in damage. And earlier this week a deadly cluster of tornadoes ripped through the midwest and the south, killing more than dozen people and injuring hundreds. This kind of destruction would seem to indicate that tornadoes are getting worse. But with the way we currently measure twisters, it’s nearly impossible to know. Now James Elsner, a geographer from Florida State University, has a fix.
See, meteorologists use the Enhanced Fujita Scale, which looks at damage to buildings and vegetation to rank a storm from EF0 to EF5. But that’s subjective, and it doesn’t work well in areas with few structures or trees. And you can’t look inside the categories to see if one EF5 storm is stronger than another.
A tornado-power equation that actually gauges a twister’s kinetic energy would be more useful to scientists who are also examining the effects of climate change, so that’s what Elsner built. He looked at the length and width of a storm’s damage path, correlated that to the amount of damage, and then used the result to estimate wind 1.0 speed. A little more crunching and bam!—integrated kinetic energy of a storm. Non-linear upward trend estimated values of kinetic energy Elsner’s analysis suggests that since the turn of the century, tornadoes have packed a more powerful punch. Which, if you live in Tornado Alley, totally blows.
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Center "Leo Apostel", Free University of Brussels,
Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Richard Dawkins (1976) suggested that a similar mechanism applies to cultural information. Ideas, habits and traditions are communicated from individual to individual. This can be interpreted as a replication: a copy (possibly with errors) of the information is made in the memory of a second individual. Dawkins called the units of this cultural replication process "memes". Practically all cultural entities are memes: images, books, poems, theories, religions, language, melodies, rumours, etc. It suffices that the underlying informational or behavioral pattern is copied, e.g. when people imitate other people's habits or styles, when they learn other's ideas, or reproduce works of art. Like genes, cultural variants can be more or less successful in spreading through the population. They therefore undergo natural selection, and thus evolution.
Dawkins listed the following three characteristics for any successful replicator: 1) copying-fidelity: the more faithful the copy, the more will remain of the initial pattern after several rounds of copying. If a painting is reproduced by making photocopies from photocopies, the underlying pattern will quickly become unrecognizable. 2) fecundity: the faster the rate of copying, the more the replicator will spread. An industrial printing press can churn out many more copies of a text than an office copying machine. 3) longevity: the longer any instance of the replicating pattern survives, the more copies can be made of it. A drawing made by etching lines in the sand is likely to be erased before anybody could have photographed or otherwise reproduced it.
In these general respects, memes are similar to genes and to other replicators, like computer viruses or crystals. The genetic metaphor for cultural transmission is limited, though. Genes can only be transmitted from parent to child. Memes can be transmitted between any two individuals ("multiple parenting"). For genes to be transmitted, you need a generation. Memes only take minutes to replicate. On the other hand, the copying-fidelity of memes is in general much lower. If a story is spread by being told from person to person, the final version will be very different from the original one. It is this variability or fuzziness that perhaps distinguishes cultural patterns most strikingly from DNA structures: every individual's version of an idea or belief will be in some respect different from the others'. That makes it difficult to define or delimit memes.
There are several selection criteria which determine in how far a particular meme will be successful. The more of these criteria a meme satisfies, the more likely it is that it will maintain and spread (Heylighen, 1993). Objective criteria determine whether the knowledge conveyed by a meme can reliably predict events in the outside world. Subjective criteria determine in how far an individual is willing to assimilate a particular meme. They include: 1) coherence: the meme is internally consistent, and does not contradict other beliefs the individual already has; 2) novelty: the meme adds something new, something remarkable, that attracts the person's attention; 3) simplicity: it is easy to grasp and to remember; 4) individual utility: the meme helps the individual to further his or her personal goals.
Intersubjective criteria determine how easily memes travel from subject to subject. They include: 5) salience: the meme is easily noticed by others, e.g. because it is shouted out loud, or printed on big posters; 6) expressivity: the meme is easily expressed in language or other codes of communication; 7) formality: the interpretation of the meme's expression depends little on person or context; 8) infectiveness: the individuals who carry the meme are inclined to "spread the word", to teach it to other people or to convert them to the belief; 9) conformism: the meme is supported by what the majority believe; 10) collective utility: the meme is useful for the group, without necessarily being useful for an individual (e.g. the traffic code).
The information in the genes of an organism constitutes its genotype. Its body, developed through the interaction of genotype with environment, constitutes its phenotype. The equivalent of a phenotype for memes is the sociotype, the concrete organization of the group of people carrying a collection of memes or memotype. For example, if the memotype is the whole of Mormon beliefs, then the sociotype is the group of all Mormons. As a meme is more fuzzy than a gene, a sociotype is likewise more fuzzy than a phenotype: it is in general not clear how a group of meme carriers can be delimited (Heylighen & Campbell, 1995).
This highly increased efficiency of transmission directly affects the dynamics of replication. Meme transmission over the network has a much higher copying-fidelity than communication through image, sound or word. Digitalisation allows the transfer of information without loss, unlike the analog mechanisms of photocopying, filming or tape recording. Fecundity too is greatly increased, since computers can produce thousands of copies of a message in very little time. Longevity, finally, becomes potentially larger, since information can be stored indefinitely on disks or in archives. Together, these three properties ensure that memes can replicate much more efficiently via the networks. This makes the corresponding memotypes and sociotypes potentially less fuzzy.
In addition, the network transcends geographical and cultural boundaries. This means that a new development does not need to diffuse gradually from a center outwards, as, e.g., fashions or rumours do. Such diffusion can easily be stopped by different kinds of physical or linguistic barriers. On the net, an idea can appear virtually simultaneously in different parts of the world, and spread independently of the distance or proximity between senders and receivers.
The simplest example of a meme that takes into advantage these network features is a chain-letter: a message sent to different people with the express request to copy it and distribute it further. This is motivated by anticipated rewards for those who do (and punishment for those who don't). Paper chain-letters are often poorly readable photocopies, or manuscripts retranscribed numerous times by hand or by typewriter, with the insertion of plenty of spelling and semantic errors. The effort and cost of copying and distribution moreover limit the number of copies per generation to about 20. Chain-letters distributed by electronic mail, on the other hand, can be sent to hundreds or thousands of people at once, at virtually no efforts or costs, and without information degradation.
Though I have received more chain-letters by email than by post, chain-letters on the net are still a minor phenomenon. Although their spread is very much facilitated by the net, the same applies to all other types of messages. That means that there is increased competition between all these different memes for a limited resource: the attention a user pays to the information he or she receives. Because chain-letters fulfil relatively few of the criteria that distinguish successful memes from unsuccessful ones, they are unlikely to win this competition.
The recent development from the net as carrier of email messages to the World-Wide Web as repository of interconnected documents has greatly changed the dynamics of meme replication. On the Web, information is no longer distributed by sending copies of files to different recipients. The information is rather stored in one particular location, the "server", where everyone can consult it. "Consultation" means that a temporary copy of the file is downloaded to the RAM memory of the user's computer, so that it can be viewed on the screen. That copy is erased as soon the user moves on to other documents. There is no need to store a permanent copy since the original will always be available. That does not mean that replicator dynamics no longer apply: the interested user will normally create a "bookmark" or "link", i.e. a pointer with the address of the original file, so that it can be easily retrieved later. A link functions as a virtual copy (also called an "alias" file), which produces real, but temporary, copies the moment it is activated.
The success of a web document can then be measured by the number of virtual copies or links pointing to it: the documents with most pointers will be used most extensively. There are already web robots, i.e. programs which automatically scan the Web, that make "hit parades" of the documents which are linked to most often. For example, it is likely that a reproduction of the works of Van Gogh on the Web will be much more popular in number of pointers than the work of some unknown 20th century painter.
For genes, competition is limited to "alleles": alternative versions of a gene which compete for the same position on an organism's chromosome. Genes residing in different parts of the chromosome, on the other hand, do no compete but cooperate in steering the development of the organism. Each gene produces a particular type of protein, in reaction to the presence of absence of other proteins in the cell. Together, these proteins build up the cell, digest food molecules, eliminate poisonous molecules, and generally restore the cell equilibrium after different perturbations. Genes cooperate directly through their arrangement in networks: the product of one gene can activate or deactivate a number of other genes, which in turn may activate further genes, and so on.
Similarly, memes can be said to cooperate if they are coherent or support each other. For example, the belief that the Earth is round and the belief that the Earth circles around the sun are mutually reinforcing. The "roundness" meme makes it easier to visualize the "circling" meme, and vice versa. On the other hand, the roundness meme contradicts the meme which says that the Earth is flat. Roundness and flatness behave like alleles, which compete for the same position in a person's view of the world. Though flatness does not directly contradict circling, it is clear that they fit less well together than roundness and circling. Similar examples can be found in the domains of art and fashion. Debussy's music seems to fit in much better with impressionism in painting than with expressionism. Heavy metal music seems to go together with riding motor bikes, but not so much with bicycles.
Mutually supporting memes will tend to group together in larger cooperating ensembles, like ideologies, theories or religions. Mutually exclusive ensembles, like Catholicism and Protestantism, the Copernican and Ptolemaic views of the solar system, or the hippie and punk movements, will compete for converts. It is here that the "multiple parenting" issue, distinguishing memes and genes, comes into play. Since many different people ("parents") can try to convert the same individual, that individual will need to make a choice between the different memes presented to her. (In contrast, you cannot choose from which parents you inherit your genes). For two otherwise equivalent memes, the determining characteristic will be the number of already existing converts: the more people try to convince you of something, the more likely it is that you will follow the lead. If slightly more people believe in one meme, that meme will make more new converts, and thus increase its lead over the competition. This is a self-reinforcing evolution, where success breeds success. As confirmed by a mathematical model of meme transmission (see Heylighen & Campbell, 1995), the result will be that everyone in a group ends up believing the same things. This is what I called earlier "conformist" selection. However, different groups, with little communication between them, will generally believe different things, since conformist transmission tends to amplify small differences in initial distribution of beliefs.
Let us now see how these mechanisms of cooperation and competition are affected by the global network. Like genes, memes on the web are arranged in networks, where one document points to a number of supporting documents, which in turn link to further supporting documents. Linked documents cooperate, in the sense that they support, confirm or extend each other's ideas. Competing documents, such as announcements of commercial competitors, will not link to each other, or only refer to each other with a phrase like "you should certainly not believe what is said there".
Assuming that two competing documents are equally convincing otherwise, the competition will be won or lost by the number of links that point to each of them. The more pointers to a document can be found, the more people will consult it, and the more further pointers will be made. This is the same kind of self-reinforcing process that leads to conformism, to all members of a group settling on the same meme ensemble. The difference is that now there are no separate groups: on the global network, everyone can communicate with everyone, and every document can link to every other document. The end result is likely to be the emergence of a globally shared ideology, or "world culture", transcending the old geographical, political and religious boundaries. (Note that such homogeneization of memes only results for memes that are otherwise equivalent, such as conventions, standards or codes. Beliefs differing on the other dimensions of meme selection will be much less influenced by conformist selection.)
Such a networked ideology would play a role similar to that of the genome, the network of interconnected genes that stores the blueprint, and controls the physiology, of a multicellular organism. The corresponding "organism" or sociotype for this meme network would be the whole of humanity, together with its supporting technology. Individual humans would play a role similar to the organism's cells, which in principle have access to the whole of the genome, but which in practice only use that part of it necessary to fulfil their specific function.
There is a better metaphor for the emerging global network. Rather than comparing it to an organism's genome, which is normally static and evolves only because of random copying errors, it can be likened to the organism's brain, which learns and develops in a non-random way. The network functions like a nervous system for the social superorganism (Stock, 1993), transmitting signals between its different "organs", memorizing its experiences, making them available for retrieval when needed, and generally steering and coordinating its different functions. Thus, it might be viewed as a global brain (Russell, 1995).
The learning of new associations can be implemented by automating the evolutionary process which creates new links. We have set up an experiment in which a hypertext network adapts its links to the pattern of its usage by "learning" the implicit semantics of its users. Such a learning web can be made more intelligent by implementing the equivalent of "thoughts": software agents, which search the net by spreading out while following associative links, collecting information that answers the user's questions (Heylighen & Bollen, 1996). Such brain-like networks may seem far removed from our initial meme model, but they are still based on the same dynamics of variation and selection of (real or virtual) copies of information.
Heylighen F. (1993): "Selection Criteria for the Evolution of Knowledge", Proc. 13th Int. Cong. on Cybernetics (Int. Ass. of Cybernetics, Namur), p. 524-528.
Heylighen F. & Bollen J. (1996): "The World-Wide Web as a Super-Brain", in: Cybernetics and System '96 (Austrian Society for Cybernetic Studies), p. 917-922.
Heylighen F. & Campbell D.T. (1995): "Selection of Organization at the Social Level", World Futures:45, p. 181-212.
Russell P. (1995): The Global Brain Awakens: Our Next Evolutionary Leap (Miles River Press).
Stock G. (1993): Metaman: the merging of humans and machines into a global superorganism (Simon & Schuster, New York).
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The long, ugly history, regarding the lynching of Blacks in America was not formally acknowledged until 2005. Amazingly, there had been no federal law enacted to outlaw the racist practice, despite hundreds of bills that were introduced to Congress and seven presidents who urged lawmakers to pass the law between the years of 1890 and 1952. On this day in 1918, the National Liberty Congress of Colored Americans asked Congress to make lynching a federal crime.
White Republican Congressman Leonidas C. Dyer, appalled by race riots in St. Louis in his native Missouri and in East St. Louis in Illinois in 1917, proposed the Dyer Anti-Lynching bill to Congress on April, 1, 1918. Black leaders in the North demanded that the Republican Party presidential platform address the practice of lynching and make it a crime. The National Liberty Congress of Colored Americans’ record of their petition appears in the 1925 book, “The Negro Year Book Volume 5.”
From the book:
On June 29 1918 there was entered in the Congressional Record petition of the National Liberty Congress of Colored Americans petition asked among other things that congress pass legislation the protection of the Federal Government to all citizens of United States of America at home by enacting that mob murders be a crime against the Federal Government subject to the jurisdiction of the Federal courts for in the words of President Wilson Democracy means first of all that we can govern ourselves.
In April of 1918 a large delegation of Louisiana Negroes called on the Governor of the State and urged him to take action to put a stop to lynchings in Louisiana In December of 1918 the Texas branches of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People presented a petition to the Governor which read:
‘First realizing that the lynching evil has prevailed in this country for more than 50 years and that our present laws have not been able to cope with the crime of mob violence and as a result of same the said crime is gradually increasing which has caused general discontent and restlessness among the colored people;
‘Second realizing that your excellency is the governor of all the State of Texas we feel it our duty as a part and parcel of this commonwealth to ask your excellency to submit in your message to the ensuing legislature some remedy which in your judgment will abate and eventually rid the State of mob violence.
Although the Republican Party had sway among Black voters at the time, the powerful Southern Democrats, which controlled the U.S. Senate, blocked many of the bills from passing despite presidential intervention and three bills passing in the House of Representatives.
Although lynchings occurred less frequently after the inroads made by the Civil Rights Movement, the heinous act still took place. One of most recent and horrible examples of this is the dragging death of James Byrd, Jr. in Jasper, Texas.
Watch news coverage of Byrd’s horrible death here:
As mentioned earlier, a resolution was sponsored by senators Mary Landrieu of Louisiana and George Allen of Virginia, leading 78 other senators to apologize for the U.S. Senate’s inability to get the over 200 anti-lynching bills passed over the years.
Although the resolution was a noble step in the right direction, it puts focus on the fact that Black life had been viewed as worthless and expendable in this country for centuries. The inexcusable crimes against African Americans and the spectacle that typically surrounded their deaths are lasting images that cannot simply be pushed aside because of a gathering of lawmakers and their apology.
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This concept teaches students how to determine whether or not a shape has reflection symmetry and how to draw lines of symmetry.
This video gives more detail about the mathematical principles presented in Reflection Symmetry.
This video shows how to work step-by-step through one or more of the examples in Reflection Symmetry.
A list of student-submitted discussion questions for Reflection Symmetry.
This study guide is a brief overview of the different types of symmetry and tessellations.
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This article appears in the Clan Sinclair Association Canada
brochure. Further details may be found in the
Timeline on the Clan Sinclair UK website.
The Origins of the Sinclairs
The Sinclairs descend from Tognvald "the Mighty",
Earl of Moere in Norway and of the Orkneys. In 876 his son Hrolf
"the Ganger" entered the River Seine and pillaged the
countryside. King Charles "the Simple" of France made peace by granting him the Province of Normandy, and the overloardship of Brittany. The
treaty was signed at Castle Saint-Clair-Sur-Epte...
The Norman Conquest
William The Conqueror was a first cousin of the St Clairs. Nine Sinclair
knights fought with him at the Battle of Hastings.
The St Clairs were granted vast estates in England.
The St Clair presence in Scotland pre-dates the Norman Conquest. William
St Clair accompanied Edgar "the Atheling" to Hungary and later escorted
Edgar's sister Margaret to Scotland with the Holy Rood, part of the true cross. William
was granted Rosslyn "in life-rent" by the King in 1057. Rosslyn has been in the
family's hands ever since.
Scottish Achievements and Templar Connections
William was succeeded by Henri de St Clair, who took part in the First Crusade
and the Fall of Jerusalem in 1096. This was the beginning of the Sinclair involvement
with the Crusades and the Knights Templar.
The Knights Templar were welcomed to Scotland by Robert The Bruce
after the Order had been suppressed by the Pope. The Sinclairs allowed them
to set up a headquarters at Ballintradoch, on the Rosslyn Estate.
Bannockburn and the Heart of Bruce
At the Battle of Bannockburn
in 1314, Sir William Sinclair and two sons led out
the Knights Templar to rout the English army. This victory is still remembered
by the Knights Templar at a ceremony at Bannockburn on St John's Day.
Two Sinclairs were entrusted with the task of taking the Bruce's heart to the
Holy Land for burial. During the journey through Spain with Sir James Douglas
and a company of knights, they fought a fierce battle against the Moors. Both
James Douglas and William Sinclair were killed. The Moors, impressed by the
courage of the Scottish knights, allowed the dead, together with the heart of
the Bruce, to be returned to Scotland for burial.
The New World
In 1398 Henry Sinclair,
Earl of Orkney and Prince of Norway, set sail for the New World with
200 men-at-arms in 12 ships fitted with cannon. They reached
Newfoundland and later sailed on to Nova Scotia, where Henry built
After overwintering with the Mi'kmaq Indians, Henry
sailed to Massachusetts where one of his knights died. An effigy of
the knight, now thought to be Sir James Gunn of Clyth,
was chiselled into a rock face.
Henry sailed on to Rhode Island where he is thought to have built the Newport Tower.
Further proof of Henry's voyage is visible in Rosslyn Chapel where
there are carvings of Indian Maize and North American Aloe cacti,
all carved before Columbus was born.
The Caithness Earldom
The Earldom of Caithness appears on record in 1129 when William was designated
Earl in a Charter issued by King David I.
In 1455 the Earldom was granted to William St Clair of Orkney. There is little
doubt that there were Sinclairs in Caithness long before this date. The
Sinclairs of Dun are said to have settled there in 1379.
The Sinclairs produced many notable persons. Among them was Sir John Sinclair of
Ulbster, who was first President of the Board of Agriculture at the time of
Pitt, and the compiler and editor of the First
Statistical Account of Scotland, 1791-99.
Another famous descendant was Major General Arthur St Clair who served with
Amherst at Louisberg and with Wolfe at Quebec. However, during the American War
of Independence he was a trusted adviser of General Washington and served at
many battles. He was President of Congress and Governor of the North-western
Territory of the USA.
© Clan Sinclair Association Canada.
All rights reserved.
Maintained by firstname.lastname@example.org
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18 February 1688 – At a Quaker meeting in Germantown, Pa, German Mennonites penned a memorandum stating a profound opposition to Negro slavery. Quakers in Germantown, Pa., adopted the fist formal antislavery resolution in America.
1814 – The British schooner Phoenix fell to Marines of the USS Constitution.1817 – Walter Paye Lane (d.1892), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born.
1841 – The 1st continuous filibuster in US Senate began and lasting until March 11.
1842 – The House of Representatives passed a resolution requesting the Committee on Commerce to make an inquiry into the expenditures of the Lighthouse Establishment since 1816. This was to explore the possibility of cutting down on expenses, to examine the question of reorganizing the establishment and administration, and also to ascertain whether the establishment should be placed under the Topographical Bureau of the War Department.
1846 – “It having been represented to the (Navy) Department, that confusion arises from the use of the words “Larboard” and “Starboard,” in consequence of the similarity of sound, the word “Port” is hereafter to be substituted for “Larboard.” –Navy Department General Order
1850 – The city of SF was incorporated.
1861 – Jefferson F. Davis was inaugurated as the Confederacy’s provisional president at a ceremony held in Montgomery, Ala., where the Confederate constitutional convention was held. Davis was sworn in on Feb 22 in Virginia.
1864 – President Lincoln ended the blockade of Brownsville, Texas, and opened the port for trade.
1942 – The Free French submarine Surcouf (then the largest submarine in the world) is sunk in a collision with a US merchant ship.
1943 – The new American 6th Army, commanded by General Krueger, become operational in the southwest Pacific.
1943 – A US Task Group (Admiral McMorris) with 2 cruisers and 4 destroyers bombards Japanese positions on Attu Island.
1943 – Rommel took three towns in Tunisia, North Africa. The intercepted communications of an American in Cairo provided a secret ear for the Desert Fox.
1945 – All US 3rd Army units are attacking. The German Siegfried Line is broken north of Echternach by US 8th Corps while both US 12th and 20th Corps, to the south, are advancing.
1945 – US Task Force 54 and TF52 continue the preliminary bombardment of Iwo Jima.
1945 – There are new attacks by US 4th Corps (part of US 5th Army) in the area of the front just west of the Bologna-Pistoia road.
1945 – While most of US Task Force 58 is replenishing, one group of four carriers commanded by Admiral Radford attacks Haha Jima and Chichi Jima.
1951 – An enemy shore battery scored a hit on the destroyer USS Ozbourn and wounded two sailors. This was the first time a U.S. Navy ship operating in the vicinity of Wonsan had been hit by gunfire from a shore battery.
1954 – East and West Berlin dropped thousands of propaganda leaflets on each other after the end of a month long truce.
1955 – Operation Teapot begins. A series of 14 nuclear detonations to determine the effects of nuclear weapons on a variety of materials and in a variety of conditions begins with detonation Wasp. This test evaluated the effects of low altitude detonations. The total device weight was 1500 lb. Although the bomb was much heavier, the implosion system was the lightest nuclear explosive system fired up until this time.
1956 – The US lifted its arms ban and shipped tanks to Saudi Arabia.
1962 – Robert F. Kennedy said that U.S. troops would stay in Vietnam until Communism was defeated.
1968 – Three U.S. pilots who were held by the Vietnamese arrived in Washington. Today, the Vietnamese people are pressuring Hanoi to account for their own 300,000 MIAs.
1968 – Some 10,000 people in West Berlin demonstrated against US in Vietnam War.
1977 – The space shuttle Enterprise, sitting atop a Boeing 747, went on its maiden “flight” above the Mojave Desert.
1999 – The Clinton administration warned Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic to choose peace with ethnic Albanians in Kosovo, or face a devastating military strike.
1999 – Iraq announces that its section of a joint oil pipeline with Syria is almost ready. The pipeline links Iraqi oil fields located near the northern city of Kirkuk to Syria’s Mediterranean terminal at Banias. A spur off the main pipeline leads to the Lebanese port at Tripoli. Under existing sanctions, Iraq needs to obtain special permission from the United Nations to export oil through Syria.
2000 – Mariano Faget (54), a 34-year US immigration officer in Miami, was reported to be a Cuban spy. Faget was found guilty of disclosing government secrets May 30.
2001 – Robert Philip Hanssen (56), senior FBI agent, was arrested for spying. He had allegedly passed information to the Russians for 15 years. It was believed that he had betrayed the construction of a tunnel under the Soviet Embassy in Washington. He pleaded guilty July 3 to avoid execution. His disclosures were later reported to have played a role in the execution or jailing of at least 3 Russians and threatened the identity of another 50 people. Hanssen was sentenced to life in prison on May 10, 2002.
2001 – The Iraqi press referred to Pres. Bush as “son of the snake” and “the new dwarf” following the Feb. 16 bombing attacks.
2003 – Saudi Arabia said it has referred 90 Saudis to trial for alleged al Qaeda links. Another 250 were reported under investigation.
2003 – Turkey asked the US to nearly double its multibillion dollar aid package as a condition for allowing U.S. troops on its soil in a war against neighboring Iraq.
2004 – President Bush praised social progress in Tunisia and welcomed its leader, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, as a partner in the fight against terrorism while also urging political reforms in the moderate Muslim nation in North African nation.
2004 – Scientists reported that X-rays form galaxy RX J1242-11 indicated a black hole tearing apart a star and gobbling up a share of its gaseous mass.
2005 – Indonesia welcomed efforts by the US to restore full military training ties with Jakarta, saying the time was ripe to resume links that were downgraded 13 years ago.
2005 – Libya refused to extend the deadline of the Lockerbie compensation deal in a possible bid to pressure Washington to drop it from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism.
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Help us by donating to our project.
BEACON is a new approach to observing atmospheric gases over an urban area. Instead of using a small number of extremely sensitive instruments to measure a large area, we blanket interesting locations with a high density network of instruments, with each instrument representing a network “node”. Individually, measurements from these nodes are of moderate quality, but when taken together as a network produce an accurate, highly resolved picture of real-time pollutant concentrations. Each node measures CO2, a major anthropogenic (human-influenced) contributor to climate change, and reports back to this site where the collected data including temperature, pressure, and relative humidity is publicly available for viewing and download. The nodes also collect data on nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), and carbon monoxide (CO) which are indicators for the overall air quality of an area, and may be useful for tracing the origins of CO2 emissions. These data are not yet ready for public viewing, but will be added to the site soon.
BEACON is also a novel approach to scientific outreach. A science curriculum for K-12 teachers using the BEACON sensors has been developed by scientists and educators at the Chabot Space and Science Center in Oakland, California. To the extent possible, nodes are being placed on the rooftops of local area schools, so that students may see for themselves the greenhouse gas (GHG) pollution in their area. We also have plans to place nodes on other local science museums, and will be working with staff to facilitate displays of the BEACON data.
To get a feel for the potential variability of CO2 over the California Bay Area, we have simulated the concentrations over the area for a two-week period and compiled them into this movie. You can see high concentrations around the cities, building up during the day (when there are cars on the road) then dispersing overnight.
A BEACON node is contained in a stainless steel box, weighs approximately 25 pounds, and is the size of a backpack. In addition to the sensors and computer, each node contains a power converter to prevent surges, intake and exhaust fans to maintain an even airflow and prevent overheating, and a wi-fi adapter or long ethernet cable to send data to the central server. At this time, nodes require wall power (an outlet); later generations may use solar panels or other power sources.
When deployed, the nodes are placed on rooftops, mounted on poles or railing that raise the instruments several feet above the roof surface. Care is taken to ensure that the nodes are placed where they will sample free flowing air away from air handling units or building exhaust. In areas where theft or vandalism is a concern, the instruments are secured according to the advice of the building managers.
If you're interested in locating a BEACON node on your rooftop or if you know of a good candidate site, please feel free to download and share our BEACON Quick Facts sheet or our informational pamphlet.
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J.R.R. Tolkien's "Lord of the Rings" is one of the most imaginative and popular epics of the day. It is especially popular with young readers. Parents concerned with the content of Tolkien's trilogy would have a challenging project reading all his works to get a perspective on his thinking. Humphrey Carpenter's masterful biography makes the project much easier by describing who Tolkien is and how he thinks. Carpenter describes Tolkien's deep Christian faith. I think Tolkien's Christian mindset very much influenced his thinking when he wrote "Lord of the Rings."
The review of this Book prepared by Maurice A. Williams
'The Lord of the Rings is one of things: if you like, you do: if you don't then you boo!' So wrote J.R.R. Tolkien, CBE, (1892-1973) of his own book. His authorised biographer, Humphrey Carpenter, does a good job of telling the story of the famous Oxford University professor, from his birth in South Africa and education in Birmingham, England, to career as a popular teacher and writer. As a boy Tolkien enjoyed George MacDonald's 'Curdie' stories, Andrew Lang's fairy tales, and the Scandinavian myths. For those who want to know what the book and the characters 'mean', it is not allegory. ('I dislike allegory whenever I smell it.' he said. Charles Moseley's fine biographical appreciation of the man and his works is probably best for that, along with his published 'Letters'.)
In case anyone could be in doubt as to his genius, it did show early on. As a schoolboy he learnt several languages and could hold forth in the debating society in Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon - more surprising to me that they found anyone to debate against him. We are told the source of Gandalf's appearance, his name, and what it means. Likewise, the hobbits and poor old misunderstood Tom Bombadil (who has yet to appear in a radio or film version.) The influence of his friend C.S. Lewis on 'Tollers' is explained, as they encouraged each other in writing fiction - crucial to the process with LOTR, as it alone took twelve years to write, and the Silmarillion came before all the others and was published last. (The character of Treebeard is partly modelled on Lewis: the 'Hoom, hroom' being part of his booming voice pattern.) One or two things made me laugh, in particular Tolkien's reaction to one of the paperback cover designs, which showed two emus and a Christmas tree with pink fruit.
The appendices: Tolkien family tree; chronology; list of published writings; list of sources and acknowledgments; and index. An inspiring read, and then there is feast after feast of all the stuff that inspired Tollers to follow up.
The review of this Book prepared by Michael JR Jose
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Telecommunication refers to communication over long distances. In practice, something of the message may be lost in the process. 'Telecommunication' covers all forms of distance and/or conversion of the original communications, including radio, telegraphy, television, telephony, data communication and computer networking.
The elements of a telecommunication system are a transmitter, a medium (line) and possibly a channel imposed upon the medium (see baseband and broadband as well as multiplexing), and a receiver. The transmitter is a device that transforms or encodes the message into a physical phenomenon; the signal. The transmission medium, by its physical nature, is likely to modify or degrade the signal on its path from the transmitter to the receiver. The receiver has a decoding mechanism capable of recovering the message within certain limits of signal degradation. Sometimes, the final "receiver" is the human eye and/or ear (or in some extreme cases other sensory organs) and the recovery of the message is done by the brain (see psychoacoustics.)
One of the roles of the telecommunications engineer is to analyse the physical properties of the line or transmission medium, and the statistical properties of the message in order to design the most effective encoding and decoding mechanisms.
When systems are designed to communicate through human sensory organs (mainly those for vision and hearing), physiological and psychological characteristics of human perception must be taken into account. This has important economic implications and engineers must research what defects can be tolerated in the signal and not significantly degrade the viewing or hearing experience.
Examples of human (tele)communications Edit
In a simplistic example, consider a normal conversation between two people. The message is the sentence that the speaker decides to communicate to the listener. The transmitter is the language areas in the brain, the motor cortex, the vocal cords, the larynx, and the mouth that produce those sounds called speech. The signal is the sound waves (pressure fluctuations in air particles) that can be identified as speech. The channel is the air carrying those sound waves, and all the acoustic properties of the surrounding space: echoes, ambient noise, reverberation. Between the speaker and the listener, there might be other devices that do or do not introduce their own distortions of the original vocal signal (for example a telephone, a HAM radio, an IP phone, etc.) The receiver is the listener's ear and auditory system, the auditory nerve, and the language areas in the listener's brain that will "decode" the signal into meaningful information and filter out background noise.
All channels have noise. Another important aspect of the channel is called the bandwidth. A low bandwidth channel, such as a telephone, cannot carry all of the audio information that is transmitted in normal conversation, causing distortion and irregularities in the speaker's voice, as compared to normal, in-person speech.
See also Edit
- Federal Standard 1037C for a glossary of telecommunications terms.
- Public utility
- Lists of public utilities
- Internet traffic engineering
- Ericsson's Understanding Telecommunications at archive.org (Ericsson removed the book from their site in Sep 2005)
- Intec Telecom Systems' Telecom Dictionary
- Mobile Phone Directory Telecommunications Glossary
- Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
- Aronsson's Telecom History Timeline
- Alcatel Telecommunications Review Telecom magazine published since 1922
- Telecommunications Industry News
- BT British Telecommunications company
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- freely available
Diversity 2011, 3(1), 91-111; doi:10.3390/d3010091
Abstract: The ongoing climate warming has been reported to affect a broad range of organisms, and mountain ecosystems are considered to be particularly sensitive because they are limited by low temperatures. Meteorological data show an increased temperature for the alpine areas at Dovrefjell, Norway, causing a prolonged growing season and increased temperature sum. As part of the worldwide project Global Observation Research Initiative in Alpine Environments (GLORIA), the short-term changes in vascular plant species richness, species composition of lichen and vascular plant communities, and abundance of single species were studied at four summits representing an altitudinal gradient from the low alpine to the high alpine zone. During the period from 2001 to 2008, an increase in species richness at the lowest summit, as well as a change in the composition of vascular plant communities, was found at the two lowest summits. The results also indicate an increase in abundance of some shrubs and graminoids and a decline in the cover of some species of lichens at the lowest summit. These changes are in accordance with climate induced changes reported in other studies, but other causes for the observed vegetation changes, in particular changes in grazing and trampling pressure, cannot be ruled out.
Over the past century, the European continent has experienced an increase in average annual surface temperature of 0.8 °C , and the average length of the growing season has increased by 10.8 days since the beginning of 1960 . In Norway the mean annual temperature has increased by 0.5–1.5 °C from 1875 to 2004 . Climate change has already been shown to affect a broad range of organisms [4-6], and over the 21st century the annual temperature in Europe is estimated to continue to increase by 0.1–0.4 °C per decade .
Mountain ecosystems are considered highly sensitive to climate change because they are limited by low temperatures [7-11], and for the same reason mountain ecosystems can be used as indicators of the impacts of climate change . Prolonged growing season and increased temperature will remove some of the environmental limitations and open the areas for invading plants from lower elevations [9,12], and an upward shift in distributions is expected. The local species diversity is expected to increase since species from lower elevations invade faster than present species become locally extinct . However, alpine plants are easily outcompeted by thermophilic species , and, in the long run, cold adapted species might be driven out of their present distribution range and alpine biodiversity will be reduced [15-17].
An overall trend of upward movement of the alpine flora and increased species richness has been found in the Alps [13,18-22] and the trend is accelerating . Similar findings are also reported from the Scandes [23-25]. In Jotunheimen, Norway, Klanderud and Birks found that 53.5% of the species recorded at 25 mountains in Jotunheimen in 1930, 31 were found at higher altitudes in 1998, with a mean upward movement of 1.2 height meters per year.
Pauli et al. report that the mean number of species per square meter increased by 11.8% in their study site at Mount Schrankogel in the Alps from 1994–2004, and they relate this change to the pronounced temperature rise in the Alps in the last century. Erschbamer et al. found an increase in species richness in mountain summit areas over a five year period in the Dolomites.
Changes in species composition have also been observed, with an increased occurrence of dwarf shrubs and graminoids [27,28], and an increase of viviparous and hemiparasitic species . On the other hand, Chapin et al. report decreased species richness as a response to experimental warming in Arctic tundra over a nine year period, associated with strong dominance of Betula. In this study, evergreen shrubs and understory forbs showed a more pronounced decline than other species.
The Global Observation Research Initiative in Alpine Environments (GLORIA) is an international long-term observation network in alpine environments to detect impacts of climate change on mountain ecosystems [10,30,31]. In 2001 the first fieldwork in GLORIA-Europe was carried out and baseline data from 18 target regions in 13 European countries were collected, amongst them the GLORIA target region at Dovrefjell, Norway [10,32,33].
In this article the re-inventory of the four summits at Dovrefjell in 2008 is presented. The aim of the study was to determine if there have been any changes in the vegetation on alpine summits on Dovrefjell from 2001 to 2008 and whether such changes can be related to changes in the climate in the same period. Other possible causes for changes in vegetation will also be addressed.
The initial hypothesis was that if the temperature has increased in the study area there are reasons to expect that the species richness has increased and that there has been a change in the cover and abundance of some species, primarily an increase of woody plants and graminoids, on the study summits, considering the results of previous studies [13,18-23,27]. This should potentially be related to a decline in lichen cover on the same summits .
2. Background and Methods
2.1. Study Area
Most GLORIA target regions consist of four summits exposed to the same regional macroclimate. Together the summits represent an elevation gradient from the treeline ecotone and upwards to high alpine areas. The summits selected at Dovrefjell are Vesle Armodshøkollen (1,161 m a.s.l., low alpine zone), Veslekolla (1,418 m a.s.l., in the transition between the low alpine and the middle alpine zone), Kolla (1,651 m a.s.l., in the transition between the middle alpine and the high alpine zone) and Storkinn (1,845 m a.s.l., high alpine zone) (Figure 1).
The area is divided by the Drivdalen valley, which goes in a north-south direction (the railroad in Figure 1 follows the valley). Three of the summits are located to the west of the valley. These parts of the Dovrefjell area are dominated by old Precambrian bedrock which mainly consist of resistant and often strongly metamorphosed rocks. At the summits Storkinn and Veslekolla, the bedrock mainly consists of metamorphosed sandstone, whereas at Kolla, the bedrock consists of gneiss, granite and anorthosite. In the eastern parts of Dovrefjell the bedrock belongs to the Trondheim field, where the bedrock originates from the formation of the Caledonian mountain range. The lowest summit, Vesle Armodshøkollen, is located to the east of Drivdalen valley, and the bedrock at this summit consists of greenstone and amphibolite [34,35]. Vesle Armodshøkollen is characterized by a rich alpine flora, whereas the mountains to the west of Drivdalen have lower species richness .
The main large herbivores in this area are musk ox, wild reindeer and sheep. In the area east of the valley, where Vesle Armodshøkollen is located, the number of sheep released in the summer has increased from 4,567 individuals in 1999 to 6,119 in 2008. In addition, about 350 sheep and 700 lambs from a neighboring municipality graze in the area around Vesle Armodshøkollen early in the grazing season . The reindeer herd in the area has been fluctuating over the years and was about 1,500 in the eastern part and 1,700 in the western part in 2008 . The herd in the western part is considerably larger and reached between 8,000–12,000 individuals in the 1950s .
The musk ox was reintroduced in the region with new individuals brought in as late as 1953, and the number of musk ox has increased from about 20 individuals in the middle of the 1960s to 213 individuals in 2006. The musk oxen mainly stay in the western part of the Dovrefjell national park, west of Drivdalen valley .
Lichen covered areas like those found at Vesle Armodshøkollen are not very suitable as pasture for sheep and are probably not grazed by these animals to any large extent. The areas might be used as a resting area for sheep and hence be exposed to trampling . However, lichen covered ridges where the snow-cover is thin are important as winter pastures for reindeer .
2.2. Climatic Conditions
There are three meteorological stations in the area (Figure 1); Fokstugu (930 m a.s.l.) established in 1923 measuring air temperature, precipitation and snow depth, Kongsvoll (972 m a.s.l.) with air temperature data from 1980 to 2004, and Snøheim (1,505 m a.s.l.) with air temperature data from 2001. At the weather station Fokstugu, the climate is characterized by a mean annual temperature of −0.1 °C for the period 1961–1990. The warmest month is July with an average of 9.8 °C for this period, and the coldest month is January with an average of −8.8 °C. The average yearly precipitation at Fokstugu is 435 mm (data available at http://www.eklima.no).
Based on data from several surrounding weather stations including the above-mentioned, Hanssen-Bauer found an increase of 0.06 °C per decade from 1875 to 2004. According to Hanssen-Bauer there has been two periods of warming during this period; the first one starting in the beginning of the 20th century with a peak in the 1930s, and a second period starting in the 1960s which is still ongoing, both with an increase of 0.34 °C per decade. Isaksen et al. has shown an accelerated warming during the last decade based on results from thermal time series data from boreholes in permafrost at Juvasshøe (61°40′N, 8°22′E) at 129 m depth. Figure 2 shows the seasonal temperature trends in the period for Fokstugu weather station. At Fokstugu there are positive trends for winter mean temperature (0.034 ± 0.012 °C year−1), for spring mean temperature (0.014 ± 0.004 °C year−1), and for autumn mean temperature (0.010 ± 0.004 °C year−1) for the period 1923–2008, but no detectable trend for summer mean temperature. The annual trend is 0.017 (± 0.002) °C year−1 for the period March 1923 to May 2008, but with a steeper trend of 0.047 (± 0.008) °C year−1 for the last 30 years (June 1978–May 2008). At the weather station Kongsvoll, the annual trend is of 0.050 (± 0.016) °C year−1 from 1980 to 2004, while there is no detectable trend at the weather station Snøheim.
There is no significant trend for annual temperature for the study period 2001–2008 at Fokstugu (0.100 ± 0.232 °C year−1 (ns)), but the winter temperature isolated shows a significant increase (0.258 ± 0.256 °C year−1 (p = 0.049)).
Using data from Fokstugu, Syverhuset calculated the length of the growing season, defined as the period from the first day after the last day of snow in spring to the last day before a permanent snow cover in autumn, increased by 0.62 days on average per year from 1969 to 2004. Likewise, the effective temperature sum during the growing season increased on average 2.447 °C per year at Fokstugu from 1969 to 2004. Syverhuset calculated the effective temperature sum as the sum of all daily mean temperatures above 0 °C during the growing season, which is an adjustment of Laaksonen's definition to alpine plants .
For annual precipitation there is a positive trend corresponding to an increase of 1.774 mm per year at Fokstugu from 1923 to 2008. Splitting into seasons there is a positive trend in the monthly mean precipitation corresponding to an increase of 0.127 mm per year in spring months and an increase of 0.110 mm per year in autumn months, while there is no trend for summer and winter precipitation.
2.3. Study Design
The standardized design “GLORIA Multi-Summit Approach” [4-45] is used. A permanent site was set up in 2001, consisting of four 3 × 3 m quadrate clusters 5 height meters below the highest summit point (HSP) in the four cardinal (N, W, E, S) compass directions on each summit. In all corner 1×1 m quadrates (in total 16 on each summit) percentage cover and frequency counts in 10 × 10 cm quadrates of vascular plants were recorded, both in 2001 and in 2008. Percentage cover of lichens on species level was recorded in the cases where it was possible to determine the species in the field. Each of the analyzed 1 × 1 m quadrates were photographed for visual comparison.
Each summit was divided into eight summit area sections; one section in each of the four cardinal compass directions between the HSP and 5 height meters below the HSP area and similar between 5 and 10 height meters below the HSP. The area of the sections thus depended on the steepness of the terrain. In each summit area section, a complete species list was recorded.
Soil temperature was measured at the study sites. In each of the central quadrates of the 3 × 3 m quadrate clusters, a temperature logger (StowAway TidbiT −20/+50 °C mini-data loggers, Onset Computer Corporation, Massachusetts, U.S.) was buried 10 cm below the surface, measuring the temperature every hour. The loggers were first installed in July 2001, and were later replaced in August 2002 and August 2005. The temperature analysis in this study is based on the logger data from installation in 2001 to July 2008.
2.4. Statistical Analyses
All statistical analyses, unless otherwise stated, were performed using the statistical software R version 2.8.1 (The R Foundation, Vienna, Austria).
In order to correct for seasonal and random variation in each of the 16 time series of soil temperature, time series were decomposed for monthly means into trend, seasonal and remainder components using a seasonal trend decomposition procedure based on Loess (STL) . Missing values were replaced with the average temperature for that month for all other available years. A straight line model was fitted to each of the resulting trend curves to see if there was a tendency of temperature increase in the soil.
We also studied the evolution of soil temperatures for each season separately. Winter was defined as December to February, spring as March to May, summer as June to August, and autumn as September to November. Seasonal mean temperatures were calculated for each summit and year where means were taken over all time series from the same summit. A straight line model was thereafter fitted to each of the 16 time series of seasonal means.
A repeated measures ANOVA , after square root transformation of the response variable, was used to investigate whether the species richness for vascular plants in the 1 × 1 m quadrates had changed from 2001 to 2008. Exposition (N, W, E, S) and summit were treated as fixed factors, and their main effects, their interaction, as well as their interactions with year were included in the linear model. The highest summit, Storkinn, was removed from this analysis due to the low number of observations of vascular plants in the 1 × 1 m quadrates there.
A repeated measures ANOVA was also used to investigate whether the number of species had changed in the summit area sections between 2001 and 2008. Measurements of species number were square root transformed before analysis.
In order to test whether there had been a change in the composition of vascular plant and lichen communities, a distance based, nonparametric MANOVA was carried out using the program DISTLM v.5 [50,51]. Community composition was measured as a multivariate response of species abundance values. Abundance of vascular plants was measured either as percentage cover or frequency counts, while percentage cover measured lichen abundance. The linear model was a multivariate version of the model used in the analyses of species richness and the analyses were based on chi square distances. Significance probabilities of test statistics (pseudo Fs) were estimated by permutation tests with 999 permutations under the full model . To construct design matrices corresponding to factors or interaction terms in the ANOVA design, the computer program XMATRIX was used. Separate analyses were carried out for frequency and cover data for vascular plants and cover data for lichens. Lichens that had been problematic to identify during field work were excluded from the analysis. Where an interaction effect between year and summit was found, the data were split with respect to summit and analyzed separately using the same procedure.
To test if there had been any changes in the cover or abundance of single species in the quadrates, a t-test, a Wilcoxon's signed-rank test or a binomial test was conducted for each species, both vascular plants and lichens, on each of the four summits. Prior to selection of test, the data distribution was examined and the most powerful test was always selected if the test requirements were met. For vascular plants the tests were carried out both with frequency and cover data. Only species present in more than three plots in both years were considered.
3.1. Soil Temperature
We found significant, positive trends in mean monthly temperatures in nine of the 16 logger time series after correcting for seasonal effects, in three time series at Vesle Armodshøkollen (N,E,S), in four at Veslekolla, and in one at each of Kolla (N) and Storkinn (S). One time series at Storkinn (E) was ended in 2005 due to logger failure, while we found no trends in the remaining six time series (results not shown). When looking at the four seasons separately for the logger data, only winter temperatures showed positive trends (Figure 3).
3.2. Species Richness of Vascular Plant Species
The absolute number of vascular plant species observed, increased at the three lowest summits from 2001 to 2008 (Table 1). The design, however, did not allow any statistical evaluation of these observations. Table 2 gives an overview over new species found at the summits in 2008 compared to 2001 and species lost in the same period.
Table 1 shows total number of species in the summit area sections. There was a significant summit by year interaction from 2001 to 2008 (F = 4.080, df = 3, 24, p = 0.018) and the data was therefore split by summit and reanalyzed. Only the lowest summit, Vesle Armodshøkollen, had a significant increase in number of species (F = 17.661, df = 1, 4, p = 0.014).
Table 3 shows total number of species in the 1 × 1 m quadrates for each summit. There was a significant summit by year interaction from 2001 to 2008 (F = 28.41, df = 2, 36, p < 0.001) and the data was therefore split by summit and reanalyzed. Only the lowest summit, Velse Armodshøkollen, had a significant increase in number of species per quadrate (F = 73.42, df = 1, 12, p < 0.001).
3.3. Species Composition and Single Species Response
An interaction effect between summit and year was found when analyzing the species composition based on species cover of vascular plants in the quadrates (pseudo-F = 1.829, df = 3, 48, p = 0.051), and the data were therefore split with respect to summit. There has been a significant change in the species composition of plant cover from 2001 to 2008 in the quadrates at the two lowest summits, Vesle Armodshøkollen (pseudo-F = 2.675, df = 1, 12, p = 0.017) and Veslekolla (pseudo-F = 4.857, df = 1, 12, p = 0.005). No change was discovered at the other two summits. At Vesle Armodshøkollen there was also a year by exposition interaction (pseudo-F = 1.937, df = 3, 12, p = 0.014), while this effect was marginally significant at Veslekolla (pseudo-F = 1.916, df = 3, 12, p = 0.071), indicating non-parallel changes in the four expositions
Neither changes in species composition of lichens in the quadrates, nor any changes in species composition of vascular plants in the summit area sections were found.
Table 4 gives an overview over species present in at least three quadrates on a summit, which showed significant changes from 2001 to 2008. As can be seen from the table, four vascular plants significantly increased in cover at Vesle Armodshøkollen while five lichens significantly decreased.
At Veslekolla only Juncus trifidus increased in cover, while also Betula nana and Loiseleuria procumbens increased in frequency. Here no significant changes for any lichens were found.
Both on Kolla and Storkinn two species of lichens significantly increased in cover. No significant changes were found for any vascular plants.
4.1. Climate and Climate Change
The annual increase in soil temperature during the study period shows a steeper increase at the two lowest summits where positive trends were found for seven out of eight loggers, while positive trends were only found for two out of seven at the two highest summits.
Meteorological data from the area show an increasing trend and the temperature development at Fokstugu from 1923 to 2008 corresponds to an increase of 0.17 °C per decade. Both Hanssen-Bauer and Isaksen et al. indicate an accelerated warming during the last decade. The soil temperature data at the lowest summits show a significant trend and thus give some support to this, but a similar significant trend cannot be found at any of the weather stations during the period of the study.
There is no obvious explanation why the increase in winter temperatures seems to decrease with altitude. One reason might however be that the study area experiences temperature inversion, a phenomenon known to occur in the interior of Scandinavia during winter , especially under clear sky conditions. This means that Foktstugu at 972 m a.s.l. during winter sometimes experiences temperatures several degrees below the temperatures at Snøheim at 1,505 m. a.s.l. A lower frequency of clear sky conditions could change the winter temperatures, affecting winter temperatures at lower altitudes more than at higher altitudes. Thus, a change in the frequency of temperature inversion may cause temperature trends to decrease with altitude. The increased temperature during winter at Fokstugu gives support to this theory.
The more pronounced temperature increase for winter than for the other seasons at Fokstugu is different from the results of Hanssen-Bauer , who only found a significant trend for the spring temperatures in the region including Dovrefjell from 1875 to 2004. The soil temperature from this project is in line with the data from Fokstugu; 10 of the 15 loggers showed a positive trend for winter temperatures. There is a good correlation between July temperature and boundaries of the vegetation zones , but also climate related events during other seasons have been found to have important effects on plant performance [11,56]. The timing and length of the snow free season is of great importance to plant growth , and the prolonged growing season at Fokstugu may thus be a potential driver for changes in vegetation patterns in the area which then will be more pronounced at the lower altitudes in the study area.
Jonas et al. found significant differences in plant growth between sites with different average duration of the snow-covered period, but over a 10 year period they did not observe any new changes. They argued that between-year effects may represent short time effects of alpine plant communities to climate changes, whereas between-site effects might represent the long-term responses of plant growth to the changing climate. Since the length of the growing season at Fokstugu has increased over a period of 35 years, it may have had time to lead to measurable changes in the vegetation by now.
The effective temperature sum during the growing season has also increased at Fokstugu from 1969 to 2004. Laaksonen argues that both the warmth and the duration of the vegetative period should be taken into account to obtain a more valid indicator of the advantage of the growing season, and emphasizes the use of the effective temperature sum as a useful indicator.
The precipitation in the area has primarily increased in spring and autumn, and precipitation in the outset and at the end of the snow free season has, together with the temperatures during the same periods, been identified as key meteorological factors influencing plant growth . However, the magnitude of increase in monthly mean precipitation at Fokstugu is small and will most likely not have any large effect on the growth and distribution of plants, at least not in the short term.
4.2. Changes in Species Richness
A significant increase in species richness of vascular plants was found in the quadrates and in the summit area sections of the lowest summit. This increase is in line with most other similar studies in alpine areas where the changes are attributed to climate warming [6,13,18-25]. It is also in line with the expected response under a warming climate . Other explanations are still possible, which will be discussed below.
4.3. Changes in Species Composition and in Abundance of Single Species
A significant change in species composition from 2001 to 2008 was found at the two lowest summits using cover data from the quadrates. For vascular plants it is the cover of woody plants and graminoids that increases at the two lowest summits. This is in line with other studies. Bahn and Körner found that frequent graminoids and prostrate dwarf shrubs, in addition to viviparous and hemiparasitic species, showed the most pronounced increases over a period of 13 years in the Austrian Alps, and Cannone et al. found a rapid expansion of shrubs within the alpine belt and an upward migration of the alpine grassland in the Alps. In Alaska, Sturm et al. found an increase in shrub abundance over a period of 50 years. Odland et al. found an average upward movement of 7.3 m for woody plants during the last 40 years at 13 summits in the southern Scandes. In all these studies, recent climate change is identified as an important factor driving the observed changes.
In an experimental study with warming in the Alps dwarf shrubs and graminoids showed a more pronounced response than herbaceous species . However, a warming and nutrient addition experiment conducted in a Dryas octopetala heath at Finse, Norway, gave contrasting results. Here the dwarf shrubs Salix herbacea and S. reticulata decreased in abundance as a response to warming, but the results were not statistically significant . In the same study, different responses from graminoids were found and Klanderud concluded that the use of functional groups often found in studies on vegetation response to environmental changes may conceal information on responses of single species. This is in contradiction to Chapin et al. who conclude that plant functional types are useful as a framework for predicting vegetation responses to the environment.
Syverhuset analyzed quantitative changes of cover of vascular plants in the summit area sections used in this study. The abundance classes used were quite coarse and no significant changes were found. She stills point out a seeming increase in cover of three species at at Vesle Armodshøkollen. Two of these, namely the woody plant Arctous alpinus and the hemiparasitic Bartsia alpina are in line with the results of Bahn and Körner . The third species is Solidago virgaurea. On the second highest summit, Kolla, she found the opposite effect. Here Salix herbacea changed from being common in five, and scattered in three, sections in 2001 to absent in four, and rare in three, sections in 2008.
We found no changes in the species composition of lichens, but a significant decline in cover was found for five species at Vesle Armodshøkollen. The decline in lichen cover is so distinct that it could be identified just by visual inspection (see photos in ). Chapin et al. found a similar decrease in Alaska. They assumed that this was primarily caused by the expansion and overgrowth by dwarf shrubs. As can be seen from the photos in Michelsen et al. , this is not the case at Vesle Armodshøkollen where areas covered with lichens in 2001 were bare ground in 2007.
Interestingly, the changes in species composition are only revealed from cover and not from frequency data in the quadrates. This is an indication that the changes are primarily due to vegetative expansion of individuals already present and not so much a result of establishment of new individuals, which assumingly would be more scattered. Several of the species are clonal plants and clonal propagation might contribute relatively little to the increase in frequency within the quadrates, but still contribute to an increase in percentage cover. It is also important to bear in mind that some of the species found to increase in cover (Table 4) already had high frequency. Still, the results presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3 show that some new individuals obviously do establish, at least at the three lowest summits.
4.4. Changes with Respect to Summit
A range of vegetation changes are found from 2001 to 2008; an increased number of species, changes in species composition and changes in cover or frequency of single species. As a general conclusion the changes are larger at the lowest summits. The changes are especially pronounced at Vesle Armodshøkollen, located right above the tree limit in the low alpine zone. The number of species generally decreases with increasing altitude [9,61] and plant communities on calcareous soils are known to have a higher richness of vascular plants . Both the altitude and the more calcareous bedrock in this area thus form the basis for the higher species richness at this summit compared to the other study summits. Thus, there are more potential invaders and more species present at the summit that can respond to environmental changes and expand their cover.
At the same time, the changes at Veslekolla were larger than at Kolla with a significant change in species composition, significant changes in frequency for three species and a higher number of new species, although not significant. Here Kolla had a higher number of species to start with so the initial number of species cannot be the only factor explaining the variation in responses among summits. The soil temperature data (Figure 1) also show that the temperature changes are more pronounced at Vesle Armodshøkollen and Veslekolla than at the two highest summits and a relation between changes in temperature and vegetation is thus an obvious possibility.
In similar studies from the Alps, the largest increase in species richness was found in the upper alpine and subnival zone and in the subnival/nival zone . Erschbamer et al. even found that the species richness decreased at the lower summits. Hence, the results from the Alps are contrary to the results from Dovrefjell with respect to at what altitude the changes are more pronounced. However, the conditions at the study summits in the Alps and at the study summits at Dovrefjell are difficult to compare. For instance, the total number of vascular species at most of the summits analyzed by Erschbamer et al. is much higher than at the study summits at Dovrefjell.
4.5. Alternative Explanations to Observed Vegetation Changes
Since this study is observatory and correlative, final causal relationships cannot be drawn and all possible causes must be considered. In particular there are several possible mechanisms by which large herbivores may influence vegetation patterns and changes in grazing and trampling impact are the most relevant in the area.
According to Gaare reduced grazing could over time give a buildup of soil humus and an increased water storage capacity in the soil, enabling vascular plants to compete with lichens and in the long term result in graminoids and dwarf shrubs replacing lichens. The increased abundance of dwarf shrubs and graminoids found at the lower summits could therefore be a natural consequence of a long lasting build up of soil humus. This is a plausible description of the conditions at Vesle Armodshøkollen in the time after the construction of the railway finished in 1921 . This divided the range of the reindeer herd in the Snøhetta area and the old east-west migration routes were not used regularly for a period. They were re-established as the population grew and used regularly between 1957 and 1983. However, after this time the use of the eastern winter ranges in the area around Vesle Armodshøkollen has not been reported . Even though reindeer and sheep have been present at the area in the years before the first analysis in 2001, the numbers might not have been high enough to prevent a build up of the soil humus layer. If this is the driver of the increase of graminoids and dwarf shrubs, it might be expected that this will be reversed due to the recent increase in grazing pressure in the area. The areas of bare soil found on Vesle Armodshøkollen in 2008, previously covered by lichens, are potentially susceptible to wind and erosion, which could eventually remove the accumulated layer of humus and once again give the lichens a competitive advantage.
Trampling by the increasing numbers of herbivores could have caused a disturbance and in itself explain the changes in species diversity [cf. 63]. Plant species richness is expected to be greatest at a moderate level of disturbance and empirical data from alpine tundra in Norway show increased diversity of mosses, lichens, graminoids and dwarf shrubs, on ridges exposed to moderate grazing by reindeer during winter, possibly because of exposure of bare ground, reduction of competition and increased nitrogen turnover . Vistnes and Nellemann also conclude that heavy grazing may be beneficial to a range of colonizing species in the short term, while in the long term the vegetation cover might be destroyed by erosion. However, this is not supported by Olofsson who reports that the short-term effects from increase in reindeer grazing can give good indications of most of the long-term effects on species richness.
Since the number of herbivores has increased in the area over the last years, it cannot be ruled out as a possible explanation to the increased species richness found at the lowest summit. It is, however, difficult to determine the exact grazing pressure and since reindeer move in herds, the grazing pressure might also vary substantially from location to location, depending on the movements of the herds. Continued observations are required to reveal if the trend of increasing species richness continues, accelerates or reverses.
Since there are large differences in the tolerance to grazing between coexisting shrub species , the changes in cover and frequency of species from 2001 to 2008 can give an indication on which explanation is most likely to explain the changes. Betula nana was one of the vascular plants that increased in cover and frequency from 2001 to 2008. It is only present at the two lowest summits and therefore seems to increase where it has the possibility. Exclusion of grazing reindeer has been shown to lead to an increase in cover for Betula nana, as well as an increase in the cover of dwarf shrubs, forbs and grasses . Dwarf shrub dominated vegetation on tundra heaths in areas with light grazing pressure from reindeer will often rapidly change into grasslands when the grazing pressure increased . The cover of Betula nana has been shown to increase under moderate grazing of sheep but decrease under a high grazing pressure .
As previously mentioned, Vesle Armodshøkollen probably experiences little or no grazing by sheep, however; trampling is likely to occur as the areas might serve as a resting ground. The uncertainty regarding whether the grazing pressure by reindeer can be classified as low, moderate or high, leaves some dubiety concerning what response to expect, but it does not seem likely that the increase of Betula nana is a response to increased grazing pressure. This is further supported by the increase of Salix herbacea and Vaccinium vitis-idaea, both of which are highly sensitive to grazing . The data from Syverhuset also show an increase of Solidago virgaurea in most sectors at Vesle Armodshøkollen. Austrheim et al. found this to be negatively affected by high densities of sheep, giving additional indications on low grazing pressure.
Still, some graminoids have been shown to increase at high intensities of grazing by sheep and reindeer . Vistnes and Nellemann found that Juncus trifidus established at heavily grazed sites, so the increase at Veslekolla might be caused by the increased numbers of herbivores.
Grazing and trampling by reindeer can cause a decrease of the cover of lichens [65,70], as well as giving sites for establishment of new species. This could explain the decline in cover of lichens at Vesle Armodshøkollen and the increased number and cover of vascular plants during the period. In an experimental warming study in Alaska, Chapin et al. found that lichens were outcompeted by vascular plants. This does not seem to be a plausible explanation here since areas covered by lichens in 2001 are turned into bare ground , and a trampling effect cannot be excluded.
The changes of single species of vascular plants do thus not give an unambiguous answer to which driver is most likely to explain the vegetation changes found from 2001 to 2008. It seems most likely that the changes are caused by interactions of a number of factors, including climate changes and plant-herbivore interactions.
4.6. Observational Bias
In an observatory study relying on collection of field data, observer bias cannot be eliminated . In this study this is particularly a problem for the species lists for the summit area sections due to their relative large area, while the problem is less for the smaller 1 × 1 m quadrates . The species list given in Table 3 as well as the absolute numbers in Table 1 and 2 must thus be treated carefully since, in particular, small seedlings easily can be overlooked. These results are only treated qualitatively in this study, and there is no reason to believe that potential bias is unidirectional and hence influencing the conclusions to an unacceptable degree.
Observational bias is generally lower in 1 × 1 m quadrates and several precautions were taken during measurement; use of standardized protocols, generally more than one observer, and the investigators from 2001 were initiating the work in 2008 and taking part in almost the entire fieldwork (except a few days on Kolla). Also here there is no reason to believe that potential bias is unidirectional and it is thus not likely that a substantial part of the significant changes found are caused by observational bias.
Both data from weather stations in the area and soil temperature measured from 2001 to 2008 show an increasing temperature. It also seems as the increase during the study period is more pronounced at the lower summits. There is thus evidence that there has been an increased temperature in the area both prior to the onset of the study and during the study period, giving both a longer growing season and a higher temperature sum in the growing season.
Species richness increased at the lowest summit in the study from 2001 to 2008, and the species composition at the two lowest summits changed during this period as well. Some species of woody plants and graminoids were found to increase in cover or frequency at the two lowest summits, whereas several species of lichens decreased in cover at the lowest summit. At the two highest summits, two species of lichens increased in cover from 2001 to 2008. The changes are very much in line with what could be expected due to increased temperature based on findings from other studies.
Climate change is thus a plausible explanation for the observed changes in vegetation, but since this is an observatory and correlative study, other causes cannot be ruled out. Changes in grazing and trampling pressure can also cause similar changes, at least in a combination with the observed changes in temperature.
|Number of taxa 2001||Number of taxa 2008|
|Vesle Armodshøkollen||56 (28.6 ± 8.2)||60 (33.8 ± 4.3)|
|Veslekolla||14 (10.6 ± 2.0)||18 (11.6 ± 2.3)|
|Kolla||21 (11.5 ± 3.1)||22 (11.4 ± 2.9)|
|Storkinn||6 (2.8 ± 2.0)||6 (2.8 ± 1.8)|
|Summit||New species||Lost species|
|Vesle Armodshøkollen||Betula nana x pubescens||Artemisia norvegica|
|Carex atrata||Huperzia selago|
|Carex saxatilis||Myosotis decumbens|
|Diapensia lapponica||Pedicularis oederi|
|Euphrasia sp.||Poa pratensis ssp. alpigena|
|Veslekolla||Arctostaphylos uva-ursi||(no lost taxa)|
|Solidago virgaurea spp.|
|Kolla||Carex rupestris||Cardamine bellidifolia|
|Poa arctica||Draba fladnizensis|
|Storkinn||(no new taxa)||(no lost taxa)|
|Number of taxa 2001||Number of taxa 2008|
|Vesle Armodshøkollen||21 (7.7 ± 2.4)||29 (9.3 ± 2.6)|
|Veslekolla||9 (4.5 ± 1.0)||9 (4.5 ± 1.4)|
|Kolla||5 (1.0 ± 1.3)||4 (0.9 ± 1.1)|
|Storkinn||2 (0.2 ± 0.4)||2 (0.2 ± 0.4)|
|Species||Type||Change in cover||P||Change in frequency||P|
|Betula nana||V||↑||0.021 (w)||No change||-|
|Festuca ovina||V||↑||0.002 (t)||↑||0.004 (b)|
|Salix herbacea||V||↑||0.004 (b)||↑||0.039 (b)|
|Vaccinum vitis-idaea||V||↑||0.003 (t)||No change||-|
|Alectoria ochroleuca||L||↓||0.035 (b)||No data||-|
|Flavocetraria cucculata||L||↓||0.010 (w)||No data||-|
|Flavocetraria nivalis||L||↓||0.021 (b)||No data||-|
|Cladonia arbuscula||L||↓||0.002 (b)||No data||-|
|Cladonia stellaris||L||↓||0.039 (b)||No data||-|
|Betula nana||V||No change||-||↑||0.003 (b)|
|Juncus trifidus||V||↑||0.021 (b)||↑||0.004 (b)|
|Loiseleuria procumbens||V||No change||-||↑||0.041 (t)|
|Alectoria ochroleuca||L||↑||0.002 (t)||No data||-|
|Thamnolia vermicularis||L||↑||0.006 (b)||No data||-|
|Alectoria nigricans||L||↑||0.035 (w)||No data||-|
|Alectoria ochroleuca||L||↑||<0.001 (b)||No data||-|
The field work and data preparation for 2001 was financed by EUs 5th Framework Program through GLORIA Europe. The fieldwork and data preparation for 2008 was financed by the Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management. We thank three anonymous referees for constructive comments to the manuscript.
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With 2.5 million daily users, the Tor network is the world’s most popular system for protecting Internet users’ anonymity. For more than a decade, people living under repressive regimes have used Tor to conceal their Web-browsing habits from electronic surveillance, and websites hosting content that’s been deemed subversive have used it to hide the locations of their servers.
Researchers at MIT and the Qatar Computing Research Institute (QCRI) have now demonstrated a vulnerability in Tor’s design. At the Usenix Security Symposium this summer, they will show that an adversary could infer a hidden server’s location, or the source of the information reaching a given Tor user, by analyzing the traffic patterns of encrypted data passing through a single computer in the all-volunteer Tor network.
Fortunately, the same paper also proposes defenses, which representatives of the Tor project say they are evaluating for possible inclusion in future versions of the Tor software.
“Anonymity is considered a big part of freedom of speech now,” says Albert Kwon, an MIT graduate student in electrical engineering and computer science and one of the paper’s first authors. “The Internet Engineering Task Force is trying to develop a human-rights standard for the Internet, and as part of their definition of freedom of expression, they include anonymity. If you’re fully anonymous, you can say what you want about an authoritarian government without facing persecution.”
Layer upon layer
Sitting atop the ordinary Internet, the Tor network consists of Internet-connected computers on which users have installed the Tor software. If a Tor user wants to, say, anonymously view the front page of The New York Times, his or her computer will wrap a Web request in several layers of encryption and send it to another Tor-enabled computer, which is selected at random. That computer — known as the guard — will peel off the first layer of encryption and forward the request to another randomly selected computer in the network. That computer peels off the next layer of encryption, and so on.
The last computer in the chain, called the exit, peels off the final layer of encryption, exposing the request’s true destination: the Times. The guard knows the Internet address of the sender, and the exit knows the Internet address of the destination site, but no computer in the chain knows both. This routing scheme, with its successive layers of encryption, is known as onion routing, and it gives the network its name: “Tor” is an acronym for “the onion router.”
In addition to anonymous Internet browsing, however, Tor also offers what it calls hidden services. A hidden service protects the anonymity of not just the browser, but the destination site, too. Say, for instance, that someone in Iran wishes to host a site archiving news reports from Western media but doesn’t want it on the public Internet. Using the Tor software, the host’s computer identifies Tor routers that it will use as “introduction points” for anyone wishing to access its content. It broadcasts the addresses of those introduction points to the network, without revealing its own location.
If another Tor user wants to browse the hidden site, both his or her computer and the host’s computer build Tor-secured links to the introduction point, creating what the Tor project calls a “circuit.” Using the circuit, the browser and host identify yet another router in the Tor network, known as a rendezvous point, and build a second circuit through it. The location of the rendezvous point, unlike that of the introduction point, is kept private.
Kwon devised an attack on this system with joint first author Mashael AlSabah, an assistant professor of computer science at Qatar University, a researcher at QCRI, and, this year, a visiting scientist at MIT; Srini Devadas, the Edwin Sibley Webster Professor in MIT’s Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science; David Lazar, another graduate student in electrical engineering and computer science; and QCRI’s Marc Dacier.
The researchers’ attack requires that the adversary’s computer serve as the guard on a Tor circuit. Since guards are selected at random, if an adversary connects enough computers to the Tor network, the odds are high that, at least on some occasions, one or another of them would be well-positioned to snoop.
During the establishment of a circuit, computers on the Tor network have to pass a lot of data back and forth. The researchers showed that simply by looking for patterns in the number of packets passing in each direction through a guard, machine-learning algorithms could, with 99 percent accuracy, determine whether the circuit was an ordinary Web-browsing circuit, an introduction-point circuit, or a rendezvous-point circuit. Breaking Tor’s encryption wasn’t necessary.
Furthermore, by using a Tor-enabled computer to connect to a range of different hidden services, they showed that a similar analysis of traffic patterns could identify those services with 88 percent accuracy. That means that an adversary who lucked into the position of guard for a computer hosting a hidden service, could, with 88 percent certainty, identify it as the service’s host.
Similarly, a spy who lucked into the position of guard for a user could, with 88 percent accuracy, tell which sites the user was accessing.
To defend against this type of attack, “We recommend that they mask the sequences so that all the sequences look the same,” AlSabah says. “You send dummy packets to make all five types of circuits look similar.”
“For a while, we’ve been aware that circuit fingerprinting is a big issue for hidden services,” says David Goulet, a developer with the Tor project. “This paper showed that it’s possible to do it passively — but it still requires an attacker to have a foot in the network and to gather data for a certain period of time.”
“We are considering their countermeasures as a potential improvement to the hidden service,” he adds. “But I think we need more concrete proof that it definitely fixes the issue.”
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History of Communication Thought
An exploration of communication concepts in Western intellectual history and social thought from the 17th century to the present. Topics include the nature of language, oral versus literate traditions, cultural relativity, progress,
emancipation, and the role of technology in extending and limiting human communication. Primary source readings will be used.
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Summer is coming to an end, which means it’s almost time to head back to school. Along with buying new school clothes and supplies, parents are advised to make an appointment with their child’s primary care provider for a back-to-school checkup.
“Regular check-ups and immunizations help to ensure normal development, healthy growth, and protection from preventable disease,” says Dr. Todd Wolynn, president of Kids Plus Pediatrics. “Proper nutrition, activity, and immunizations help kids avoid common and potentially severe diseases. Many diseases — including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease, can be lessened or avoided with the evaluation, guidance, and support offered by a child’s primary care practice.”
Wolynn says the frequency of some back-to-school checkups are mandated at the state or school board level.
Parents need to start now so that children learn that going to the healthcare provider is a yearly expectation.
“There are also governmental and health departmental guidance requirements on screening of vision, hearing, immunization status, and scoliosis evaluation,” Wolynn says. “Based on these mandates, there are particular ages or grade-entry ‘check ups’ which must be done to be allowed to attend school in those years — for example, entering kindergarten or 7th grade.”
Most states and school districts have elected mandatory evaluations for school entry before kindergarten and 7th grade, Wolynn says. He says this is partially because both the four-to-five-year-old and the 11-to-12-year-old immunizations should be completed by the time students enter these grades in school.
Wolynn says besides examinations coinciding with the beginning of a new school year, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends annual well visits for children starting at age 3 and continuing through college-aged students.
Dr. Tracy Estes, PhD, RN, FNP-BC, graduate Nursing program director at South University, Richmond, says people of all ages should have an annual medical checkup with their primary care provider.
“Parents need to start now so that children learn that going to the healthcare provider is a yearly expectation,” Estes says.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that many health risk behaviors are established in childhood and early adolescence, Estes says.
Continued monitoring of health risk behaviors and providing anticipatory guidance to parents and their children is needed to ensure a healthy and safe childhood and entry into adulthood,” Estes says.
“Back-to-school time is an excellent opportunity for parents to ensure their children are healthy and safe,” Estes says.
What’s Involved in a Back-to-School Checkup
Although specific back-to-school checkup requirements vary according by state, Wolynn says a primary care provider will typically review the child’s vital signs such as blood pressure and growth measurements, and parameters including height, weight, and body mass index.
“We also review and address physical and mental health, school success, and parents’ questions and concerns,” Wolynn says. “We also, based on state and school district requirements, review the child’s immunization history and provide recommended and/or required vaccines.”
Estes says back-to-school checkups should include both medical and other health-related priorities. In addition to paying a visit to their primary care provider, Estes recommends that children also see their ophthalmologist and dentist.
“Key issues that need to be addressed include growth and developmental trajectory, acute and chronic illness management, immunizations, and hearing and visual acuity,” Estes says. “Parents must ensure that any prescription medications the child must take while at school has appropriate medical paperwork. Each school has different requirements, so parents should check for the required paperwork in time to have the child’s healthcare provider sign it.”
Parents should also work with their child’s primary care provider to develop action plans for any acute or chronic illnesses their child may have, such as a food allergy or asthma, Estes says.
“Children with medical conditions should have a medical identification bracelet with the medical condition(s) listed,” Estes says. “The child’s teachers and classmates should be informed in case of emergency.”
Keeping up with the Required Immunization Schedule
Wolynn says the required immunization schedule may differ according to the state, school district, and college or university, but typically prior to entering kindergarten, children should be completing or have completed their Rotavirus (Rota), Haemophilus (Hib), Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis (DTaP), Polio (IPV), Pneumococcal (PCV13), Hepatitis B (Hep B), Hepatitis A (Hep A), Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) and Varicella (Chicken Pox) vaccine series.
“Prior to entering, college students should have additionally completed their >7yr version of the Tetanus-diphtheria-perstussis (Tdap), Meningococcal (MCV4), and Human Papilloma Virus (HPV4) vaccine series,” Wolynn says.
Estes also says children need to have periodic boosters to develop their immunity.
“When people aren’t being immunized it compromises to herd immunity,” Estes says.
When receiving an immunization, Estes says the health professional administering the vaccine should provide a Vaccine Information Sheet, which will go over important information such as the purpose of the shot, any possible side effects that could be experienced, and what to do if any adverse effects occur.
Estes recommends regularly checking the CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report for an updated immunization schedule for both children and adults.
Taca Campbell, Pharmacy Technology Program Director at Brown Mackie College — Albuquerque, says some immunizations can be administered at a local pharmacy.
“State Boards of Pharmacy have educational requirements that a pharmacist needs to complete that will enable he/she to begin vaccination and immunization programs at retail pharmacy locations,” Campbell says.
Author: Laura Jerpi
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partridge, common name applied to various henlike birds of several families. The true partridges of the Old World are members of the pheasant family (Phasianidae); the common European or Hungarian species has been successfully introduced in parts of North America. In some areas of the United States the name partridge is applied to the ruffed grouse, the bobwhite, and the plumed quail; in Europe the South American tinamou is called a partridge. The gray partridge, Perdix perdix, is an Old World bird of about 1 to 11/2 ft (30–45 cm). True partridges are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Aves, order Galliformes, family Phasianidae.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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These are also known as the comb-footed spiders or tangle-web spiders. There are around 2,200 species worldwide, and 76 species in Northern Europe.
Females usually have a round abdomen. Most females are venomous. Males tend to resemble females. They are usually brown, grey or black in colour, and have short and thin legs with a row of comb-like bristles on the hind legs, although this may be missing or reduced in small species.
Their web is irregular, three-dimensional and has sticky threads hanging from it to entrap prey.
Males court females by vibrating strands of her web with his legs of palps.
Above left is a preserved specimen of and adult female Latrodectus mactans, the black widow, and below is a drawing of a mating pair. It is native to North America, but there are other, very similar spiders in the Latrodectus genus:
In fact there are 30 species in the world, all similar in shape, and appearance. The males, as you can see in the drawing below, are tiny, also they don't bite humans. The females, in contrast, do bite humans. Even more unsettling is their propensity for constructing their webs in outside toilets, with the consequence that the bite is often the more delicate and rarely uncovered parts of the anatomy.
The black widow builds its retreat in dark, sheltered spots, but builds its web for trapping prey between vegetation, and in most other places, even under stones. Unfortunately for humans, outdoor toilets are a favourite place, especially around the seat!
Usually it is found outside or in unheated buildings. It will only be found in heated buildings during cold spells, or prolonged rain. The adult female (above) is about 8 - 10 mm long and on the underside of the abdomen she usually has the characteristic red hourglass shape. The male is just 3 - 4 mm long, and his abdomen is elongated. The male does not bite humans.
One mating can supply the female with enough sperm to last her a lifetime, and males are often, though not always, eaten after mating - it mainly depends on whether the female is well-fed or not. A male can tell if a female is well fed by touching her web with his feet, as he picks up scents through chemoreceptors in his feet. Given the choice of a hungry female and a well fed one, the male will always choose to mate with the well fed one as it is less likely that she will eat him afterwards. However if there is only a hungry female to mate with, the male is usually so desperate to mate that he will take his chances of escaping afterwards. Courtship can last hours, and consists mainly of the male wandering around the female's web tapping and plucking strands of silk and waving his legs in the air.
The drawing on the right shows a mating pair with the the male in black. The female lays around 400 eggs which hatch in 20 - 30 days. But cannibalism is rife among the spiderlings, and usually less than a dozen survive to meet the outside world.
In a good year a healthy female can produce around nine broods. Females are sexually mature at around 2 - 4 months. The average life span for a female is six months, and for a male, around three months.
The spider is timid and nocturnal. During the daylight it spends its time in the silken tunnel retreat. Generally when a female is on her web she will hang upside down.
The venom is neurotoxic, so it blocks the transmission of nerve impulses which leads to rigidity and cramp. It is said it is 15 times stronger than rattlesnake venom, but because of the small quantity injected it is not usually fatal to healthy humans on the rare occasions they are bitten, providing the bite is treated promptly and correctly.
Only about 0.5% of bites from the black widow to humans prove fatal. Strangely cats are very susceptible to the venom, but dogs are fairly resistant, as are sheep and rabbits.
The Candy-stripe spider is found throughout the U. K. and in Eurasia from Finland to the Caspian Sea. It has also been introduced to the United States and Canada. Above is a mature female Enoplognatha ovata with her egg sac in which there are eggs or spiderlings. Mating occurs in summer, and the males die soon afterwards. The female rolls or bend a leaf (see below) and guards her single egg sac. The spiderlings emerge in September, and their mother wanders off to die. The spiderlings overwinter in the leaf litter.
Below is the typical method of hiding her egg sac under a bent leaf which is held in position by silk.
The female body length is 4 - 6 mm and the male is 3 - 5 mm. The colouring can vary with a cream or yellow abdomen with or without 2 red stripes or even one wide red band running down the middle, but they always have the black spots that can be seen in this specimen. They are usually found in low vegetation on roadside verges, gardens and woodland edges.
There are 8 species in the Steatoda genus in northern Europe. All have a thin white band around the front of the abdomen, but this cannot always be seen from above. Males and females are similar, but the males are smaller. The males can stridulate, and the sound is used during courtship. Females can live for over a year.
The female body length can be up to 7 mm and the male 5 mm (the scale above is in mm). They are common in the corners houses, outbuildings and also on tree trunks. This one was found on stacked firewood. Females can live for up to 4 years. They are sexually mature in the summer and autumn.
This spider has been getting a lot of bad publicity recently. I have had them in my log stack for years and have never been bitten - or if I have, the bite has been so mild as to be un-noticable. The one above came in on a log. During the time I took its photograph I was never bitten, nor did it exhibit what I would consider aggressive behaviour. I returned it to a section of the log pile that was being left to mature, so that I would not disturb it again. I suppose it would bite if being harassed or accidentally squashed to death - but then, so would I.
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vCloud Hybrid Service Disaster Recovery
vCloud Hybrid Service (vCHS) Disaster Recovery is a Disaster Recovery-as-a-Service (DRaaS) solution for VMware vSphere that utilizes the cloud to provide disaster recovery (DR) services to enterprises' physical and virtualized data centers.
With vCloud Hybrid Service Disaster Recovery, anything running on a VMware vSphere host is protected by continuously replicating the data to the cloud. The vCHS DR service has a targeted recovery point objective (RPO) of fifteen minutes.
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Network Topology refers to layout of a network. How different nodes in a network are connected to each other and how they communicate is... Read More »
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A is for Autism, Asperger’s, Aspies, Ability, Abuse, Attwood, Acceptance.
B is for Bullying.
C is for Clumsiness, Communication, Colour, Crowds, Confusion, Claustrophobia.
D is for Detail, Diagnosis, Doctors, Depression, Disability, Distress.
E is for Education, Employment.
F is for Focus, Fascination, Friends.
G is for Genetics.
H is for Humiliation, Honesty, Headphones, Humour.
I is for Ignorance, Intelligence, Interest, Input, Isolation.
J is for Judgement.
K is for Karma.
L is for Light, Loss.
M is for Meltdowns, Misunderstanding.
N is for Noise, Nightmares, Neurotypical, Normal.
O is for Oops, Organisation, Obsession.
P is for People, Pretending, Planning, Processing.
Q is for Qualifications.
R is for Rejection, Routine.
S is for Spectrum, Synesthesia, Stimming, Stress, Solitude, Silence.
T is for Teasing, Texture, Taste, Touch.
U is for Understanding
V is for Validation.
W is for Weird, Wiring.
X is for xx
Y is for Yabbering.
Z is for Zero
I’ve tried to avoid using words that mean the same thing, or represent the same concepts, and have stuck to those that mean the most to me. I’d be interested to know what words best represent your own experiences of autism, either directly or indirectly.
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| 2.6875
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Remember, in order to prove a statement of the form "if A, then B", what you do is assume A and derive B from it.
In our case, A is the statement S(k): "in any group of k people, everyone has the same age", and B is the statement S(k+1): "in any group of k+1 people, everyone has the same age."
Step 4 says that all we have to do to complete the proof is assume A is true and try to derive B from it. Therefore, it is legitimate to use A and treat it as true in the process of proving B.
That's exactly what we're doing here. At this stage in the proof, we have two things are disposal:
Within G, there happens to be a group of k people (namely, the group of everyone in G except for the one person P).
Since we are operating under the assumption that, in every group of k people, everyone has the same age, it follows that everyone in this smaller group within G has the same age.
And, it is perfectly legitimate to use this knowledge about this smaller group within G to try to show something about G itself, which is what the subsequent steps in the proof attempt to do.
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AS the memories of the 1953 East Coast floods echo along the shore as the 60th anniversary approaches, a new exhibition is being launched.
The call for communities to be prepared for flooding is vital so destruction on the scale of 1953 never happens again.
David Lascelles was one of the survivors of those floods and was only 11 at the time. He explains some of the most vivid memories from the time.
“Crossing Parry Road was a nightmare, and a gamble, owing to the speed of the flowing water and short distance which it was possible to see.
“We ran a very real risk of being hit by large pieces of flotsam which would suddenly loom out of the dark.
“I must say that, being only 11 years old, there was no way I would have made it across that lane on my own. The water was up to my chest and it was hard to stand up in it.”
The exhibition includes stories from those who experienced the tragedy in which 42 people lost their lives, and also looks at the improvements made to sea defences since.
District council portfolio holder for emergency planning Coun Tony Bridges, added: “Although the coast is better prepared for coastal flooding than it has ever been before, we can’t be complacent.
“We hope the exhibition will raise awareness of what happened in 1953 and how people were affected, while encouraging people to make sure they’re prepared should flooding happen again.”
The new exhibition launches on Monday, October 15 in Mablethorpe Library. It is free to view and coincides with the Wolds Words Festival of reading, writing and performance, which takes place from October 15-21.
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On February 19th in 1942, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning approximately 120,000 Japanese-Americans. But that order had implications way beyond the American shores. It affected thousands of Japanese living in Peru and in other countries of South America. Their story is only now being told. Tyler Sipe reports.
DAVID BARON: I'm David Baron and this is The World. On this date in 1942, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed executive order 9 066. It sent some 120,000 Japanese-Americans to internment camps. The order also had implications beyond the United States. It affected thousands of Japanese living in Peru and other South American countries. From San Francisco, Tyler Sipe reports.
TYLER SIPE: Libia Yamamoto attends church with other Japanese-Americans in Richmond, California. Yamamoto was born to Japanese parents who had immigrated to Peru. More than 20,000 people of Japanese ancestry lived in Peru before the outbreak of the Second World War. But the Japanese-Peruvian community changed dramatically after December 7, 1941.
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT: A date which will live in infamy. The United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the empire of Japan.
SIPE: Three months after Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government began sending Japanese-Americans to internment camps, claiming they were a danger to U.S. security. Several Latin American countries also sent their Japanese residents to camps in the U.S.
WESLEY UEUNTEN: There was latent anti-Japanese hostility, as well as opportunists who thought that if they got rid of the Japanese, they could take over their businesses and land.
SIPE: That's Wesley Ueunten, an assistant professor of Asian American studies at San Francisco State University.
UEUNTEN: Peru and the U.S. got into these agreements where Peru would cooperate with the U.S. defense efforts, sending Japanese to the U.S. In exchange, Peru received loans for things like a steel processing plant or for munitions, etcetera.
SIPE: Ueunten claims what America got was a bargaining chip. People they could exchange for POW's caught in Japanese territory. They couldn't use Japanese-Americans. Ueunten says that would have looked really bad. In Peru, police detained Yamamoto's father. The next morning, Yamamoto and dozens of other Japanese-Peruvian families went to the police station.
YAMAMOTO: And the mothers all sobbed silently and we didn't even know if we would see him again. And we waved until we couldn't see them anymore.
SIPE: Six months later, Yamamoto and her family were also put on a ship and deported from Peru.
YAMAMOTO: Boarding the ship was another terrifying time. On the plank they were lined with soldiers, U.S. soldiers who had guns pointing at us and we thought we were going to get shot.
SIPE: Yamamoto was reunited with her father in a detention camp in Crystal City, Texas. The war ended in 1945 but Yamamoto and her family remained in the camp for another two years.
YAMAMOTO: Government said sorry, you're all illegal aliens, you have to live. Go to Peru or Japan. Well Peru wouldn't take us back.
SIPE: Most internees from Latin America moved to Japan but Yamamoto, her family and 300 others fought to stay in the United States. After decades in the Americas, they had no real ties to their homeland. In the 1950's, they were granted permanent residency. Grace Shimizu makes dinner for her 96 year old mother at their Bay Area home. Shimizu often asked her dad about his forced deportation from Peru to the U.S.
GRACE SHIMIZU: I think the way he mostly expressed it was it was wartime, Shikataganei, you know, it couldn't be helped.
SIPE: Shimizu believes differently. She co-founded the Japanese-Peruvian oral history project, which tries to shed light on internment experiences. The organization also tries to help other communities that are under attack. The group spoke up for Muslim-Americans in the days following September 11th.
SHIMIZU: The message of peace and standing with our neighbors who were also under attack because they were targeted as the enemy was so important because during WWII, our communities know what it meant when others did not stand by our side.
SIPE: For The World, I'm Tyler Sipe in Berkeley, California.
BARON: We have pictures of some of those Peruvian-Japanese internees at TheWorld.org.
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The first woman ever elected head of an African state, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf was sworn in as the president of Liberia on 16 January 2006. Born and educated in Monrovia, she continued her studies in the United States in the 1960s. She studied at the University of Colorado at Boulder and obtained a masters degree from Harvard University, then returned to Liberia and served in the early 1970s as a finance minister for President William Tolbert. After Tolbert was deposed and executed, Sirleaf had an uneasy relationship with his successor, President Samuel K. Doe; to avoid detention, Sirleaf left Liberia and spent most of the '80s in Kenya and the United States as an executive in the international banking community. Sirleaf supported the 1989-90 coup by Charles Taylor, but soon became a vocal opponent of Taylor's autocratic rule. She ran unsuccessfully against Taylor for the presidency in 1997 and again fled the country rather than face Taylor's charges of treason. Called the "iron lady" of Liberian politics, "Ma" Sirleaf returned to Liberia after Taylor fled to Nigeria in 2003. As the standard bearer for the Unity Party, she ran again for the presidency in 2005, promising economic development and an end to corruption and civil war. Detractors criticized her earlier associations with Doe and Taylor, but she beat out George Weah in a run-off election in November of 2005. She was sworn in as president on 16 January 2006. In 2011, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize along with two other African women, Tawakkol Karman and Leymah Gbowee, "for their nonviolent struggle for the safety of women and for women's rights to full participation in peace-building work." She was elected to a second term in 2011 and sworn in on 15 January 2012.
U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and First Lady Laura Bush attended Ellen Johnson Sirleaf’s inauguration in 2006… Some sources hyphenate her name, spelling it Johnson-Sirleaf; however, her bio from the Liberian embassy in Washington, D.C. spells her name with no hyphen and calls her “Mrs. Sirleaf.”
Copyright © 1998-2016 by Who2?, LLC. All rights reserved.
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It's helpful to distinguish between some different interpretations of the word 'key' here:
If you're referring to the letter name then there's really nothing all that different between the sound of, say, a piece in Eb and that same piece in C#, relatively speaking (at least on modern, equal-tempered instruments—this was not necessarily the case throughout all of history, however I'll spare you the technical discussion as in today's world the use of non-equal temperaments is quite limited). The intervals will be the same, the intervals should be equally consonant or dissonant in any key. There can be some differences on certain instruments, say a cello with open strings which may ring sympathetically in certain keys, or a trumpet, which might sound shrill when transposed to a key that necessitates a higher range, but on the piano these differences will be pretty negligible.
If, instead, you're referring to the tonality of a piece, minor or major for example, then the answer may indeed be yes. We've inherited a great many emotional associations from our culture's long musical history, such as the "minor is sad"/"major is happy" sort of association that most people recognize. It's important to note, though, that the mood of a piece depends on so much more than just its tonality—things like dynamics, tempo, articulation, and so on can elevate or depress a mood totally independent of the piece's tonality. One of my favorite forlorn ballads, Hoagy Carmichael's "Skylark", spends most of its time in a major key, but to my ear expresses a really lovely, heartbreaking kind of sentiment. Conversely, some performances of Arthur Schwartz's "Alone Together" render it very upbeat, despite its predominantly minor key. It's also important to note that these things are really subjective, and one person may get a wholly different perception of a piece than the next.
So to summarize my answer here, there isn't really a clear answer except to say that your job as the composer is to choose a feeling you wish to express and then make other decisions about the music in support of that feeling. Things like the key of a piece are absolutely a part of that decision-making process, and can be informed by our cultural history. Listen to and analyze as much music as you can, trust your ears and your heart, and you'll find some clarity on this point.
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Reviewed by Gloria C. Erlich (Princeton Research Forum and National Coalition of Independent Scholars)
Published on H-Scholar (November, 1998)
In this book, Jane M. Ford, in independent scholar, builds on Otto Rank's 1912 encyclopedic study, "The Incest Theme in Literature and Legend: Fundamentals of a Psychology of Literary Creation (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992). Rank's massive work establishes the pervasiveness of incest motifs in world religion and literature, and their centrality to the creative process. The term "incest" is used by both Rank and Ford to include either enacted sexual activity or desire between immediate relatives or various kinds of surrogates. Rank's book studied father/daughter incest, mother/son, and sibling incest, and also incestuous behavior among step-relatives, and other surrogates for immediate family members. Principally, he covered German Literature, but relied heavily on Greek drama, the Beatrice Cenci story, and Shakespeare's Hamlet_.
Ford's extension of Rank's inquiry opens with two very interesting chapters, an Introduction on the theory, history, and sociology of incest, and a survey indicating some of the many literary variations on this theme. She then proceeds to her main task, which is to study father/daughter incest in the works of William Shakespeare, and four nineteenth and early twentieth-century writers: Charles Dickens, Henry James, Joseph Conrad, and James Joyce, focusing on the father/daughter/suitor triangle.
Using Shakespeare's plays as a touchstone (as did Rank), Ford traces three dominant patters in this triangle: 1) the father eliminates the suitor and retains possession of his daughter; 2) he relinquishes the daughter as a result of coercion; or 3) he resolves the incest threat by selecting a husband for his daughter. Utilizing a classical Freudian view of the Oedipus complex and assuming what is very difficult to prove, that the fictive representations of incestuous desire in some way or to some degree mirror those of the author, Ford looks for correlations of these plot patterns with stages of the authors' lives and careers.
In making biographical assumptions, she is more cautious than was Otto Rank, but still does not lay sturdy foundations for some of her biographical claims. She writes: "The life of Charles Dickens offers an unusual number of examples of the search for that first love-object that is paralleled in so many of his works (p. 55)," but most of her evidence comes not from the life, but from the works. Perhaps she is relying on the reader's biographical knowledge, but merely alluding to Dickens' resentment toward his mother for wanting to return him to the blacking factory and his subsequent unsatisfactory relationships with women as evidence of incestuous preoccupation do not suffice. Similarly, we are given summaries of many of Joseph Conrad's stories that deal with father/daughter relationships, but are not told enough about his childhood to infer that unresolved incestuous longings were his central psychological problem.
Otto Rank measured literary works by the degree to which they demonstrate repression of the primitive urge to kill the father and possess the mother, a process that increases with the artist's progress through life and is reflected in the sequence of his work. Ford modifies that criterion into a less chronological, more cyclical model. In her analysis of early, middle and late works of each author, she does, however, find that "the artist, either concurrently with his writing or in the recent past functioned as a suitor himself, thus identifying with the suitor in the narrative. In a middle work, especially when the father of daughters, he can identify with the possessive father, a 'stage of fear of retribution.' In a late work, he would be expected to evolve into a mature father capable of renunciation (p. 34)."
Both Rank and Ford believe that artistic creation derives from neurotic suffering, and is compulsive in nature. Because Oedipal conflict is only temporarily eased or resolved by creative acts, the artist tends to repeat variations on this theme, ideally with increasing represession or distancing as he matures. Thus Shakespeare can move from the multiple instances of overt incest in his Pericles through the Oedipal displacements of Hamlet and into the mature renunciation of paternal claims on a daughter in The Tempest, in which Prospero arranges a suitable marriage for his daughter Miranda.
Probably the most arresting and original chapters in this book are those in which Ford argues for the presence of enacted incest in Henry James's Golden Bowl and James Youce's Ulysses. Before making her startling claim that Maggie Verver became pregnant with her father's child, Ford runs through a good many of James's plots based on the father/daughter/suitor triangle. The prevalence of this motif is all the more surprising because, unlike the other authors, James had neither wife nor daughter, making any biographical connection rather tenuous. Nevertheless, "the James corpus, like those of both Shakespeare and Dickens, entails some of the almost infinite plot possibilities in the father/daughter/suitor configuration....[What Maisie Knew] is perhaps one of the literature's best examples of the distancing of the Oedipal triangle onto surrogates (p. 81)."
In The Golden Bowl few readers would miss the incestuous closeness of the father/daughter relationship or the incestuous implications of the Prince's adultery with Charlotte, his mother-in-law, but this reader, at least, was startled by the claim of enacted incest between Adam Verver and Maggie: "This suggests that Adam, bent on 'perfection at any price,' had decided to perpetuate his line through his daughter--a common prerogative for royalty in various eras, with the marriage arranged as a screen for the incest (p. 92)." By a close reading of the text, Ford finds many supporting details for this supposition, including the Prince's descent from the infamous Borgia line. Among the four leading characters, incest and adultery are intertwined in complex ways. The knots are eventually severed by Maggie's enforced separation of the two households, a solution that Ford regards as the attainment of maturity: "The daughter both procures her own suitor and orchestrates the final renunciation by the father (p. 99)." To the best of my knowledge, the idea that at the end of the book Maggie is pregnant by her own father is unprecedented in James criticism. To accept or reject Ford's claim would require a rereading of the novel in the light of Ford's work, but at this time I am more inclined to see the Maggie/Adam relationship as one of incestuous feelings rather than incestuous acts.
On the other hand, I find her argument for incestuous activity between Leopold Bloom and his pubescent daughter Milly far more compelling. The textual support for such a reading seems much more recognizable, far less strained than that of enacted incest in The Golden Bowl. Indeed, her observations on the circular incestuous patterns in Finnegan's Wake are among the most impressive in the book.
"Incest and Death", the last chapter, raises the question whether the authors' "particular relationship with their parents have a direct effect on their compulsion to repeat many times over the triangular conflict in evidence in their works (p. 163)," a question that moves the incest preoccupation backward toward childhood rather than forward toward paternity. This vision of the author as the middle term between childhood incestuous longings and parental desire to hold on to a daughter is worthy of investigation, but is necessarily left unresolved in so brief a book. This chapter also compares the final, often fragmentary, works of Ford's chosen authors to see whether they come close to The Tempest's resolution, in which a father relinquishes his daughter by finding a husband for her, after which the isolated family returns to society. Ford wisely sees this solution as political as well as personal, in that violation of the incest taboo is a prelude to social chaos.
The general reader will find considerable interest in Ford's introductory chapters, in which she provides many fascinating facts about incest in general. She reports of the kinds of heterosexual parent-child incest, that between father and daughter is the most prevalent, probably because of the father's authoritarian position with respect to the daughter. Sex or desire between brother and sister is generally believed to be "the least reprehensible form of incest (p. 3)," and the one most frequently treated in literature. Ford summarizes current thinking on the origins of the incest taboo, showing that, although very widespread, it is not universal. Brother/sister marriage was practiced not only in the royal families of ancient Egypt, but in parts of Africa, and in some cultures, on special occasions, to foster prosperity, good hunting, or success in war (p. 6). Particularly interesting is the fact that, in contrast to the Sophoclean drama on which Freud based his Oedipal theory, the Homeric version features on Oedipus who was not punished or blinded but became an honored king. There was an even earlier version in which Oedipus raped his mother immediately following his murder of the father (p. 10).
For the literary scholar, this brief book organizes and clarifies the patterns of father/daughter incest in both life and literature; in addition, it offers some highly original readings of important works of the imagination.
Copyright (c) 1998 by H-Net, all rights reserved. This work may be copied for non-profit educational use if proper credit is given to the author and the list. For other permission, please contact H-Net@H-Net.MSU.EDU.
If there is additional discussion of this review, you may access it through the network, at: https://networks.h-net.org/h-scholar.
Gloria C. Erlich. Review of Ford, Jane M., Patriarchy and Incest from Shakespeare to Joyce.
H-Scholar, H-Net Reviews.
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This lesson provided by:
| Author:||Carla Morgan
|System:|| St Clair County|
|School:|| Springville Elementary School ||
|Lesson Plan ID:
What Can Shapes Be....
This is a hands-on lesson that will help students explore shapes in their environment. Students will work in diverse groups to complete this activity. Students will make a class book of their findings.
This lesson plan was created as a result of the Girls Engaged in Math and Science University, GEMS-U Project.
|MA2015(K) ||17. Describe objects in the environment using names of shapes, and describe the relative positions of these objects using terms such as above, below, beside, in front of, behind, and next to. [K-G1] |
|MA2015(K) ||18. Correctly name shapes regardless of their orientations or overall size. [K-G2] |
|MA2015(K) ||22. Compose simple shapes to form larger shapes. [K-G6] |
|MA2015(1) ||19. Distinguish between defining attributes (e.g., triangles are closed and three-sided) versus non-defining attributes (e.g., color, orientation, overall size); build and draw shapes to possess defining attributes. [1-G1] |
|MA2015(1) ||20. Compose two-dimensional shapes (rectangles, squares, trapezoids, triangles, half-circles, and quarter-circles) or three-dimensional shapes (cubes, right rectangular prisms, right circular cones, and right circular cylinders) to create a composite shape, and compose new shapes from the composite shape. (Students do not need to learn formal names such as "right rectangular prism.") [1-G2] |
|MA2015(2) ||24. Recognize and draw shapes having specified attributes such as a given number of angles or a given number of equal faces. (Sizes are compared directly or visually, not compared by measuring.) Identify triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons, and cubes. [2-G1] |
|ELA2015(K) ||31. Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. [SL.K.1] |
Geometry: Describing shapes and space
Children interpret the physical world with geometric ideas (e.g., shape, orientation, spatial relations) and describe it with corresponding vocabulary. They identify, name, and describe a variety of shapes, such as squares, triangles, circles, rectangles, (regular) hexagons, and (isosceles) trapezoids presented in a variety of ways (e.g., with different sizes or orientations), as well as such three-dimensional shapes as spheres, cubes, and cylinders. They use basic shapes and spatial reasoning to model objects in their environment and to construct more complex shapes.
|Primary Learning Objective(s):
The students will discover shapes in their environment.
|Additional Learning Objective(s):
The students will illustrate their favorite findings to make a class book.
|Approximate Duration of the Lesson:
|| 61 to 90 Minutes|
|Materials and Equipment:
The Shape of Things by Dayle Ann Doods, building blocks, assessment handout, construction paper, crayons, pencils, clipboards, staples or ribbon.
|Technology Resources Needed:
Be sure to check that computer has presentation software.
- Say, "What are shapes? We are going to do a fun activity to learn all about different shapes."
- Choose which shapes presentation you wish to show. Show the shapes presentation on LCD projector and discuss each slide. (You may wish to show the other presentation to check for understanding or review.)
- Ask the students, "Have you seen any of these shapes? Tell me where you saw them."
- Let student's, as a whole group, play the Internet game Sammy's Snakes to reinforce learning. http://www.primarygames.com/storybooks/sammy/start.htm
- Read The Shape of Things. As you read stop and ask questions and allow student's to recall the different shapes from the book.
- After reading the book, explain "You will work in assigned small groups with building blocks to explore how different blocks can be incorporated into your own constructions. You will work together to share and develop your ideas." Encourage children to spend time exploring the blocks, discussing how they can be used and planning their constructions together. Provide adequate time for planning and construction. Offer assistance if needed.
- Say, " We are going on a shape hunt. I am going to give you a data sheet. You will write your findings on this sheet." (You may want to do an example data sheet in the classroom of the shapes you find in the classroom for your struggling students.)
- After the shape hunt, allow students to use construction paper and crayons and draw their favorite shape and what the shape made from the shape hunt.
- After the students are finished assemble a "Shapes Can Be".... class book.
|Attachments:**Some files will display in a new window. Others will prompt you to download.
Use shape hunt data handout from attachment to do a quick assessment. (Student's may mix up rectangles and squares.)
Let student's pantomime different shapes.
Physical models of a cube, cone, sphere, cylinder, rectangular prism, and triangular prism
Matching Illustrations and Solids
Give each group of students a set of physical models of the geometric solids and a set of pictures of geometric solids cut from Shape Cards Sheet. Have the students match each solid with its illustration. As you circulate, observe students' actions and listen to their conversation for ongoing assessment. As you move among the students ask helpful questions, such as:
- What do you notice about the shape shown on this card?
- Which of the solids is like that?
- What shape are the faces of the figure in the picture?
- Which of the solids has faces in that shape?
Assign a peer tutor to struggling students.
Shape Hunt Game- Students pick cards from a collection of shape cards from the Shape Cards Sheet and try to find an example of each shape. The hunt can take place within the classroom, throughout the school, at home, etc. Players can try to be the first to find all their shapes. Or they can try to find the most shapes in a given time.
Each area below is a direct link to general teaching strategies/classroom
for students with identified learning and/or behavior problems such as: reading
or math performance below grade level; test or classroom assignments/quizzes at
a failing level; failure to complete assignments independently; difficulty with
short-term memory, abstract concepts, staying on task, or following directions;
poor peer interaction or temper tantrums, and other learning or behavior problems.
|Presentation of Material
||Using Groups and Peers
|Assisting the Reluctant Starter
||Dealing with Inappropriate
Be sure to check the student's IEP for specific accommodations.
|Variations Submitted by ALEX Users:
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://alex.state.al.us/lesson_view.php?id=26199
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| 0.895732
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The Feminist Chronicles, 1953-1993
The charts are divided into three major sections: Events, Issues, and The Backlash.
Events lists the major public events that constituted the context in which the feminist movement operated.
The seven issues are essentially among those that the President's Commission on the Status of Women first explored and the founders of NOW specifically chose to pursue.
A particular issue, for example, Education, is listed only if there is a relevant item on the page.
Backlash describes the activities of the opposition to the movement, tracking the rise of the so-called New Right and Christian Right, along with the more traditional opponents of feminism including the Old Right in the form of such organizations as the John Birch Society and the Roman Catholic Church, a long-time foe.
This format, which reports the small separate actions as well as major events of the movement, also makes it possible to use the names of many of the women and men across the country who made things happen wherever they were. What they chose to do, in fact, raised the consciousness of the entire country and made this a national movement.
We think it is important that they be recognized. Unlike the leaders who were sometimes (though not always) compensated by becoming public figures and given opportunities for financial rewards through writing books or going on the lecture circuit, these people often radically changed their lives in order to do what they could to advance the satisfaction of doing what they saw needed done.
- The Authors
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<urn:uuid:3bc4cf70-e84f-415b-b178-b5b09dcdd9c5>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.feminist.org/research/chronicles/part2.html
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en
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