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Grab Your Bags, and Move West!
10) George Washington and the Farewell Address
~ The first American President, who guided the soldiers into war. He also told his people what to do when he wasn't president anymore.
9) Alien and Sedition Acts
~ In 1798, the first Federalist-Controlled Congress passed a couple of laws. These laws controlled what the foreigners were doing in the United States.
8) Thomas Jefferson as President
~ Was a President in the United States. Also at 33 years old, he drafted the Declaration of Independence.
7) The Louisiana Purchase
~ France sold 828,000 square miles of land to America. It also went from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains.
6) The War of 1812
~ During the war America's National Anthem was created on the last night.
5) The Industrial Revolution
~ took place in the 18th-19th centuries.
4) The Indian Removal Act
~ was a law that made
3) Manifest Destiny, the Oregon, the Santa Fe, and the Mormon Trail
~ these are all very historical trails and things
2) "Remember the Alamo"
~ This was a strong saying, during the war between Texas and other places. The Texans hid in a fortress call the Alamo.
1) California Gold Rush
~ The glod rush in california was a very big part in american history. because it killed or helped many people.
~ A Simple Time Line ~
September 19, 1796~ George Washington published his Farewell Address
July 14, 1798~ Alien Sedition act
March 4, 1801~ Thomas Jefferson became President
April 30, 1803~ The Louisiana Purchase
1812~ The War or 1812
1700~ The Industrial Revolution Started
May 28, 1830~ The Indian Removal Act
1830~ Remember the Alamo (war)
1840~ California Gold Rush
George Washington was the very first President. Surprisingly Washington did not attend any college. During the French and Indian War he helped the captain. Then the captain died and the soldiers made George the new captain. George was the captain from now on, he lead a lot of wars,and was a great leader. You may know this interesting fact, that George was just picked to be President. They picked him because he was a strong, humble, courageous, yet calm man. No one debated or voted on who would be president so they just picked him because he seemed the best! George also had no children him self. When he got married to (the new) Mrs. Washington, she had already had two children her self. Washington did end up having two children to care for, but they were not his own.
Breaking News! California has found loads of gold burred under the soil! It has lots of value, and many American are going over now to help their family's in value. The gold will not be there for long, so hurry up and go travel to California.. Pack your wagons and leave before it is too late!
... After The Gold Rush ...
New news for the people of America! The gold rush has broken family's down, and killed many people. Many people have died from explosions or lack of water. Some also died on the way to California. Some people did get very lucky and found gold and made it back safely. Many people lost loved ones from this traveling and mining. Next time make sure you are close to the gold rush, because it is NOT worth the pain and hard work for just a little of money, and no assurance that you will live.
Thomas, was a a very good man. We will all miss him so very much. He will be within our heart, mind, and soul forever. He was a great founding father, and a wonderful leader. I will especially remember him because of all he has done. He has written the Declaration of Independence, and has done so very much for our wonderful country. He was also a great President who helped our county grow and get better over his presidency.
He has many loved ones, and they will always love him and miss him forever. Thomas Jefferson was a great and wonderful man, and always tried his hardest. Jefferson will be put down in history forever! We love him so very much and we will always remember him. God bless you Thomas. God bless America.
~Virginia Peanut Soup Recipe~
2 tablespoons butter
1 medium onion, chopped
6 cups chicken stock
2 tablespoons flour
1 cup heavy cream
1 1/2 cups natural peanut butter
2 teaspoons hot sauce
2 limes, juiced
2 tablespoons chopped peanuts
2 scallions, chopped
Melt the butter in a heavy bottomed pot over medium heat. Add the onion and cook until translucent, about 10 minutes. Bring the chicken stock to a boil in a medium saucepan. Whisk in the flour all at once and cook until the mixture has a toasty aroma. Whisk the stock into the flour mixture in a slow, steady stream until smooth. Add the heavy cream and peanut butter to the soup and stir to combine. Stir in the hot sauce and lime juice and season, to taste. Garnish with the chopped peanuts and scallions.
(found at : http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/virginia-peanut... )
~ By the Numbers~
1 Independent country
15 million dollars for the Louisiana Territory
6 months to get the news of the treaty to get to everyone
32 days after the curse of Tippecanoe the president died
3 men in the XYZ Affair
300 family's in the new colonies
12 of fighting the Alamo fell
3 objectives for the war with Mexico
12,000 pilgrims searching for religious freedom
3 deadly trails
~California Gold Rush Map~
The gold fields were where the men and women would go to mine, and try to find the gold. There were also lots of rivers which were good for the men and women to shovel through the water and find little pieces of gold. The rivers were very helpful.
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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https://tackk.com/ddffz3
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Keeping track of how many steps they take each day and increasing this amount by just 1,000 can help improve heart health in children with Type 1 diabetes, according to new research from the University of Adelaide and Women’s and Children’s Hospital in Australia. Approximately 1.25 million Americans (0.4% of the population) and 130,000 Australians (0.5% of the population) are living with Type 1.
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition in which the body mistakenly destroys the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. Children with the condition often show early signs of atherosclerosis (a condition in which arteries are narrowed by fatty deposits) and also generally report getting less exercise than recommended for their age.
To evaluate the effects of exercise on heart health, researchers tracked the daily physical activity of 90 children ages 10–17 with Type 1 diabetes. Fifty-five percent were found to be taking fewer than the frequently recommended goal of at least 10,000 steps per day.
The subjects who engaged in more physical activity showed improvements in risk factors for heart disease. According to the researchers, there were clear links between blood vessel structure and the number of steps taken each day, with measurable decreases in artery thickness for an increase of 1,000 steps per day. The children who took additional steps also had reductions in weight, blood pressure, and triglycerides (blood fats), which translates to an overall lower risk of heart disease.
“Our findings emphasize the importance of physical activity for children, and the need for advice on the benefits of exercise for children with Type 1 diabetes,” notes lead study author Alexia Peña. “The more steps they do, the better.”
For more information, see the article “Extra 1,000 steps a day benefit children with Type 1 diabetes” or the study in the journal Diabetes Care. And to learn more about keeping kids with Type 1 diabetes healthy, read “Top 10 Tips for Better Blood Glucose Control,” by 2014 Diabetes Educator of the year Gary Scheiner.
Summer is here, and what better way to enjoy the outdoors than with our healthy, delicious recipes for the grill. Bookmark DiabetesSelfManagement.com and tune in tomorrow to learn how to download our free grill guide.
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<urn:uuid:c444a81b-5e9f-4009-9a18-124a630ca327>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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Ginnups or mamoncillos
The ginup is in the Soapberry Family. It is a familiar exotic tree planted for its edible fruit and shade. Individual fruits are ovoid in shape, an inch or more long. Fruits have a thin, brittle skin, and are borne in clusters. A thin layer of tart to sweet pulp, which is gelatinous and slightly fibrous, yellowish to salmon colored, and suggestive of grapes, covers a large seed. The seeds are edible after roasting. Besides furnishing fruit and shade, the trees are honey plants.
The mamoncillo tree is slow-growing, erect, stately, attractive; to 85 ft (25 m) high, with trunk to 5 1/2 ft (1.7 m) thick; smooth, gray bark, and spreading branches. Young branchlets are reddish. The leaves are briefly deciduous, alternate, compound, having 4 opposite, elliptic, sharp-pointed leaflets 2 to 5 in (5-12.5 cm) long and 1 1/4 to 2 1/2 in (3.25-6.25 cm) wide, the rachis frequently conspicuously winged as is that of the related soapberry (Sapindus saponaria L.). The flowers, in slender racemes 2 1/3 to 4 in (6-10 cm) long, often clustered in terminal panicles, are fragrant, white, 1/5 to 1/3 in (5-8 mm) wide, with 4 petals and 8 stamens. Male and female are usually borne on separate trees but some trees are partly polygamous. The fruit clusters are branched, compact and heavy with nearly round, green fruits tipped with a small protrusion, and suggesting at first glance small unripe limes, but there the resemblance ends. The skin is smooth, thin but leathery and brittle. The glistening pulp (aril) is salmon-colored or yellowish, translucent, gelatinous, juicy but very scant and somewhat fibrous, usually clinging tenaciously to the seed. When fully ripe, the pulp is pleasantly acid-sweet but if unripe acidity predominates. In most fruits there is a single, large, yellowish-white, hard-shelled seed, while some have 2 hemispherical seeds. The kernel is white, crisp, starchy, and astringent.
Origin and Distribution
The mamoncillo (ginups)is native to Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the island of Margarita, also French Guiana, Guyana and Surinam. It is commonly cultivated and spontaneous in those countries, also in coastal Ecuador, the lowlands of Central America, the West Indies and in the Bahamas. In Florida, it is occasionally grown as far north as Ft. Myers on the West Coast and Palm Beach on the east; is much more plentiful in Key West, especially as a street tree.
There are some specimens in California and in botanical gardens in the Philippines, Zanzibar, Hawaii and elsewhere. According to Britton, there was a tree about 30 ft (9 m) tall in Bermuda in 1914 but it had never bloomed. There are a few trees in Israel but none has flowered before 10 years of age.
Generally, the presence of a male tree is necessary to pollinate the flowers of trees that are predominantly female (or hermaphrodite functioning as female). However, in Cuba, some trees have sufficient numbers of flowers of both sexes to yield regularly large crops without interplanting.
The mamoncillo is not strictly tropical, for it ascends up to 3,300 ft (1,000 m) above sea-level in South America. It can stand several degrees of frost in Florida. Nevertheless, it is too tender to fruit in California though it has been planted there on various occasions. It is well adapted to areas of low rainfall. That of Key West ranges from 30 to 50 in (75-125 cm) annually. The tree can tolerate long periods of drought.
In Cuba, the tree is said to flourish in nearly all types of terrain but particularly in deep, rich soil of calcareous origin. It seems perfectly at home in the oolitic-limestone of southern Florida and the Florida Keys. In Colombia, it has been observed to grow on such poor soils that it has been adopted for planting in soil reclamation efforts. It is spontaneous especially in dry, coastal districts.
The mamoncillo is usually grown from seed but superior types should be vegetatively reproduced. Air-layering of fairly large branches, at least 2 in (5 cm) in diameter, is successful in the summer and there will be adequate root development in 5 to 6 weeks. Approach-grafting is feasible provided the rootstocks are raised in a lightweight medium, in plastic bags to facilitate attachment to the selected tree. Attempts to veneer-graft or chip-bud have generally failed.
Ordinarily, the mamoncillo, tree is given no care except for watering and fertilizing when first planted. Vegetatively propagated trees bear earlier than seedlings.
Season and Harvesting
In Florida, the fruits ripen from June to September. In the Bahamas, the season extends from July to October. Ladders and picking poles equipped with cutters are necessary in harvesting fruits from tall trees. The entire cluster is clipped from the branch when sampling indicates that the fruits are fully ripe. At this stage, the rind becomes brittle but does not change color. If picked prematurely, the rind turns blackish, a sign of deterioration.
Because of the leathery skin, the fruit remains fresh for a long time and ships and markets well. The tropical horticulturist, David Sturrock, related that horsemen in Cuba often hung branches of mamoncillos on the saddle horn to enjoy and relieve thirst during long rides.
Pests and Diseases
The tree is a host of the Citrus black fly, Aleurocanthus woglumi. There are several parasites (Prospaltella spp., Eretmocerus serius, and Amitus hesperidium) which provide effective control of this pest. In Florida, Armillariella (Clitocybe) tabescens causes mushroom root rot; Fusarium and Phyllosticta cause leaf spot; and Cephaleuros virescens, algal leaf spot and green scurf.
For eating out-of-hand, the rind is merely torn open at the stem end and the pulp-coated seed is squeezed into the mouth, the juice being sucked from the pulp until there is nothing left of it but the fiber. With fruits that have non-adherent pulp, the latter may be scraped from the seed and utilized to make pie-filling, jam, marmalade or jelly, but this entails much work for the small amount of edible material realized. More commonly, the peeled fruits are boiled and the resulting juice is prized for cold drinks. In Colombia, the juice is canned commercially. The seeds are eaten after roasting. Indians of the Orinoco consume the cooked seeds as a substitute for cassava.
The tree is native to the American tropics, is widely cultivated in the West Indies. It is medium to large, similar in shape and looks to the crape myrtle. It flowers from April to June; the fruits mature from June to Sept. The sapwood is light brown, and the heartwood light brown or pale yellow gray. The wood is of medium weight and fairly hard but reportedly not resistant to decay. Elsewhere it has been used in construction, interior work, and cabinets.
For eating out-of-hand, the rind is merely torn open at the stem end and the pulp-coated seed is squeezed into the mouth, the juice being sucked from the pulp until there is nothing left of it but the fiber. With fruits that have non-adherent pulp, the latter may be scraped from the seed and utilized to make pie-filling, jam, marmalade or jelly, but this entails much work for the small amount of edible material realized. More commonly, the peeled fruits are boiled and the resulting juice is prized for cold drinks. In Colombia, the juice is canned commercially.
The seeds are eaten after roasting. Indians of the Orinoco consume the cooked seeds as a substitute for cassava. Other Uses
Juice: A dye has been experimentally made from the juice of the raw fruit, which makes an indelible stain.
Flowers: The flowers are rich in nectar and highly appealing to hummingbirds and honeybees. The honey is somewhat dark in color but of agreeable flavor. The tree is esteemed by Jamaican beekeepers though the flowering season (March/April) is short.
Leaves: In Panama, the leaves are scattered in houses where there are many fleas. It is claimed that the fleas are attracted to the leaves and are cast out with the swept-up foliage. Some believe that the leaves actually kill the fleas.
Wood: The heartwood is yellow with dark lines, compact, hard, heavy, fine-grained; inclined to decay out of doors, but valued for rafters, indoor framing, and cabinetwork.
Medicinal Uses: In Venezuela, the astringent roasted seed kernels are pulverized, mixed with honey and given to halt diarrhea. The astringent leaf decoction is given as an enema for intestinal complaints.
Now lets take another look at Other stories to enjoy
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<urn:uuid:a28f8aab-b261-43cb-8946-7f48d36d0cd2>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://www.angelfire.com/cantina/que_pasa/ginups.html
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Computer Programming Languages
Free Online Tutorials, Tests & Articles
Why Learn Python Programming first? An Introdution to Python Programming and Computer Programming in general.
Free Online Python Programming Tutorials & TestsFree Online Python For Loops Tutorial
Free Online Python For Loops Test
Python For Loops - Loops allow execution of a fragment of code numerous times. Definite loops have a counter to store the number of iterations, others are called conditional loops and their execution depends on some preset conditions.
Free Online Java Programming Tests
Java Fundamentals Programming Test
The Fundamentals of Java in creating Java comments, statements and block and using identifiers, keywords, literals, data type, variables and operators in the program.
BufferedReader Java Programming Test
Importing the java.io package to get an input using BufferedReader in the program.
JOptionPane Java Programming Test
Importing javax.swing package to get an input using JOptionPane in the program.
Decision Control Structures Java Programming Test
Creating a program using different Decision Control Structures like if, if-else, if-else-if, and switch statements.
Repetition Control Structures Java Programming Test
Creating a program using different Repetition Control Structures like while, do-while and for loop statements.
Branching Statements Java Programming Test
Creating a program using different branching statements like break, continue, and return statements.
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<urn:uuid:1b4a4980-63e2-4098-8cd5-7cda6e09af98>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://www.teststeststests.com/computer-programming/computer-programming-languages.html
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|
en
| 0.674081
| 297
| 3.421875
| 3
|
October 21, 2012
Experts Predict Wet Winter, but Wary of Melting Ice
. Forecasters are predicting a wetter and colder winter than normal due to an oncoming El Niño period in the Pacific Ocean, but record low ice cover this summer in the Arctic Ocean is causing a large degree of uncertainty. Although many climate scientists argue there is a link between shrinking Arctic ice and unusual weather patterns, they cannot say where or exactly how it will have the greatest effect. According to research by Rutgers climate scientist and CECI affiliate Jennifer Francis
the shrinking Arctic sea ice means weather patterns will move more slowly as a result of a less powerful jet stream. The jet stream draws its strength from the temperature difference between the North Pole and the equator, but with less ice cover the Arctic Ocean absorbs more energy from the sun and its temperature rises, thus decreasing the difference.
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<urn:uuid:5b78d08e-ed81-4bf4-ba1b-652891c6fd5e>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
|
http://climatechange.rutgers.edu/resources/news-archive/2012-2013-academic-year/october/398-october-21-2012
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128323864.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20170629033356-20170629053356-00143.warc.gz
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en
| 0.950879
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|
This is an age of insecurity. Hijacked planes, suicide bombs, weapons of mass destruction, phishing emails, computer viruses. We are under attack everywhere and everyday.
But this is also an age of protection. National security advisory code, airport shoe check, National Missile Defense system, liberation of Iraq, sophisticated message encryption, antivirus software, firewalls, deadbolts on the doors. We live behind the shields of better and better defense.
But are we protected? A recent commentary published in the journal Immunity should make us thinking again.
In his article, Stephen Hedrick re-exams the usefulness of the acquired immune system. The acquired immune system is vertebrates' second line of defense against pathogens, and it is activated when the first barrier against infection, the innate immune system, is breached. The acquired immunity employs a sophisticated mechanism -- somatic hypermutations combined with thymus or germinal center selections -- to generate pathogen-specific T-cells and B-cells to search and destroy the invaders. These T-cells and B-cells then remember their specific targets, and become a fast response force against any recurring infection. Thanks to the acquired immunity, we do not get many diseases twice, and we can be vaccinated against these diseases before they strike. In contrast, the innate immunity, which is universal to vertebrates and invertebrates alike, uses seemingly mundane mechanisms: cell membranes and coagulation to deny pathogen's access into host, defensins and lysozymes to destroy the parasites before their entry, and other brute force measures.
Until now, the majority of immunologists view the acquired immunity as an optimal defense system, a superior weapon that confers great health advantage onto vertebrates over invertebrates. Hedrick's commentary overturns this conventional view. He argues that the acquired immunity overall does not benefit vertebrates as a kind. Comparisons between insects and vertebrates have yielded several surprises. For example, the morbidity and mortality of insects due to infection are not higher than that of vertebrates. Compared to the pathogens for invertebrates, the pathogens that infect vertebrates have developed more adaptive strategies to evade the acquired immune system. Influenza is one best known example of this adaptability. Not only the acquired immunity can be easily rendered useless by the evasive pathogens, it can also be exploited by the viruses for their replication, as in the case of AIDS, or backfire on the host and cause autoimmune diseases such as arthritis and lupus.
Instead, the acquired immunity appeared to be an evolutionary misstep. The strain that first developed the acquired immunity had a temporary advantage over the rest of the animal kingdom, so it multiplied, eventually developing into the vertebrate subphylum. Unfortunately, it underestimated the infinite resourcefulness of the pathogens. The fateful genetic mutation that gave rise to the acquired immunity inadvertently escalated the war between the pathogens and the vertebrate hosts, one that had inflicted heavy costs and casualties on both sides for the past four hundred million years. Meanwhile, the acquired immunity becomes an absolute necessity for vertebrates, because any deficiency in it will make the individual defenseless against the highly evolved pathogens.
Hedrick’s insight should reach beyond immunologists.
So much as our sophisticated acquired immunity cannot make us impermeable to germs, any defense that we can mount against foreign or domestic attacks can be defeated by a clever enemy. It is an arms race that no one wins in the end. The National Missile Defense system will not protect us, because it will be easily overwhelmed by inexhaustible possibilities of countermeasures. Hundreds of billions of dollars will only buy the Americans a false sense of protection, and will prompt the Russians and the Chinese into a race to develop missile technologies capable of circumventing NMD.
Neither will the antivirus software make our PCs virus-free. After all, it can only recognize a known virus and is useless against any new strain. It seems that the real defense against computer viruses is plain caution: do not visit suspicious websites, do not download programs without a proper certificate, do not open emails from unknown senders. It is just like the innate immunity, mundane but effective.
Yet all is too late. The acquired immunity is here to stay. So is the National Missile Defense, so is the antivirus software, so is the spam email filter. They have all become the cause of their own necessity. We pay for their existence because they protect us from all known forms of attack. But by the force of the unknown future, we remain in the shadow of menace.
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This game is great for helping students master their forward number word sequence (FNWS), backward number word sequence (BNWS), and numeral identification skills (NID) in the range of 0-100, with the primary focus on crossing decades.
This game can easily be printed on cardstock (11x17) and laminated for multi-student use (in small groups or work stations)!
Students choose one sequencing card and figure out the missing number. They then cover-up the missing number on the game board. Continue this process until all of the sequencing cards have been used. Once all of the missing numbers have been identified, clear the board and play again!
Sequencing cards have been provided for individual skill sets (FNWS or BNWS) along with a combination of the skills (FNWS and BNWS). Two different games boards are included (9s and 10s).
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<urn:uuid:4bfecf22-4c3f-45c6-8ef8-59c04e1cb743>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Decade-Dino-Counting-and-Crossing-Decades-0-100-1150873
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If there is one thing I am guilty of as a parent, it’s going to all lengths to avoid mess.
When it came to feeding my son, I would often opt for spoon-feeding him rather than letting him dive right in, smear food all over himself, and dress the floor with bolognaise sauce. Thankfully I learned to turn a blind eye to spills and splattered walls and embrace the mess that little ones make at meal times, because teaching babies to self-feed is an important part of their development. And let’s face it, the sooner they get the hang of it, the easier life will be for everyone!
Once baby is sitting well and enjoying solids, there are many great reasons for encouraging safe self-feeding. Here are some of them:
It gives baby independence
They may be teeny-tiny, but our little guys want to be taken seriously. As babies learn to pick up food, drink from a cup, and use cutlery to (eventually) get food to their mouths, they are building a greater sense of autonomy. It’s through doing things for themselves, and having some independence that babies get to explore the process of eating and the nature of food.
It helps development fine motor skills
By scooping (also known as ‘raking’) food with their whole hand, by developing the pincer grip, and by practising to use a spoon and fork, babies are training their muscles and learning valuable coordination skills. As time goes on, these important skills and baby’s dexterity will continue to improve, standing bub in good stead for the seriously busy years ahead.
Babies learn to monitor their own needs
Through self-feeding, babies are more able to respond to hunger and to stop eating once they are full, preventing overeating. They also get the hang of how much to bite and how long to chew before swallowing.
It’s brilliant sensory play
Yes, play! Because it is through play that babies learn about their world. Touching, feeling, squishing, and mashing food, which comes with such varied textures, is something babies love to do and an important part of their development. (Imagine how fabulous noodles feel to a baby!)
It’s rewarding – for you and baby
As babies progress along the path of self-feeding (and systematically stain every bib and t-shirt they have) their confidence will soar. For mums and dads, by standing back and watching baby feed himself you can learn more about your child’s food preferences and their particular style of eating. Of course, you also get your hands and a little time back, which is always welcome. Get ready to overflow with pride at your clever little bub’s new knack for eating.
While the approximate age at which most babies can feed themselves is between 18 and 24 months, it’s important to remember that all babies develop at different paces. Getting the hang of self-feeding is something that takes patience to achieve over the early months and years. So in the mean time, ignore the fact that there is yoghurt in your baby’s hair (and the dog’s), and let those chubby little fingers learn their way around the world of food – in all its messy glory.
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Most Important Historic Sights in China (III)- Bund
Most Important Historic Sights in China: Bund
For foreigners arriving in Shanghai in the early 20th century, the first sight would have been the busy waterfront known as the Bund, where the city's main banks, hotels and trading houses were located. It was an impressive, if thoroughly un-Chinese, sight, but this was to be expected in a city such as Shanghai, which emerged as a foreign concession port after China's stinging defeat in the first Opium War (1839–42).
While the concession ports were an affront to Chinese pride and traditional values, they nonetheless paved the way for important developments in the country's modernization process. If you were a young person looking for opportunity at the turn of the 20th century – whether in business, literature, technology or art – chances were that you'd end up in Shanghai at some point.
After the Communists took power, the Bund, with its obvious associations with unadulterated capitalism, went into deep freeze, only beginning to reemerge in the 1990s. Today, like in the past, it's often the first thing visitors to Shanghai see, though these days most have their view set on the massive skyscrapers on the other side of the Huangpu River.
Most Important Historic Sights in China: Bund – What’s here?
All of the Bund's original buildings still line today's promenade, including standouts like the Peace Hotel (1929), Bank of China (1941) and the Custom House (1925). With each passing year, another edifice is tastefully renovated as a lifestyle destination replete with many of China's most luxurious shops, restaurants and bars. The first to make the leap was 3 on the Bund.
Most Important Historic Sights in China: Bund – Tip
Although you can pop into a few buildings during the day to see the interior, make sure to return at night, when both banks of the river are illuminated. Alternatively, take a river cruise from the docks south of the Bund for a deck-side view.
Most Important Historic Sights in China: Bund – How to get there?
Metro: East Nanjing Rd
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Instead of going to weep at her brother’s grave, Mary met Jesus and fell at his feet (148). “Master,” she said, “if you had been here, my brother wouldn’t have died.” When Jesus saw her weeping, and the people with her, his heart was touched & he was deeply moved.
“Where have you buried him?” he asked. “Come and see, Master,” they answered. Then Jesus also began weeping. “See how much he loved him!” some people said. But others were skeptical: “If he gave sight to a blind man, why couldn’t he keep Lazarus from dying?”
Still deeply moved, Jesus went to the tomb of Lazarus, which was a cave with a stone placed at the entrance. “Take the stone away.” Jesus said. But Martha objected, “There will be a bad smell, Master. He’s been buried four days!” Jesus reassured her, “You will see God’s glory if you believe.” So they took the stone away.
Jesus looked up & prayed, “Thank you, Father, for hearing me. Help the people here believe that you sent me.” Then Jesus called out in a loud voice, “Lazarus, come out!” And Lazarus walked out of the tomb!
His hands & feet were bound in grave cloths, and there was a cloth around his face. “Unbind him,” Jesus told them, “and let him go.”
After seeing what he had done, many of the people who had come to mourn with Martha & Mary began to believe in Jesus. Some of these people returned to the Pharisees and told them what Jesus had done.
So the Pharisees and the chief priests met with their ruling council. Some complained: “What do we do now? Look at all the miracles this man is performing! If we let him go on in this way, everyone will believe in him! Then our Roman rulers will be threatened to the point of destroying our whole nation!”
Caiaphas, who was high priest that year, resolved the matter: “It’s better for one man to die, than for our whole nation to be destroyed.” (Here John inserts: Without fully understanding it, Caiaphas was being used by God to prophesy that the death of Jesus would benefit the Jewish people and bring together into one body all the scattered people of God.)
From that day on, the Jewish authorities began making specific plans to kill Jesus. So for a while Jesus did not make any more public appearances in Judea. He left there & went to a place near the desert, to a town named Ephraim, where he stayed with his students.
(148) John 11:32-54
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The Cherokee called it Nunahi-Duna-Hilu-I, the trail where they cried.
As always, I tried to be as accurate as possible when writing Only One Way Home. White Dove’s experiences at Golconda represent many actual circumstances that the Cherokee endured during their time in southern Illinois. I suspect some readers will think I exaggerated their suffering, but if anything, I downplayed it to prevent the story from becoming too painful to read. Naturally, with the Trail of Tears topic, the story is sad, but there are also moments of shining joy and hope, so don’t think it’s too depressing to read.
During the “Indian Removal,” of 1838, some Cherokee, like my great, great grandmother Mary Ann Jones’ family, hid from the soldiers that came to round them up that summer. But 16,000 other Cherokee were forced from their Georgia and North Carolina homes and herded to military stockades where they were confined until they could be sent to Oklahoma.
That summer was brutally hot. An eyewitness describes the suffering they endured just getting to the stockades:
Reverend Daniel Butrick, whom I fictionalize in Only One Way Home, accompanied the Cherokee and kept a detailed journal of events. His descriptions of the “Removal” are harrowing:
May 26 – “As the soldiers advanced towards a house, two little children fled in fright to the woods. The woman pleaded for permission to seek them, or wait until they came in……..but all entreaties were in vain….it was not till a day or two later after that, she would get permission for one of her friends to go back after the lost children.”
“A man, deaf and dumb, being surprised at the approach of armed men, attempted to make his escape, and because he did not hear and obey the command of his pursuers, was shot dead on the spot.”
“Women absent from their families on visits, or for other purposes, were seized, and men, far from their wives and children, were not allowed to return, and also children being forced from home, were dragged off among strangers.”
“And, it is said that the white inhabitants around, stood with open arms to seize whatever property they could put their hands on.”
“Those taken to the fort at New Echota, were confined day and night in the open air, with but little clothing to cover them, when lying on the naked ground.”
May 31 – “Astoundingly, a little before sunset, a company of about 200 Cherokees were driven into our lane. The day had been rainy, and of course all men, women and children were dripping wet with no change of clothing, and scarcely a blanket fit to cover them. As some of the women, taken from their houses, had on their poorest dress, this of course was the amount of clothing for a journey of about 800 miles.”
June 11 – “The weather being extremely warm and dry, many of the Cherokees are sick, especially at Calhoun, where we understand that from four to ten die in a day.”
July 18 – At Cassville, it is said, some poor Cherokees were enticed to drink, and when drunk, one of the women was taken out into the public street, and her clothes pulled up, and tied over her head, and thus she was left to the gaze of the multitudes passing by.”
July 23 – (Regarding Property sold by agents) “It is very evident that a mere trifle of what was left was ever given to owners. Thus, a horse said to be worth $100 sold for $12. Twenty or thirty ducks sold for twenty five cents, and these cents go to pay the cost.”
The stockades into which the Cherokee were herded were 200 by 500 feet with sixteen foot high walls. No provision for shelter or sanitation had been made as the government didn’t expect the Indians to be there long. But the journey to Oklahoma was delayed because of the heat and a drought that had dried up most of the water sources along the route they would take there. The Cherokee leaders asked for and received permission to delay leaving until the fall. So thousands of Cherokee languished in the stockades waiting for cooler weather and rain. Disease hit the vulnerable occupants, wiping out many before they could even begin traveling what survivors later called Nunahi-Duna-Hilu-I, the trail where they cried.
But eventually, detachments of about 1000 began to leave at intervals of 2-3 days. The government had intended that they would go by flatboats down the Ohio River to Cairo, Illinois where they would go up the Mississippi River until they reached disembarkation ports and then travel overland the rest of the way to Oklahoma. And about 5000 of them, including Principal Chief John Ross, did follow this itinerary and arrived safe and sound in Oklahoma.
But many Cherokee, leery of traveling by water, insisted on going overland. It was a four-month journey of 1200 miles and much more difficult than the water route. Approximately five thousand Cherokee rode horses. Some rode in forty oxen-drawn wagons, but those were mostly for supplies. Eight thousand walked the whole way.
They had left their homes the scorching heat of summer, but the first detachment of Cherokee reached Golconda, Illinois, the approximate halfway point of the journey, on December 3, 1838, during an unusually cold winter. To get from Kentucky to Golconda, they crossed the Ohio River via Berry’s Ferry, where they were charged $1 each, over eight times the going rate. Later, when they got to the western side of Illinois, a man name Willard charged them each another toll to use the turnpike he had constructed specifically to cash in on the Cherokee traffic.
(The Cherokee paid these exorbitant fees from the $100 each head of household had been given to provide for their families until they could get set up in Oklahoma. The government sent food and feed for the people and livestock for the trip, but it ran out before they reached Oklahoma. The agents escorting them were forced to borrow money from the Cherokee to buy more provisions. They were never paid back.)
The time spent in Illinois between the great Ohio and Mississippi rivers was the worst part of the whole trip:
The days and weeks spent in crossing southern Illinois were the most brutal for the Cherokee Nation. Many landowners would not allow the Cherokee to camp on their land or cut firewood for warmth and hot food. Only adding to the Cherokee’s misery, the Mississippi was frozen solid far out from the river bank and in the center were blocks of ice as big as houses. As the water flowed, the huge ice blocks crashed down the current, rear on edge and crash down with mighty shocks. This fearful noise went on day and night for a month as the Cherokee watched the mighty Mississippi in awed wonder as they waited to cross into Missouri.
(I describe this phenomenon as happening on the Ohio River because I wanted to keep the setting of Only One Way Home at Golconda, but it actually happened on the Mississippi River.)
How many Cherokee perished in Illinois, I do not know, but total loss of life along the trail is estimated at 4,000. The dead were buried in unmarked graves except in Union County, Illinois, where a man named George Hileman allowed the Cherokee to camp on his land, cut wood, and bury their dead. Later, in 1850, he dedicated a portion of his land for a church that became known as Camp Ground Cumberland Presbyterian Church. A stone marker commemorates the site of the Cherokee cemetery. It is the only such graveyard to be found along the Trail.
George Hileman’s compassion was a rarity on the trail. Reverend Daniel Butrick describes other incidents more typical:
July 26 – “They were not allowed to stop or rest on account of sickness. They were driven on as long as they could walk, and then thrown into wagons. When some were perceived to be in the agonies of death, the wagon master ordered them to drive on!”…..”When it was known that one was dead, the lifeless body was left to the care of some stranger.”
August 20 – “ We also learned that when the last company was taken over the river at Ross’s Landing, a woman, in the pains of childbirth, stood and walked as long as possible, and then fell on the bank of the river. A soldier coming up, stabbed her with his bayonet, which, together with other pains, soon caused her death.”
Descendants of the Cherokee were interviewed in 1937 for a publication called Stories from the Trail. (http://www.ualr.edu/sequoyah/uploads/2011/11/Family%20Stories%20from%20the%20Trail%20of%20Tears.htm) Their stories confirm Butrick’s account. Nannie Buchanan Pierce describes her grandmother’s ordeal ninety-nine years before when she was a girl of sixteen:
Aggie Silk was my grandmother and she has told me of the many hardships of the trip to this country. Many had chills and fever from the exposure, change of country and they didn’t have too much to eat. When they would get too sick to walk or ride, they were put in the wagons and taken along until they died. The Indian doctors couldn’t find the herbs they were used to and didn’t know the ones they did find, so they couldn’t doctor them as they would have at home. Some rode in wagons, some rode horses and some had to walk.
Katie Rackleff is also quoted in Stories from the Trail:
The hardships were many all along the trail, rough country, bad roads and all kinds of weather. A seeming endless march of weary, struggling mass of humanity, driven from a country they knew and loved as their home, deprived of most of their individual possessions, to the wilderness of a new country. A procession miles in length of wagons, two-wheel carts, vehicles of every description drawn by horses, mules and ox teams, long troops of pedestrians of all ages and conditions, mothers walking and carrying their babes on their back. Many walking and driving their small herds of cattle and other stock.
After a few days out on the trail you could see them scattered along the roadside falling out of line of march from exhaustion and illness, and so the long journey from east of the Mississippi to the Indian Territory was made after several months of hardships and sorrow and the cost of many lives of the Cherokees. I have read of the “Trail of Tears ” by different writers but none portray the horrors of it all in detail as grandmother related to us when we could persuade her to talk of it, as she would often tell us it was too horrible to talk about and it only brought back sad memories.
Henry J. Walker had this to say when he was interviewed for Stories from the Trail:
My mother, said to be the last survivor of those who came over the Trail of Tears, was about ten years old when they left Georgia.
They came in rude wagons drawn by oxen, each family furnishing its own transportation or at least my grandfather did and he loaded his wagon with provisions for his family for the trip. This left little room as he had a wife and six children of whom my mother was next to the youngest. They were compelled to have a little bedding. They left Georgia in the summer and did not reach this state till the next summer…
In those days there were no roads and few trails and very few bridges. Progress of travelers was slow and often times they would have to wait many days for the streams to run down before they could cross. Each family did its own cooking on the road. People then had no matches and they started a fire by rubbing two flint rocks together and catching the spark on a piece of dry spunk held directly underneath the rocks. Sometimes, they would have to rake away the snow and clear a place to build the fire. Travelers carried dry wood in the wagons to build their fires. The wagons were so heavily loaded and had traveled so many days that when they came to a hill the persons in the wagons would have to get out and walk up the hill. They did not ride much of the time but walked a good deal, not only to rest themselves but to save their teams.
Often, teams would give out and could go no farther and then those who were with that wagon would be divided up among the other wagons and hurried along. One day mother saw a team of oxen fall dead, hitched to their wagon. The party she was with were in a severe snowstorm on the way which caused much suffering. Many died from exposure on the trip and mother said that she thought that a third of those who started died on the way, although all of her family lived to reach the new country. Those who came over the Trail of Tears would not stop for sickness and would stop only long enough to dig a rude grave when any one died and then the bereaved family was forced to move right along.
Mother said that their food lasted them till they reached the Indian Territory but towards the last of the trip that they had little to eat and had to plan to make it last. It was indeed a pitiful band that finally reached the new home promised them for they had been a year on the road, food had become scarce, their clothes which were homemade were wearing out, many had died on the trail, some had lost their teams and wagons and had been placed with other families and there were small children in the band who had lost their parents.
Of course, Professor Merrideth Randall and her friends Abby and John are horrified by what they observe when “time-surfing” back to Golconda. But as John says,
“We need to remember our history, no matter how painful.”
Merrideth got a paper towel from the counter and wiped her face. “Yes, we all need to have someone remind us from time to time that it is an evil world we live in. We can go about our normal activities every day thinking life is pretty good, while across the state, or even across town, others are experiencing catastrophic loss. The so-called Indian Removal was nothing less than ethnic cleansing.”
Abby left John’s embrace and pulled Merrideth into a hug. “Oh, kiddo, you sound so despairing.”
Tears welled up in Merrideth’s eyes, and she turned away, embarrassed by her loss of control.
Abby continued to hold her. “Yes, there is evil in this world. But we can’t forget that there is good here, too. Just think what Matthias Frailey did to help those people.”
I like to believe there actually were people like Matthias Frailey along that trail who did what they could to help the Cherokee.It would be so nice of you to share!
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Ordinary Time: June 26th
Monday of the Twelfth Week of Ordinary Time; Optional Memorial of St. Josemaria Escriva de Balaguer, priest (in some dioceses)
» Enjoy our Liturgical Seasons series of e-books!
Old Calendar: Saints John and Paul, martyrs; St. Pelagius of Córdoba (Hist) ; Other Titles: Josemaria Escriva de Balaguer
St. Josemaria Escriva was born in 1902 at Barbastro Spain. He was ordained in Saragossa in 1925 and by divine inspiration founded Opus Dei which opened a new way for the faithful to sanctify themselves in the midst of the world. He died on June 26, 1975 and was canonized a saint on October 6, 2002.
According to the 1962 Missal of St. John XXIII the Extraordinary Form of the Roman Rite, today is the feast of Sts. John and Paul, martyrs, two brothers, who encouraged each other to remain faithful in their sufferings. They are named in the Roman Canon of the Mass (Eucharistic Prayer I).
Historically today is the feast of St. Pelagius of Córdoba, a young boy who chose death rather than submission to the sexual advances or the false religion of the Muslim Caliph of Córdoba.
St. Josemaria Escriva de Balaguer
St. Josemaria Escriva was born in Barbastro, Spain, on January 9, 1902. He had five siblings: Carmen (1899-1957) and Santiago (1919-1994) and three younger sisters who died when they were small children. His parents, José and Dolores, gave their children a deep Christian education.
In 1915, Jose Escriva's business failed and he found other work, which required the family to move to Logrono. It was as a teenager in Logrono that Josemaria for the first time sensed his vocation. Moved by the sight of footprints left in the snow by a barefoot friar, he sensed that God was asking something of him, though he did not know exactly what it was. He thought becoming a priest would help him discover and fulfill this calling from God, so he began to prepare for the priesthood, first in Logrono and later in Saragossa.
Josemaria's father died in 1924, leaving him as head of the family. After his ordination in 1925, he began his ministry in a rural parish, and subsequently continued it in Saragossa. In 1927, Fr. Josemaria's bishop gave him permission to move to Madrid to obtain his doctorate in law.
On October 2, 1928, during a spiritual retreat, Fr. Josemaria saw what it was that God was asking of him: to found Opus Dei, a way of sanctification in daily work and in the fulfillment of the Christian's ordinary duties. From then on he worked on carrying out this task, meanwhile continuing his priestly ministry, particularly to the poor and the sick. During these early years of Opus Dei, he was also studying at the University of Madrid and teaching classes in order to support his family. When the Civil War broke out in Madrid, religious persecution forced Fr. Josemaria to exercise his priestly ministry clandestinely and to move from place to place seeking refuge. Eventually, he was able to leave the Spanish capital; and, after a harrowing escape across the Pyrenees, he took up residence in Burgos. When the war concluded in 1939, he returned to Madrid and finally obtained his doctorate in law. In the years that followed he gave many retreats to laity, priests, and religious, and continued working assiduously to develop Opus Dei.
In 1946 Fr. Josemaria took up residence in Rome. During his years in Rome, he obtained a doctorate in Theology from the Lateran University and was appointed by Pope Pius XII as a consultor to two Vatican Congregations, as an honorary member of the Pontifical Academy of Theology, and as an honorary prelate.
He traveled frequently from Rome to various European countries, and to Mexico on one occasion, to spark the growth of Opus Dei in those places. In 1974 and 1975, he made two long trips to a number of countries in Latin America, where he met with large groups of people and spoke to them about their Christian vocation to holiness.
Msgr. Escriva died in Rome on June 26, 1975. By the time of his death, Opus Dei had begun in dozens of countries and had touched countless lives. After his death thousands of people, including more than a third of the world's bishops, sent letters to Rome asking the Pope to open his cause of beatification and canonization.
Pope John Paul II beatified Msgr. Escriva on May 17, 1992, in St. Peter's Square in Rome. The ceremony was attended by approximately 300,000 people. "With supernatural intuition," said the Pope in his homily, "Blessed Josemaria untiringly preached the universal call to holiness and apostolate."
Ten years later, on October 6, 2002, John Paul II canonized the founder of Opus Dei in St. Peter's Square before a multitude of people from more than 80 countries. In his discourse to those who attended the canonization, the Holy Father said that "St. Josemaria was chosen by the Lord to proclaim the universal call to holiness and to indicate that everyday life, its customary activities, are a path towards holiness. It could be said that he was the saint of the ordinary."Things to Do:
- Read a longer biography of St. Josemaria.
- Visit these sites to find out more about Opus Dei, St. Josemaria Escriva and his writings.
- Visit Opus Dei's official US website.
- St. Josemaria Escriva’s teachings stressed the universal call to holiness; in fact this is the root of his teaching. Vatican II echoed this in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen Gentium: “It is therefore quite clear that all Christians in any state or walk of life are called to the fullness of Christian life and to the perfection of love, and by this holiness a more human manner of life is fostered also in earthly society” (no. 40). In a document as far back as 1930, for example, St. Josemaria wrote: “Holiness is not something for some privileged few. God calls everyone; from everyone He waits for Love: from everyone, wherever they may be; from everyone, whatever may be their state in life, profession, or occupation.” See the marble structure of the Universal Call to Holiness at the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, DC. Read Francis Cardinal George's comments on this teaching.
Sts. John and Paul
The Acts of these two martyrs, which historians regard as spurious, contain the following: "The two brothers, John and Paul, were valets to Constantia, the daughter of Emperor Constantine. For their excellent work she bequeathed to them a considerable sum. This they used to aid poor Christians. When Julian the Apostate (361-363) invited them to become members of the inner circle of the imperial household, they refused and boldly explained that they did not relish close association with one who had fallen away from Jesus Christ. The Emperor gave them ten days to reconsider their position, threatening them with death if at the end of this time they refused to do his bidding and sacrifice to Jupiter. The brothers used the interval to distribute what remained of their possessions to the poor so that they could begin their journey home to God with less hindrance, while at the same time benefiting many who would 'receive them into the everlasting dwellings' (Luke 16:9). Their choice was death, and they were beheaded in their own house."
Both John and Paul were highly venerated by the Roman Church. They are mentioned in the Canon of the Mass and in the Litany of the Saints. Their particular virtue was love toward the poor. The following, at least, is historically certain: these two court officials were martyred and buried in their own house. Byzas and Pammachius transformed this house into a church dedicated to the two martyrs. Excavations have proven these points. Beneath the church were found their home, the tombs, and the place of execution.
Excerpted from The Church's Year of Grace
, Pius ParschSymbols:
St. Pelagius of Córdoba
St. Pelagius was a thirteen year old Christian who was martyred for refusing to denounce his faith and convert to Islam in Cordoba, Spain in 925.
10th century Cordoba was the most powerful and glorious time in the world for the muslim caliphates and they boasted the largest mosque outside of the Caaba in Mecca.
Pelagius, as a ten year old boy, was taken hostage by the Moors of Cordoba during a rampage in a Christian town. He was in captivity for three years and nobody had made any attempt to ransom him.
The Emir of Cordoba offered him his freedom if he would convert to Islam. The boy refused and the Emir had him tortured and killed. He is said to have endured six hours of constant excruciating pain until he died.
Saint Pelagius is venerated in Leon, Cordoba, and Oviedo, where his relics have been kept since they were transferred there in 985.
Excerpted from Catholic News AgencyThings to Do:
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The New Mexico Department of Health is reporting 4 cases of plague and 10 cases of tularemia in animals in New Mexico since the beginning of the year. Cases include one cat from Bernalillo County and one dog, a rabbit and a mouse from Santa Fe County, all with plague. Tularemia cases include 1 cat from Los Alamos County, 1 dog from Taos County, 3 dogs and a rabbit from Santa Fe County, and 3 dogs and 1 rabbit from Bernalillo County. Confirmatory testing was conducted at the Department’s Scientific Laboratory Division.
“Plague and tularemia occur almost every year in New Mexico, so it is important to take precautions to avoid rodents and rabbits, and their fleas and ticks which can expose you to these diseases,” said Department of Health Secretary Retta Ward, MPH. “People can be exposed to plague and tularemia when pets bring infected fleas or ticks back into the home.”
Both plague and tularemia are bacterial diseases of rodents and rabbits. Plague is generally transmitted to humans through the bites of infected fleas while tularemia can be transmitted to people by the bite of infected ticks or deer flies. Both diseases can also be transmitted by direct contact with infected animals, including rodents, rabbits, other wildlife and pets.
“We are seeing high populations of rodents and rabbits in many areas of New Mexico this spring,” said Dr. Paul Ettestad, public health veterinarian for the Department of Health.“Both tularemia and plague can circulate in these rodent populations causing them to become sick and die. Dogs and cats can be infected with plague and tularemia through hunting rodents and rabbits or by exposure to their fleas or ticks.”
To prevent plague and tularemia, the Department of Health recommends:
- Keep your pets from roaming and hunting.
- Talk to your veterinarian about using an appropriate flea and tick control product on your pets as not all products are safe for cats, dogs, or your children.
- Clean up areas near the house where rodents could live, such as woodpiles, brush piles, junk and abandoned vehicles.
- Don’t allow children or others to handle sick or dead wildlife.
- Sick pets should be examined promptly by a veterinarian.
- See your doctor about any unexplained illness involving a sudden and severe fever.
- Put hay, wood, and compost piles as far as possible from your home.
- Don’t leave your pet’s food and water where mice can get to it.
- Avoid mowing over dead animals when cutting the grass, etc. as this can potentially aerosolize the bacteria.
Symptoms of plague and tularemia in humans include sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, and weakness. In most cases of plague there is a painful swelling of the lymph node in the groin, armpit or neck areas. With tularemia a skin ulcer may appear at the site where the bite occurred. The ulcer is accompanied by swelling of regional lymph glands, usually in the armpit or groin.
Plague and tularemia signs in cats and dogs are fever, lethargy and loss of appetite. There may be a swelling in the lymph node under the jaw.
With prompt diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic treatment, the fatality rate in people and pets can be greatly reduced. Physicians who suspect plague or tularemia should promptly report it to the Department of Health.
In New Mexico in 2014 there were 17 confirmed cases of plague in dogs and cats. Two humans contracted plague in New Mexico in 2014; one of these is thought to have contracted the disease from his cat. Both patients recovered from the illness. There were 4 human plague cases in 2013 with one fatality.
Five human cases of tularemia were lab confirmed in New Mexico in 2014. All were hospitalized.
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Prof. Mary Louise Frampton of the Thelton E. Henderson Center for Social Justice at University of California, Berkeley, School of Law discusses an experimental restorative justice program in a West Oakland, California, middle school. Based on her and her colleagues' evaluation, the program was successful in reducing student suspensions and expulsions for bad behavior and transforming the school culture from punishment-based to problem-solving. As a result, The Oakland Unified School District has adopted restorative justice policies in many of its schools.
Restorative Justice for Oakland Youth
Sumner, M. D., C.J. Silverman & M.L. Frampton (2010). School-based restorative justice as an alternative to zero-tolerance policies: Lessons from West Oakland. Berkeley, CA: Thelton E. Henderson Center for Social Justice, University of California, Berkeley, School of Law. http://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/11-2010_School-based_Restorative_Justice_As_an_Alternative_to_Zero-Tolerance_Policies.pdf
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Question: Do You Know Your Question Words?
Lesson 1 of 8
Objective: SWBAT understand and use question words, like who, what, where, when, why, how, over time.
Why This Lesson?
Every time I try to have students ask questions, I somehow get multiple stories; this happens because students still don't understand what it MEANS to ask a question.
The way I decided to confront this time-consuming battle was to teach my students about question words. Question words aren't an easy thing to understand, so this lesson is one that I use regularly. Why, you might ask?... Because it works!
Once students realize they are able to gain more information and expand their learning by asking questions, they love to use their question words. In the end, the more students ask, the more they will have to answer; therefore, the more they learn!
Introduction to Students
I have this introductory conversation a couple of months into the school year. It is about this time where I feel students can really start paying attention to and genuinely learning from videos. Since this lesson has an important video connection, it fits in well at this point in the year!
"Today, I am going to show you a video about question words. This video is going to help us learn how to ASK questions. Has anyone ever noticed that sometimes, when I tell you that you can ask a question, I have to remind you that you're telling me a story?"
(Students will nod or say yes.)
"That happens because we still don't KNOW in our brains what exactly questions are. This video is going to help us learn about question words. What will this video help is learn about?"
(Students will say, "This video is going to help us learn about question words.")
"Yes! Question words are the words that questions begin with. If I do not start something with an asking question, then it's not going to be a question. This video will help us understand this a little better. So, as we watch this video, I really want you to pay attention to the following words: who, what, where, when, how and why. Let me say that again- who, what, where, when, how and why. If you hear one of those words, point at it! Also, remember that if the video asks you a question, you need to answer it in a complete sentence! So, make sure you listen for those asking words- I don't want you to not know when to answer! If you're ready to learn about question words and even answer some questions, find a spot in the room where you can get your wiggles out and see."
(When my students find a spot for this (or any interactive video), they know that my expectations are that they participate and watch while they move around.)
Now, since I don't like to reinvent the wheel, I found a pre-made, awesome video that is perfect for this exercise! Harry Kindergarten has a great video called Questions Start with These. This video is indeed perfect and I love it. It not only tells the difference between questions and statements, but it also repeatedly goes over the question words and even asks the students to answer questions. This video is great for students and teachers alike!
"Now that we have watched a video about questions, I am going to ask you a question. What is one thing you just learned about questions?" Usually, I will let this conversation go wherever the students take it; sometimes, they have ALL of the information down and sometimes they need a lot of guidance. I prompt and probe as we go through this portion. After we have talked it all out, I have students help me.
"I need help making a list of question words. We aren't going to look at our poster, but we are going to think about the video as well as what we know. So, if you know a word that questions start with, please raise your hand."
As I write the words students give me, I have the whole class "Please repeat the question word that _____ said." I do this because it reinforces the specific words while also giving me five seconds to write down the word on my chart! Once we have the chart, we go over each word individually.
"Now, you are going to practice using these words. I am going to give you a question word, and you are going to use it and make a question with it! Please get into your dependable partner groups (these have been decided ahead of time and are created for students to experience all facets of learning from all different ability levels)." As students move into groups, I will make sure they all can see the reference chart we just made.
"Now, our first question word is who. I would like for you to think of a question beginning with who." (Wait time here.) "Now, I would like for you to take turns asking each other a question beginning with the word who. Remember: a question is something someone has to answer. So, a question I might ask with the word who would be, "Who is your favorite singer?" That is a question, beginning with who, that my partners can answer. Your turn!"
I will walk around and listen to students coming up with and responding to questions. I will provide academic feedback and give help whenever it is needed.
"Great! I heard some good questions and answers! Let's try this again. Now, I want you to think of a question beginning with the word what." (Wait time here.)
This process will continue (with no teacher example) until all of the question words on the chart have been used. Although it takes a while for every child to use every word, this lesson helps students get exposed to each question word three times while not only allowing them to hear but also create questions! As this process goes on, I make sure to monitor, adjust and re-teach if needed, as this activity is very teacher-assisted!
After we have reviewed the question words, I hang our chart up on the wall. I will likely leave our chart up throughout the year, as it provides the students with a reference when reading, writing and speaking & listening. As I hang up the chart, I have students think of ONE question they really want to ask- they go write this down. I take up all of my students' questions and assess them.
I look for three things: 1- are they asking me something, 2- did they use a word from our conversation, video and/or chart, and 3- did they use a question mark.
After assessing these, I can easily see who needs re-teaching, who had a general understanding and who needs some extension to further their learning.
Once all students have brought their questions to me, I have this closing conversation:
"What did we just learn about?"
(Students should say, "We learned about question words.")
"Yes! We did learn about question words. Question words are really important and that is why we are focusing on them! Question words are special because we use them to help us gain information. If we didn't ask questions, we couldn't find things out. So, we need to be able to use the appropriate words to help us find more information. After all, the more questions we can ask, the smarter we can be! Please say that with me."
I will say that with students, "The more questions we can ask, they smarter we can be!"
"Good! So, from now on, we have one goal we are going to work on together- we need to ask more questions!"
From this point on, I make sure to have students ask or write questions at some point each day!
Here is a video of a student reading her questions to me as I assess her use of question marks and question words.
To follow up, I show this video once very few weeks. I like for the students to be reminded that they ASK questions and have to use asking words. After all, who wants to miss class time for story after story, when a question leads to so much more learning?
For example, when I read Little Quack, a story about a duckling, I do not want to hear a bunch of students talk about the time they saw a duck in the creek; I love hearing my students asking questions, such as, "Why does the duckling look different than the duck?" This is an important skill for students to be able to have not only to clarify information, but also to be able to properly respond in a meaningful, connected way, to texts!
In the Introduction to Students section, I attached our reference poster that hangs in my room. I go over this about sheet once per week throughout the year (especially when I am asking students to ask questions in response to a text). Also, we use this poster when we write questions, and even when we talk through our Modified Morning Message routine almost daily!
This page hangs in my room throughout the year and I have it available for students to refer to if someone is telling me something when they are supposed to be asking. In conjunction with this video, this page works magic in my classroom! I love having more ASKING going on!
Also, I love having question words in centers and even for homework. I have attached some games, centers and flash cards (which I send home for homework) here as extension pieces as well!
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Why is it that we sometimes get a tune or chorus stuck in our heads and play it over and over again even though it’s driving us crazy?
This is one of those questions that one wonders if there really could be an answer or is it ‘just one of those things’. Well some neuroscientists, pyschologists and evene marketers have something to say on this subject.
Why do men have nipples? – In a Nutshell : Men have nipples because women do.
Eponyms are one of the most fascinating examples of how the English language gains new words. In this article we take a colourful look at the phenomenon some eponyms like : Uncle Sam, Masochism, Martinet & Jezebel.
It would be handy wouldn’t it – photosynthesising all our food rather than having to stop to eat three times a day – so why can’t we do it ?
Identical twins come from the same sperm and egg – and thus have the same DNA – ie EXACT identical genetic makeup. So do they therefore have the same fingerprints? Or to put it another way would twins force Hercule Poirot’s “little grey cells” into overdrive in a murder investigation ?
Eponyms are one of the most fascinating examples of how the English language gains new words. In this article we take a colourful look at the phenomenon some eponyms like : Juggernaut, Lynching, Malapropism, Maverick & Tantalise.
Blushing is rather an odd physiological and psychological response to embarrassment or awkward social situations. Could there be any rational or logical explanation for this? What possible evolutionary reason could there be for such a strange phenomenon.
Pit yourself against some mind bending riddles and see if you can work out what each one is referring to.
If you had to name some of history’s best all time hoaxes what would you come up with ? In this article we look at what , we consider, the top 3 hoaxes of all time (so far).
English is one of the richest languages in the world. At the last count there were estimated to be over 1 million words in the English lexicon. In this article we’ve gathered together just a few of the more unusual ones to see if you know (or can guess) what they mean.
Urban legend has it that if you want to calculate a dog’s age in equivalent human years you should multiply the dogs age by seven. But is this really true ?
Some hilarious text bloopers … courtesy of the iPhone’s auto correct feature ! (plus some parental misunderstandings)
Having a wide vocabulary is always a good thing. In this article we’ve pulled together some of the more unusual words that the English language has to offer us that relate to wintertime.
In wartime nations are often galvanised into frenzied action to innovate and invent in order to try to gain the upper hand in their struggle for survival. In this article we look at some of the seemingly more trivial and rather inexpected things that were invented or developed as a result of the WWI.
Christmas is probably the time of year when there is an overwhelming plethora of traditions and practices that we all enthusiastically embrace. In this article we look at one of the most enduring of British traditions … the Christmas Turkey.
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; cohort Mutica, order Cetacea)
An extinct suborder comprising the oldest and most primitive cetaceans, which flourished in the Eocene and may have originated in Africa. Most were comparable in size with modern porpoises, had an elongated snout, and nostrils on top of the skull. The brain case was long and low. The front teeth were peg-like, the cheek teeth heterodont and characteristic of primitive carnivores. There were 44 teeth in all. The hind legs in most were reduced to vestiges, but in some early genera (Ambulocetus, Basilosaurus) still protruded from the body wall. They were fish-eating carnivores that had adopted an aquatic life to which they were more highly adapted than e.g. modern seals. The term archaeocete really means any primitive cetacean and probably does not designate a natural monophyletic (see monophyly) group.
Subjects: Zoology and Animal Sciences — Earth Sciences and Geography.
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“He made also ten lavers: and he see five on the right hand, and five on the left, to wash in them all such things as they mere to offer for holocausts: but the sea was for the priests to wash in.” (2 Chronicles 4:6)
Literal Sense: Ten lavers, or basins, were made in order to wash the sacrificial victims but the largest basin, the sea, was reserved for the ritual washing of the priests.
Allegorical Sense: As the sacrificial victims were washed before they were sacrificed to God, so it is that the members of the church are washed in the waters of baptism before they are presented to God as living sacrifices (Romans 12:1).
Moral Sense: If God required animal sacrifices to be washed and burned as sacrifices, how much more ought we to be washed with the sacrament of penance and present ourselves to God as sacrifices consumed with the fire of the Holy Spirit.
Anagogical Sense: In heaven there will no longer remain any part of us that requires washing and it is in heaven that we will be perfectly dedicated as pleasing sacrifices to God, as our lives will be completely given over to Him.
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WASHINGTON — How strong is that pina colada? Depending on how it’s made, it could contain as much alcohol as two glasses of wine.
The U.S. National Institutes of Health is trying to spread the word: Take a look at its online alcohol calculator to see how much you’re really drinking with those summer cocktails.
Drinking alcohol more than twice a week, in any amount, spikes risk of stroke threefold for men: study
Everything in moderation? Not quite. Having alcoholic drinks more than twice a week may “greatly increase” the risk of stroke for men, new research from Finland suggests.
According to the study, published March 8 in Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, men who drink alcohol more than twice a week saw a threefold increase of their risk of dying of a stroke, compared to men who do not consume alcohol at all.
But that’s not the most alarming part. Researchers at the University of Eastern Finland discovered that the elevated risk exists no matter how much — or little — alcohol is consumed per sitting. So those daily glasses of wine? A rewarding pint every day? It could be doing more harm than good.
A “standard drink” is the amount of alcohol in a 12-ounce beer, five ounces of wine or 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits. It’s a useful way to track alcohol consumption. But the multiple ingredients of mixed drinks make for a harder count.
“Most people don’t realize how much alcohol is actually in a drink,” said Dr. George Koob, director of the NIH’s National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
“Obviously it depends on the bartender and who’s mixing the drinks,” Koob adds.
Recipes matter: The calculator’s pina colada example, for instance, assumes it contains three ounces of rum. Plan on using two ounces instead? The calculator adjusts to show it’s like 1.3 standard drinks.
What about a margarita? The calculator concludes it’s the equivalent of 1.7 standard drinks, if made with 1.5 ounces of tequila, an ounce of orange liqueur and half an ounce of lime juice.
A mojito? 1.3 standard drinks. A martini, extra dry? 1.4 standard drinks.
Other favourites? Type them in
And beyond beverage choices, Koob, who specializes in the neurobiology of alcohol, has some other tips:
Heat increases thirst but alcohol is a diuretic, Koob notes. So in addition to the usual advice to pace yourself — no more than one standard drink an hour — Koob says to stay hydrated by alternating some water or club soda with the alcohol.
Women’s bodies react differently to alcohol, and not just because they tend to weigh less than men. They don’t metabolize alcohol as quickly, and their bodies contain less water. On average, it takes one less drink for a woman to become intoxicated than a man of the same weight, Koob said. The NIAAA’s definition of low-risk drinking for women is no more than 7 drinks a week and no more than three drinks on any single day, while for men the limit is no more than 14 drinks a week and no more than four drinks on any single day.
BEYOND DRINKING AND DRIVING
Holiday weekends are historically dangerous on the highways: 38% of fatalities involved alcohol-impaired driving over the July 4th weekend in 2011, according to the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
But alcohol also doesn’t mix with boating, or swimming and diving, Koob warns. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, alcohol use is involved in up to 70% of adult and adolescent deaths associated with water recreation.
HOLDING YOUR ALCOHOL
What determines why one drink is plenty for one person while another routinely downs two or three? Genes play a big role. So do environmental factors, such as getting used to drinking a certain amount. That tolerance is a balancing act, Koob says. He cites research showing the person who can drink others under the table is at higher risk for alcohol problems later in life than is someone more sensitive to its effects.
WHEN ALCOHOL IS A PROBLEM
Alcohol use disorders affect an estimated 17 million Americans. There are two medications that can help, targeting different steps in the addiction cycle, Koob said. More medications that work in different ways are needed, but changing lifestyle, cognitive therapy and support groups all play a role, he said.
Medications “are never going to cure the disease,” Koob said. “What they will do is help you on the way.”
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Is this a good idea?
"Mammoth Telescope to Be Built in Hawaii"
July 21st, 2009
July 21st, 2009
Hawaii beat out Chile to become the site of the Thirty-Meter Telescope, which is scheduled to be completed in 2018.
The giant telescope will have a single primary mirror that measures 30 meters across and is made up of 492 segments, giving it nine times more collecting surface than the the biggest telescopes on Earth today.
The Thirty-Meter Telescope will surpass even the Hubble Space Telescope in some ways, giving scientists a new view of some of the oldest stars and galaxies in the universe, as well as planets orbiting nearby stars.
Mauna Kea in Hawaii, the site of the Keck and Subaru telescopes, was among five candidate sites selected based on a global satellite assessment of atmosphere and climate variables. After further studies, Hawaii and Cerro Amazones in Chile rose to the top of the list.
"In the final analysis, the board selected Mauna Kea as the site for TMT," Edward Stone, Caltech physicist and vice chairman of the TMT board, said in a press release Tuesday. "The atmospheric conditions, low average temperatures, and very low humidity will open an exciting new discovery space using adaptive optics and infrared observations."
The project still needs to be approved by the the state and $100 million still needs to be raised for construction. The rest of the $300 million estimated cost will come from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. The telescope project is the joint venture of Caltech, the University of California and a group of Canadian Universities called ACURA.
"We are excited about the prospect of being the first of the next generation of extremely large telescopes," said Professor Ray Carlberg, the Canadian Large Optical Telescope project director and a TMT board member.
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Civic engagement is about creating the environment within which ordinary citizens feel that they can contribute to the life of the community. It is about helping people participate in whatever way that they can so that the community becomes engaging and inclusive.
This presentation answers the question “How do we achieve diversity in Public Life”
About the Author
Karen Bird is Associate Professor of Political Science at McMaster University. She specializes in comparative politics, with particular focus on gender and ethnic diversity and the political representation of women and ethnic minorities in countries around the world.
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Speed reading is an awesome way to save time by learning and understanding things quickly. In the long run, this will free up a lot of time to allow you to concentrate on other things.
Below, you will find a few helpful tips to speed read effectively. It is not a comprehensive list, but a start to allow you to get to grip with the basics.
1. The first sentence of every paragraph is the most important one to read.
The first sentence lets you
know what you are going to read. So if you want to skim through very
quickly, read the first sentence only. Also, when doing this, look out for key words in that first sentence
because that will let you know what the paragraph is all about. As a side
note, if the paragraphs in the book aren't arranged with the important
sentences first, then the book is probably not optimised for speed reading
in the first place.
2. When reading sentences, look out for the key words that tell you what the sentence is about.
You don't have to
read the whole sentence, because you will be able to tell what the
sentence is about by looking at the key words in it. This is easier to do when you are looking
at the page from a comfortable distance, to be able to see most of
the sentence without actually reading every single word in it.
3. For extra quick reading, you can read down the middle of the page only
When you read down the
middle of the page, your eyes can take in all the key words, phrases and
themes of the page very quickly. What you must do is read the page fast or
slow enough, so that you are taking in all the key words.
4. Pay attention to all the highlighted text on the page.
If anything is highlighted
on a page, that highlighted part is obviously important and will make it
easier to understand what the page is all about. Highlighted things to look
out for include titles,
subheadings, captions and key points being
5. Understand what you are reading, instead of just reading the words.
The whole point of reading is to understand what you are reading. If you're just skimming and reading the words without understanding, you're basically wasting your time so you need to always make sure you're understanding it. The other thing to mention is that the speed of thought is much quicker than the speed at which you can read and say words. Therefore try to understand what you are reading and make it a habit, and your reading ability will naturally increase.
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You are here
Monday, July 20, 2009
NIH Issues Research Plan on Fragile X Syndrome and Associated Disorders
The National Institutes of Health has developed a research plan to advance the understanding of fragile X syndrome and its associated conditions, fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome and fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency.
The National Institutes of Health has developed a research plan to advance the understanding of fragile X syndrome and its associated conditions, fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome and fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency. Fragile X syndrome causes intellectual and developmental disabilities and results from a mutation in a gene on the X chromosome.
The plan puts forward goals to guide future research, setting research priorities for each of the conditions. A major priority of the plan is to investigate the biological processes underlying all three disorders and how to better diagnose and treat them. Other priorities are studying how widespread the gene variations are in the population and how the three conditions affect families.
"NIH’s research efforts have made great strides in understanding these conditions," said Raynard S. Kington, M.D., Ph.D., acting director of NIH. "We now intend to build on these advances."
Although the three disorders have very different symptoms, all result from variations in the same gene, known as the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. Full mutation of the gene means that cells do not produce a protein involved with communications between neurons in the central nervous system. The resulting disorder, Fragile X syndrome (FXS), occurs in approximately one in 2,500 births. People with FXS often have intellectual disabilities ranging from mild to severe. They may also have emotional and behavioral problems, including attention problems, hyperactivity, anxiety, aggression, and autism or autism spectrum disorder.
People with a less dramatic change in the gene have what is called a pre-mutation, which increases their chance of having a child with FXS. These people may not have any apparent health problems or may have symptoms of Fragile X-associated Tremor/Ataxia syndrome or Fragile X-Associated Primary Ovarian Insufficiency.
Fragile X-associated Tremor/Ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) occurs primarily in older men. The principal symptoms are tremor and gait problems, but the condition also includes cognitive decline, anxiety, and depression. Fragile X-associated Primary Ovarian Insufficiency (FXPOI) occurs in women of childbearing age. Women with FXPOI may experience early infertility and increased risk of osteoporosis and heart disease.
"Collectively, these disorders represent a major health burden and have far-reaching implications for individuals as well as their family members," said Tiina Urv, Ph.D., of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, chair of the trans-NIH Fragile X Research Coordinating Group. It is possible, Dr. Urv explained, for the gene to be abnormal in multiple family members. For example, the mother of a child with FXS may eventually show symptoms of FXPOI, and her father, and the child’s grandfather, may develop FXTAS.
"These disorders may affect multiple family members, and multiple generations," Dr. Urv said.
To develop the plan, the NIH convened three working groups of experts, one for each of the conditions. Members of each group included experts from the scientific community, members of advocacy groups for individuals and their families affected by the disorders, and other federal agencies. The research plan identifies research goals for each of the three conditions, and outlines strategies for better diagnosis, treatment and prevention of the three disorders.
"The goals were designed to be used by the NIH and FXS, FXTAS, and FXPOI research communities and to be shared with other federal agencies to facilitate coordinated research activities that will lead to timely detection, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of the targeted disorders," the report stated.
Studies funded by the NIH have been instrumental in contributing to the understanding of Fragile X syndrome, including the discovery of the fragile X expansion mutation in 1991 by 3 groups of scientists, two of which benefited from funding by the NIH’s Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). NIH-funded researchers also played a pivotal role in identifying FXTAS and FXPOI.
The report also highlights ongoing research, including collaborative efforts from several NIH institutes: the NICHD, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, the National Institute of Mental Health, and the National Institute on Aging. The NIH funds a network of centers devoted to Fragile X syndrome and its associated conditions, as well as studies by independent scientists.
The release is available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs_details.cfm?from=&pubs_id=5729.
The NICHD sponsors research on development, before and after birth; maternal, child, and family health; reproductive biology and population issues; and medical rehabilitation. For more information, visit the Institute’s Web site at http://www.nichd.nih.gov.
About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov.
NIH…Turning Discovery Into Health®
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Latin name: Quercus virginiana
Source material: Pollen
Common names: Virginia live oak, Southern Live Oak, Live oak, bay live oak, scrub live oak, plateau oak, plateau live oak, escarpment live oak, Encino
Oaks, making up the genus Quercus, are abundant hardy trees of deciduous forests in North America, Europe, and Asia. There are approximately 500 to 600 species worldwide, 250 in the Western Hemisphere, more than 150 in Mexico, and 70 in the United States and Canada (1-2).
Virginia live oak tree is native to the southeastern United States, from Virginia to Florida and west to Texas. It is also found in Cuba and in isolated locales in Mexico.
Live oak is a long-lived, nearly evergreen tree. It has a variety of forms, from shrubby or dwarfed to large and spreading, depending upon the site. It drops its leaves and grows new leaves within several weeks in the spring. In some areas it is in leaf all year. Trees grown in the open average 15 to 20 m in height. The bark is dark red-brown to grey and deeply furrowed longitudinally, with small surface scales, eventually becoming black and blocky. The 5 to 12.5 cm-long dark green leaves are thick, leathery and oval. The upper surface is lustrous, the lower pale and pubescent.
Virginia live oak tree flowers in early spring. The flowers, typical of Oaks, are on inconspicuous catkins, and are monoecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant). They are pollinated by wind. The countryside may become dusted with yellow pollen from this tree. Brownish-black acorns are produced, which are edible.
Virginia live oak is not as common as White oak. The natural habitat of the Live oak is woodlands.
The acorns are used for coffee, oil and food, and various parts of the tree have been used for medicinal purposes.
No allergens from this plant have yet been characterised.
As an extensive cross-reactivity among the different individual species of the genus could be expected (3), Virginia live oak may have allergens similar to those of White oak. Studies suggest that White oak pollen contains multiple proteins that are potentially allergenic (4). These include a group 1 Fagales protein, a calcium-binding protein and a profilin. See Oak tree t 7.
Moreover, probably not all species of Oak are equally allergenic:
Q. ilex pollen, although produced in considerable quantities, was not found to cause allergies in one study (5).
Some of the pollen allergens in the various species of Oak cross-react with each other, while others are unique to their own species. No studies to date have examined the cross-reactivity between Virginia live oak and other plants, but assuming that an extensive cross-reactivity among the different individual species of the genus could be expected (3), studies involving White oak tree (Q. alba) are relevant.
In Sapporo, Japan, many Birch pollen-allergic patients complained of typical symptoms after the Birch pollen season. This has been attributed to Birch pollen-allergic individuals being affected by Oak pollinosis due to cross-reactivity between Birch and Oak pollen (6).
Natural Birch, Alder, Horn beam, Hazel, and Oak pollen contain allergens that share IgE epitopes with recombinant Bet v 1 and recombinant Bet v 2. A combination of recombinant Bet v 1 and Bet v 2 accounted for 82% of tree pollen-specific IgE in a study. Most of the tree pollen-specific IgE was directed against rBet v 1 (7).
In inhibitory ELISA assays, IgE binding to ginkgo pollen was inhibited more than 80% by Oak, Rye grass, Mugwort, and Ragweed; and 34% by Japanese Hop; and 10% by rBet v 2 at 10 µg/ml (8).
On the evidence of these studies, American patients allergic to Virginia live oak pollen can be expected to be affected by Oak species found in Europe and other parts of the world.
Oak pollen is a major cause of asthma, allergic rhinitis and allergic conjunctivitis (9-12). Virginia live oak is not as common as White oak, but when it is grown in urban communities and near rural ones, it is an important allergen, and the prevalence of atopic sensitisation its pollen will be high.
Oak pollen affects sensitised individuals throughout the world. In Madrid, Spain, the highest level of airborne pollen from 1979 to 1993 was from the Quercus species (17%) (12), and in Salamanca, Spain, the highest quantity of pollen was from Holm oak (13). Oak pollen has also been shown to be significant in Zurich (14), Mexico City (15), Japan (16), Korea (17), Tampa, Florida (18), and Cape Town, South Africa (19).
Exposure to Oak dust may also lead to the development of sore throat and bronchial hyperresponsiveness (20).
Occupational asthma and rhinitis due to Oak wood dust have been demonstrated in wood workers (21-22).
Determination of IgE antibodies has been documented to be a useful investigation in the case of Oak-allergic individuals (23-24).
Compiled by Dr Harris Steinman, email@example.com.
Weber RW. Oaks. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2005;94(4):A-6.
Simpson BJ. A Field Guide to Texas Trees. Houston, Gulf Publishing Co. 1999;260-301
Yman L. Botanical relations and immuno-logical cross-reactions in pollen allergy. 2nd ed. Pharmacia Diagnostics AB. Uppsala. Sweden. 1982: ISBN 91-970475-09
Loria RC, Wilson P, Wedner HJ. Identification of potential allergens in White Oak (Quercus alba) pollen by immunoblotting.
J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;84(1):9-18
Prados M, Aragon R, Carranco MI, Martinez A,
Martinez J. Assessment of sensitization to holm Oak (Quercus ilex) pollen in the Merida area (Spain). Allergy 1995;50(5):456-9
Dohsaka Y, Maguchi S, Takagi S, Nagahashi T,
Fukuda S, Inuyama Y. Effect of Oak pollen on patients with birch pollinosis. [Japanese] Nippon Jibiinkoka Gakkai Kaiho 1995;98(3):357-61
Niederberger V, Pauli G, Gronlund H, Froschl R,
Rumpold H, Kraft D, Valenta R, Spitzauer S. Recombinant birch pollen allergens (rBet v 1 and rBet v 2) contain most of the IgE epitopes present in birch, alder, hornbeam, hazel, and Oak pollen: a quantitative IgE inhibition study with sera from different populations. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;102(4 Pt 1):579-91
Yun YY, Ko SH, Park JW, Hong CS. IgE immune response to Ginkgo biloba pollen.
Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2000;85(4):298-302
Shida T, Akiyama K, Hasegawa M, Maeda Y, Taniguchi M, Mori A, et al. Change in skin reactivity to common allergens in allergic patients over a 30-year period. Association with aeroallergen load. [Japanese].
Schwartz J, Weiss ST. Relationship of skin test reactivity to decrements in pulmonary function in children with asthma or frequent wheezing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152(6 Pt 1):2176-80
Ross AM, Corden JM, Fleming DM. The role of Oak pollen in hay fever consultations in general practice and the factors influencing patients’ decisions to consult.
Br J Gen Pract 1996;46(409):451-5
Subiza J, Jerez M, Jimenez JA, Narganes MJ, Cabrera M, Varela S, Subiza E. Allergenic pollen pollinosis in Madrid.
J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995;96(1):15-23
Hernandez Prieto M, Lorente Toledano F, Romo Cortina A, Davila Gonzalez I, et al. Pollen calendar of the city of Salamanca (Spain). Aeropalynological analysis for 1981-1982 and 1991-1992. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 1998;26(5):209-22
Helbling A, Leuschner RM, Wuthrich B. Pollinosis. IV. Which pollens should be tested in allergology practice? Results of determinations of allergy-causing pollens in the Zurich air 1981-1984, with reference to threshold concentrations. [German] Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1985;115(34):1150-9
Enriquez Palomec O, Hernandez Chavez L, Sarrazola Sanjuan DM, et al. Aeroallergens, skin tests and allergic diseases in 1091 patients. [Spanish] Rev Alerg Mex 1997;44(3):63-6
Furuya K. Pollinosis. 3. The significance of Oak (genus Quercus) in pollinosis. [Japanese] Arerugi 1970;19(12):918-30
Park HS, Chung DH, Joo YJ. Survey of airborne pollens in Seoul, Korea.
J Korean Med Sci 1994;9(1):42-6
Bucholtz GA, Lockey RF, Wunderlin RP, Binford LR, Stablein JJ, et al. A three-year aerobiologic pollen survey of the Tampa Bay area, Florida. Ann Allergy 1991;67(5):534-40
Potter PC, Berman D, Toerien A, Malherbe D, Weinberg EG. Clinical significance of aero-allergen identification in the western Cape.
S Afr Med J 1991;79(2):80-4
Bohadana AB, Massin N, Wild P, Toamain JP,
Engel S, Goutet P. Symptoms, airway responsiveness, and exposure to dust in beech and Oak wood workers.
Occup Environ Med 2000;57(4):268-73
De Zotti R, Gubian F. Asthma and rhinitis in wooding workers.
Allergy Asthma Proc 1996;17(4):199-203
Malo JL, Cartier A, Desjardins A, Van de Weyer R,
Vandenplas O. Occupational asthma caused by Oak wood dust. Chest 1995;108(3):856-8
Eriksson NE, Wihl JA, Arrendal H, Strandhede SO. Tree pollen allergy. III. Cross reactions based on results from skin prick tests and the RAST in hay fever patients. A multi-centre study. Allergy 1987;42(3):205-14
Jung K, Schlenvoigt G, Jager L. Allergologic-immunochemical study of tree and bush pollen. II – Study of the sensitization spectrum of patients with seasonal rhinitis in the spring. [German] Allerg Immunol (Leipz) 1987;33(4):215-21
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The goal of developing alternative energy is twofold: to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels because we will run out of them eventually, and to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that we dump into the air.
CO2 acts as a greenhouse gas, trapping heat against the Earth. It is one of the major culprits in global climate change. However, even as we turn to alternative energy sources like wind or solar, we still have a lot of CO2 in the atmosphere, and we need to get rid of it to turn back the damage we’ve already done.
A team at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory was working on a way to convert CO2 into something useful when they did exactly that. They developed a system using copper and carbon, easily obtained materials, which converts CO2 into ethanol, an alternative, renewable fuel. Best of all, the process works at room temperature, which makes it easy to start and stop, and reasonably cheap.
The team is exploring the technology further in the hopes of making it efficient enough for industrial use. This could be a huge step in the right direction. By converting CO2 into ethanol, either in the atmosphere or while it’s being created, we get more fuel out of the process. This, in turn, reduces our reliance on fossil fuels and reduces pollution, which slows the effects of climate change. It’s a win-win.
The carbon and copper method the researchers discovered would allow us to create ethanol without using as much arable land (it’s usually made from corn) and without affecting food prices. Plus, burning ethanol produces CO2, which could subsequently be turned into more ethanol. This process may not be exactly carbon neutral, but it’s a huge step toward that goal and an excellent way to make up for shortfalls from solar or wind energy production.
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Amoxicillin, dicloxacillin, penicillin G, penicillin V, piperacillin and ticarcillin all contain penicillin. Those who are allergic to penicillin need to refrain from taking any of these medications.Continue Reading
Medications that contain penicillin treat different types of bacterial infections. Those allergic to penicillin should always inform their doctors of their allergy. Allergic symptoms include, but are not limited to, fever, itching, skin rash, wheezing, difficulty breathing, runny nose, watery eyes and anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis is rare and sometimes fatal. It causes seizures, gastrointestinal distress, low blood pressure, difficulty breathing and loss of consciousness.
Individuals who suspect an allergic reaction to penicillin should seek emergency help immediately. Penicillin allergy happens when the body's immune system mistakes the medicine for a dangerous infection. People usually detect a penicillin allergy after the first exposure to it. People with several food or medication allergies are at a higher risk for a penicillin allergy. A history of the allergy in the family also increases the risk. Doctors record medical history at the beginning of visits to try to rule out any medications a person is allergic to or could potentially cause an allergic reaction. Skin tests can detect a penicillin allergy in an individual who has a family history of the affliction.Learn more about Medications & Vitamins
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Milky Way's spiral was a late addition
Galactic home improvement
Scientists think they have found evidence that the middle of our galaxy formed separately and at a different time to the spiralling arms in which we reside.
Astronomers using the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope (VLT) noticed that the stars in the galactic bulge, as it is known, have a different chemical composition from stars in the arms of the galaxy.
The galactic bulge is made up of only the very oldest stars in the galaxy, dating back 10bn years. The arms, meanwhile, are populated by stars of all ages.
The chemical makeup of stars gives astronomers clues to their pasts. Stars rich in heavier elements such as oxygen and iron, are probably second or even third generation - that is, they have been stars before.
Massive stars can end their lives in a number of different types of supernova. It takes a type II supernova to produce most oxygen, while while iron is forged in type I-a explosions. Thus, the amounts of each element reveal something about the ancestry of the star.
The astronomers studied fifty giant stars in four regions of the galaxy close to the central bulge. They found the amount of oxygen in disc and bulge stars was significantly different, suggesting that the two portions of the galaxy are "genetically different".
“For the first time, we have clearly established a ‘genetic difference’ between stars in the disc and the bulge of our Galaxy,” said Manuela Zoccali, lead author of the paper published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
“We infer from this that the bulge must have formed more rapidly than the disc, probably in less than a billion years and when the Universe was still very young.”
The team found that for a given amount of iron, stars in the disc contain less oxygen than their bulgier counterparts. This means that bulge stars formed independently, and did not originate in the disc and then migrate inward to build up the bulge, Zoccali concludes. ®
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By Debra Muzikar
Who said therapy can’t be fun? Art, dance, and music helps integrate the mind, body, and spirit as well as enhance brain connectivity.
Art therapy is more than doing arts and crafts. An art therapist can create a safe place for a child to express themselves and get in touch with deep emotions.
Many Autistic children are skilled in art so this is a strength-based therapy. Therapists are professionals with masters or doctorates who have a degree in art therapy.
For Autistic children and young children images are their primary ‘container of experience.’ A skilled art therapist can help your child work through confusing emotions through drawing or creating in a safe environment.
An art therapist can work towards integrating the right and left hemispheres of the brain.
Some of the benefits I’ve observed through art therapy are improved eye-hand coordination, penmanship, spatial sense, independence in making choices, and verbal communication.
Some things to remember about art therapy is (1) the process is more important than the outcome, (2) art can serve as a self-regulation tool for children on the spectrum, (3) Sensory integration can be incorporated into art projects, and for Autistic children and others who often have trouble fitting in, (4) an art therapist can work on communication and social skills. Parker-Hairston (1990) found Autistic children showed an increase in confidence, allowing greater verbal and nonverbal social interactions after art therapy.
The sensory aspects of art are fulfilling to many children with autism. Kevin, my son, loves thick paints. He enjoys the feelings of the paint brush as it drags across the canvas. Other kids enjoy sinking their fingers into a ball of clay.
Unlike most therapies, the art room can be a place where your child can set the parameters: the start and stop time, the medium, the subject, and the colors. For kids who are so often guided by therapists, art can be a liberating experience. A skilled art therapist will ask the child to direct the session. Initiation is often a weakness among kids on the spectrum. By asking the child to make choices about materials and subject matter, the child learns to make decisions independently.
The act of doing art can actually prevent a person from acting out. Art therapy pioneer Edith Kramer considered the art activity itself to have healing properties. She was the first to observe a person who may have destructive or aggressive feelings could take those feelings and put it into form thus preventing them from being acted out. Recent research supports Kramer’s position.
To find an therapist in your town visit the American Art Therapy Association.
Dance or Movement Therapy
Movement and dance are fun ways to enhance brain function. Joanne Lara, founder of Autism Movement Therapy which combines dance and movement, says the value is “an empowering sensory integration strategy that connects both the left and right hemispheres of the brain (interhemispheric integration) by combining patterning, visual movement calculation, audile receptive processing, rhythm and sequencing into a “whole brain” cognitive thinking approach.”
Joanne sees immediate results which include improvement in behavioral, emotional, academic, social and speech and language skills. The primary goal of Autism Movement Therapy is that after 12 -14 weeks of one to two or sessions a week, the individual will be more compliant when asked to complete on-task activities, will interact with typical general education peers more frequently, and will be using both sides of his brain for processing.
She sees her students become healthier, with improved self-esteem. My son Kevin participated in one of her workshops last year with great results. One of the benefits Kevin received from the workshop was bonding with other teenagers and young adults on the autism spectrum. So often it is hard for them to find friends.
To find out more visit Autism Movement Therapy.
Music therapy is another fun therapy that helps with brain connectivity. Research has shown that children who may be resistant to regular speech therapy may be motivated by music therapy interventions.
“Whatever scrambles the speech centers of the brain in people on the autism spectrum tends to leave the musical ones intact. Combined with research suggesting that early exposure to music increases the number of neural connections in the corpus collosum, it is a “no brainer” (pun intended) to provide as much meaningful interaction with music for those with autism – and everyone else – as possible,” Dr. Stephen Shore says.
Music therapy is not the same as taking music lessons. A skilled music therapist will know how to work with this segment of the population.
“When giving music lessons to children with autism I make the process as experiential and project-based as possible with minimal verbal instruction,” Dr. Shore says.
There is research that rhythm therapies may be beneficial to autism. Hardy and LaGasse (2013) consider the use of auditory rhythmic cueing to improve motor functioning in ASD by looking at the research with rhythmic rehabilitation.
Nina Kraus, a Professor at Northwest University, states “music education can be an effective strategy in helping … children with developmental dyslexia or autism, more accurately encode speech.”
She states, “we’ve found that years of music training may also improve how sounds are processed for language and emotion.”
Researchers in the Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory that Kraus directs have found the first evidence that playing a musical instrument enhances the brainstem’s sensitivity to speech sounds.”It can enhance everyday tasks, including reading and listening in noise,” Dr. Kraus states.
To find a music therapist in your town visit the American Music Therapy Association.
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Growing grass in the shade depends mostly on what type of shade is involved. If nearby buildings are obstructing sunlight, you may be better off planting shade-loving ground covers or using decorative mulch. If a deciduous tree is casting a shadow, trimming it to allow some dappled sunlight to filter through to your grass will do the trick. Choose shade-specific grass seed mixes to grow in shady areas. In some cases, dethatching may be necessary before sowing grass seeds.
Trim lower crossbranches off deciduous trees that are blocking the sun. Use a pole saw and a ladder to carefully remove these branches. Account for the aesthetics of your tree-trimming.
Dethatch your shady lawn, using a dethatcher or a dethatching rake. Thatch is the accumulated dead or dying debris that naturally gather between the leafy tops of the grass and the soil. Some thatch is good, but more than 3/4 inch may be preventing your grass from getting the nutrition it needs.
Sow shade grass seed on top of the soil, using a spreader set according to package instructions. Make sure that the seed mix you choose says that it is meant for shady areas. Also, choose a mix rather than a single variety of grass. That way, if one type of grass does not do well, chances are another one will.
Apply fertilizer, using a spreader at the rate recommended by the package. Choose a slow-release, non-burning fertilizer for best results. Slow-release fertilizers last a long time before you need to reapply. Check individual packages for reapplication periods.
Rake a thin layer of topsoil or compost over the area where you have seeded the grass. Keep it very thin. This protects seeds from hungry birds, but grass seeds need light to germinate.
Water twice daily, every day, for 10 days while seeds are germinating and establishing themselves. Water for 15 minutes each time. A garden hose with a sprayer attachment set to a gentle shower or mist setting works well so you do not disturb seeds or soil. A sprinkler also does the job, as long as you make sure all your grass is getting watered. Do not overwater. If water is sitting on top of the ground and not being absorbed, you have overwatered.
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Time perception in autism spectrum disorder is a part of the complexity of the condition. Many people with autism experience fragmented or delayed time perception, which can present challenges to social interaction and learning. Understanding time perception in autism spectrum disorder can help parents and teachers develop better ways to communicate and teach children with autism.
Time Perception in Autism Spectrum Disorder Overview
Time perception is an essential part of the way people make sense of the world around them. In autism, affected people have trouble processing the passage of time and may experience a delayed reaction to certain stimuli.
What Is Time Perception?
What is time perception? Time perception refers to how the human brain interprets the passage of time. According to Brain Research Institute of UCLA, neurological circuits in the cerebellum, basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex are responsible for time perception, with a healthy human brain checking incoming information and measuring the passage of time. In certain neurological conditions, such as autism, the concept of time is somehow distorted. Why people with autism perceive time differently is unknown, though evidence suggests a neurological impairment in the areas of the brain that measure time.
Many people with autism experience a delay in how they process certain stimuli, including time. It may take a while for them to understand words spoken to them, how new people and objects in their environment relate before they respond. They may appear unresponsive and aloof because they have not yet processed the information presented. It can sometimes be hard for them to comprehend that hours have passed. For example, a person with autism who has echolalia may hear a phrase in the morning and repeat the phrase hours later out of context.
Autism Intense Focus and Time Perception
Some people with autism exhibit an ability to focus on an object or activity for hours with unusual intensity. This intense focus may be related to time perception in autism spectrum disorder because the person is unaware of how much time has passed. While a nonautistic person would be fatigued by focusing on one thing for hours, the person with autism does not view the time passage as long and may view hours in terms of minutes.
Time Perception and Learning
Problems with time perception can make it more difficult for a person with autism to learn in traditional classroom settings. Time perception that affects learning includes:
- Delayed hearing: Some autism experts, such as J.G.T. van Dalen, believe that people with autism have trouble processing verbal instruction because it takes a longer time to hear the words, understand their context and prepare an appropriate answer.
- Delayed response to surroundings: Delayed processing of time and information make it more difficult for a person with autism to comprehend and relate to their surroundings. The disorientation and stress that comes with new experiences and routine changes may be related to a rush of new and confusing information to process.
Time perception should be taken into consideration when interacting with people with autism.
Dealing with Autism Time Perception
Teachers and parents must adapt instructions and teaching methods to accommodate the way autistic students perceive time. The following tips can help parents and teachers deal with autism time perception:
- Provide structured learning environments and strict routines. Every day life requires a large amount of processing of information and details. A person with autism may prefer strict routines and resist change because it helps him process time and other information easier since it is familiar.
- Use visual aids to help the person with autism understand instructions and communicate rather than relying entirely in verbal instruction.
- Be patient when a person with autism is in the process of listening and answering verbal information. Do not interrupt him because that could throw off his answer.
- Learning sessions should be free of distractions and follow a structure with short, concise instructions.
People with autism perceive time differently than nonautisic people, and that can present communication problems. These difficulties do not have to get in the way of communication and education. After gaining an understanding of autistic time perception, parents and teachers can find effective ways to communicate with people with autism.
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The conduit worm was a long, wire-like invertebrate that lived in the electrical wiring channels of underground Coruscant and thrived on the electrical currents sent through them. They could end up on starships, causing power outages, and were treated as vermin.
The conduit worm had no specific head, tail, or central body, and took the form of branching threads, with new threads grown whenever a new bodily organ was needed. These could grow to hundreds of meters long. Eyes and feelers existed at the ends of these branches, while electrical components such as capacitors, resistors, and batteries sprouted throughout the organism.
Conduit worms could detect faint electrical current from a distance, and if deprived of electricity (such as during a blackout) would seek out another source, often humanoid brains. The thought of a conduit worm's feeler slithering into one's ear was enough to make many Coruscant underlevel dwellers want to move offworld.
- Toxico—HoloNet News (First appearance)
- The Clone Wars: Decide Your Destiny: Crisis on Coruscant
- Star Wars: The Clone Wars – "Missing in Action" (Mentioned only)
- Labyrinth of Evil (Mentioned only)
- Coruscant Nights I: Jedi Twilight
- Under a Black Sun (Mentioned only)
- Survivor's Quest (Mentioned only)
- The New Jedi Order: The Unifying Force (Mentioned only)
- Star Wars: Attack of the Clones The Visual Dictionary
- Star Wars: The Complete Visual Dictionary
- The Official Star Wars Fact File 97 (COR37, Coruscant - Animals)
- The Official Star Wars Fact File 99 (HAN6, Hand Tools)
- The Complete Star Wars Encyclopedia
- The Unknown Regions (Mentioned only)
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The patient's clinical presentation is most consistent with Guillain-Barre syndrome. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis in this syndrome is notable for "albuminocytologic dissociation," meaning that there is increased protein with a normal cell count, glucose, and opening pressure.
Guillain-Barre syndrome is a demyelinating polyneuropathy caused by autoimmune attack of Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Typical symptoms are ascending weakness, with relative preservation of sensation. The syndrome often occurs following infection with Campylobacter jejuni, although it can also occur following herpes virus infection, vaccines, and stress. The diagnosis is supported by a lumbar puncture showing increased protein with a normal cell count, and treatment consists of plasmapheresis and intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG). The most feared complication is respiratory failure due to progression of the demyelination to the cervical nerve roots.
Walling and Dickson review the diagnosis and treatment of Guillain-Barre syndrome. They note that, in addition to weakness, more than half of patients experience severe pain, and two-thirds of patients experience autonomic dysfunction. Roughly 3% of patients die, 20% of patients have long-term neurological effects, and 10% of patients become severely disabled. However, full recovery remains the most likely outcome.
Kwong et al. perform a case-control study to determine the risk of developing Guillain-Barre syndrome after influenza vaccination versus after influenza infection. They include 2831 patients and find that the attributable risk of Guillain Barre syndrome after influenza vaccination is one per million vaccinations, while the risk after influenza infection is 17 per million infections. Therefore, they conclude that the risk of Guillain-Barre syndrome should not be a deterrent from influenza vaccination.
Illustration A depicts the mechanism of antigen mimicry in Guillain-Barre. Illustration B lists different infectious precipitants of Guillain-Barre.
Answer 1: This is consistent with bacterial meningitis.
Answer 2: This is consistent with viral meningitis.
Answer 3: This is consistent with crypotococcal meningitis.
Answer 5: This is consistent with normal CSF.
Walling AD , Dickson G. Guillain-Barré syndrome. Am Fam Physician. 2013 Feb 1;87(3):191-7.
PMID:23418763 (Link to Abstract)
Kwong JC, Vasa PP, Campitelli MA, Hawken S, Wilson K, Rosella LC, Stukel TA, Crowcroft NS, McGeer AJ, Zinman L, Deeks SL. Influenza vaccination and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014 May;14(5):369-70.
PMID:23810252 (Link to Abstract)
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Here are some tips in choosing cutting boards:
- When selecting a cutting board, choose something that is easily cleaned. It’s highly recommended to use a material that is dishwasher-safe or made of hard maple.
- As much as possible, buy two cutting boards and designate one for raw fish, meats, and poultry.
- Clean the cutting board right after use to prevent food poisoning.
- When using the board, create a safe surface for cutting by placing a damp dishcloth under it to keep it from sliding around.
- While a good set of knives can be costly, the well-made ones can last for years with proper care. Here are some tips on choosing knives and caring for them.
- It isn’t necessary to buy a huge selection of knives. Get an 8-inch, straight-edged knife (to cut most foods) and a 10-inch serrated knife (to cut roasts and thick bread).
- Although you can wash knives using the dishwasher, they last longer if you wash them manually (by hand) using hot water and detergent, and towel dry them immediately. Keep in mind that when you wash sharp tools in the sink, make sure that you place the tip down to avoid handling the blade.
- Avoid using kitchen knives for things other than cooking. It can damage the blade, and it is not safe for you.
- Store the knives out of children’s reach by storing them on a magnet bar or a knife block.
- Knives become dull in the long run. But even if they are dull, they are more likely to cause accidents. Keep them sharp by using sharpening steel.
Safe Cutting Techniques:
- Firmly hold the knife close to the blade for better control. The fingers of the opposite hand (used for holding the food) should be curled under and parallel to the blade to act as a guide. As you make each slice, inch your hand back to avoid cutting yourself.
- To keep a fruit or vegetable (e.g. cucumber or potato) steady while cutting it, slice it half lengthwise first. And then position it cut side down and continue cutting.
Pots and Pans
Choose pots and pans that are made of heavier metal as it distributes heat better. However, note that they are harder to lift when full, especially the larger ones. Here are some kitchen tips:
- To avoid straining your back and upper arm when cooking large amounts of dishes, choose lightweight cookware.
- It’s best to choose a pot that has two generous handles on each side for easier handling.
- When using heavy pots, keep them on front burners. Instead of lifting them, slide them using kitchen mitts to avoid burning your hands.
- The kitchen is an area that has a high risk for injuries from hot pots and boiling water. Thus, it’s best to always make sure that you and your household members (especially children) are safe from such hazards.
Accidents can happen even if you make sure you’ve installed safety precautions around the home. But even so, it is best to be protected from the everyday hazards you face. Make sure that you are covered by the right insurance policy at all times.
Sungate Insurance Agency is an independent agency that specializes in meeting your insurance needs. We offer home insurance policies that will provide you with enough coverage for a reasonable price. Talk to one of our agents today. Call us at (407) 878-7979 or visit us at our office. You may also get a free home insurance quote anytime by clicking here.
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An Israeli company, HomeBioGas, has created a portable machine that turns food waste into renewable energy for cooking or electricity, and its byproduct can even be used as plant fertilizer.
The machine, which is temporarily available for $995, is part of an initiative to help create more sustainable energy as well as provide electricity and gas for cooking in parts of the world where it is spotty or lacking.
The machine is also portable, and can be easily packed up and moved, which makes it a fantastic invention for those without a permanent home looking to provide electricity and gas to temporary shelters.
It differs from other compost in that it not only accepts plants, but also meat, dairy, fats, oils, and even used kitty litter. The machine will compost it and release biogas to the tune of about 6 kilowatt hours of energy. This gives individuals using the HomeBioGas enough gas for about three hours of cooking.
The European Union also funded a project to help bring these machines to the Palestinian village of al-Awja. One man in the village who received a machine, stated why it is so useful for him and those he lives near: “(In) this area … there is no water or electricity. We have no services.”
A private investor has also helped fill a need in Uganda by providing an orphanage with a machine. Yair Teller, cofounder of the HomeBioGas system, told Jewish Business News that the kids were delighted with it.
“These children lit up when they discovered the HomeBiogas magic — that they can transform their waste and produce their very own energy,” he said.
Dominican Republic’s Ministry of Energy has also purchased several units in order to cut down on the amount of wood the citizens rely on for heating.
In addition to those living without gas and electricity, the company is seeking to target affluent western consumers who are interested in reducing their carbon footprint.
“We’ve received orders from various distributors in many countries, such as Australia, Nigeria and Costa Rica, that want to set up demo installations,” the owner stated. “About 70 different countries are interested in establishing distributorships. So evidently we are answering a need.”
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What are Pneumococcal Diseases?
Pneumococcal diseases are infections caused by the bacterium called Streptococcus pneumoniae infecting adults and children alike but it affects young children and the elderly more commonly. The bacterium can bring about different types of infections which include lung infections/inflammation (pneumonia), meningitis (inflammation of the membrane surrounding the spinal cord or brain), sepsis (an infection in the blood), sinusitis (infection of the sinuses) and otitis media (middle ear infection).
There are many strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae (around 90 types or serotypes) however only a minority of the strains (about 20 serotypes) are usually responsible for the majority of pneumococcal diseases.
Although antibiotic treatment for pneumococcal diseases is available, some of these strains are resistant to antibiotics. Since pneumococcal disease is a vaccine preventable disease, getting vaccinated is the best option.
Why get vaccinated?
Pneumococcal infections most commonly occur among the very young, the elderly (especially those over 65 years of age) as well as those with chronic medical conditions. Many of these infections are serious and may lead to hospitalisation, permanent disability (deafness, brain damage, or loss of arms or leg) or even death.
In 2008, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that out of the 8.8 million worldwide annual deaths amongst children under the age of 5 years, 476 000 (333 000–529 000) cases were due to pneumococcal infections. Mortality and disease rates were found to be higher in developing nations with most deaths reported in Africa and Asia.
In Malaysia, pneumococcal disease is one of the most widespread vaccine preventable diseases. Outcomes of pneumococcal diseases are serious and potentially fatal, hence preventive measures such as vaccination are the best way to prevent pneumococcal disease. In fact vaccination is the first line of defense. Vaccines can help protect from serious illnesses, complications and save lives.
How pneumococcal vaccines work?
Streptococcus pneumoniae can spread easily through contaminated surfaces and from person to person when there is direct contact or through droplets from a sneeze or cough from an infected person. Not everyone who has been exposed to the bacterium, will develop pneumococcal diseases. Some carry the Streptococcus pneumoniae (usually in the nose and throat) without showing any signs of symptoms of the illness themselves but can spread them to non-infected individuals. Children are especially susceptible to such infections.
Vaccines provide protection against many types and strains of bacteria. This will depend on which strains are contained in the vaccine. The pneumococcal vaccine will help stimulate our body to make antibodies against Streptococcus pneumoniae which causes the disease. This is because vaccines contain parts of a bacterium that trigger the body to build its immunity towards the bacterium. Should the person who received the vaccine become infected with the particular strains (serotypes) of Streptococcus pneumoniae, these antibodies then will help protect from illness.
In other words pneumococcal vaccines provide vaccination against pneumococcal diseases caused by those pneumococcal strains included in the vaccine. Pneumococcal vaccines contain the strains that commonly cause the disease.
If vaccines are made from bacteria how can they be safe?
Vaccines either only use parts of a bacteria or the whole bacteria that have been killed or weakened. Since they contain inactive forms of bacteria they are not able to cause the diseases they are preventing.
Pneumococcal Vaccines Available
There are currently two different types of pneumococcal vaccines: pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. These vaccines provide protection against the most important strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae as they contain a number of different strains including those most likely to cause serious disease. Adults and children are vaccinated based on the schedule recommended for their age group. It is important to note that as with any vaccine, pneumococcal vaccines will not protect all persons who are vaccinated as immunisations with these vaccines offer prevention only against pneumococcal diseases caused by the Streptococcus pneumoniae strains (serotypes) contained in the respective vaccine.
Table 1: Pneumococcal vaccines available in Malaysia
Types of pneumococcal vaccines available
Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine
Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine
|Available in Malaysia||PNEUMOVAX 23 VACCINE||PNEUMO 23 POLYVALENT VACCINE||PREVENAR 13 SUSPENSION FOR INJECTION||SYNFLORIX VACCINE|
|Protects against 23 serotypes(strains) of Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria Take on empty stomach for rapid relief||Protects against 13 serotypes(strains) of Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria||Protects against 10 serotypes(strains) of Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria|
Who can/should receive the vaccine?
If below 2 yrs old are at high risk (immunocompromised), they should first receive pneumococcal
||Children from 6 weeks to 5 years of age.|
|Route of administration||Injected into a muscle (thigh or arm) or under the surface of the skin.||Injection into a muscle (thigh or upper arm)|
A single dose (0.5ml);
Timing of vaccination will depend on the specific risk of their underlying condition.
Revaccination possible/required in some individuals*
Each dose: 0.5 ml
Infants aged 2-6 months
Three-dose primary series with booster – 3 doses.
Two-dose primary series with booster.
Unvaccinated infants and children = 7 months of age
7-11 months: 2 doses**
Children and adolescents aged 2 years to 17 years:
Adults aged 50 years and older (including those previously vaccinated with a pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine):
Each dose: 0.5 ml
Infants aged 6 weeks-6 months
Three-dose primary series with booster
Two-dose primary series with booster
2nd dose: 2 months later.
Booster dose :=6 months after the last primary dose
Preterm infants born after at least 27 weeks of gestational age
Booster dose: = 6 months after the last primary dose
Previously unvaccinated older infants and children:
12-23 months: 2 doses #
Booster dose: not established.
24 months – 5 years:
|Use with other vaccines*||Can be given at the same time with certain vaccines as long as different injection sites are used|
* discuss options with healthcare provider
** interval of at least 1 month between doses
# interval of at least 2 month between doses
Possible Adverse Reactions/ Side effects
Pneumococcal vaccines are safe and generally well tolerated. However side effects can occur, although not everybody gets them.
The most common side effects are pain, redness, swelling at the injection site and low grade fever.
Children receiving pneumococcal conjugate vaccine also may experience decreased appetite, irritability, drowsiness and restless sleep.
Rarely, a child or adult may have a serious allergic reaction after pneumococcal vaccination which may include the following:
- difficulty in breathing,
- low blood pressure (causing dizziness) and collapse,
- rapid heartbeat
- swelling of the face, lips, tongue and/or throat and neck,
- hives (inflamed wheals on the skin) and rashes.
These reactions usually manifest a few minutes to a few hours after the vaccination and urgent medical assistance is required.
Any adverse event following vaccination should be reported directly to National Centre for Adverse Drug Reactions Monitoring of National Pharmaceutical Control Bureau via online, by fax or ordinary mail on prepaid forms. The form is available on the website of the National Pharmaceutical Control Bureau http://www.bpfk.gov.my/
Consider getting vaccinated
Although pneumococcal vaccination is optional and has not become part of our routine immunization schedule (National Immunization Programme) by the Ministry of Health Malaysia, it is nonetheless, one of the vaccines that is recommended by the Ministry of Health. The vaccine is readily available at hospitals and clinics all over Malaysia.
Pneumococcal diseases continue to cause death and disability globally. Therefore preventive measures such as vaccination are important in ensuring you and your loved ones are not affected and are adequately protected.
Before receiving pneumococcal vaccine or any other vaccine, the available options should be discussed with a healthcare provider in order to help you make an informed decision to vaccinate against vaccine preventable diseases such as pneumococcal disease.
- Aljunid, S., Abuduxike, G., Ahmed, Z., Sulong, S., Nur, A.M., and Goh, A. (2011) Impact of routine PCV7 (Prevenar) vaccination of infants on the clinical and economic burden of pneumococcal disease in Malaysia. BMC Infect Dis.2011; 11: 248
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.). Pneumococcal Conjugate (PCV13) Vaccine Information Statements. Retrieved on February 17, 2015 from http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statemetns/pcv13.html
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.). Pneumococcal Disease. Retrieved on February 17, 2015 from http://www.cdc.gov/pneumococcal/index.html
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.). Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine Information Statements. Retrieved on February 17, 2015 from http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/ppv.html
- Department of Health and Ageing Staff (2013) The Australian Immunisation Handbook 10th Edition. Retrieved from
- Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia (2012) Paediatric Protocols for Malaysian Hospitals Third Edition. Retrieved from http://www.mpaweb.org.my/article.php?aid=458
- Lynch, J.P III, Zhanel, G.G.(2010) Streptococcus pneumoniae: epidemiology and risk factors, evolution of antimicrobial resistance, and impact of vaccines. Curr Opin Pulm Med.16 (3):217-225.
- Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (2013) PHRMA Vaccine Fact Book 2013. Retrieved from http://www.phrma.org/sites/default/…/PhRMA_Vaccine_FactBook_2013.pdf
- Pneumococcal vaccine (n.d). .[Digital image]. Retrieved on February 27, 2015 from the website: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/9767.htm
- Preventing disability and death from infectious diseases through immunisations (n.d). .[Photograph]. Retrieved on February 27, 2015 from the website: http://healthparkpharmacy.com/new-pneumonia-vaccine-fact-or-fiction/
- Streptococcus pneumonia.[Medical illustration]. Retrieved on February 25, 2015 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website: http://www.cdc.gov/media/subtopic/library/diseases.htm
- World Health Organization (2012) Pneumococcal vaccines. WHO position paper. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/wer/2012/wer8714.pdf
- World Health Organization (n.d.) Pneumococcal disease. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ith/diseases/pneumococcal/en/
|Last Reviewed||:||24 June 2015|
|Writer||:||Cynthia Albert Gunaratham|
|Accreditor||:||Dr. Yvonne Khoo Siew Khoon|
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- Plants are living organisms and include trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae.
- The scientific study of plants is known as botany.
- All plants are classified and have scientific names.
- A plant's scientific name is the key to finding out all sorts of information about that plant species.
- Plants have a life cycle.
- Plants have the ability to adapt to their environment.
- Australia has many unique plants.
- School A to Z features links to third-party websites and resources. We are not responsible for the content of external sites.
- The traditional ways of classifying plants have been based on the visible physical characterists of the plant. With DNA technologies, now scientists also use genetic characteristics to classify plants.
- The scientific names of plants tell us something about the plant.
Growth and change
- All plants need these things to grow: room to grow, the right temperature, light, water, air, nutrients and time.
- Plants convert light to energy using a process called photosynthesis. Check the photosynthesis diagram.
- There are various parts of a plant and parts of a flower. Try this activity on flower parts.
- Seeds and trees also have different parts.
- All plants have a life cycle. Look at a diagram of a life cycle.
- Seeds need to germinate before they can grow. Follow the video and germinate some seeds. There are many ways that seeds are dispersed.
- Plants are pollinated to reproduce.
- Plants have the ability to adapt to different environments.
- Plants help people and the environment in many ways.
- Australia has a floral emblem and so does every state and territory of Australia.
- Australia has a variety of beautiful native plants.
- History - early naturalists of Australia.
- Plant glossary.
- Ask a scientist - check out answers given to school children at the Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens.
- Visit Botany Bay- the large area of water was given the name by Captain James Cook because of the large number of plants discovered there by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander, scientists on his voyage to Australia.
- Watch this National Geographic video on plants.
- Starting to grow - where do plants come from?
- Plant glossary
- Life cycle of plants
- Activity - build a virtual garden
- Activity - make a salad from plant parts
- Activity - save this garden
- Scientific information about trees
- Changing colour of leaves
- All about seeds
- Plant parts
- Science and plants for schools
- Australia's biggest trees
- Gardening for kids
This site uses Google Translate, a free language translation service, as an aid. Please note translation accuracy will vary across languages.
Doing it by the book
As a parent it's only natural to want to help your child, but when it comes to homework and study, the completed work should be theirs.
Here are some important points to remember to ensure your child is following good practice for a lifetime of learning.
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As a high school student (many years ago), I read a story about the death of the last dusky seaside sparrow. At that moment, I realized that an entire species had been lost, forever. I decided it would be really important, not to mention cool, to be able to help threatened species from becoming extinct, and maybe even to bring back extinct species. However, it wasn’t until I was in graduate school that I realized how the loss of genetic diversity might be reversed using deceased individuals. And not via the reanimation of a corpse—well mostly not.
The body exists as a vessel for sperm and eggs to get around, so why couldn’t we just move the gonads to a new body? As it turns out, there are stem cells contained within the testes that are responsible for the continual production of sperm and perhaps in the ovary for production of egg cells. Why is it exciting that gonads contain stem cells? Because these cells are self-renewing, meaning that when they divide, one cell remains a stem cell while the other becomes a sperm or potentially an egg.
All we have to do is keep the gonadal stem cells from a deceased individual alive, provide the conditions that promote cell division and maturation of functional gametes, and we would have the ability produce new offspring.
Although this sounds rather complicated, transferring avian gonad stem cells to a host chicken gonad, that can provide the appropriate conditions, is possible. Since these stem cells are not capable of producing a whole new individual, only more gametes, they cannot be used to clone birds.
It’s All in the Technique
Over the last few years, my students and I have been working on techniques to transfer these stem cells from the gonads of deceased birds to the gonads of chicken embryos. Our day starts when we receive a piece of gonadal tissue from necropsy.
The first step is to dissociate the gonad so none of the cells stick together. Cellular separation is important because if the stem cell is surrounded by support-cells, it may not behave as expected after being transferred into the chicken.
Next, the stem cells are dyed so we can track them in the host chicken gonad. As you can probably imagine, the injection of stem cells into a chicken embryo is tricky business. A glass needle, thinner than a human hair, is mounted on a mechanical manipulator. The manipulator is then used to very carefully insert the needle into the blood vessel of a chicken embryo and inject the stem cells from the deceased individual. This step is done when the chicken embryo is only two days old.
So far, we have tracked and located the stem cells of several different species of birds inside the host chicken gonads. Although my students and I have not yet reached our goal of making kiwis (or other threatened species) from chickens, we are well on our way.
It is exciting to think that this project of species recovery was yesterday’s science fiction, today’s science experiments, and hopefully tomorrow’s science fact!
Tom Jensen, Ph.D., Scientist, Reproductive Physiology Division.
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viernes, 4 de marzo de 2011
Dolphin-Baby Die-Off in Gulf Puzzles Scientists
This winter an alarmingly high number of young bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Mexico (map) have been washing up dead on U.S. shores, government scientists report.
The reason for the die-off is a mystery, and experts are urging caution in drawing any connections to last year's BP oil spill.
"Everybody wants to jump to that conclusion ... but at this point in time, it's too early to tell," said Blair Mase, coordinator of the Southeast Marine Mammal Stranding Network of the National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration (NOAA).
Since January 1, 80 dead dolphins have been discovered along the coasts of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, according to the latest NOAA figures.
Forty-two of the dead were calves. Most of the juvenile dolphins are washing up in Mississippi and Alabama, because dolphins typically give birth and raise calves along the shallow shores of those states.
The normal gestation period for the dolphins is one year, and mothers usually give birth in March and April, so scientists think the affected calves are either being aborted, stillborn, or born prematurely.
"That's one part of the investigation that we're going to be looking at very carefully," Mase said.
"We'll methodically score each animal that has come ashore to determine if, in fact, it was an aborted calf or an animal born alive."
BP Oil Spill "a Factor We Need to Consider"
Dolphin die-offs—which scientists call unusual mortality events—occur every few years. But this one stands out, because young dolphins appear to be hardest hit, marine biologist Moby Solangi said.
"Usually in a stranding, you have a mixture of animals—males, females, adults, calves—but this one is distortedly focused on neonates," said Solangi, director of the Institute for Marine Mammal Studies (IMMS) in Gulfport, Mississippi, which is helping to investigate the deaths.
Also unusual: Only dolphins appear to be affected so far. No mass deaths of turtles, fish, or birds have been reported for this die-off.
Known causes of dolphin die-offs include unusually cold waters, ocean biotoxins, and diseases.
NOAA's Mase said scientists are investigating all of these factors and are not ruling out a possible connection to the BP oil spill.
"It's something that we are including in our investigation," Mase said.
IMMS's Solangi agreed that the BP oil spill "is a factor that we need to consider."
"The oil spill lasted several months, and it covered tens of thousands of square miles and much of the habitat of these animals."
IMMS scientists are currently performing necropsies on the dead dolphins to try to determine causes of death. The process—including analyzing tissue samples for signs of diseases, viral infections, and toxins—could take several weeks or months, Solangi said.
Oil Link Tough to Prove
While a link between last year's BP oil spill and this year's dolphin deaths is possible, it could be very difficult to prove, said Craig Matkin, a marine biologist at the North Gulf Oceanic Society in Alaska.
Matkin co-authored a study in 2008 that looked at the effects of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill on killer whale populations in Alaska's Prince William Sound.
"I'm not overly optimistic that they're going to be able to find a link," he said.
One reason is that—unlike other environmental toxins, such as the pesticide DDT—the hydrocarbon molecules in oil are quickly processed by the body and do not persist in tissues, Matkin explained.
Scientists also don't have a good idea of how the spill might have affected dolphins still in the womb.
Oil is thought to affect marine animals through inhalation or direct and indirect ingestion—for example, by eating tainted fish. But the calves now showing up dead may not have even been conceived before or during the worst weeks of the spill and thus were not exposed to the oil directly.
Dolphin Die-offs Largely Cold Cases
In his 2008 study, Matkin's team concluded that the Exxon Valdez spill affected Alaskan killer whale populations for decades after the event. After inhaling oil vapors or eating oil-coated seals, for example, the whales experienced everything from "mild irritation" to instant death, the study days.
It's unknown how the 1989 spill affected calves. Killer whales tend to give birth in deep water, so dead calves are much less likely to wash ashore.
Matkin pointed out key differences between the two events.
"This is just not the same kind of situation," he said. "We were following individual animals for a period of time before the [Exxon Valdez] spill, so we knew who was missing, down to the individual.
"It's very different when you have a bunch of unknown animals stranded on a beach and you don't know anything about their history."
NOAA's Mase said it's possible that no satisfactory answer will ever be found for the dolphin-baby die-off.
"There have been 14 [unusual mortality events] since 1990," she said. "And of those 14, we've only been able to determine the causes for 6."
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Elders and youth from Sachs Harbour, N.W.T., are in Yellowknife this week to examine some of the oldest artifacts ever found in the Canadian Arctic.
Archaeologist Lisa Hodgetts, an associate professor at the University of Western Ontario, is leading a five-year study on the entire human history of Banks Island in the Northwest Territories — which spans 3,500 years.
It's the island the community is located on, and Hodgetts wants Sachs Harbour to be involved in her work.
"All of these things are from their home," she said. "This is their heritage, and I think it is really important that people have access to it and learn about it.
"Certainly, the elders all think it is really important that the youth understand their history and their past. So we are trying to help make that happen."
Lena Wolki, one of the elders who made the trip to Yellowknife, is excited that the community's youth were included in the trip.
"I am really happy they are here," she said. "They have never seen this kind of stuff before. They never see these kinds of tools before. They have never seen needles made out of nothing. I am really happy."
'So different from back then'
Mariah Lucas, who is from Sachs Harbour, worked with Hodgetts on Banks Island last summer, and is fascinated with how different life must have been compared to the modern day.
"It's so different from back then to today," she said. "And it gives us an idea of how we used to live in our culture."
One of the many rare finds Hodgetts' team unearthed is a nearly 2,500-year-old kamik, which archaeologists believe is from a pre-Dorset culture. That would mean it comes from a people not related to Banks Islands' current inhabitants, the Inuvialuit.
Despite that, the boot still looks familiar to Wolki.
"I grew up with that kind of boot," she said. "So it's not new to me. It's not surprising what they are made of. I used to make them with my mom."
Hodgetts says that because the artifacts are too fragile to be displayed outside a museum, she hopes to make copies of them using 3D printers, with a goal of having a permanent display in Sachs Harbour for everyone in the community to enjoy.
"All of these things are from their home," she said. "This is their heritage, and I think it is really important that people have access to it and learn about it."
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Here's what sound waves look like. The caption reads, "A visible pattern of sound waves. This new technique of studying sound demonstrates the focusing effect of an acoustical lens on sound waves issuing from the horn at extreme left. Wave pattern is produced by a scanning technique . . ." Bell Telephone Laboratories photograph, from the book The First Book of Sound: A Basic Guide to the Science of Acoustics by David C. Knight, Franklin Watts, Inc. New York (1960). p. 80
In somewhat challenging yet elegant writing, A.T.&T. once described sound in these terms, "Audible sound is thus defined as a disturbance in the atmosphere whereby a form of wave motion is propagated from some source at a velocity of 1,075 feet per second, the transmission being accomplished by alternating condensations and rarefacations of the atmosphere in cycles having a fundamental frequency ranging somewhere between 16 per second and 32,000 per second." Principles of Electricity applied to Telephone and Telegraph Work, American Telephone and Telegraph. C.F. Myers, Supervisor of Instruction. Murray Hills, New Jersey? 1939. p.66
I write a great deal about sound and radio waves, I've even discussed light waves in passing. But did you know that all matter is a wave? A never ending ocean of waves, one after the other, endlessly rolling outward. We usually think of matter as particles; electrons, photons, atoms, somewhat solid forms. But matter as a wave? Actually, matter can be a particle and a wave at the same time. Prince Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), postulated in 1923 that atoms and their associates constituted solid form and also acted as waves of radiated energy. Although the work of Max Planck and Einstein helped Broglie develop his theory, at the time he advanced his idea there was absolutely no physical evidence to support it. Acceptance and confirmation by others came quickly, however, and in 1929 he was awarded the Nobel Prize. As Martin Mann explains the photograph below, "Electrons, passing through a crystal, make a pattern almost exactly like a light beam. Only waves can interact with each other to produce such patterns; streams of individual solid [particles] cannot."
The future might seem unlimited for telephony, with new technologies invented every day. But even telephony has a limit, a barrier it cannot cross: time. For years satellite phones have permitted anyone at any location to call anyone else who has a phone. Going further, a video telephone like the one envisioned by Arthur C. Clarke in 2001: A Space Odyssey, could certainly work in Earth orbit. But such a payphone on Mars would be impossible. Clarke himself reminded us in 1977 that a call would take three minutes to get to Mars and three more minutes to receive a reply. Telephony requires a communication link providing an almost instanteous response between both parties. Such a delay would eliminate telephony, substituting for it a message service.
Although unlimited information could be sent between both parties, the feedback and instant response provided by telephony would be lost. Anyone repairing a Mars orbiting space station will have no quick help from Houston. Delays and confusion will result, especially with problems needing immediate attention. While telephony can overcome distance for us on earth, it itself cannot overcome the distances it must travel; although radio waves race at the speed of light in space, they cannot run any faster. Which takes me to a related point.
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Thursday, October 17, 2013
October is Canadian Islamic History Month
Islamic History Month Canada (IHMC) was launched on October 25, 2007, and October was proclaimed as the Islamic History month in Canada.
The press release says that “The Objective of IHMC is to celebrate, inform, educate and share with fellow Canadians the Muslim cultural heritage and Canadian Muslim contributions to Canada and the contributions made by the Islamic civilization throughout its history; to sciences, humanities, medicines, astronomy, and other disciplines that have contributed positively to human progress. IHMC believes that it is through education and sharing positive stories that we can build a more inclusive and gentle multicultural Canada.”
A few facts about Canadian –
- The census of 1871 reports 13 Muslims in the country
- Edmonton has the oldest mosque in North America, built in 1938
- There are 1 million Muslims in the country.
Their website is at http://www.islamichistorymonth.com/ihmc2010/
They also have a Facebook page at https://www.facebook.com/pages/Islamic-History-Month-Canada/322440464106?ref=stream&hc_location=stream
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FLORA AND FAUNA
ENERGY AND POWER
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
CAPITAL: Dublin (Baile Átha Cliath)
FLAG: The national flag is a tricolor of green, white, and orange vertical stripes.
ANTHEM: Amhrán na bhFiann (The Soldier's Song).
MONETARY UNIT: The euro replaced the Irish punt as the official currency in 2002. The euro is divided into 100 cents. There are coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents and 1 euro and 2 euros. There are notes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 euros. €1 = $1.25475 (or $1 = €0.79697) as of 2005.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Since 1988, Ireland has largely converted from the British system of weights and measures to the metric system.
HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; St. Patrick's Day, 17 March; Bank Holidays, 1st Monday in June, 1st Monday in August, and last Monday in October; Christmas Day, 25 December; St. Stephen's Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday and Easter Monday.
An island in the eastern part of the North Atlantic directly west of the United Kingdom, on the continental shelf of Europe, Ireland covers an area of 70,280 sq km (27,135 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Ireland is slightly larger than the state of West Virginia. The island's length is 486 km (302 mi) n–s, and its width is 275 km (171 mi) e–w. The Irish Republic is bounded on the n by the North Channel, which separates it from Scotland; on the ne by Northern Ireland; and on the e and se by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel, which separate it from England and Wales. To the w, from north to south, the coast is washed by the Atlantic Ocean.
Ireland's capital city, Dublin, is located on the Irish Sea coast.
Ireland is a limestone plateau rimmed by coastal highlands of varying geological structure. The central plain area, characterized by many lakes, bogs, and scattered low ridges, averages about 90 m (300 ft) above sea level. Principal mountain ranges include the Wicklow Mountains in the east and Macgillycuddy's Reeks in the southwest. The highest peaks are Carrantuohill (1,041 m/3,414 ft) and Mt. Brandon (953 m/3,127 ft), near Killarney, and, 64 km (40 mi) south of Dublin, Lugnaquillia (926 m/3,039 ft).
The coastline, 1,448 km (900 mi) long, is heavily indented along the south and west coasts where the ranges of Donegal, Mayo, and Munster end in bold headlands and rocky islands, forming long, narrow fjordlike inlets or wide-mouthed bays. On the southern coast, drowned river channels have created deep natural harbors. The east coast has few good harbors.
Most important of the many rivers is the Shannon, which rises in the mountains along the Ulster border and drains the central plain as it flows 370 km (230 mi) to the Atlantic, into which it empties through a wide estuary nearly 110 km (70 mi) long. Other important rivers are the Boyne, Suir, Liffey, Slaney, Barrow, Blackwater, Lee, and Nore.
Ireland has an equable climate, because the prevailing west and southwest winds have crossed long stretches of the North Atlantic Ocean, which is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the continental land masses. The mean annual temperature is 10°c (50°f), and average monthly temperatures range from a mild 4°c (39°f) in January to 16°c (61°f) in July. Average yearly rainfall ranges from less than 76 cm (30 in) in places near Dublin to more than 254 cm (100 in) in some mountainous regions. The sunniest area is the extreme southeast, with an annual average of 1,700 hours of bright sunshine. Winds are strongest near the west coast, where the average speed is about 26 km/hr (16 mph).
Since Ireland was completely covered by ice sheets during the most recent Ice Age, all existing native plant and animal life originated from the natural migration of species, chiefly from other parts of Europe and especially from Britain. Early sea inundation of the land bridge connecting Ireland and Britain prevented further migration after 6000 bc. Although many species have subsequently been introduced, Ireland has a much narrower range of flora and fauna than Britain. Forest is the natural dominant vegetation, but the total forest area is now only 9.6% of the total area, and most of that remains because of the state afforestation program. The natural forest cover was chiefly mixed sessile oak woodland with ash, wych elm, birch, and yew. Pine was dominant on poorer soils, with rowan and birch. Beech and lime are notable natural absentees that thrive when introduced.
The fauna of Ireland is basically similar to that of Britain, but there are some notable gaps. Among those absent are weasel, polecat, wildcat, most shrews, moles, water voles, roe deer, snakes, and common toads. There are also fewer bird and insect species. Some introduced animals, such as the rabbit and brown rat, have been very successful. Ireland has some species not native to Britain, such as the spotted slug and certain species of wood lice. Ireland's isolation has made it notably free from plant and animal diseases. Among the common domestic animals, Ireland is particularly noted for its fine horses, dogs, and cattle. The Connemara pony, Irish wolfhound, Kerry blue terrier, and several types of cattle and sheep are recognized as distinct breeds.
As of 2002, there were at least 25 species of mammals, 143 species of birds, and over 900 species of plants throughout the country.
Ireland enjoys the benefits of a climate in which calms are rare and the winds are sufficiently strong to disperse atmospheric pollution. Nevertheless, industry is a significant source of pollution. In 1996, carbon dioxide emissions from industrial sources totaled 34.9 million metric tons. In 2002, the total of carbon dioxide emissions was at 42.2 million metric tons. Water pollution is also a problem, especially pollution of lakes from agricultural runoff. The nation has 49 cu km of renewable water resources.
Principal responsibility for environmental protection is vested in the Department of the Environment. The Department of Fisheries and Forestry, the Department of Agriculture, and the Office of Public Works also deal with environmental affairs. Local authorities, acting under the supervision of the Department of the Environment, are responsible for water supply, sewage disposal, and other environmental matters.
In 2003, about 1.7% of the total land area was protected, including 45 Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included four types of mammals, eight species of birds, six species of fish, one type of mollusk, two species of other invertebrates, and one species of plant. Threatened species include the Baltic sturgeon, Kerry slug, and Marsh snail. The great auk has become extinct.
The population of Ireland in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 4,125,000, which placed it at number 122 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 11% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 21% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 99 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 0.8%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 4,530,000. The population density was 59 per sq km (152 per sq mi).
The UN estimated that 60% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.37%. The capital city, Dublin (Baile Átha Cliath), had a population of 1,015,000 in that year. The other largest urban centers (and their estimated populations) were Cork (193,400), Limerick 84,900), Galway (65,832), and Waterford (44,594).
The great famine in the late 1840s inaugurated the wave of Irish emigrants to the United States, Canada, Argentina, and other countries: 100,000 in 1846, 200,000 per year from 1847 to 1850, and 250,000 in 1851. Since then, emigration has been a traditional feature of Irish life, although it has been considerably reduced since World War II. The net emigration figure decreased from 212,000 for 1956–61 to 80,605 for 1961–66 and 53,906 for 1966–71. During 1971–81, Ireland recorded a net gain from immigration of 103,889. As of November 1995, more than 150,000 people had left Ireland in the previous 10 years, unemployment being the main reason. The top two destinations were the United Kingdom and the United States.
During the 1990s there was a considerable rise in the number of asylum seekers, from 39 applications in 1992 to 4,630 in 1998. The main countries of origin were Nigeria, Romania, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Libya, and Algeria. Also, during the Kosovo crisis in 1999, Ireland took in 1,033 Kosovar Albanians who were evacuated from Macedonia under the UNHCR/IOM Humanitarian Evacuation Programme. In 2004 Ireland had 7,201 refugees and 3,696 asylum seekers. Asylum seekers are primarily from Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and six other countries.
In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as 4.93 migrants per 1,000 population, up from -1.31 in 1999.
Within historic times, Ireland has been inhabited by Celts, Norsemen, French Normans, and English. Through the centuries, the racial strains represented by these groups have been so intermingled that no purely ethnic divisions remain. The Travellers are group of about 25,000 indigenous nomadic people who consider themselves to be a distinct ethnic minority.
Two languages are spoken, English and Irish (Gaelic). During the long centuries of British control, Irish fell into disuse except in parts of western Ireland. Since the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the government has sought to reestablish Irish as a spoken language throughout the country. It is taught as a compulsory subject in schools and all government publications, street signs, and post office notices are printed in both Irish and English. English, however, remains the language in common use. Only in a few areas (the Gaeltacht), mostly along the western seaboard, is Irish in everyday use. In 1995, a national survey found that only 5% of Irish people frequently used the Irish language and only 2% considered it their native tongue. About 30% of the population, however, claims some proficiency in Gaelic.
According to the 2002 census, about 88.4% of the population were nominally Roman Catholic. The next largest organization was the Church of Ireland (Anglican), with a membership of about 2.9% of the population. About 0.52% of the population were Presbyterian, 0.25% were Methodist, 0.49 were Muslim, and less than 0.1% were Jewish. There are small communities Jehovah's Witnesses. For ecclesiastical purposes, the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland (UK) constitute a single entity. Both Roman Catholics and Episcopalian churches have administrative seats at Armagh in Northern Ireland. The Presbyterian Church has its headquarters in Belfast. The constitutional right to freedom of religion is generally respected in practice.
The Irish Transport System (Córas Iompair Éireann-CIE), a state-sponsored entity, provides a nationwide coordinated road and rail system of public transport for goods and passengers. It is also responsible for maintaining the canals, although they are no longer used for commercial transport. Ireland's railroads, like those of many other European countries, have become increasingly unprofitable because of competition from road transport facilities. There were 3,312 km (2,056 mi) of track in 2004, all of it broad gauge. CIE receives an annual government subsidy.
A network of good main roads extends throughout the country, and improved country roads lead to smaller towns and villages. Ninety-six percent of all inland passenger transport and 90% of inland freight are conveyed by road. Bus routes connect all the major population centers and numerous moderate-sized towns. In 2002, there were 95,736 km (59,548 mi) of roads, of which all were surfaced. In 2003 there were 1,520,000 passenger cars and 272,000 commercial vehicles in use.
In 2005, Ireland's merchant fleet consisted of 39 vessels of 1,000 GRT or more. The state-supported shipping firm, the British and Irish Steam Packet Co. (the B and I Line), is largely engaged in cross-channel travel between Ireland and the United Kingdom, providing passenger and car ferry services as well as containerized freight services, both port to port and door to door. The Irish Continental Line operates services to France, linking Rosslare with Le Havre and Cherbourg; it also runs a summer service between Cork and Le Havre. Brittany Ferries operates a weekly service between Cork and Roscoff. Other shipping concerns operate regular passenger and freight services to the United Kingdom and freight services to the Continent. There are deepwater ports at Cork and Dublin and 10 secondary ports. Dublin is the main port. As of 2004, Ireland had 753 km (468 mi) of navigable inland waterways, but which were accessible only by pleasure craft.
In 2004 there were an estimated 36 airports, of which 15 had paved runways as of 2005. Aer Lingus (Irish International Airlines), the Irish national airline, operates services between Ireland, the United Kingdom, and continental Europe as well as transatlantic flights. Many foreign airlines operate scheduled transatlantic passenger and air freight services through the duty-free port at Shannon, and most transatlantic airlines make nonscheduled stops there; foreign airlines also operate services between Ireland, the United Kingdom, and continental Europe. The three state airports at Dublin, Shannon, and Cork are managed by Aer Rianta on behalf of the Ministry for Transport and Power. A domestic airline, Aer Arann Teo, connects Galway with the Aran Islands and Dublin. In 2003, about 28.864 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.
The pre-Christian era in Ireland is known chiefly through legend, although there is archaeological evidence of habitation during the Stone and Bronze ages. In about the 4th century bc, the tall, red-haired Celts from Gaul or Galicia arrived, bringing with them the Iron Age. They subdued the Picts in the north and the Érainn tribe in the south, then settled down to establish a Gaelic civilization, absorbing many of the traditions of the previous inhabitants. By the 3rd century ad, the Gaels had established five permanent kingdoms—Ulster, Connacht, Leinster, Meath (North Leinster), and Munster—with a high king, whose title was often little more than honorary, at Tara. After St. Patrick's arrival in ad 432, Christian Ireland rapidly became a center of Latin and Gaelic learning. Irish monasteries drew not only the pious but also the intellectuals of the day, and sent out missionaries to many parts of Europe.
Toward the end of the 8th century, the Vikings began their invasions, destroying monasteries and wreaking havoc on the land, but also intermarrying, adopting Irish customs, and establishing coastal settlements from which have grown Ireland's chief cities. Viking power was finally broken at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. About 150 years later, the Anglo-Norman invasions began. Gradually, the invaders gained control of the whole country. Many of them intermarried, adopted the Irish language, customs, and traditions, and became more Irish than the Gaels. But the political attachment to the English crown instituted by the Norman invasion caused almost 800 years of strife, as successive English monarchs sought to subdue Gaels and Norman-Irish alike. Wholesale confiscations of land and large plantations of English colonists began under Mary I (Mary Tudor) and continued under Elizabeth I, Cromwell, and William III. Treatment of the Irish reached a brutal climax in the 18th century with the Penal Laws, which deprived Catholics and Dissenters (the majority of the population) of all legal rights.
By the end of the 18th century, many of the English colonists had come to regard themselves as Irish and, like the English colonists in America, resented the domination of London and their own lack of power to rule themselves. In 1783, they forced the establishment of an independent Irish parliament, but it was abolished by the Act of Union (1800), which gave Ireland direct representation in Westminster. Catholic emancipation was finally achieved in 1829 through the efforts of Daniel O'Connell, but the great famine of the 1840s, when millions died or emigrated for lack of potatoes while landlords continued to export other crops to England, emphasized the tragic condition of the Irish peasant and the great need for land reform.
A series of uprisings and the growth of various movements aimed at home rule or outright independence led gradually to many reforms, but the desire for complete independence continued to grow. After the bloodshed and political maneuvers that followed the Easter Uprising of 1916 and the proclamation of an Irish Republic by Irish members of Parliament in 1919, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed in 1921, establishing an Irish Free State with dominion status in the British Commonwealth. Violent opposition to dominion status and to a separate government in Protestant-dominated Northern Ireland precipitated a civil war lasting almost a year. The Free State was officially proclaimed and a new constitution adopted in 1922, but sentiment in favor of a reunified Irish Republic remained strong, represented at its extreme by the terrorist activities of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). Powerful at first, the IRA lost much of its popularity after Éamon de Valera, a disillusioned supporter, took over the government in 1932. During the civil violence that disrupted Northern Ireland from the late 1960s on, the Irish government attempted to curb the "provisional wing" of the IRA, a terrorist organization that used Ireland as a base for attacks in the north. Beginning in 1976, the government assumed emergency powers to cope with IRA activities, but the terrorist acts continued, most notably the assassination on 27 August 1979 of the British Earl Mountbatten.
The Irish government continued to favor union with Northern Ireland, but only by peaceful means. In November 1985, with the aim of promoting peace in Northern Ireland, Ireland and the United Kingdom ratified a treaty enabling Ireland to play a role in various aspects of Northern Ireland's affairs. On 10 April 1998 the Irish Republic jointly signed a peace agreement with the United Kingdom to resolve the Northern Ireland crisis. Ireland pledged to amend articles 2 and 3 of the Irish Constitution, which lay claim to the territory of the North, in return for the United Kingdom promising to amend the Government of Ireland Act. On 22 May 1998, 94.4% of the electorate voted in a referendum to drop Ireland's claim to Northern Ireland. A year after the agreement, several key provisions of the Good Friday Agreement had been implemented. The peace process has since then witnessed long moments of gloom in spite of the ongoing involvements of the British and Irish prime ministers to resolve the situation in Northern Ireland. One of the largest obstacles was the disarmament of the IRA and the reservations on the part of the Ulster Unionists to share power with Sinn Feìn, the political arm of the IRA. Finally, in May 2000, the IRA proposed that outside observers be shown the contents of arms dumps and reinspect them at regular intervals to ensure that weaponry had not been removed and was back in circulation. The Ulster Unionists agreed to power-sharing arrangements and to endorse devolution of Northern Ireland. Decommissioning of the IRA did not progress in early 2001, however, and David Trimble, the first minister of the power-sharing government, resigned in July 2001. Sinn Feìn's offices at Stormont, the Northern Ireland Assembly, were raided by the police in October 2002, due to spying allegations. On 14 October 2002, devolution was suspended and direct rule from London returned to Northern Ireland. Elections planned for the assembly in May 2003 were indefinitely postponed by British Prime Minister Tony Blair, due to a lack of evidence of peaceful intentions on the part of the IRA. Talks aimed at restoring devolved government in 2004 failed due to the continued IRA possession of illegal arms and its refusal to disband and pull out of illegal activities. Progress did not look eminent as of January 2005, when some IRA members were brutally murdered and the provisional government seemed to make attempts to protect those responsible for the murders from prosecution.
The years since the proclamation of the Irish Free State have witnessed important changes in governmental structure and international relations. In 1937, under a new constitution, the governor-general was replaced by an elected president, and the name of the country was officially changed to Ireland (Éire in Irish). In 1948, Ireland voted itself out of the Commonwealth of Nations, and on 18 April 1949, it declared itself a republic. Ireland was admitted to the UN in 1955 and became a member of the EC in 1973. Ireland, unlike the United Kingdom, joined the European economic and monetary union in 1999 without problem, and adopted the euro as its currency. However, Irish voters in June 2001 rejected the Treaty of Nice, which allowed for the enlargement of the EU. The other 14 members of the EU all approved the treaty by parliamentary vote, but Ireland's adoption required amending the constitution, which stipulated a popular vote. Voter turnout was low (34.8%), and when the treaty was put to Irish voters once again in October 2002, the government conducted a massive education campaign to bring voters to the polls. This time, voter turnout was 48.5%, and 63% of voters in the October referendum approved the Nice Treaty. Ten new EU candidate countries joined the body on 1 May 2004.
Ireland has also benefited from progressive leadership. Mary Robinson, an international lawyer, activist, and Catholic, was elected president in November 1990. She became the first woman to hold that office. In 1974, while serving in the Irish legislature, she shocked her fellow country people by calling for legal sale of contraceptives. Her victory came at a period in Irish history dominated by controversy over the major issues of the first half of the 1990s: unemployment, women's rights, abortion, divorce, and homosexuality. Robinson promoted legislation that enabled women to serve on juries and gave 18-year-olds the right to vote. In 1997, Mary McAleese, who lived in Northern Ireland, became the first British subject to be elected president of the Irish Republic until 2004. In March 2002, Irish voters rejected a referendum proposal that would further restrict abortion laws. The vote was 50.4% against the proposal and 49.6% in favor. The vote was a setback to Prime Minister Bertie Ahern. However, Ahern's Fianna Fáil party overwhelmingly defeated the opposition Fine Gael party in the May 2002 elections.
In June 2004, local and European elections were held. In October 2004, McAleese won a second seven-year term as President; however, this was in light of the fact that opposing parties didn't nominate alternative candidates. She will not be eligible for another reelection in the October 2011 elections. Senate elections were scheduled to occur in July 2007, and the House of Representatives were scheduled to be held one month prior, in May 2007.
Constitutionally, Ireland is a parliamentary democracy. Under the constitution of 1937, as amended, legislative power is vested in the Oireachtas (national parliament), which consists of the president and two houses—Dáil Éireann (house of representatives) and Seanad Éireann (senate)—and sits in Dublin, the capital city. The president is elected by popular vote for seven years. Members of the Dáil, who are also elected by popular suffrage, using the single transferable vote, represent constituencies determined by law and serve five-year terms. These constituencies, none of which may return fewer than three members, must be revised at least once every 12 years, and the ratio between the number of members to be elected for each constituency and its population as ascertained at the last census must be the same, as far as practicable, throughout the country. Since 1981, there have been 166 seats in the Dáil.
The Seanad consists of 60 members: 49 elected from five panels of candidates representing (a) industry and commerce, (b) agricultural and allied interests and fisheries, (c) labor, (d) cultural and educational interests, and (e) public administration and social services; 6 elected by the universities; and 11 nominated by the taoiseach (prime minister). Elections for the Seanad must be held within 90 days of the dissolution of the Dáil; the electorate consists of members of the outgoing Seanad, members of the incoming Dáil, members of county councils, and county borough authorities. The taoiseach is assisted by a tánaiste (deputy prime minister) and at least six but not more than 14 other ministers. The constitution provides for popular referendums on certain bills of national importance passed by the Oireachtas. Suffrage is universal at age 18.
The chief of state is the president, who is elected by universal suffrage to serve a seven-year term and may be reelected only once. The presidency is traditionally a figurehead role with limited powers. The president appoints a cabinet based upon a nomination from the prime minister and approval from the house of representatives. As of 2005, Mary McAleese held the presidential office. The head of government is the prime minister, who is nominated by the house of representatives and appointed by the president. As of 2005 Bertie Ahern was prime minister and had occupied the position since 26 June 1997.
A number of amendments having to do with European integration, Northern Ireland, abortion, and divorce have been added to the 1937 constitution, which may only be altered by referendum. A recent referendum in 2004 ended in a 4-to-1 vote that native-born children could not be granted automatic citizenship.
The major political parties are the Fianna Fáil, the Fine Gael, Labour, and the Progressive Democrats. Because the members of the Dáil are elected by a proportional representation system, smaller parties have also at times won representation in the Oireachtas. In 1986, Sinn Feìn, the political arm of the Provisional IRA, ended its 65-year boycott of the Dáil and registered as a political party winning one seat in the Dáil in the 6 June 1997 elections.
Fianna Fáil, the Republican Party, was founded by Éamon de Valera. It is the largest party since 1932 and has participated in government during 55 of the past 73 years, as of 2004. When the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 was signed, de Valera violently opposed the dominion status accepted by a close vote of the Dáil. Until 1927, when the government threatened to annul their election if they did not fulfill their mandates, de Valera and his followers boycotted the Dáil and refused to take an oath of allegiance to the English crown. In 1932, however, de Valera became prime minister, a position he held continuously until 1947 and intermittently until 1959, when he became president for the first of two terms. From 1932 to 1973, when it lost its majority to a Fine Gael–Labour coalition, Fianna Fáil was in power for all but six years.
Fine Gael is the present name for the traditionally center-right party (of the Christian democratic type) and is second-largest party in Ireland. It grew out of the policies of Arthur Griffith, first president of the Irish Free State, and Michael Collins, first minister for finance and commander-in-chief of the army. W. T. Cosgrave, their successor, accepted the conditions of the 1921 treaty as the best then obtainable and worked out the details of the partition boundary and dominion status. This party held power from the first general election of 1922 until 1932. Since 1948, as the principal opponent of Fianna Fáil, it has provided leadership for several coalition governments. The policies of Fine Gael traditionally have been far more moderate than those of Fianna Fáil, although it was an interparty coalition government dominated by Fine Gael and Labour that voted Ireland out of the Commonwealth in 1948.
The Labour party incorporated the Democratic Left into its party in 1998, but still failed to increase its seats in the 2002 election (it is much smaller than Fine Gael). The party moved toward the center under the leadership of Pat Rabitte.
In 1985, a group of parliamentarians broke away from Fianna Fáil because of the autocratic leadership of Charles Haughey. They formed the Progressive Democrats (PDs) party, which supported liberal economic orthodoxy in the 1980s. It joined in a coalition with Fianna Fáil in 1997 and has been influential in economic policy making.
In the 2002 elections, two smaller parties increased their seat holdings. Sinn Fein, the political wing of the IRA, added four seats to the one it had won in the Dáil in 1997. The Green Party increased its holdings from two to six seats. It opposed European integration and participation in European security structures.
In the general elections of 24 November 1982 (the third general election to be held within a year and a half), Fianna Fáil won 75 seats, Fine Gael 70, and the Labour Party 16. Two members of the Workers' Party and three independents were also elected. Garret FitzGerald was elected taoiseach (1983-1987), heading a Fine Gael-Labour coalition. It was the second time in a year that he had replaced Charles J. Haughey of the Fianna Fáil in that office. In December 1979, Haughey had replaced Jack Lynch as head of his party and become prime minister. The 1987 elections saw Fianna Fáil raise its representation, despite a drop in its proportion of the vote compared to the 1982 elections. Fine Gael and Labour lost seats, while the Progressive Democrats and Workers' Party (which increased its representation from two to four seats) increased their seat holding. In a bitter contest, Charles Haughey was elected taoiseach (1987-1991) and formed a minority Fianna Fáil government. Albert Reynolds was taoiseach (prime minister) from 1991 to 1994.
An early general election in 1992 saw the two largest parties—Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael—lose seats to the Labour Party. Albert Reynolds of Fianna Fáil was reelected taoiseach of the Fianna Fáil-Labour Coalition. From 1994 to 1997, John Bruton, of the Fianna Gael-Labour-Democratic Left was prime minister. However, a center-right alliance led by Bertie Ahern of Fianna Fáil defeated Prime Minister Bruton's three-party left-of-center coalition in the 6 June 1997 general election. Although Bruton's own party, Fine Gael, increased its share of the vote, its coalition partners, the Labour Party and the Democratic Left, both lost seats. Fianna Fáil won 77 seats outright, 6 shy of the 83 required for a majority. Other parties winning seats were Labor (17), Democratic Left (4), Progressive Democrats (4), Greens (2), Sinn Fein (1), Socialists (1), and Independents (6).
Fianna Fáil joined with the Progressive Democrats and Independents to form a new government with Bertie Ahern as taoiseach (prime minister). In 1999, the Labour Party and the Democratic Left merged and the new party is called the Labour Party. The electoral significance of this realignment of the left is not yet clear, but the merger provides the Irish electorate with a more viable social democratic alternative to the governing coalition.
Bertie Ahern remained prime minister after Fianna Fáil won 41.5% of the vote on 16 May 2002, capturing 81 seats in the Dáil. Fine Gael won 22.5% of the vote and 31 seats, its worst defeat in 70 years. The Labour Party took 10.8% of the vote and 21 seats. Other parties winning seats were the Progressive Democrats (8), the Greens (6), Sinn Feìn (5), the Socialist Party (1), and Independents (13). The next presidential election was scheduled for October 2011 and the next legislative elections were scheduled for 2007.
The provinces of Ulster, Munster, Leinster, and Connacht no longer serve as political divisions, but each is divided into a number of counties that do. Prior to the passage of the new Local Government Act of 2001 and its implementation in 2002, Ireland was divided into 29 county councils, 5 boroughs, 5 boroughs governed by municipal corporations, 49 urban district councils, and 26 boards of town commissioners. Under the new system, the county councils remain the same, but the corporations no longer exist. The cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Waterford, and Galway are city councils, while Drogheda, Wexford, Kilkenny, Sligo, and Clonmel are the five borough councils. The urban district councils and town commissions are now one and the same and known as town councils, of which there are 75.
Local authorities' principal functions include planning and development, housing, roads, and sanitary and environmental services. Health services, which were administered by local authorities up to 1971, are now administered by regional health boards, although the local authorities still continue to pay part of the cost. Expenditures are financed by a local tax on the occupation of property (rates), by grants and subsidies from the central government, and by charges made for certain services. Capital expenditure is financed mainly by borrowing from the Local Loans Fund, operated by the central government, and from banking and insurance institutions.
Responsibility for law enforcement is in the hands of a commissioner, responsible to the Department of Justice, who controls an unarmed police force known as the civil guard (Garda Síochána). Justice is administered by a Supreme Court, a High Court with full original jurisdiction, eight circuit courts, and 23 district courts with local and limited jurisdiction. Judges are appointed by the president, on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet.
Individual liberties are protected by the 1937 constitution and by Supreme Court decisions. The constitution provides for the creation of "special courts" to handle cases which cannot be adequately managed by the ordinary court system. The Offenses Against the State Act formally established a special court to hear cases involving political violence by terrorist groups. In such cases, in order to prevent intimidation, the panel of judges sits in place of a jury.
The judiciary is independent and provides a fair, efficient judicial process based upon the English common law system. Judicial precedent makes it a vital check on the power of the executive in Ireland. It can declare laws unconstitutional before and after they have been enacted, as well. Typically, however, the relationship between the judiciary and the other two branches of government has been untroubled by conflict.
The Supreme Court has affirmed that the inviolability of personal privacy and home must be respected in law and practice. This is fully respected by the government. Revelations about corruption by leading politicians forced the government to set up an independent tribunal. It investigated payments to politicians, especially to the former prime minister Charles Haughey, who was a recipient of large sums of money from businessmen for his personal use.
A former judge, Hugh O'Flaherty, was forced to resign from the Supreme Court over his handling of a dangerous driving case in 1999. His case provoked much public outrage after it was discovered that the government quickly boosted his annual pension prior to his resignation.
The Irish army and its reserves, along with the country's air corps, and navy, constitute a small but well-trained nucleus that can be enlarged in a time of emergency. In 2005, the active defense force numbered 10,460, with reserves numbering 14,875. The army had 8,500 active personnel equipped with 14 Scorpion light tanks, 33 reconnaissance vehicles, 42 armored personnel carriers, and 537 artillery pieces. Navy personnel totaled 1,100 in 2005. Major naval units included eight patrol/coastal vessels. The air corps consisted of 860 personnel, outfitted with two maritime patrol and three transport aircraft. The navy also operated two assault and 11 utility helicopters. Ireland provided support to UN, NATO and European Union peacekeeping or military operations in 10 countries or regions. The defense budget in 2005 was $959 million.
Ireland, which became a member of the United Nations on 14 December 1955, belongs to ECE and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, UNESCO, UNHCR, IFC, the World Bank, and WHO. On 1 January 1973, Ireland became a member of the European Union. The country is also a member of the WTO, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Paris Club, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, and the OSCE. Ireland is a founding member of OECD and the Council of Europe. The country also participates as an observer in the OAS and the Western European Union.
Irish troops have served in UN operations and missions in the Congo (est. 1999), Cyprus (est. 1964), Kosovo (est. 1999), Lebanon (est. 1978), Liberia (est. 2003), and Côte d'Ivoire (est. 2004), among others. Ireland is a guest of the Nonaligned Movement, It is also a part of the Australia Group, the Zangger Committee, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (London Group), the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and the Nuclear Energy Agency. In environmental cooperation, Ireland is part of the Basel Convention; Conventions on Biological Diversity, Whaling, and Air Pollution; Ramsar; the London Convention; International Tropical Timber Agreements; the Kyoto Protocol; the Montréal Protocol; MARPOL; the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty; and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change and Desertification.
Until the 1950s, Ireland had a predominantly agricultural economy, with agriculture making the largest contribution to the GNP. However, liberal trade policies and the drive for industrialization stimulated economic expansion. In 1958, agriculture accounted for 21% of the GNP, industry 23.5%, and other sectors 55.5%. By 2002, however, agriculture accounted for only 5% of the total, industry 46%, and services 49%.
Ireland's economy was initially slower in developing than the economies of other West European countries. The government carried on a comprehensive public investment program, particularly in housing, public welfare, communications, transportation, new industries, and electric power. Growth rose quickly in the 1960s and, since then, the government has tried to stimulate output, particularly of goods for the export market. Thus, manufactured exports grew from £78.4 million in 1967 to £11,510 million in 1992.
In the 1970s Ireland began to approach the income of the rest of Western Europe until it lost fiscal control in the latter part of the 1970s due to the oil crisis. During the early 1980s, Ireland suffered considerably from the worldwide recession, experiencing double-digit inflation and high unemployment. The economy continued to lag through 1986, but the GNP grew 30% between 1987 and 1992, and continued at a yearly pace of about 7.5% until 1996 when it was expected to slow to about 5.25%. However, the Irish economy grew faster than any other in the European Union during the so-called "Celtic Tiger" years of the second half of the 1990s, when growth rates were in double digits. The good economic performance was mainly due to strong consumer and investor confidence and strong export opportunities.
Ireland suffered from the global economic slowdown that began in 2001, however, and the average annual growth 2000–04 was 6.1%. Though Ireland started out the decade with a growth rate of 6.2%, it dropped to 4.4% in 2003 and had not regained even a percentage point as of 2005.
Although substantially lower than in 1986 when it topped 18%, unemployment remained high until 1998, when it dropped to 7.7%. The estimated unemployment rate in 2005 was 4.2%. The inflation rate stood at 2.4% in 1998 and was 2% in 2003 and 3% in 2004. Inflation was steadily falling, from a rate of 4.9% in 2000 to 2.2% in 2004.
Ireland has depended on substantial financial assistance from the European Union designed to raise the per capita gross national product to the EU average. Almost $11 billion was allocated for the period 1993–99 from the EU's Structural and Cohesion Funds. During the 1990s, living standards rose from 56% to 87% of the EU average.
In the latter half of the 1990s, the economic situation greatly improved and Ireland recorded growth rates of 7% 1996–2000. Unemployment fell from 16% in 1993 to 5% in 2000. Due to the global economic downturn that began in 2001, however, even Ireland's booming economy slowed. Services, pharmaceuticals, and information technology are important sectors of the economy in the 21st century.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Ireland's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $136.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $34,100. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.9%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 5% of GDP, industry 46%, and services 49%.
According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $337 million or about $84 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.2% of GDP.
The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Ireland totaled $54.84 billion or about $13,730 per capita based on a GDP of $153.7 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 5.6%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 21% of household consumption was spent on food, 10% on fuel, 4% on health care, and 7% on education. It was estimated that in 1997 about 10% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.
In 2005, Ireland's workforce was estimated at 2.03 million. Of those employed in 2003, an estimated 6.4% were in agriculture, 27.8% in industry, and 65.4% in services. The estimated unemployment rate in 2005 was 4.2%.
The right to join a union is protected by law, and as of 2002, about 31% of the labor force were union members. The Irish Congress of Trade Unions (ICTU) represents 64 unions and is independent of political parties and the government. The right to strike, except for police and military personnel, is exercised in both the public and private sectors. Employers are legally prohibited from discriminating against those who participate in union activity. Collective bargaining is used to determine wages and other conditions of employment.
Children under age 16 are legally prohibited from engaging in regular, full-time work. Under certain restrictions, some part-time or educational work may be given to 14- and 15-year-olds. Violations of child labor laws are not common. The standard workweek is 39 hours, and the legal limit on industrial work is nine hours per day and 48 hours per week. A national minimum wage of $5.45 went into effect in 2001.
About 1,184,000 hectares (2,926,000 acres), or 17.2% of the total area, were devoted to growing crops in 2003. About 6% of the agricultural acreage is used for growing cereals, 1.5% for growing root and green crops, and the balance for pasture and hay. Thus most of the farmland is used to support livestock, the leading source of Ireland's exports. Most farms are small, although there has been a trend toward consolidation. Agriculture accounts for about 10% of Irish employment. In 2003, there were 135,250 agricultural holdings, with a farm labor force of 104,540 full-time and 140,980 part-time workers. Principal crops (with their estimated 2004 production) include barley, 1,159,000 tons; sugar beets, 1,500,000 tons; wheat, 849,000 tons; potatoes, 500,000 tons; and oats, 134,000 tons.
Over half of agricultural production, by value, is exported. The benefits of the EU's Common Agricultural Policy, which provides secure markets and improved prices for most major agricultural products, account in part for the increase of Ireland's agricultural income from £314 million in 1972 (before Ireland's accession) to £1,919.9 million in 1995. The estimated value of crop output was €1.3 billion in 2005.
The government operates a comprehensive network of services within the framework of the Common Agricultural Policy, including educational and advisory services to farmers. Under a farm modernization scheme, capital assistance is provided to farmers for land development, improvement of farm buildings, and other projects, with part of the cost borne by the EU. In 1974, pursuant to an European Community directive, incentives were made available to farmers wishing to retire and make their lands available, by lease or sale, for the land reform program.
With some 90% of Ireland's agricultural land devoted to pasture and hay, the main activity of the farming community is the production of grazing animals and other livestock, which account for about 53% of agricultural exports. In 2005, total livestock output was valued at €2.17 billion, with cattle and milk each accounting for around 40%. During 2002–04, livestock output was down 4.5% from 1999–2001.
The estimated livestock population in 2005 was 7,000,000 head of cattle (including 1.1 million dairy cows), 1,757,000 pigs, and 12,700,000 poultry. In 2005, butter production was estimated at 142,000 tons, cheese 118,750 tons, and wool (greasy) 12,000 tons. Milk production in 2005 was 5,500,000 tons.
Since livestock is a major element in the country's economy, the government is particularly concerned with improving methods of operation and increasing output. A campaign for eradication of bovine tuberculosis was completed in 1965, and programs are under way for eradication of bovine brucellosis, warble fly, and sheep scab.
Salmon, eels, trout, pike, perch, and other freshwater fish are found in the rivers and lakes; sea angling is good along the entire coast; and deep-sea fishing is done from the south and west coasts. The fishing industry has made considerable progress as a result of government measures to improve credit facilities for the purchase of fishing boats and the development of harbors; establishment of training programs for fishermen; increased emphasis on market development and research; establishment of hatcheries; and promotion of sport fishing as an attraction for tourists. The Irish fishing fleet consisted of 1,376 vessels with a capacity of 77,888 gross tons in 2002.
Leading varieties of saltwater fish are mackerel, herring, cod, whiting, plaice, ray, skate, and haddock. Lobsters, crawfish, and Dublin Bay prawns are also important. In 2003, the value of fish exports was $453.5 million, up 32% from 2000. Aquaculture accounted for 19% of the volume. The total fish production in 2003 was 364,861 tons. Mackerel, herring, and blue whiting accounted for 24% of the volume that year.
Once well forested, Ireland was stripped of timber in the 17th and 18th centuries by absentee landlords, who made no attempt to reforest the denuded land, and later by the steady conversion of natural forest into farms and grazing lands. In an effort to restore part of the woodland areas, a state forestry program was inaugurated in 1903; since then, over 350,000 hectares (865,000 acres) have been planted. More than half the planting is carried out in the western counties. In 2000, about 9.6% of Ireland was forested; about 95% of the trees planted are coniferous. The aim of the forestry program is to eliminate a large part of timber imports—a major drain on the balance of payments—and to produce a surplus of natural and processed timber for export. Roundwood removals totaled 2.5 million cu m (88 million cu ft) in 2004.
Ireland was a leading European Union (EU) producer of lead and zinc in 2003, and an important producer of lead, alumina, and peat. Mineral production in 2003 included zinc, 419,014 kg, compared to 252,700 kg in 2002; mined lead, 50,339,000 tons, compared to 32,486,000 tons in 2002; and an estimated 1.2 million metric tons of alumina. Other commercially exploited minerals were silver, hydraulic cement, clays for cement production, fire clay, granite, slate, marble, rock sand, silica rock, gypsum, lime, limestone, sand and gravel, shales, dolomite, diatomite, building stone, and aggregate building materials.
Zinc production centered on three zinc-lead mines, the Lisheen (a joint venture of Anglo American PLC and Ivernia West PLC), the Galmoy (Arcon International Resources PLC), and the Tara (Outokumpu Oyj), three of Europe's most modern mines. Outokumpu announced that because of low zinc prices, it was closing the Tara Mine (at Navan, County Meath), the largest lead-zinc field in Europe, and putting it on care and maintenance; the Tara came into production in the late 1970s. The Galmoy Mine was producing 650,000 tons per year of ore at target grades of 11.3% zinc and 1% lead, and the Lisheen Mine, which mined its first ore in 1999 and began commercial production in 2001, initially planned to produce 160,000 tons per year of zinc concentrate, to be increased to 330,000 tons per year of zinc concentrate and 40,000 tons per year of lead in concentrate at full production; both were on the Rathdowney Trend mineralized belt, southwest of Dublin. Cambridge Mineral Resources PLC continued diamond and sapphire exploration work, identifying numerous diamond indicator minerals and recovering significant quantities of ruby and sapphire. Gold was discovered in County Mayo in 1989, with an estimated 498,000 tons of ore at 1.5 grams per ton of gold. There was a marked increase in mining exploration beginning in the early 1960s, resulting in Ireland becoming a significant source of base metals.
Ireland's energy and power sector is marked by a lack of any oil reserves, thus making it totally dependent upon imports. However, the country has modest natural gas reserves, and a small refining capacity.
In 2002, Ireland's imports of crude and refined petroleum products averaged 211,230 barrels per day. Domestic refinery production for that year averaged 65,230 barrels per day. Demand for refined oil products averaged 180,440 barrels per day.
Ireland's proven reserves of natural gas were estimated as of 1 January 2002 at 9.911 billion cu m. Output in 2001 was estimated at 815 million cu m, with demand and imports estimated at 4.199 billion cu m and 3.384 billion cu m, respectively, for that year.
Ireland's electric power generating sector is primarily based upon the use of conventional fossil fuels to provide electric power. Total generating capacity in 2002 stood at 4.435 million kW, of which conventional thermal capacity accounted for 4.049 million kW, followed by hydropower at 0.236 million kW and geothermal/other at 0.150 million kW. Total power production in 2002 was 22.876 billion kWh, of which 94% was from fossil fuels, mostly thermal coal and oil stations, 3.9% from hydropower, and the rest from geothermal/other sources.
Ireland's Coal production consists of high-ash semibituminous from the Connaught Field, and is used for electricity production. In 2002, Ireland imported 3,148,000 short tons of coal, of which 3,090,000 short tons consisted of hard coal, and 58,000 short tons of lignite.
Since the establishment of the Irish Free State, successive governments encouraged industrialization by granting tariff protection and promoting diversification. Following the launching of the First Program for Economic Expansion by the government in 1958, considerable progress was made in developing this sector of the economy, in which foreign industrialists played a significant role. The Industrial Development Authority (IDA) administers a scheme of incentives to attract foreign investment. In addition, several government agencies offer facilities for consulting on research and development, marketing, exporting, and other management matters.
Official policy favors private enterprises. Where private capital and interest were lacking, the state created firms to operate essential services and to stimulate further industrial development, notably in the fields of sugar, peat, electricity, steel, fertilizers, industrial alcohol, and transportation. Although efforts have been made to encourage decentralization, about half of all industrial establishments and personnel are concentrated in Dublin and Cork.
Industry grew by an average annual rate of more than 5% from 1968 to 1981, and peaked at 12% in 1984 before subsiding to an annual rate of about 4%. The greatest growth was in high technology industries, like electronics and pharmaceuticals, where labor productivity also was growing substantially, thus limiting increases in the number of jobs. The most important products of manufacturing, by gross output, are food, metal, and engineering goods, chemicals and chemical products, beverages and tobacco, nonmetallic minerals, and paper and printing. The making of glass and crystal are also important industries. Industrial production continued to grow into the late 1990s, the "Celtic Tiger" years, posting a 15.8% growth in 1998.
Industry employed 28% of the labor force in 2000, and accounted for 36% of GDP in 2001. The value of industry output in 2000 was 12.3% higher than in 1999. Computer and pharmaceutical enterprises, largely owned by foreign companies, were responsible for high manufacturing output in 2000. Although there is no formal governmental privatization plan, the government planned to privatize the state-owned natural gas distributor (Bord Gas), the state-owned airline (Aer Lingus), and the state-owned electricity distributor (ESB) as of 2002.
Ireland was shifting attention away from industry and towards services. Activity was quickened by preferential corporation tax rates for manufacturers and manufactures were decreasing relative to services and agriculture. Yet, in 2004 the industrial production growth rate was 7%.
The major organizations doing scientific research in Ireland are the Agricultural Institute (established in 1958) and the Institute for Industrial Research and Standards (1946). The Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies, established by the state in 1940, includes a School of Theoretical Physics and a School of Cosmic Physics. The Royal Irish Academy, founded in 1785 and headquartered in Dublin, promotes study in science and the humanities and is the principal vehicle for Ireland's participation in international scientific unions. It has sections for mathematical and physical sciences and for biology and the environment.
The Royal Dublin Society (founded in 1731) promotes the advancement of agriculture, industry, science, and art. Ireland has 13 other specialized learned societies concerned with agriculture, medicine, science, and technology. Major scientific facilities include the Dinsink Observatory (founded in 1785) and the National Botanic Gardens (founded in 1795), both in Dublin.
Most scientific research is funded by the government; the government advisory and coordinating body on scientific matters is the National Board for Science and Technology. Medical research is supported by the Medical Research Council and Medico-Social Research Board. Veterinary and cereals research is promoted by the Department of Agriculture. The Department of Fisheries and Forestry and the Department of Industry and Energy have developed their own research programs. The UNESCO prize in science was awarded in 1981 for the development of clofazimines, a leprosy drug produced by the Medical Research Council of Ireland with aid from the Development Cooperation Division of the Department of Foreign Affairs.
Research and development (R&D) expenditures in 2001 (the latest year for which data was available) totaled $1.427 million, or 1.14% of GDP. Of that amount, 67.2% came from the business sector, with 25.2% coming from the government. Foreign sources accounted for 6%, while higher education provided 1.7%. As of 2002, there were some 2,471 researchers per one million people that were actively engaged in R&D. In that same year, high-tech exports were valued at $31.642 billion and accounted for 41% of manufactured exports. Ireland has 21 universities and colleges that offer courses in basic and applied science. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 31% of university enrollment. In 2002, a total of 29.3% of all bachelor's degrees awarded were in the sciences (natural, mathematics and computers, and engineering).
Dublin is the financial and commercial center, the distribution point for most imported goods, and the port through which most of the country's agricultural products are shipped to Britain and the Continent. Cork, the second-largest manufacturing city and close to the transatlantic port of Cobh, is also important, as is Limerick, with its proximity to Shannon International Airport. Other important local marketing centers are Galway, Drogheda, Dundalk, Sligo, and Waterford.
The trend in retail establishments was changing from small shops owned and operated by individuals, to larger department stores, outlets, and chain stores operated by management companies. As of 2002, there were about 52,000 retail and 2,500 wholesale outlets across the country. There were about 9,000 retail food outlets. A 21% value-added tax applies to most goods and services.
|Italy-San Marino-Holy See||4,233.5||1,203.9||3,029.6|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
Office business hours are usually 9 or 9:30 am to 5:30 pm. Shops are generally open from 9 am to 6 pm, although most supermarkets are open until 9 pm on Thursday and Friday. In general, banking hours are 10 am to 12:30 pm and 1:30 to 4 pm, Monday through Friday, and 3 to 5 pm on Thursday. Most offices are closed on Saturday, and shops close on either Wednesday or Saturday afternoon. Businesses may close for extended periods during the months of July and August.
Ireland began opening to free trade in the 1960s. It is now one of the most open and largest exporting markets (on a per capital level). Growth was heavily encouraged by the export sectors in the 1990s and the average annual export volume growth was near an annual rate of 20% between 1996 and 2000.
Computers and office products have become some of Ireland's most profitable export products (28%). The country also manufactures musical instruments (5.2%), making 12.7% of the world's exports. Other export items include chemicals like nitrogen compounds (10.9%), electronic circuitry (5.2%), and medicines (4.9%).
As of 2003, the United States absorbed 20.5% of Ireland's exports, the United Kingdom 18.1%, Belgium 12.6%, Germany 8.3%, France 6.1%, Netherlands 5.1%, and Italy 4.6%. Import partners include the United Kingdom (34.8% of imports), the United States (15.6%), Germany (8.1%), and the Netherlands (4.1%). Imported commodities include data processing equipment, machinery and equipment, chemicals, petroleum and petroleum products, textiles, and clothing.
The volume of Irish exports increased dramatically 1995–2000, registering an average annual growth of 16.9%; the rate of import growth over the same period was only slightly lower at 16.6%. The year 2000 was the first since 1991 that the current account was not in surplus. The reduction of the balance of payments surplus in the early 2000s suggested that the level of Irish imports was increasing due to increased demand for luxury items and services, rather than from a decline in exports. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2002 the purchasing power parity of Ireland's exports was $85.3 billion while imports totaled
|Balance on goods||37,807.0|
|Balance on services||-14,306.0|
|Balance on income||-26,142.0|
|Direct investment abroad||-3,528.0|
|Direct investment in Ireland||26,599.0|
|Portfolio investment assets||-161,319.0|
|Portfolio investment liabilities||106,389.0|
|Other investment assets||-48,864.0|
|Other investment liabilities||84,028.0|
|Net Errors and Omissions||-1,178.0|
|Reserves and Related Items||1,890.0|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
$48.3 billion resulting in a trade surplus of $37 billion. Irish export growth during those years, in fact, consistently surpassed EU growth. However, the slowdown in the global economy and the slower than predicted growth in the euro area was expected to negatively impact Irish exports.
In 1979, Ireland joined the European Monetary System, thus severing the 150-year-old tie with the British pound. The Central Bank of Ireland, established in 1942, is both the monetary authority and the bank of issue. Its role quickly expanded considerably, particularly in monetary policy. Commercial deposits with the Central Bank have strongly increased since 1964, when legislation first permitted it to pay interest on deposits held for purposes other than settlement of clearing balances. Since July 1969, the Central Bank has accepted short-term deposits from various institutions, including commercial and merchant banks. With the advent of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in 1999, authority over monetary policy shifted to the European Central Bank.
The commercial banking sector is dominated by two main Irish-owned groups, the Bank of Ireland Group and the Allied Irish Banks Group. Successive governments have indicated that they would like to see a third banking force (possibly involving a strategic alliance with a foreign bank). Other major banks include the National Irish Bank, a member of the National Australia Bank, and Ulster Bank, a member of the National Westminster Bank Group. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $21.1 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $94.1 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 3.31%.
A number of other commercial, merchant, and industrial banks also operate. Additionally, Ireland's post office operates the Post Office Savings Banks and Trustee Savings Banks. The Irish stock exchange has its trading floor in Dublin. All stockbrokers in Ireland are members of this exchange. The Irish Stock Exchange is small by international standards, with a total of 76 domestic companies listed at the end of 2001. Total market capitalization at the end of 2001 was (21.8 billion for the government securities market, making it one of the EU's smallest stock markets, however fast-growing.
The Stock Exchange Act came into effect on 4 December 1995, and separated the Dublin Stock Exchange from the London Stock Exchange. Since that date, the Dublin Stock Exchange has been regulated by the Central Bank of Ireland. As of 2004, there were a total of 53 companies listed on the Irish Stock Exchange, which had a market capitalization of $114.085 billion. In 2004, the ISEQ index rose 26% from the previous year to 6,197.8.
Insurance firms must be licensed by the Insurance Division of the Ministry of Industry, Trade, Commerce, and Tourism. The regulatory body is the Irish Brokers' Association. The Insurance Acts of 1936 and 1989 outline the monitoring of insurers, brokers, and agents.
In Ireland, workers' compensation, third-party automobile, bodily injury, and property damage liability are compulsory. In 1997, shareholders of Irish Life, Ireland's largest life assurance company, unanimously approved the company's £100 million ($163 million) takeover of an Illinois life assurance company, Guarantee Reserve. In 2003, the value of direct premiums written totaled $17.328 billion, of which life premiums accounted for $9.037 billion. Hibernian General in 2003 was Ireland's top non-life insurer, with net written nonlife premiums (less reinsurance) of $992.2 million, while Irish Life was the nation's leading life insurer with gross written life premiums of $2.362 million.
|Revenue and Grants||17,762||100.0%|
|General public services||3,810||21.9%|
|Public order and safety||…||…|
|Housing and community amenities||366||2.1%|
|Recreational, culture, and religion||119||0.7%|
|(…) data not available or not significant.|
Ireland's fiscal year follows the calendar year. Expenditures of local authorities are principally for health, roads, housing, and social welfare.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Ireland's central government took in revenues of approximately $70.4 billion and had expenditures of $69.4 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately $1 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 27.5% of GDP. Total external debt was $1.049 trillion.
Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 21.9%; defense, 2.9%; economic affairs, 16.7%; housing and community amenities, 2.1%; health, 16.3%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.7%; education, 13.6%; and social protection, 25.9%.
To stimulate economic expansion and encourage investment in Irish industry, particularly in the area of industrial exports, tax adjustments have been made to give relief to export profits, expenditures for mineral development, shipping, plant and machinery, new industrial buildings, and investments in Irish securities. As of 1 January 2003, with Ireland's accession to the EU, the government had mostly completed the transition of the tax regime from an incentive regime to a low, single-tax regime with 12.5% as the country's rate for most corporate profits. Passive income, including that from interest, royalties, and dividends, is taxed at 20%. Capital gains are also taxed at 20%. As of 2005, Ireland was party to double-taxation agreements with 42 countries the terms of which provide for the reduction or elimination of many capital income tax rates and related withholding taxes. The incentive 10% corporation tax rate, applied to industrial manufacturing, to projects licensed to operate in the Shannon Airport area, and to various service operations, was still in effect in 2003, but, in an agreement with the European Commission, was scheduled to be phased out by 2010.
Ireland has a progressive personal income tax with a top rate of 42% on incomes above €29,400 for single taxpayers. Married taxpayers are subject to a higher income threshold level. For those over 65 years old, tax exemptions amounted to €15,000 per person. Deductions were available for mortgage payments and pension contributions. Since 1969, the government has encouraged artists and writers to live in Ireland by exempting from income tax their earnings from their works of art. Royalties and other income from patent rights are also tax-exempt. The gift and inheritance taxes are based upon the relationship of the beneficiary to the donor. Between a parent and child, the tax-free threshold in 2003 was €441,200; for any other lineal descendent, the tax-free threshold was one-tenth this amount, or €44,120; and for any other person, one-twentieth, or €22,060. Land taxes are assessed at variable rates by local governments, and there is a buildings transfer tax based on the price of the transfer.
The major indirect tax is Ireland's value-added tax (VAT) instituted 1 January 1972 with a standard rate of 16.37% plus a number of reduced, intermediate, and increased rates. As of 1 March 2002, the standard rate was increased to 21% from 20%, and the reduced rate of 12.5% increased to 13.5% as of 1 January 2003. The reduced rate applies to domestic fuel and power, newspapers, hotels and new housing. Ireland also has an extensive list of goods and services to which a 0% VAT rate is applied including, books and pamphlets, gold for the Central Bank, basic foodstuffs and beverages, agricultural supplies, medicines and medical equipment, and, more unusually, children's clothing and footwear, and wax candles. A 4.8% rate applies to livestock by unregistered farmers. Excise duties are charged on tobacco products, alcohol, fuel, and motor vehicles. Per unit and/or annual stamp taxes are assessed on checks, credit cards, ATM cards, and Laser cards.
From the time of the establishment of the Irish Free State, government policy was to encourage development of domestic industry by maintaining protective tariffs and quotas on commodities that would compete with Irish-made products. Following Ireland's admission to the European Community (now the European Union), the country's tariff schedule was greatly revised. The schedule vis-à-vis third-world countries and the United States was gradually aligned with EC tariffs and customs duties between Ireland and the EC were phased down to zero by July 1977. Duty rates on manufactured goods from non-EU countries range from 5–8%, while most raw materials enter duty-free. Certain goods still require import licenses and tariffs are based on the Harmonized System. The Shannon Free Trade Zone, the oldest official free trade area in the world, is located at the Shannon International Airport.
The Irish government has successfully attracted FDI (foreign direct investment) over the years with various policies and preferential tax rates. To stimulate economic expansion, the Industrial Development Authority encourages and facilitates investment by foreign interests, particularly in the development of industries with export potential. Special concessions include nonrepayable grants to help establish industries in underdeveloped areas and tax relief on export profits. Freedom to take out profits is unimpaired. Engineering goods, computers, electronic products, electrical equipment, pharmaceuticals and chemicals, textiles, food-stuffs, leisure products, and metal and plastic products are among the items produced. Much of the new investment occurred after Ireland became a member of the European Union.
Annual foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows into Ireland increased steadily through the 1990s. In the period 1988 to 1990, Ireland's share of world FDI inflows was only 70% of its share of world GDP, but for the period 1998 to 2000, Ireland's share of FDI inflows was over five times its share of world GDP. In 1998, annual FDI inflow reached $11 billion, up from $2.7 billion in 1997, and then jumped to almost $15 billion in 1999. FDI inflows to Ireland peaked in 2000, at over $24 billion, mainly from high-tech computer and pharmaceutical companies. FDI inflow dropped sharply to $9.8 billion in 2001 with the global economic slowdown.
Leading sources of foreign investors, in terms of percent of foreign companies invested in Ireland, have been the United States (43%), the United Kingdom (13%), Germany (13%), other European countries (22%), Japan (4%), and others (5%). As of 2000, the primary destinations of foreign investment were, in order, manufacturing, finance, and other services.
Government policies are premised on private enterprise as a predominant factor in the economy. Specific economic programs adopted in recent decades have attempted to increase efficiency in agriculture and industry, stimulate new export industries, create employment opportunities for labor leaving the agricultural sector, and reduce unemployment and net emigration. In pursuit of these objectives, the government provides aids to industry through the Industrial Development Authority (IDA), the Industrial Credit Co., and other agencies. Tax concessions, information, and advisory services are also provided.
The IDA seeks to attract foreign investment by offering a 10% maximum corporation tax rate for manufacturing and certain service industries, generous tax-free grants for staff training, ready-built factories on modern industrial estates, accelerated depreciation, export-risk guarantee programs, and other financial inducements. IDA also administers industrial estates at Waterford and Galway. The Shannon Free Airport Development Co., another government-sponsored entity, administers an industrial estate on the fringes of Shannon Airport, a location that benefits from proximity to the airport's duty-free facilities. A third entity, Udaras Na Gaeltachia, promotes investment and development in western areas where Irish is the predominant language. As of 1986 there were some 900 foreign-owned plants in Ireland.
Price control legislation was introduced under the Prices Act of 1958, amended in 1965 and 1972. In general, manufacturers, service industries, and professions are required to obtain permission from the Ministry of Commerce and Trade for any increase. Price changes are monitored by a National Prices Commission, established in 1971. The economic plan for 1983–1987, called The Way Forward, aimed at improving the cost-competitiveness of the economy by cutting government expenditures and restraining the growth of public service pay, among other measures. The 1987–1990 Program for National Recovery is generally credited with creating the conditions to bring government spending and the national debt under control. The 1991–1993 Program for Economic and Social Progress was to further reduce the national debt and budget deficit and to establish a schedule of wage increases.
A 1994–1999 national development plan called for investment of £20 billion and aimed to achieve an average annual GDP growth rate of 3.5%. The government hoped to create 200,000 jobs through this plan, with funding by the state, the EU, and the private sector. Half of the money was earmarked for industry, transport, training, and energy.
At the end of the 1990s, Ireland boasted the fastest growing economy in the EU with a 9.5% GDP real growth rate in 1998. Total expenditures on imports and exports in 2000 were equivalent to 175% of GDP, far ahead of the EU average, which made Ireland's economy one of the most open in the world. Ireland became known as the "Celtic Tiger," to compare with the formerly fast-growing economies of East Asia prior to the Asian financial crisis of 1997. In 2000, the economy grew by 11.5%, the highest growth rate ever recorded in an OECD member country. Wage inequality grew, however, and spending on infrastructure failed to keep pace with social or industrial demands. Corporate taxes were as low as 12.5% in some circumstances in the early 2000s. Economic growth decelerated rapidly in 2001, to 6%. Inflation fell as did housing prices, but they rose again in 2002. Tax increases were expected in 2003 and 2004, and the government was facing pressures to cut spending. GDP growth was 4.4% in 2003 and 4.5% in 2004.
A social insurance program exists for all employees and self-employed persons, and for all residents with limited means. The system is financed through employee contributions, employer contributions, and government subsidies. Benefits are available for old age, sickness, disability, survivorship, maternity, work injury, unemployment, and adoptive services. There are also funds available for those leaving the workforce to care for one in need of full time assistance. The system also provides bereavement and a widowed parent's grant. The universal medical care system provides medical services to all residents. The workmen's compensation act was first initiated in 1897. Parents with one or more children are entitled to a family allowance.
The predominance of the Roman Catholic Church has had a significant impact on social legislation. Divorce was made legal only in 1995. Contraceptives, the sale of which had been entirely prohibited, became available to married couples by prescription in the early 1980s. In 1985, the need for a prescription was abolished, and the minimum age for marriage was raised from 14 to 18 for girls and from 16 to 18 for boys. Abortion remains illegal.
Domestic abuse and spousal violence remain serious problems, although improvements were seen in 2004. The government funds victim support centers, and there are active women's rights groups to address these issues. The law prohibits gender discrimination in the workplace, but inequalities persist regarding promotion and pay. The government addresses the issue of child abuse, and funds systems to promote child welfare.
The government attempts to curb discrimination against foreign workers and the ethnic community known as "Travellers." There have been reports of racially motivated incidents including violence and intimidation. In general, the government respects the human rights of its citizens.
Health services are provided by regional boards under the administration and control of the Department of Health. A comprehensive health service, with free hospitalization, treatment, and medication, is provided for low-income groups. The middle-income population is entitled to free maternity, hospital, and specialist services, and a free diagnostic and preventive service is available to all persons suffering from specified infectious diseases. Insurance against hospital and certain other medical expenses is available under a voluntary plan introduced in 1957.
Since World War II, many new regional and county hospitals and tuberculosis sanatoriums have been built. As of 2004, there were an estimated 237 physicians, 51 dentists, and 83 pharmacists per 100,000 population. In addition, there were more than 1662 nurses per 100,000 people, the third most per capita in the world.
While deaths from cancer, particularly lung cancer, and heart disease are rising, those from many other causes have been decreasing rapidly. Infant mortality has been reduced from 50.3 per 1,000 live births in 1948 to 5.39 in 2005. Tuberculosis, long a major cause of adult deaths, declined from 3,700 cases in 1947 to only 15 per 100,000 in 2000. Average life expectancy at birth in 2005 was 77.56 years. The general mortality rate was an estimated 8 per 1,000 people as of 2002. The major causes of death were heart and circulatory disease, cancer, and ischemic heart disease. Heart disease rates were higher than average for highly industrialized countries.
The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 2,800 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 100 deaths from AIDS in 2003.
The aim of public housing policy is to ensure, so far as possible, that every family can obtain decent housing at a price or rent it can afford. Government subsidies are given to encourage home ownership, and local authorities provide housing for those unable to house themselves adequately. Housing legislation has encouraged private construction through grants and loans. Projected and existing housing needs are assessed regularly by local authorities, and their reports are the basis for local building programs, which are integrated with national programs and reconciled with available public resources.
According to the 2002 census, there were about 1,279,617 dwellings available in permanent housing units. Of these, about 74% were owner occupied. The number of households was listed as 1,287,958, with 43.7% of all households living in single-family detached homes. The average number of persons per household was 2.95.
Ten years of education are compulsory. Primary school covers eight years of education, with most students entering at age four. This is followed by a three-year junior secondary school and a two-year senior secondary program. Some schools offer a transition year program between the junior and senior levels. This transition year is meant to be a time of independent study for the student, when he or she focuses on special interests, while still under the guidance of instructors, in order make a decision concerning the direction of their future studies. At the senior level, students may choose to attend a vocational school instead of a general studies school. While private, religious-based secondary schools were once the norm, there are now many multi-denominational, public schools available at all levels. Coeducational programs have also grown substantially in recent years. The academic year runs from September to June. The primary languages of instruction are Irish and English.
Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 96% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 83% of age-eligible students; 80% for boys and 87% for girls. It is estimated that nearly all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 19:1 in 2003.
Ireland has two main universities: the University of Dublin (Trinity College) and the National University of Ireland, which consists of three constituent colleges in Dublin, Galway, and Cork. St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, is a recognized college of the National University. Universities are self-governing, but each receives an annual state grant, as well as supplementary grants for capital outlays. There are also various colleges of education, home economics, technology, and the arts. In 2003, about 52% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate has been estimated at about 98%.
As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.3% of GDP, or 13.5% of total government expenditures.
Trinity College Library, which dates from 1591 and counts among its many treasures the Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow, two of the most beautiful illuminated manuscripts from the pre-Viking period, is the oldest and largest library in Ireland, with a stock of 4.1 million volumes. The Chester Beatty Library, noted for one of the world's finest collections of Oriental manuscripts and miniatures, is also in Dublin. The National Library of Ireland, which also serves as a lending library, was founded in 1877 and houses over one million books, with special collections including works on or by Jonathan Swift and W. B. Yeats. The National Photographic Archive of over 600,000 photographs is also housed in the National Library. The University College Dublin library has more than one million volumes. The Dublin City Public Library system has about 31 branches and service points and holdings of over 1.5 million items.
Dublin, the center of cultural life in Ireland, has several museums and a number of libraries. The National Museum contains collections on Irish antiquities, folk life, fine arts, natural history, zoology, and geology. The National Gallery houses valuable paintings representing the various European schools from the 13th century to the present. The National Portrait Gallery provides a visual survey of Irish historical personalities over the past three centuries. The Municipal Gallery of Modern Art has a fine collection of works by recent and contemporary artists. There is a Heraldic Museum in Dublin Castle; the National Botanic Gardens are at Glasnevin; and the Zoological Gardens are in Phoenix Park. There is a James Joyce Museum in Dublin housing personal memorabilia of the great writer, including signed manuscripts. Yeats Tower in Gort displays memorabilia of W. B. Yeats. The Dublin Writers' Museum opened in 1991.
Public libraries and small museums, devoted mostly to local historical exhibits, are found in Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Galway, and other cities.
In 2003, there were an estimated 491 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 880 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.
An autonomous public corporation, Radio Telefis Éireann (RTE), is the Irish national broadcasting organization. Ireland's second radio service, Raidio na Gaeltachta, an Irish language broadcast, was launched by RTE in 1972; it broadcasts VHF from County Galway. In 2004, there were an additional 49 independent radio stations. RTE operates three television networks and there is one independent television station. In 2003, there were an estimated 695 radios and 694 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 134 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 420.8 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 317 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 1,245 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.
In 2001, there were eight independent national newspapers, as well as many local newspapers. There were three major independent current affairs magazines along with hundreds of special interest magazines. Ireland's major newspapers, with political orientation and estimated 2002 circulation, are: Sunday Independent, Fine Gael, 310,500; Sunday World, independent, 229,000; Irish Independent, Fine Gael, 168,200; Irish Times, independent, 119,200; Irish Examiner (in Cork), 63,600; and Cork Evening Echo, Fine Gael, 28,800. Waterford, Limerick, Galway, and many other smaller cities and towns have their own newspapers, most of them weeklies. The Censorship of Publication Board has the right to censor or ban publication of books and periodicals. In 2003, the Board censored nine magazines for containing pornographic materials.
The constitution provides for free speech and a free press; however, government bodies may decree without public hearing or justification any material unfit for distribution on moral grounds. The Office of Film Censor, which rates films and videos before they can be distributed, can ban or require edits of movies which contain content considered to be "indecent, obscene, or blasphemous," or which expresses principles "contrary to public morality." In 2001, 26 videos were banned, primarily for violent or pornographic content. In 2004, one video was banned.
The Chambers of Commerce of Ireland in Dublin is the umbrella organization for regional chambers. The Irish Congress of Trade Unions is also based in Dublin. There are trade unions and professional associations representing a wide variety of occupations. The Consumers Association of Ireland is active in advocating consumer information services.
The oldest and best known of the learned societies are the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1731, and the Royal Irish Academy, founded in 1785. The Royal Irish Academy of Music was added in 1856, the Irish Society of Arts and Commerce in 1911, the Irish Academy of Letters in 1932, and the Arts Council of Ireland in 1951. Many organizations exist for research and study in medicine and science, including the Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland.
National youth organizations include the Church of Ireland Youth Council, Comhchairdeas (the Irish Workcamp Movement), Confederation of Peace Corps, Federation of Irish Scout Associations, Irish Girl Guides, Girls' Brigade Ireland, Junior Chamber, Student Christian Movement of Ireland, Voluntary Service International, Workers Party Youth, Young Fine Gael, and chapters of YMCA/YWCA. The Irish Sports Council serves as an umbrella organization for numerous athletic organizations both on amateur and professional levels.
Civil rights organizations include the Irish Council for Civil Liberties and the National Women's Council of Ireland. Several organizations are available to represent those with disabilities. International organizations with chapters in Ireland include the Red Cross, Habitat for Humanity, and Amnesty International.
Among Ireland's numerous ancient and prehistoric sights are a restored Bronze Age lake dwelling (crannog ) near Quin in County Clare, burial mounds at Newgrange and Knowth along the Boyne, and the palace at the Hill of Tara, the seat of government up to the Middle Ages. Numerous castles may be visited, including Blarney Castle in County Cork, where visitors kiss the famous Blarney Stone. Some, such as Bunratty Castle and Knappogue Castle, County Clare, and Dungaire Castle, County Galway, offer medieval-style banquets, and some rent rooms to tourists.
Among Dublin's tourist attractions are the Trinity College Library, with its 8th-century illuminated Book of Kells; Phoenix Park, the largest enclosed park in Western Europe and home of the Dublin Zoo; and literary landmarks associated with such writers as William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, Jonathan Swift, and Oscar Wilde. Dublin has long been noted for its theaters, foremost among them the Abbey Theatre, Ireland's national theater, which was founded in 1904 by Yeats and Lady Gregory. Dublin was the European Community's Cultural Capital of Europe for 1991, during which time the National Gallery, Civic Museum, and Municipal Gallery were all refurbished and several new museums opened, including the Irish Museum of Modern Art.
Traditional musical events are held frequently, one of the best known being the All-Ireland Fleadh at Ennis in County Clare. Numerous parades, concerts, and other festivities occur on and around the St. Patrick's Day holiday of 17 March. Ireland has numerous golf courses, some of worldwide reputation. Fishing, sailing, horseback riding, hunting, horse racing, and greyhound racing are other popular sports. The traditional sports of Gaelic football, hurling, and camogie (the women's version of hurling) were revived in the 19th century and have become increasingly popular. The All-Ireland Hurling Final and the All-Ireland Football Final are held in September.
A passport is required of all visitors. Visas are not required for stays of up to 90 days, although an onward/return ticket may be needed.
Income from tourism and travel contributes significantly to the economy. Approximately 6,774,000 tourists visited Ireland in 2003, about 61% of whom came from the United Kingdom. That same year tourism receipts totaled $5.2 billion. There were 62,807 hotel rooms in 2002, with a 59% occupancy rate.
According to the US Department of State in 2005, the daily cost of staying in Dublin was $403; in Cork, $292.
A list of famous Irish must begin with St. Patrick (c.385–461), who, though not born in Ireland, represents Ireland to the rest of the world. Among the "saints and scholars" of the 6th to the 8th centuries were St. Columba (521–97), missionary to Scotland; St. Columban (540?–616), who founded monasteries in France and Italy; and Johannes Scotus Erigena (810?–80), a major Neoplatonic philosopher.
For the thousand years after the Viking invasions, the famous names belong to warriors and politicians: Brian Boru (962?–1014), who temporarily united the kings of Ireland and defeated the Vikings; Hugh O'Neill (1547?–1616), Owen Roe O'Neill (1590?–1649), and Patrick Sarsfield (d. 1693), national heroes of the 17th century; and Henry Grattan (1746–1820), Wolf Tone (1763–98), Edward Fitzgerald (1763–98), Robert Emmet (1778–1803), Daniel O'Connell (1775–1847), Michael Davitt (1846–1906), Charles Stewart Parnell (1846–91), Arthur Griffith(1872–1922), Patrick Henry Pearse (1879–1916), and Éamon de Valera (b.US, 1882– 1975), who, with many others, fought Ireland's political battles. The politician and statesman Seán MacBride (1904-88) won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1974.
Irishmen who have made outstanding contributions to science and scholarship include Robert Boyle (1627–91), the physicist who defined Boyle's law relating to pressure and volume of gas; Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1805–65), astronomer and mathematician, who developed the theory of quaternions; George Berkeley (1685–1753), philosopher and clergyman; Edward Hincks (1792–1866), discoverer of the Sumerian language; and John Bagnell Bury (1861–1927), classical scholar. The nuclear physicist Ernest T. S. Walton (1903–95) won the Nobel Prize for physics in 1951.
Painters of note include Sir William Orpen (1878–1931), John Butler Yeats (1839–1922), his son Jack Butler Yeats (1871–1957), and Mainie Jellet (1897–1944). Irish musicians include the pianist and composer John Field (1782–1837), the opera composer Michael William Balfe (1808–70), the tenor John McCormack (1884–1945), and the flutist James Galway (b.Belfast, 1939).
After the Restoration, many brilliant satirists in English literature were born in Ireland, among them Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin and creator of Gulliver's Travels; Oliver Goldsmith (1730?–74); Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816); Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (1854–1900); and George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950).
Thomas Moore (1779–1852) and James Clarence Mangan (1803–49) wrote patriotic airs, hymns, and love lyrics, while Maria Edgeworth (1767–1849) wrote novels on Irish themes. Half a century later the great literary revival led by Nobel Prize-winning poet-dramatist William Butler Yeats (1865–1939), another son of John Butler Yeats, produced a succession of famous playwrights, poets, novelists, and short-story writers: the dramatists Lady Augusta (Persse) Gregory (1859?–1932), John Millington Synge (1871–1909), Sean O'Casey (1884–1964), and Lennox Robinson (1886–1958); the poets AE (George William Russell, 1867–1935), Oliver St. John Gogarty (1878–1957), Pádraic Colum (1881–1972), James Stephens (1882–1950); Austin Clarke (1890–1974), Thomas Kinsella (b.1928), and Seamus Heaney (b.1939), who won the 1995 Nobel Prize in literature; the novelists and short-story writers George Moore (1852–1932), Edward John Moreton Drax Plunkett, 18th baron of Dunsany (1878–1957), Liam O'Flaherty (1896–1984), Seán O'Faoláin (1900–91), Frank O'Connor (Michael O'Donovan, 1903–66), and Flann O'Brien (Brian O'Nolan, 1911–66). Two outstanding authors of novels and plays whose experimental styles have had worldwide influence are James Augustine Joyce (1882–1941), the author of Ulysses, and Samuel Beckett (1906–89), recipient of the 1969 Nobel Prize for literature.
The Abbey Theatre, which was the backbone of the literary revival, also produced many outstanding dramatic performers, such as Dudley Digges (1879–1947), Sara Allgood (1883–1950), Arthur Sinclair (1883–1951), Maire O'Neill (Mrs. Arthur Sinclair, 1887–1952), Barry Fitzgerald (William Shields, 1888–1961), and Siobhan McKenna (1923–1986). For many years Douglas Hyde (1860–1949), first president of Ireland (1938–45), spurred on the Irish-speaking theater as playwright, producer, and actor.
In addition to the genres of Irish folk and dance music, contemporary Irish popular and rock music has gained international attention. Van Morrison (b.1945), is a singer and songwriter from Belfast whose career began in the 1960s and was going strong in the 2000s. Enya (b.1961), is Ireland's best-selling solo musician. The Irish rock band U-2 is led by Bono (b.1960): Bono has also spearheaded efforts to raise money for famine relief in Ethiopia, to fight world poverty, to campaign for third-world debt relief, and to raise world consciousness to the plight of Africa, including the spread of HIV/AIDS on the continent.
Ireland has no territories or colonies.
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"Ireland." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
Cashel, Cavan, Cóbh, Dún Laoghaire, Kilkenny, Killarney, Tralee, Wexford
This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 2000 for Ireland. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.
It is said that Ireland, once visited, is never forgotten. The Irish landscape has a mythic resonance, due as much to the country's almost tangible history as its claim to being the home of the fairies and the "little people." Sure, the weather may not always be clement, but the dampness ensures there are 50 shades of green to compensate, just one of the reasons Ireland is called the Emerald Isle. Scattered mountains and hills rim a central plain, where the River Shannon flows past green woodlands, pastures, and peat bogs.
Ireland was the seat of learning and sent scholar-missionaries throughout Europe in the Dark Ages. Now it draws visitors with a composite charm shaped of lilting laughter, Irish eyes, and the Blarney Stone; of soils man-made from seaweed and sand in the harsh Aran Islands, or palms waving in warm Glengarriff, of Donegal's lava and Killarney's lakes; of voluble, tempestuous people with a remarkable roll of literary lights-such names as Swift, Yeats, Wilde, Shaw, Joyce, O'Casey, Synge. Eight centuries of strife with Britain brought formal establishment of the republic in 1949. Its name in Gaelic is tire.
Although English is the main language of Ireland, it's spoken with a mellifluous lilt and a peculiar way of structuring sentences, to be sure. There remain areas of western and southern Ireland, known as the Gaeltacht, where Irish is the native language-they include parts of Kerry, Galway, Mayo, the Aran Islands, and Donegal. Since Independence in 1921, the Republic of Ireland has declared itself to be bilingual, and many documents and road signs are printed in both Irish and English. Jigging an evening away to Irish folk music is one of the joys of a trip to Ireland. Most traditional music is performed on fiddle, tin whistle, goatskin drum, and pipes. Almost every village seems to have a pub renowned for its music where you can show up and find a session in progress, even join in if you feel so inclined.
Irish meals are usually based around meat-in particular, beef, lamb and pork chops. Traditional Irish breads and scones are also delicious, and other traditional dishes include bacon and cabbage, a cake-like bread called barm brack and a filled pancake called a boxty.
Though the nation's charms are fabled, it faces problems. The "troubles" are far from over in the North, but the recent referendum clearly signaled a willingness for peace and a genuine solution may be in sight.
The country is home to one of the most gregarious and welcoming people in Europe.
Like most ancient cities, Dublin lies sprawled along a river. In fact, three visible and underground rivers converge and flow into the Irish Sea. The greatest of these is the Liffey, which has divided Dublin into north and south for more than 1,000 years, much as tracks divide the core of a railroad town. Today, nearly one-third of the Irish population live in the greater Dublin area. It is the political, cultural, and economic heart of the nation.
The great public buildings, the red brick Georgian rowhouses, and the fine parks that give the city its distinctive character originated in the 18th century. The Grand and Royal Canals encircle the Georgian core of the city. Quaint shop fronts and pubs of the 19th and early 20th centuries add to the flavor of downtown. Dublin has begun reclaiming some of the historic past, though many once-fine areas have decayed badly from years of poverty and neglect. New office developments have changed the city center's skyline. The outer rim is ringed by newly built housing tracts and industrial parks. The quays along the Liffey River are beginning to change the image of a rundown seaport. New business has started to develop as well as seafront apartment buildings. Small villages, until this century a short journey away, are now enclosed within the city's sprawl.
Dublin, whose name in Irish (Gaelic) is Baile Átha Cliath, was a Norse stronghold in the ninth century. The forces of Brian Boru, high king of Ireland, took the site in a fierce battle at nearby Clontarf in 1014, forever ending Danish claim to the territory. In 1172, Richard Strongbow, the earl of Pembroke, captured the city for England; it was given a charter and made the center of the Pale, the indefinite limits around Dublin which were dominated by English rule (hence the saying, "beyond the Pale"). All of Ireland was besieged and colonized in the ensuing centuries, but Dublin enjoyed a period of prosperity in the late 1700s, during temporary respite from English authority. Intense nationalist efforts arose during the 19th century. On April 24, 1916, Dublin was the scene of the bloody and unsuccessful Easter Rebellion against British rule. It was not until 1922 that the Irish Free State was finally established.
Single-phase, 200v-220v, 50-cycle, AC electricity is standard throughout Ireland. Outlets take British-type three-prong plugs. The wiring in many houses cannot take heavy loads. American 60-cycle clocks will not operate satisfactorily in Ireland.
Most types of electrical equipment are available locally; however, they are more expensive.
Food in Dublin is more expensive than in the U.S. Meats, poultry, and fish are sold year round. Greengrocers offer a wider range of imported fruits and vegetables, but prices are higher than at supermarkets. Fresh meats and produce in Ireland pose no special hygiene problems. Canned fruits and juices are available, and good-quality dairy and bakery products abound. Baby food in cans and jars can be found in any supermarket. Although most shopping needs can be met through diligent shopping, bring special spices and condiments to prepare favorite ethnic dishes.
Because of the cool damp climate, woolens can be worn most of the year. Even in summer, light cotton clothing is rarely worn. Irish houses are frequently cold compared to those in the U.S. In selecting clothes, include sweaters, gloves, scarves, and sturdy weatherproof coats and footwear. Flannel pajamas and bed socks are desirable for overnight travel and even at home. Rainwear for adults and children can be purchased locally at reasonable prices.
Ready-made clothing of all types is sold in Dublin. Good-quality articles, especially woolens and shoes, are expensive but on par with U.S. prices for similar quality. Narrow shoe sizes are hard to find.
Men: Good-quality, ready-made, and tailor-fitted wool suits can be found at reasonable prices in Dublin. Nonetheless, bring several medium- or heavyweight wool suits, a topcoat, and a raincoat. Although dark suits are worn for most evening functions, a black dinner jacket (tuxedo) is occasionally required. Tuxedos and other formal wear can be rented or purchased locally.
Women: Department stores and discount stores stock a wide choice of fashions for women, priced according to quality. Comfortable closed walking shoes are invaluable. Boots are preferred by many during the winter. Although you can easily find a wide choice from fashions to shoes and accessories, it is advisable to bring complete wardrobes.
Children: Although quality is good, clothes can be very expensive for growing children. Bring complete children's wardrobes, anticipating larger sizes that will be needed. Good-quality sweaters and rain-wear can be bought locally at reasonable prices. School uniforms are required and most items must be purchased at specified stores.
Supplies and Services
Cosmetics, toiletries, cigarettes, home medicines, and drugs are sold locally in considerable variety at prices above those in the U.S. English, French, and a few American brands are sold. Bring special cosmetics and home medicines if preferred, including sufficient prescription drugs to last until arrangements can be made with a local pharmacy. Most essential conveniences commonly used for housekeeping, entertaining, and household repairs are obtainable locally.
All basic community services, such as drycleaning, tailoring, beauty and barbershops, and shoe and auto repairs, are available in Dublin. A few dressmakers are also available. Mechanical services do not measure up to American standards. Delays are common, appointments are a must, and the quality of workmanship varies widely.
Numerous religious denominations hold regular services in Dublin-Roman Catholic, Church of Ireland (Anglican), Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, Lutheran, Greek Orthodox, Christian Science, Congregational, Evangelical, Seventh-day Adventist, Moravian, Society of Friends, Mormon, and Unitarian churches, four Jewish congregations, and the Dublin Islamic Center.
Private primary and secondary schools are good. Instruction is in English. Credits are usually accepted in the U.S. for schoolwork completed in Dublin.
A typical curriculum in a Dublin secondary school includes English, Irish (foreign students are exempted on request), mathematics, geography, history, foreign languages, science, art, music, and physical training. Athletic activities include rugby, soccer, netball, track & field, cricket, hurling, field hockey, swimming, and tennis.
Instruction in dancing, riding, music, and art is available at extra cost.
Depending on the location, many parents cannot rely on public transportation and must drive their children to and from school.
Most American children attend St. Andrew's College. Founded by the Presbyterians, St. Andrew's is now a nonsectarian, coeducational school with a curriculum comparable to those in the U.S., although sequence of coursework follows the Irish system. American secondary students may opt to follow either the Irish School Leaving or International Baccalaureate curriculum during their last 2 years. Credit is easily transferred to U.S. schools. With the aid of a State Department grant, the school has an American teacher of U.S. studies. The Irish grading system is more rigorous. Report cards are meant to be shared only by the student, parents, and teachers. American college applicants need special guidance in preparing applications that adequately explain the Irish system or their reported grades may often appear low. St. Andrew's College will prepare transcripts for U.S. colleges that explain Irish grades. St. Andrew's is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges, Ireland's Department of Education, and the European Council of International Schools.
Irish ninth graders must take a rigorous examination called the Junior Certificate. The examination covers a 3-year cycle in mathematics, science, English, history, geography, Irish, and business studies. Although foreign students who have not made the entire cycle may be exempted from the exam, some may choose to take it as much of the ninth year is spent preparing for it.
The 10th year is seen as a decompression year sandwiched between the high pressure Junior Certificate exam and the even more intense Leaving Certificate test held at the end of the senior (12th grade) year of high school. Although the Ministry of Education dictates the subjects covered during the 10th grade, methods of instruction differ from school to school. It is the only opportunity Irish students have to sample many different subjects without the pressure of external examination. The 11th and 12th grades are geared to passing the highly competitive Leaving Certificate, the key to admission to Irish universities. Although foreign students may be exempted from the Leaving Certificate, juniors and seniors should join their Irish classmates in preparing for it. Leaving Certificate studies provide good preparation for the American SAT examinations that are also given in Dublin.
School uniforms are required for students.
Our Junior School. The Junior School has its own principal and specially trained staff. The full range of elementary education subjects is taught: reading, writing, mathematics, environmental studies, art, music, nature study, hand-work, Irish, Latin, a basic introduction to continental languages, and computer studies. Project work, physical education, and sports are also an important part of the curriculum.
The final year of the Junior School course is specially designed to prepare pupils for transition to the Senior School.
This transition takes place at the age of 11-12. Saint Andrew's also receives a large influx of pupils from other elementary schools at this stage.
Special Educational Opportunities
Dublin has five universities-Trinity College, University College Dublin, Dublin City University, American College, Portobello College. Some technical, business, and professional (e.g., medicine, law) courses have higher fees. Ample opportunities exist for continuing education in Dublin through the universities, community and vocational schools, and foreign cultural institutes. A Guide to Evening Classes in Dublin is published each fall and also lists many daytime classes and activities for children. Purchase it at any bookstore or newsstand. In addition to such things as crafts, hobbies, business, and domestic skills, nearly all community and vocational schools offer lessons in Irish. Many schools offer classes on Irish culture, history, literature, and music and dance.
Despite the changeable weather, the Irish are great sports enthusiasts. Many opportunities exist for the active sportsperson and spectator alike. The Irish Tourist Board, "Bord Failte," has detailed information on sports activities. All equipment and clothing for locally popular sports are sold in Dublin.
Horse racing is a central feature of Irish sporting life. Irish horses have a fine record in events in England and other countries. Several leading courses are within easy reach of Dublin. The world-famous Irish Derby, the Irish St. Ledger, the Guinness Oaks, and other events are held at the Curragh in County Kildare, about an hour's drive from Dublin. The flat racing season is March to November. Steeplechase meetings take place throughout the year. Point to Point meetings are held in the spring. Racecourses within easy reach of Dublin are: Leopardstown, Fairyhouse, Nass, the Curragh, Navan, and Punchestown.
Greyhound racing is well established with many tracks throughout Ireland. Clomnel, County Tipperary, is the home of the Irish Coursing Club. Many thousands of dogs are registered in the Irish studbook each year, and greyhounds are a major Irish export.
Good riding stables are located near Dublin, and dozens more across the country offer both instruction and horses for hire. The Irish Horse Board, "Bord nag Capall," publishes a pamphlet called Where to Ride in Ireland.
Fish are plentiful in the rivers, lakes, and coastal waters of Ireland. The most common are lake and sea trout, salmon, and coarse fish. Although the best salmon streams are privately owned and strictly controlled, you can arrange a lease for a specified period at a moderate price. In addition, salmon and trout fishing are free in many areas subject only to the boat and boatman's hire fees. Those traveling to western Ireland for their angling can make all the arrangements, including any required permits, through their hotel or guesthouse. Sea fishing is good all around the Irish coast; the more popular areas are off the coasts of Cork, Mayo, Kerry and Wexford.
Hunting in Ireland usually means fox hunting, but there are also stag hunts and harriers. The season starts in October and ends in March. Club hunting takes place from September to November; these events are held early in the morning and arrangements can be made through a riding stable or the Honorary Secretary of the Hunt.
Shooting facilities in Ireland for sportsmen are limited and strictly controlled. Firearms certificates and hunting licenses are generally issued to visitors who have access to bona fide shooting arrangements or who have made advance booking with a recognized shoot; the number of certificates granted in respect to each shoot is controlled. Excellent shooting grounds, especially in the west of Ireland can be found. For queries on how to obtain a firearm certificate, you may call the Irish Department of Justice at 01-602-8202.
Within 20 miles of Dublin, you can find more than 45 private and public golf courses in all, many situated in splendid surroundings. Visitors are welcome at any club. Membership is difficult to obtain, some clubs have a 12-year waiting list, and is very expensive, since temporary membership fees are nonrefundable. It is possible to play on these courses for modest greens fees. The most popular courses in Dublin are Carrickmines, Elm Park, Killiney, and Portmarnock.
Dublin has many tennis, badminton, and squash clubs. Membership in these can also be expensive and difficult to arrange, and nonmembers are not permitted to use the courts. Public tennis courts are also available, but they can be crowded on weekends and evenings in summer.
Camping, hill walking, and cycling are popular. Access to mountain and moorland trails is free. The Irish Tourist Board has information on campgrounds, national parks and forests, organized trails, and hostels.
Strong winds and rough seas limit water activities. Swimming is popular among the Irish who are not deterred by the cold water. Dublin also has scuba diving schools and clubs that offer introductory lessons. Yachting is popular for those who can afford it, with centers located in Dublin and Cork harbors. Rowing is more popular than yachting, and numerous rowing clubs abound. The rivers and canals are easily navigated and offer beautiful countryside. You can also hire cruise boats for a splendid holiday on the Shannon River.
Irish hurling, a kind of field hockey, is one of the world's fastest field games. Hockey sticks and head injuries symbolize this rough-and-tumble sport. Camogue, a woman's game based on hurling, is played by many schoolgirls. Gaelic football is related to rugby and soccer. The annual all-Ireland finals of both hurling and Gaelic football command national attention. Both games are regulated by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), founded in 1884 and a major force in the national revival movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Handball, played with an extremely fast hard ball, is also a traditional game in Ireland. Many young people play rugby, cricket, and soccer at school and in athletic clubs.
Touring and Outdoor Activities
In and around Dublin are many places of interest to visit. In the oldest part of the city are the Church of Ireland Cathedrals of St. Patrick and Christ Church, and other interesting churches such as St. Michan's. You may visit Dublin Castle, parts of which date to the 13th century, which was the center of British rule in Ireland for centuries. Many fine 18th-century public buildings are open to the public, including the Bank of Ireland, formerly the Parliament House; Leinster House, seat of the Dail; Mansion House, residence of Dublin's Lord Mayor; the Custom House; Four Courts and King's Inn; the General Post Office; and the earlier Royal Hospital at Kilmainham.
Trinity College, aside from its lovely squares and notable buildings, houses the nation's finest library. Among the famous manuscripts and early printed books is the Book of Kells, a masterpiece of Celtic illumination. Dublin also offers a small number of very interesting museums. The National Museum houses the finest collection of Irish antiquities and an assortment of decorative arts. The National Gallery of Ireland contains an important collection of European paintings, while the emphasis at the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery is on changing exhibitions of contemporary work.
The Chester Beatty Library and Gallery of Oriental Art is devoted to the arts of the book and offers changing selections from one of the world's great collections of Islamic and Asian manuscripts. Kilmainham Gaol Historical Museum is the prison that held generations of Irish patriots. Within its walls, the leaders of the 1916 uprising were executed. It reopened in 1966 as a historical museum and has conducted tours.
Several beautiful parks can be found throughout Dublin. Phoenix Park, one of the world's largest urban parks, encloses the Zoological Gardens and the residences of the President of Ireland and the U.S. Ambassador. The National Botanic Gardens are located in Glasnevin in north Dublin. The fine Georgian squares of Dublin-St. Stephen's Green, Merrion Square, and Fitzwilliam Square-are also worth seeing. Well-preserved rows of Georgian houses surround Fitzwilliam and Merrion Squares.
Within an hour's drive of Dublin are many historic sights. Beautifully situated in the Wicklow Mountains are the ruins of the medieval, monastic community of Glendalough. The Hill of Tara, the ancient religious, political, and cultural capital of Ireland, lies north of the city. In a better state of preservation are two great houses-Castletown House and Russborough House; a castle, Malahide Castle; and the magnificent gardens of Powerscourt.
Rising just south of the city, the Wicklow Mountains offer grand scenery of green hills, bogs, forest, lakes, and waterfalls for those who like to hike, cycle, camp, or just go for a day's drive from the city.
Ireland is a small country; you can reach almost any point within a 5-hour drive from Dublin. The roads are paved, but mostly narrow and winding. The Irish countryside offers a change of scenery. The western coastline attracts many tourists with its sea cliffs and low-lying but rugged mountains: the Ring of Kerry, the Cliffs of Moher, and further north, the wild countrysides of Connemara and Donegal. On the Aran Islands off Galway Bay, the everyday language is Irish, and many aspects of traditional life are preserved. Indeed, in the villages and farms, you may glimpse the slower, more traditional lifestyle of the Irish.
Among the sights to explore are many ruined and restored castles such as Blarney, near Cork, with its fabled stone of eloquence; Bunratty, which holds nightly medieval banquets; and the well-preserved stronghold at Cahir. Medieval churches and monasteries include the great complex atop a rocky out-cropping at Cashel, the ancient monastic city of Clonmacnoise, the Romanesque church at Clonfert, and the Gothic abbeys of Jerpoint and Holycross. The country is littered with pre-Christian ring forts, stone circles, and tombs. One of the best is Newgrange, 30 miles north of Dublin. At the Craggaunowen Project near Limerick, a neolithic ring fort and island crannog (lake dwelling) have been completely reconstructed. Many great houses of the 18th and 19th centuries are open to the public, including Muck-ross House, overlooking the lakes of Killarney, Bantry House, and Westport.
Downtown Dublin has a dozen movie theaters, several of them multiscreen cinemas, showing recent American and British films, usually within a few months of their release.
The Abbey, Peacock, and Gate Theaters are among the best theaters in Dublin, and each presents a new play every month or two. The Gaiety and Olympia also present frequent changing shows ranging from serious dramas to musical reviews and rock concerts. Several small playhouses are active in Dublin and present first-rate theater. During the Dublin Theater Festival in the fall, dozens of foreign troupes perform.
The Dublin Grand Opera Society and Dublin City Ballet are not world-class companies but do provide appealing entertainment. The RTE (Radio Telefis Eireann) Symphony Orchestra performs regularly at the National Concert Hall. Many visiting chamber groups and soloists keep the musical calendar full.
For traditional Irish music, attend major concerts or simply frequent one of the "singing pubs," where informal sessions are regularly held.
Dublin has several cabaret shows, mostly a combination of folk musicians, singers, dancers, and comedians. Choose from among several discos, nightclubs, and ice-skating rinks for an evening out.
The most complete guide to regular and changing events is published in the biweekly magazine, In Dublin. A publication by the Dublin Tourism Board, The Events Guide in Dublin, is published biweekly and is also a good guide.
Many music festivals are held during the year. Among the more interesting are the Wexford Opera Festival, the Kilkenny Arts Week, and the Festival of Music in Great Irish Houses. The Royal Dublin Society's Spring Show, similar to a U.S. county fair, and the Horse Show in August present trade, livestock, and flower displays and some of the finest horse and pony jumping in Europe.
Dublin has many restaurants. Some are expensive, and the quality is generally excellent. Basic meals are wholesome and filling. Many pubs serve lunch and some have evening meals available.
Numerous clubs and classes in Dublin are open for membership and include: hunting, swimming, horseback riding, boating, yachting, shooting, fishing, hurling, Gaelic football, handball, squash, tennis, rugby, soccer, athletic, tenpin bowling, lawn bowling, cricket, camping, hiking, cycling, dieting, automobile, social, and cultural.
Americans living in Dublin include business representatives, students, spouses of Irish citizens, and many U.S. citizens of Irish background who reside in Ireland.
American women can join the American Women's Club. In addition to regular meetings, the club offers diverse interest groups and courses on Irish cultural heritage and tours.
The International Women's Club formed in 1982. The Club is composed of representatives from the various missions posted in Dublin, foreign women who have resided in Dublin a long time, and representatives from Ireland.
The Irish people are noted for their hospitality and affability. Ties between Irish and American families can be a key feature of Irish American relationships. Social entertainment outside the home usually consists of restaurant dinners or receptions. Members of the Rotary Club and Masonic Lodges can also attend regular meetings.
Cork, on the River Lee, is a principal port city with a long history of rebellion against English oppression. It is said to date from the seventh century, and was occupied and walled about two centuries later by the Danes. It established allegiance to England in 1172 but, during and after the Middle Ages, experienced much discontent and rebellion. Cork figured prominently in the 1920 fight for independence. Many of its beautiful public buildings were destroyed during the disturbances, and its lord mayor was assassinated.
Cork, whose old meaning is "marsh," has a population of approximately 133,000. It is Ireland's second largest city and a major shipping and brewing center. On Great Island in Cork Harbor, is Cóbh (formerly Queenstown), the starting point for the hundreds of immigrant vessels sailing for the New World in the last century.
Cork received its charter in 1185 from Henry II of England, and recently celebrated its 800th anniversary as a city with parades, festivals, regattas, and a full season of drama and music. Historical pageants revived ancient stories and traditions.
The city of Cork offers many attractions, among them noted University College (formerly Queen's); a fine municipal school of art with renowned galleries; churches and cathedrals, including St. Finn Barre's, on whose site the original community was established; a fascinating open-air market; and a popular race course. The Royal Cork Yacht Club, the first of its kind in the world, was founded in 1720 at the seaside village of Crosshaven in Cork Harbor; it remains the site of international races and Irish championships today.
A few miles from Cork is the mecca of Ireland's tourist attractions, Blarney Castle, whose famous Kissing Stone is reputed to bestow the gift of eloquence (or, more specifically, skillful flattery). The castle is in two sections—the narrow tower and battlements and, below, the fortress in whose wall the Kissing Stone is set. The small village of Blarney, now a craft center, was once a linen and wool hub.
A number of market and seaport towns surround Cork, some in the spacious upland country to the northwest, others in the rolling farmlands and along the coast.
Limerick, in the southwest of Ireland, is a familiar spot to the hundreds of thousands of travelers who use nearby Shannon Airport. It is a city replete with relics of Ireland's past, but also a bustling business, dairy, and agricultural center, and a hub for the salmon industry. Limerick is famous for the making of beautiful lace. The population here is about 56,200, but a drive through the narrow, crowded streets gives the impression of a much larger city. During rush hour, traffic often is at a standstill.
Limerick was England's first stronghold after the Revolution of 1688, and became known as the City of the Violated Treaty, a reference to the oft-violated agreement of political and religious rights which was signed with England in 1691. The Treaty Stone is preserved as a monument to the breached covenant.
Limerick was a Norse settlement in the ninth and 10th centuries, and was chartered in 1197. King John's Castle, built in the following century, is among the structures remaining from that era. St. Mary's Cathedral, even older, is another interesting historical spot here. Close to Limerick are Adare, Ireland's prize-winning village; and the national forest park of Currah-chase, once an estate belonging to the 19th-century poet, Sir Aubrey de Vere.
Galway, the most Gaelic of the Irish cities, faces the Atlantic on the west coast of the republic. The Spanish influence of its early traders still is conspicuous in much of its architecture and in the colorful dress of its people. Galway and the surrounding area are known for unsurpassed salmon fishing (in the Corrib River) and for the many and extensive oyster beds. An annual international oyster-opening competition, the longest running of Ireland's festivals, is held at Clarenbridge in County Galway; until recent years, when the festival became so large that it could no longer be accommodated there, its site was the nearby village of Kilcolgan, on the Weir.
The population of Galway proper is about 50,800. In the midst of the Great Famine of the last century, the town was a teeming way station for immigrants bound for the United States. In earlier times, it was known as the "City of the Tribes" because of the 14 families (or tribes) who settled and developed it. Galway became a flourishing center for trade with Spain and France.
The city itself is the center of what is called the "haunting wilderness of the west." The surrounding area is Yeats country, and was described by writer Eilís Dillon during Galway's fifth centenary celebration in 1984 as a "land of soft mists and silences." In this part of the country, the Irish language (not generally called Gaelic) is heard often in the shops and pubs and on radio and television. Galway was a major seaport in medieval times but, according to Áras Fáilte (the Ireland West Board of Tourism), the town fell into decline during the next few centuries by backing the losing side in England's civil wars and other upheavals. The famine of 1846-47 produced such heavy setbacks that it was not until the beginning of this century that Galway began its regrowth toward prosperity and prominence.
Among the city's many points of interest are St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church, built in 1320, and known by legend as the spot where Christopher Columbus attended mass before setting sail for America; University College, constituent of the National University of Ireland; Lynch's Castle, built in 1600 and now housing a bank; the Claddagh, an ancient fishing village across the river; Galway City Museum at the Spanish Arch; and the new Cathedral of Our Lady and St. Nicholas, built in 1965 on the outskirts of the central city.
Across Galway Bay, about 30 miles from the mainland, lie the Aran Islands (Arana Naomh) of Inish-more, Inishmaan, and Inisheer, communities of fishermen and subsistence farmers who live and work much as they did centuries ago. The men still fish in currachs, traditional canvas crafts, and the women still spin and weave their wool and knit the famous Aran sweaters which withstand the brutal winds and waters of the Atlantic. Irish is spoken here more than English, and there is a primitive quality to the islands that creates much interest for tourists and native Irishmen alike. The prehistoric architectural remains are in extraordinary condition. Kilronan, on Inishmore, is the chief town. It is possible to reach the islands by boat or air ferry.
Waterford, on the River Suir, is a port city in the southeast of Ireland. It has a population of approximately 39,500. Once a walled Danish settlement named Vradrefjord, it is now called Port Láirge in the Irish language. Waterford is probably known best throughout the world for the magnificent and much-coveted lead crystal which is manufactured here, but it also has other major industries, such as meat packing and dairy production.
Waterford has many places of interest. The towers of the Franciscan and Dominican monasteries date to the 13th century, a time soon after the charter of Waterford was issued by King John. There are both Catholic and Protestant cathedrals in the city (episcopal sees are located here) and St. John's College, a Protestant theological seminary. Sections remain of the city walls, built at the time of the Danish invasion, as does a massive fortress erected in the early years of the 11th century.
Each year, Waterford hosts the Festival of Light Opera, drawing visitors from throughout the British Isles and parts of Europe. Other major activities in the area include horse racing and golf at the nearby resort of Tramore.
CASHEL , in County Tipperary, southern Ireland, is famed for its Rock of Cashel, on which are the ruins of an ancient cathedral and tower. Cashel was the seat of the kings of Munster. Legend has it that it was here St. Patrick explained the Trinity by using a three-leaf clover. The town itself is small, with a population of about 2,500, but tourist activity swells its numbers considerably during the summer months.
CAVAN , the capital of County Cavan, is located in northeastern Ireland, about 60 miles north of Dublin. Cavan, situated in a rural county, produces bacon. The town developed around a Franciscan monastery during the 1300s; only the bell tower still stands. Cavan suffered damages in 1690 under repeated attacks by William III's English forces. The city has a modern Roman Catholic cathedral. Its population is around 3,300.
Situated nine miles southeast of Cork, CÓBH is a city of 6,590 in southwestern Ireland. It was renamed Queenstown in 1849 to honor Queen Victoria's visit, but resumed its ancient name in 1922. An important port of call for mail steamers and ocean liners, (the Titanic made her last port of call here) Cóbh has excellent facilities for docking. On the dock here is memorial to the victims of the Lusitania, many of whom are buried in the old church cemetery. The ship was sunk off Kinsdale in 1915 by a German submarine, thus bring the United States into World War I.
DÚN LAOGHAIRE (pronounced Dun Leary), lies six miles down the seacoast from Dublin. It is the main steamer terminus and mail port on the Irish Sea, and is a major sailing and regatta center. It also is the terminus for the car ferry from Holy-head (Wales). Its Martello Tower houses a James Joyce museum, and some of the author's original manuscripts are kept here.
KILKENNY , home of the 16th-century College of St. John, is located in the southeastern part of the country. It has a noted castle and cathedral. Its modern Kilkenny Design Workshops, which encourage and promote the work of Irish designers, have created much interest both in and outside of Ireland. Retail stores connected with the workshops are here in the town, and also in central Dublin. Kilkenny, a parliamentary seat in the mid-14th century, has a population of approximately 10,000.
KILLARNEY is a noted tourist spot in the center of the beautiful lake country. Traveling by car from the city, one can drive through the famous "Ring of Kerry," 110 miles of breathtaking beauty and enchantment, and one of the most spectacular drives in all of Europe. An unusual aspect of this journey deep into Ireland's southwest is the surprise of finding palm trees growing in a country thought to be cool and damp most of the year. The coastline temperatures here are warmed by the Gulf Stream, and subtropical vegetation becomes apparent in the farthest reaches of this corner of the nation. The town of Killarney, which is the urban district of County Kerry, has a population of around 8,000.
TRALEE , 20 miles northwest of Killarney, is a seaport and the capital city of County Kerry. Its population is about 14,000. It was in this city that William Mulchinock wrote the popular ballad, The Rose of Tralee, during the mid-1800s.
WEXFORD , in southeast Ireland, is a seaport city of approximately 12,000 residents. The town was long held by Anglo-Norman invaders, and some of its early fortifications remain. An international opera festival is sponsored here annually in late autumn.
Geography and Climate
The island of Ireland ("Eire" in the Irish language) is divided politically into two parts: Ireland and Northern Ireland. Ireland (informally referred to as the "Republic of Ireland") contains 26 of the island's 32 counties. Northern Ireland contains the six counties in the northeast and has been administered as a part of the U.K. since partition in 1922.
The 26 counties cover 27,136 miles, with the greatest length from north to south being 302 miles and the greatest width 171 miles. Ireland is separated from Britain by the Irish Sea, ranging 60-120 miles across. The central limestone lowland of the island is ringed by a series of coastal mountains. The central plain is primarily devoted to family farming and is also notable for its bogs and lakes. The highest peak is Carrantuohill in Kerry at 3,414 feet. Newcomers are immediately impressed with the beauty and charm of the countryside, which is dotted with historic landmarks and alternating rolling hills and pastures, mountain lake country, and stark sea cliffs. Dublin has a moderate climate. Temperatures range from 16°F to 75°F. The mean temperature during the winter is 40°F; in summer 60°F Annual rainfall is about 30 inches, distributed evenly throughout the year. Noted for its soft weather, rarely do more than a few days go by without at least a shower. Temperatures occasionally drop below freezing during winter, and light snow sometimes falls. During December, there are about 7 hours of daylight and an average of 1½ hours of sunshine. During summer, the average daily sunshine is 6 hours. Mild winds and fog are common and winds of gale proportion may occur, especially at night, from November to May. Humidity is fairly constant, averaging 78%. The climate is similar to that of Seattle, London, and The Hague.
The population totals 3.62 million. About a million people are in the greater Dublin area, with approximately 480,000 in the city itself. The next largest city is Cork (180,000), followed by Limerick (79,000), Galway (57,000), and Waterford (44,000). A high birth rate and the end of net emigration for the first time since the mid-19th century have led to a remarkably young population with roughly half under age 30. Although English and Irish (Gaelic) are the official languages, Irish is commonly spoken only in small enclaves, called the Gaeltacht, which are located in the south and west. The government is encouraging a revival of the Irish language, which about 55,000 natives speak.
The population is predominantly Roman Catholic (about 92%). The second largest religious group (about 2.3%) belongs to the Church of Ireland, an independent Anglican Episcopal Church.
After a prolonged struggle for home rule, Ireland received its independence from the U.K. as a free state within the British Commonwealth in 1921. The constitution was revised by referendum in 1937 and declared Ireland a sovereign, independent, democratic state. When the Republic of Ireland Act was passed in 1948, Ireland left the British Commonwealth.
Ireland is a parliamentary democracy, governed by the "Oireachtas" (Parliament) of two houses, an elected Uachtarán (President), who is head of state, and a "Taoiseach" (Prime Minister), who is head of government and holds executive powers. The two houses of Parliament are Dáil Éireann and the "Seanad Éireann." The 166 members of the Dáil called "Teachtaí Dála" or more commonly, T.D's, are elected by vote of all Irish citizens over the age of 18 under a complex system of proportional representation. An election must be held at least every 5 years. The Dáil nominates the Taoiseach, who selects all other ministers from among the Dáil and the Seanad (but not more than two from the latter). The President, elected by direct popular vote for a 7-year term, formally appoints the Taoiseach.
The Seanad has 60 members, 11 nominated by the Taoiseach, and the rest chosen by panels representing the universities and various vocational and cultural interests. Although the Dáil is the main legislative body, the Seanad may initiate bills and pass, amend, or delay, but not veto, the bills sent to it by the Dáil.
Ministers exercise the executive power of the state and are responsible to the Dáil. The "Tanaiste" (Deputy Prime Minister) assumes executive responsibility in the absence of the Taoiseach. Under the constitution, the cabinet consists of 7 to 15 members. Junior ministers are also provided. The Taoiseach, Tanaiste, and Minister for Finance must be members of the Dáil. The Taoiseach resigns when his government ceases to retain majority support in the Dáil.
The three major political parties are Fianna Fáil Fine Gael, and Labour. Fianna Fáil is Ireland's largest political party and the one that has ruled Ireland more often than any other. Fianna Fáil is currently in a coalition government with the Progressive Democrats, under the leadership of Taoiseach Bertie Ahern, after winning a June 1997 election. The government must call the next election by the year 2002, but also may do so before that time. A merger between Labour and the small Democratic Left was approved by both parties in December 1998.
Ireland considers itself militarily neutral and is not a member of NATO. Since 1973, Ireland has been a member of the European Community.
Irish law is based on English common law, statute law, and the 1937 Constitution. All judges exercise their functions independently, subject only to the constitution and the law. Appointed by the President, they may be removed from office only for misbehavior or incapacity, and then only by a resolution of both houses of the Oireachtas.
Ireland has a multitiered court system. The district and circuit courts have wide civil jurisdiction and, in addition, may try all serious offenses except murder and treason. Most civil and criminal trials take place before a judge and a jury of 12 citizens.
The High Court has original jurisdiction over all matters civil and criminal, but normally handles only appeals from the lower courts and rules on questions of constitutionality in an appeal or a bill referred by the President. Its members also sit on the Central Criminal Court and the Court of Criminal Appeals.
The Supreme Court is the Court of Final Appeal and is empowered to hear appeals from the High Court, the Court of Criminal Appeals, and the Circuit Court, and to decide on questions of constitutional law. Its president is the Chief Justice of Ireland.
Arts, Science, and Education
Traditionally, the Irish have excelled in the literary arts, from ancient Irish sagas and legends to the rich folklore which plays its part in country life. Anglo-Irish writers such as Jonathan Swift and Edmund Burke were active in the flowering of Irish Arts in the 18th century, while the 20th century has produced many writers and poets of note: William Butler Yeats, Seamus Heaney, Frank O'Connor, Flann O'Brian, and the foremost chronicler of Dublin life, James Joyce. Irish dramatists have played an influential role in the development of English-language theater: from Oliver Goldsmith, Richard Sheridan, and Oscar Wilde, to the 20th-century works of George Bernard Shaw, J. M. Synge, Brendan Behan, Samuel Beckett, and more recently, Frank McGuinness and Martin McDonagh. Each fall, Dublin hosts drama groups from around the world during the Dublin Theatre Festival. During the rest oft he year, you may choose from among 6-10 plays each week in the city's large and small theaters.
Music plays a central role in Irish culture. The national emblem is the harp, and Irish folk music continues as a lively tradition. Frequent concerts and recitals of classical music are held throughout the year. The National Concert Hall, which opened in 1981, is the venue for several concerts each week.
Artists in Celtic and early Christian Ireland excelled in metalwork, stone carving, and manuscript painting. Among the finest examples are the Ardagh Chalice and the Book of Kells. The countryside abounds with the archeological and architectural remains of many periods, including megalithic tombs, ring forts of the Iron Age, medieval abbeys, and castles. Around the country, but especially in and around Dublin, are many great houses and public buildings from the 18th century, when architecture and other arts flourished in Ireland.
Scientific research in Ireland is supported by several public and private institutions. The regional universities are active in many fields. The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies specializes in theoretical and cosmic physics; the National Board for Science and Technology is a major source of funding; and the Agricultural Institute is the largest research organization in Ireland.
Two private institutions provide significant support for the sciences. The Royal Dublin Society (RDS) was founded in 1713 to encourage the arts and sciences and to foster improved methods of agriculture and stock breeding. The RDS sponsors a Spring Show devoted to these methods and the famous Dublin Horse Show every August. The Royal Irish Academy, founded in 1785, promotes research in the natural sciences, mathematics, history, and literature.
The Irish Department of Education provides free primary and secondary education. Most schools are state aided, yet remain private and managed by their individual boards. Almost all have religious affiliations; many are not coeducational. Ireland has two universities: the National University of Ireland (NUI) and Dublin University. NUI has four principal constituent universities: National University of Ireland, Dublin; National University of Ireland, Cork; National University of Ireland, Galway; and National University of Ireland, Maynooth, which is also a seminary and Pontifical University NUI also has two "recognized" colleges: Dublin City University and University of Limerick, which emphasizes applied sciences and business. Dublin University, founded in 1591, has one college, Trinity College, Dublin (TCD).
Other third-level institutions include Dublin Institute of Technology, the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, a medical school; the Honourable Society of King's Inns, which trains barristers; and the National College of Art and Design.
Commerce and Industry
The 1990s have been a period of rapid economic development in Ireland. Dubbed Europe's "celtic tiger," the Irish economy in 1999 will likely enjoy the fastest growth of any industrialized nation in the world for a fifth consecutive year (average annual GDP growth has measured 9% since 1994). From being one of the EU's least developed countries in the 1980s, per capita incomes in Ireland have grown from just 69% of the EU average in 1991 to just under 90% of the average by 1998, and now measure an estimated $21,823. Most commentators attribute Ireland's "economic miracle" to the following factors: the decade-old "social consensus" on economic policy between employers, trade unions, and successive governments that has ensured modest wage growth and harmonious industrial relations; low corporate taxes and generous grant-aid for foreign investors; a high degree of macroeconomic stability with low inflation and interest rates; Ireland's membership in the single European market and its adoption of the single European currency, the euro, from 1999; and high levels of investment in education and training.
The Irish economy is highly dependent on international trade, with Irish exports of goods and services equivalent to an estimated 93% of GDP in 1998 and imports equivalent to an estimated 81%. In 1998, Ireland had a surplus on the current account of the balance of payments of 2% of GDP. Ireland's industrial structure differs from most other developed countries. Much of Ireland's economic growth in the 1990s is the result of rapid expansion by export-oriented, foreign-owned high-tech manufacturing industries, particularly in pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and computer hardware and software (over two-thirds of Irish manufactured exports are produced by foreign-owned industry). Accordingly, at just under 40% of GDP, manufacturing industry accounts for a much higher proportion of total economic activity in Ireland than most other developed countries. In contrast, nongovernment services, which are dominated by retailing, tourism, and finance, are less developed than elsewhere in the OECD. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which account for around 6% of Irish GDP, has declined rapidly in importance over the last 30 years, although they are still important employers in rural and peripheral regions of the country. Although Ireland has a market economy, state-owned companies in transport, energy, communications, and finance still account for over 5% of Irish GDP. Total public expenditure as a proportion of total income, at an estimated 33% in 1999, is well below both the OECD and EU average.
Although real incomes have improved markedly in recent years, the main benefit of rapid Irish economic growth has been a dramatic increase in new jobs. This has helped reduce unemployment, increase female participation in the labor force, and bring Irish workers living abroad back to Ireland. Unemployment fell to 6.7% in March 1999, down from an average of 15.6% in 1993. The main danger facing Ireland's fast-growing economy is overheating. Shortages of both skilled and unskilled labor contributed to growth in average hourly industrial wages of around 6% in 1998, up from an average growth of 3.6% in 1997. Other economic challenges facing Ireland include widening income disparities caused by rising wages for skilled workers in Ireland's high-tech industries, increasing infrastructure congestion (as evidenced by the traffic " gridlock " in Dublin's streets), fast growth in house prices, and the widening economic divide between the prosperous southern and eastern regions of the country and generally poorer regions along west coast and border areas of the country.
Ireland's economic "golden age" has been accompanied by an intensification of U.S.-Irish economic relations, both in terms of trade and bilateral investment. In 1997, the U.S. overtook Germany to become Ireland's second largest trading partner, behind only the U.K. Total exports from Ireland to the U.S. in 1998 were valued at $8.7 billion, while total imports into Ireland from the U.S. were valued at $6.8 billion. U.S. companies operating in Ireland account for much of the fast growth in Irish exports to the U.S. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, the stock of U.S. investment in Ireland in 1997 was valued at $14.5 billion, up from $8.4 billion in 1995. Furthermore, in 1997 Ireland was estimated to have received almost 25% of all greenfield investment by U.S. companies into the EU that year. Of the 1,500 foreign companies in Ireland in March 1998, the U.S. had 570. These U.S. operations employ almost 70,000 workers in Ireland, which represents a staggering 5% of total employment.
In May 1998, Ireland, along with 10 other EU member states, was confirmed as meeting the requirements for EMU participation. Accordingly, on January 1, 1999, the Irish pound ceased to exist as Ireland's national currency, and the new single European currency, the Euro, became Ireland's official unit of exchange. Irish currency will continue to circulate until the introduction of Euro notes and coins in 2002. Although the Euro will not exist in physical form until 2002, from 1999 on, inter-bank, capital, and foreign exchange markets will be conducted in Euros. All government debt will be redenominated into Euros, and stock prices will also be quoted in Euros. Retail banks will also be obliged to offer private and corporate customers Euro bank accounts. The loss of national control over monetary and exchange rate policy presents a major challenge to Irish policymakers. Under EMU, changes in wages or employment levels, rather than adjustments to exchange and interest rates, are the primary mechanisms for the economy to react to external economic shocks. For the average Irish citizen, however, this first stage in progress toward EMU has had no concrete immediate effect.
The Irish Congress of Trade Unions (ICTU) is the umbrella organization for most of Ireland's trade unions. Since 1987, collective bargaining has occurred in the context of national economic programs negotiated by representatives of government, trade unions, employers, farmers, and other "social partners." These 3-year programs establish minimum-wage increases and broad economic and social objectives, and have been credited with Ireland's strong economic performance and sustained period of peaceful industrial relations during the 1990s. Just less than half of the Irish workforce is unionized.
Dublin boasts dealerships and service facilities for most European and Japanese vehicles. Many drivers prefer smaller vehicles for negotiating the narrow, winding roads. Traffic moves on the left in Ireland, and right-hand drive vehicles prevail, though they are not mandatory. If you import left-hand drive vehicles, you should be aware that not only will driving be more difficult, but also, liability insurance premiums will be higher by about 20%.
Third-party liability insurance is mandatory and must be purchased from a local insurer. Insurers offer discounts for recent clean driving records, so bring a letter from your insurer indicating the length of claim-free driving. Currently, gasoline costs about $3 a gallon on the local market.
Dublin city bus service is uneven and ceases after midnight. A commuter train line follows the coast north and south of the city. Buses and trains are usually crowded. Taxis are expensive and may be difficult to obtain. Many are radio-dispatched, however, and most are clean and well maintained. Outside of rush hours, taxis may be hailed on the street with varying degrees of success.
All of the larger cities in Ireland can be reached from Dublin by private auto, rail, or intercity buses within 5 hours. Only intermittent stretches of four-lane highways exist in Ireland. Most roads outside the city are narrow, winding, and need repair.
Ferryboats travel between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales); Rosslare and Fishguard (Wales); Rosslare and Pembroke (Wales); Rosslare and Le Havre (France); Rosslare and Cherbourg (France, March-October only); Cork and Le Havre; Cork and Roscoff (France); Cork and Swansea (Wales).
London is 1 hour by air from Dublin, and flights to the Continent from Dublin are frequent. Delta Airlines, Continental, and Aer Lingus fly directly to Dublin from the U.S.
Telephone and Telegraph
Modernization of the telecommunications network has been underway to bring an outdated system into line with the high technology being employed in other countries. You can dial directly to about 180 destinations, including the U.S., and contact about 40 more via the operator. Improvements have progressed to such an extent that, except for the more remote areas and parts of Dublin, a telephone can be installed within 6-10 weeks of application.
Airmail, air express, and surface mail between the U.S. and Ireland is reliable. International airmail between Dublin and New York takes about 8 days, and surface parcels take 4-6 weeks.
Radio and TV
An autonomous public corporation, Radio Telefis Eireann (RTE), operates the radio and TV services with revenue from license fees and advertising. RTE radio broadcasts on three networks nationwide on VHF in stereo-Radio One, 2FM (popular music channel), and Raidio na Gaeltachta/FM3 Music (Raidio na Gaeltachta is the Irish language program, and FM3 MUSIC is a quality/classical music station). Radio One and 2FM also broadcasts on AM nationwide, and Raidio na Gaeltachta also broadcasts on AM in the Irish-speaking areas (The Gaeltacht). There are also many independent radio stations playing a variety of music.
RTE TV is broadcast nationwide on 2 channels-RTE 1 and NETWORK 2. An independent station, TV3, started broadcasting during 1998. The stations broadcast from early morning until approximately 4 a.m. or 5 a.m. weekdays, with extended schedules on weekends. In addition, with a cable system (available in most parts of Dublin) you can receive two BBC channels, two British ITV (Independent Television) channels, sports, and movie channels.
U.S. TV's will not receive local broadcasts without expensive modifications.
Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals
Seven daily papers are published in Ireland, all in English. Most emphasize local and national news, but the Irish Times provides more international coverage than the others. The leading British dailies and the International Herald Tribune appear on Dublin newsstands on the day they are published. A few popular U.S. magazines are also promptly available at the newsstands, e.g., the overseas editions of Time, Newsweek, Scientific American, and Omni.
British journals are freely available. Magazines ordered by U.S. subscriptions are much less expensive but arrive about 3 weeks late by pouch.
Dublin has several good bookstores; some offer secondhand books at reasonable prices. The public libraries are an alternative.
Health and Medicine
Competent specialists in all fields of medicine and dentistry provide satisfactory services, but their equipment is not always as modern as in the U.S. Obtain special medical or dental treatment before coming.
Drugs and medical supplies of almost every variety are sold locally. Some drugs normally found in the U.S. and other countries are not available.
Public hospitals and private nursing homes provide adequate treatment. Children under 12 are admitted only to children's hospitals.
The sewage system is modern, and community sanitation is good although below that for some U.S. cities. Water is potable and fluoridated.
Food handling is sometimes below U.S. sanitary standards. Because of the cool climate, refrigeration is used to a lesser extent. Meats may be displayed in uncovered cases. Nevertheless, these practices do not appear to present a special health hazard.
Among the general population, rheumatism and arthritis are common. Young children are now vaccinated against measles, mumps, and rubella with the MMR vaccine at about 15 months. Respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and asthma, glandular infections, and head colds are prevalent. No serious epidemics have occurred in Ireland for several years.
Have the triple vaccine (tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis) and TOPV for polio for all children. Immunizations of all kinds are available in Dublin.
NOTES FOR TRAVELERS
Passage, Customs and Duties
A passport is necessary, but a visa is not required for tourist or business stays of up to three months. For information concerning entry requirements for Ireland, travelers can contact the Embassy of Ireland at 2234 Massachusetts Avenue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008; telephone: (202) 462-3939, fax: 202-232-5993, or the nearest Irish consulate in Boston, Chicago, New York, or San Francisco. The Internet address of the Irish Embassy is: http://www.irelandemb.org.
Americans living in or visiting Ireland are encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy and obtain updated information on travel and security in Ireland. The U.S. Embassy in Dublin is located at 42 Elgin Road, Balls-bridge, tel. (353)(1)668-7122; after hours tel. (353)(1)668-9612/9464; fax (353)(1) 668-9946.
Ireland has strict quarantine laws. Most pets entering the country must be placed in quarantine for 6 months at the owner's expense. There is only one quarantine facility in Ireland and reservations are necessary and this process can amount to as much as $4,000. An excellent selection of all breeds of pets, reasonably priced, may be found in Ireland. Importation of certain types of birds is prohibited.
Firearms and Ammunition
Certain types of nonautomatic firearms and ammunition may be imported into Ireland.
Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures
As a member of the European Community, the Irish monetary unit is the Euro, which is divided into 100 cent. Coins in circulation are 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 cent and 1 & 2 Euro. Bank notes are 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 euros. The exchange rate approximates 1.15 euro to $1 US.
All banks in Dublin handle exchange transactions, and many offer Irish pound checking accounts. Banks will cash a personal dollar check, but might delay payment. Dublin has branches of Citibank, Chase Manhattan Bank, Bank of America, and First National Bank of Chicago.
The avoirdupois weight system and long measure are used. Liquid measure is based on the British imperial gallon. Ireland adopted the metric system in 1976 and is gradually eliminating nonmetric measures.
Jan.1…New Year's Day
Mar. 17…St. Patrick's Day
May (first Monday)… May Bank Holiday*
June (first Monday)… June Bank Holiday*
Aug. (first Monday)… August Bank Holiday*
Oct. (last Monday)…October Bank Holiday*
Dec. 25…Christmas Day
Dec. 26…St. Stephen's Day
The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:
Beckett, J. E. A Making of Modern Ireland 1603-1923. Faber and Faber: London 1981.
Fanning, R. Independent Ireland. Helicon Dublin, 1983.
Fisk, R. In Time of War. Andre Deutsch London, 1983.
Foster, R. F. Modern Ireland 1600-1972. Penguin Press: Cambridge, 1988.
Harkness, D. Northern Ireland Since 1920 Helicon: Dublin, 1983.
Kee, Robert. The Green Flag, A History of Irish Nationalism. Weidenfeld and Nicolson: London, 1972.
Lee, J. J. Ireland 1912-1985: Politics ant Society. Cambridge University Press Cambridge, 1989.
Lyons, F. S. L. Ireland Since the Famine. Weidenfeld and Nicolson: Lon don, 1973.
Martin, F. X. and T. W. Moody, ed. The Course of Irish History. Mercier Press Dublin, 1984.
Moody, T. W. The Ulster Question 1603-1973. Mercier Press: Cork, 1974.
O'Brien, Marie and Conor Cruise. A Concise History of Ireland. Thames and Hudson: London, 1973.
Government and Politics
Chubb, B. The Government and Politics of Ireland. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press: London, 1982.
Coombes, D., ed. Ireland and the European Communities. Gill and McMillan Dublin, 1983.
Gallagher, M. Political Parties in the Republic of Ireland. Gill and McMillan Dublin, 1985.
Keatinge, E. A Place Among the Nations Issues in Irish Foreign Policy. Institute of Public Administration: Dublin 1978.
Keatinge, P. A Singular Stance, Irish Neutrality in the 1980s. Institute of Public Administration: Dublin, 1984.
Kelly, J. M. The Irish Constitution. 2nd ed. Jurist: Dublin, 1984.
Northern Ireland: Questions of Nuance. Blackstaff Press: Belfast, 1990.
O'Malley, E. The Uncivil Wars, Ireland Today. Houghton, Mifflin: Boston, 1983.
Meenan, James. The Irish Economy Since 1922. Liverpool University Press: Liverpool, 1970.
The New Ireland Forum: Studies and Reports on Specific Matters. The Stationer Office: Dublin, 1984.
OECD Economic Surveys, Ireland. OECD, Paris: April, 1985.
O'Hagen, T., ed. The Economy of Ireland. Irish Management Institute: Dublin, 1976.
Understanding and Cooperation in Ireland (8 pages). Cooperation North: Belfast and Dublin, 1983.
De Breffney, B. Ireland: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Thames and Hudson: London, 1983.
Fogarty, M., L., and J. Lee. Irish Values and Attitudes. Dominican Publications: Dublin, 1984.
Greeley, Andrew. The Irish Americans. Harper and Row: New York, 1981.
Kennelly, B., ed. The Penguin Book of Irish Verse. 2nd ed: London, 1981.
O'Murchin, M. The Irish Language. Department of Foreign Affairs and Board na Gaeilge: Dublin, 1985.
O'Siadhall, M. Learning Irish. Institute for Advanced Studies: Dublin, 1980.
Reference Works and General Interest
Administration Yearbook and Diary. Institute of Public Administration: Dublin (yearly).
American Business Directory. U.S. Chamber of Commerce in Ireland: Dublin (yearly).
Cairnduff, M. Who's Who in Ireland. Vesey: Dublin, 1984.
DeBreffney, B. Castles in Ireland. Thames and Hudson: London, 1977.
Ernest, Berm. Blue Guide to Ireland. 4th ed. London, 1979.
Facts About Ireland. Department of Foreign Affairs: Dublin, 1985.
Joyce, James. Ulysses.
Nealon, T. and Brennan. S. Nealon's Guide, 24th Dail and Seanad. 2nd ed., 1982. Platform Press: Dublin, 1983.
Shannon, E. Up in the Park. Atheneum: New York, 1983.
Uris, Leon. Trinity.
"Ireland." Cities of the World. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." Cities of the World. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
|Official Country Name:||Ireland|
|Language(s):||English, Irish (Gaelic)|
|Number of Primary Schools:||3,391|
|Compulsory Schooling:||9 years|
|Public Expenditure on Education:||6.0%|
|Foreign Students in National Universities:||5,975|
|Educational Enrollment:||Primary: 358,830|
|Educational Enrollment Rate:||Primary: 104%|
|Student-Teacher Ratio:||Primary: 22:1|
|Female Enrollment Rate:||Primary: 104%|
History & Background
The Republic of Ireland is the second largest British isle, covering 27,136 square miles and bordered to the northwest by Northern Ireland; in the past it went by the Irish Free State (1922-1937) and Eire (1937-1949). Eire is still used by many persons as their name of choice for Ireland, also causing some confusion outside the country's borders. The capital city is Dublin, containing one-third of the Irish Republic's population. During the second half of the twentieth century, the presence of so many fine higher education institutions in Dublin led to the renovation or restoration of many neighborhoods that had been reduced to slums. The predominant religion is Catholic. Ireland's 26 counties have been free of British rule since 1922, which has resulted in some educational changes, including great emphasis on the Irish language, literature, customs, and history.
Beginnings: Ireland's history began during the Mesolithic Era. Hunters from faraway British Isles and likely even southwest Europe first settled this island west of present-day Great Britain. The country began to show signs of civilized development in the Neolithic period about 4000 to 2000 B.C. A communal people, the language of these Pre-Celtic people has been lost.
Celtic & Roman Influences: Ireland's rugged beauty has always attracted settlers and conquerors. The best known of these were the Celts, likely hailing from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), known for their skills as goldsmiths and artisans. Shortly before the birth of Christ, Celtic was the primary language of the country under the ruler of Celtic chiefs. For hundreds of years, the Celts failed to develop a sophisticated form of writing other than a means of documenting family names.
In 54 and 55 B.C., Julius Caesar won some skirmishes with the natives he encountered in Britain. His documentary writing preserved his experiences, and schoolboys in England and America at one time translated them for practice. Caesar referred to Ireland as Hibernia, translated literally as the place of winter.
Catholic Church's Preservation of Scholarship: During the Middle Irish period, poets and scholars were trained at church schools, historians believe. The evidence comes from writings that survive as clues to the period. Irish tracts reveal that a mentor called a foster father tutored a pupil known as a felmac. Scholars were trained in Irish law, history, and literature, as well as in Latin.
These schools, by the fourteenth century, had changed. Instead of religious scholars acting as tutors, non-clergy scholars taught subjects, such as verse writing, to their pupils. Students of medicine learned from Irish texts that had been translated from English medical books.
After Caesar, the name most renowned and associated with Ireland is St. Patrick (circa 385-461). In addition to his many successes as a missionary, Patrick is said to have encouraged the preservation of the old warrior chants by having the words set down for posterity. Although the details of Patrick's life are blurred (partly because his own Latin writings show no mastery of the subject), he was a Brit whose father was a Roman bureaucrat and, while young, he was captured in Ireland and spent six years in slavery as a herder; he escaped and was schooled in Latin and theology, though precisely where is mere speculation. Patrick returned to Ireland in 432 and set out to convert to Catholicism the people whose nation he had come to love. One result of these conversions is that Ireland by the sixth century had several established monasteries that were havens for the preservation (and copying) of manuscripts, culture, and learning.
After an invasion by Norsemen in the eighth century, Ireland was under Viking influence until the Irish king Brian Boru fashioned an army that fought for independence. In the eighth century, the population with the name Gael then, replaced the term Erainn that had been the name for the people of Ireland. In time, the term Irish became applied to the people of this nation, even though the term was derived from a Welsh word meaning "savage." The natives, to distinguish themselves from the Viking conquerors, used Gael.
During the beginning of the Middle Ages, Ireland maintained a reverence for teachings of the Church and Church documents. In turn, the monasteries preserved the old Irish tales and accounts of heroes and everyday life. These clearly would not have survived had the monks not copied them into their manuscript books. Ironically, it was the Catholic nation's policy of putting no local ruler above the Pope in the Vatican that led to Ireland's longstanding domination by Great Britain. The only pope of English ancestry, Pope Adrian IV, in a political agreement, gave Henry II, the former Duke of Normandy (who gained control of England by invasion), permission to serve as overlord of Ireland. This decision to turn Ireland into a fiefdom was disputed by the Irish as an illegitimate transfer of power. Lands owned by the Irish were given to absentee landlords in Britain, creating a peasant class existing in woeful ignorance and poverty. In spite of Henry II's edicts maintaining that there existed separate areas of church and state, in Ireland even in the twenty-first century, that line of separation frequently dissolved.
Political, Social, & Cultural Bases: Just as religion influenced the daily life, social divisions, and political upheavals of Irish life for centuries, so too has it had a profound effect on education in the Emerald Isle. That very upheaval and strong allegiances to the Church interfered with the development of a unified system of education in Ireland.
In the late 1500s, coinciding with the growth of Protestantism in the country, non-Catholics had decidedly better schools. While Protestant diocese schools and "royal schools" set up by the Crown benefited the wealthier Protestant class, charity schools inadequately supplied the needs of the children of poor Protestants during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The Catholic poor were largely ignored, their children termed urchins. One minister in 1712 said that when all the needs of the poor Protestant children were met, the schools then should try to assist the Catholic children. The charity schools were run by the Church of Ireland and were similar to those in Britain. Funding was supplied variously by parishes, landlords, clergy, and district governing boards.
The Church of Ireland was declared the state church in 1537 and remained so until 1870. In 1539, monasteries were declared dissolved, although it took some years for many to disappear. However, during much of the sixteenth century, nearly all areas of the country outside Dublin and areas of Northern Ireland were Catholic. The Crown brought Scottish settlers to Northern Ireland that were members of the Church of Ireland. During the closing years of the sixteenth century, the Church of Ireland made a conscious attempt to establish parishes in every county of the nation.
The royal schools were grammar schools started at the insistence of James I, the king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, who ascended the throne with the help of Elizabeth I. (Elizabeth, in 1587, executed his mother, Mary (Stuart) Queen of Scots, with no protest from James, after she was found guilty of plotting the death of Elizabeth). James, who authorized a version of the Bible still used today, was an erratic man who believed in the divine right of kings. These royal schools were started in the 1600s by Church of Ireland bishops, but perhaps because they were founded under coercion, had many deficiencies and poor supervision.
Higher Education History & Background: Like other political areas, higher education in Ireland has always had confrontations, although much less in the late 1990s and early twenty-first century. In 1591 (or 1592, as some claim), the oldest continuous university in the country, the University of Dublin was begun, with Trinity College as its only college. Throughout its history, the school's agenda and even curriculum displayed a marked Protestant orientation, though the state had a loosely enforced policy of giving no money for denominational higher education.
In spite of politics and religious rancor at times, Trinity, since the 1700s, has been one of Europe's respected institutions, highly competitive and fiercely proud of the highest academic standards. Its senior fellows ran the school as a sort-of personal fiefdom, and seniority among fellows, rather than scholarly accomplishment, was used to establish a pecking order. By 1792, the institution enrolled 933 students. The Catholic Church in Ireland entered the realm of higher education in 1851, establishing Catholic University with famed author and educator John Henry Newman as rector; Newman, a one-time Church of England minister who converted to Catholicism and became a Cardinal, was world famous for his book, The Idea of a University, and other writings. In 1883, it became the University College, Dublin, operated under control of the Jesuit Order (known also as the Society of Jesus). When all of Ireland was under British rule, Catholics in the nineteenth century were given first the Queen's University and then the Royal University of Ireland. But the government found it could not run a school catering to just one denomination, and Royal University became open to anyone passing entrance requirements.
Until 1970 when a long-standing Catholic boycott was lifted, Catholics tended to avoid enrollment at the Anglican-run Trinity College in Dublin, perhaps the best-known Irish university. Some Irish students of Presbyterian background also preferred to pursue their higher education in Scotland, rather than accept the dominion of the established faith. In truth, this religious atmosphere could not be escaped at Trinity since many prospective religious leaders of the Church of Ireland took their degrees here. After 1970, the student population became more diverse.
Constitutional & Legal Foundations
The fundamental rights of citizens to an education are among the rights guaranteed in Article 42 of the 1937 constitution of Ireland. The constitution was largely prepared by New York-born Eamond deValera (1882-1975), Ireland's most visible leader following the granting of independence from Britain, and the country's two-time president. The constitution acknowledges the responsibility of the nation to work with parents to entitle children to receive an education without cost to the family.
There also have been a number of important statutes directly concerning education. For example, the Medical Act of 1886 was concerned with ensuring the quality education of doctors; the law stated that graduates had to be educated in surgery, medicine, and obstetrics. The education of girls was done sporadically until 1892, when a law mandating compulsory attendance was passed. At the time, it only assured students of a primary school education and little more. In 1972, the law was changed regarding compulsory education, raising the age of required education to 15 years old.
The Vocational Education Act of 1930 established Vocational Education Committees (VEC) throughout Ireland. Such committees oversaw what then was defined as "technical and continuation education." Today, about 10 percent of costs pertaining to this area of education is VEC funded, while the Department of Education foots 90 percent of the costs.
Also related to education are the provisions of the Dublin Institute of Technology Act, 1992, and section 9 of the Universities Bill, 1997, that formalized by statute whether a new school of higher learning should be granted a charter or not.
If there is a deficiency in Irish education, it has been the lack of a guiding educational philosophy. However, the new curriculum that became effective around the turn of the twenty-first century may be a step in that direction. Child-centered learning is the goal, along with developing skills in all subjects, particularly science and instructional technology, while also concentrating on training students in the traditional basic subjects.
Around 1800 the Anglican Church was responsible for supervising the education of boys and girls at both the primary and secondary levels. But many areas of the country that were heavily Catholic were resistant, and some rural Catholic areas either had no schools or offered little financial support for them.
There were a few superior schools in Ireland, the education historian R.B. McDowell has written—the well-funded Royal School at Armagh, Enniskillen, and Burrowes. But these were the exception. Hence, Ireland, in many pockets of the country, relied upon numerous private academies taught by schoolmasters of various skill levels and education levels to educate students in cities and rural towns. Some of the schoolmasters were clergy. Others were women, and limited their students to young ladies (in the parlance of the time). Some offered room and board or meals only for the young people. Standard subjects were elocution, arithmetic, bookkeeping, foreign languages, and geography. The girls' schools added "finishing school" classes to raise cultured pupils.
Almost as it was in the Middle Ages when scholars traveled far and wide to recruit students and teach, in Ireland during the late 1700s and early 1800s, poor, learned men traveled to offer classes in barns and anywhere else a few students might be assembled. The schools were nicknamed "hedge" schools because they were as apt to be taught under the shade of a hedge as in a building, and they were of uneven quality—as likely to be taught by an itinerant, unqualified teacher as a scholar. In time, however, even some of the secret, underground hedge schools became permanent fixtures in a community, and the classrooms sometimes were the equivalent of mainstream classrooms with proper textbooks instead of merely a handy Bible or popular novels.
Nonetheless, Catholics, in particular, considered them a better alternative to Protestant schools or no schooling at all. Estimates during the 1820s were that as many as 400,000 pupils were in attendance at hedge schools. There were 9,000 such schools in existence in 1824, according to The Oxford Companion to Irish History.
In sharp contrast to the hedge schools, a handful of day schools associated with the Church of Ireland opened in Ireland that were the equivalent of day schools for younger children in England. In 1811, impressed with those schools, some business leaders from Dublin (who were Quakers and members of other sects) resolved to try to improve educational opportunities for poverty-stricken youth. These reformers called their organization the Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in Ireland, and their crusade resulted in the state granting funding. The Society also admired the pioneering work of English educational reformer Joseph Lancaster, founder (in 1801) of a free elementary school that organized one-room schoolhouses for the poor. Teachers enlisted their better students and designated them as monitors to train younger or less-quick-to-learn peers.
Following Lancaster's precepts, a monitorial system was installed at the Society's headquarters in Kildare Place in Dublin, and the hope was that superior teachers could be trained here. Each student monitor was given a bench with 10 students to school. In contrast to brutal methods of some schoolmasters, Kildare Place eschewed beatings in favor of shaming miscreants. But the daily practice of Bible reading infuriated Catholics in the country; they refused to accept the validity of the King James Bible and disagreed with the school'srefusal to interpret the scripture reading for students. By 1831, funding for the school dried up and went to the national schools where separation of church and state was followed in theory, though not in practice.
Enough students possessed sufficient literacy for the cities to support at least one newspaper and occasionally many papers. More sophisticated subscribers read Hibernian Magazine. Theatres did a brisk business entertaining a story-loving people. Dublin supported a lending library, and booksellers made a living off scholars and the well-to-do. But McDowell, the critic, said that the general state of Irish letters was poor then, the glory years of the great Irish playwrights at the Abbey Theatre and poets such as Yeats were still one century away. McDowell stressed that Ireland failed to measure up to comparison with the intellectual accomplishments of Scotland, let alone Britain.
Perhaps the most significant time in the establishment of a countrywide, state-aided educational system of elementary schools was in 1831, championed by Lord Edward G.S.M. Stanley. Conflicts immediately arose over the matter of keeping religious influence out of schools because the elementary schools were told that churches had the right to provide pupils with supplementary religious education. Even though, in theory, no aid was to be given to the primary schools and emerging secondary schools, in reality, religious influences permeated all levels of the educational system, particularly the school boards, which were headed by priests or vicars, depending on the district's religious makeup.
At first, however, Protestants were the main critics against "godless" schools, while Catholic leaders, worried about high illiteracy rates among their people, generally supported the state-run educational system, at least at first. Eventually, Catholics came to despise the system, saying students were exposed to pro-British and anti-Catholic influences. Nonetheless, the formation of national schools was an important step forward in the history of education in Ireland. It was intended to give an equal education to all pupils without meddling from churches. It gave Irish schools a semblance of structure, and it established a policy of local districts to pick up their fair share of costs for teacher salaries, school lots and building costs, and schoolbooks.
During the nineteenth century, as classes were taught in English, there eventually occurred a downplaying of Irish as the native tongue. During the twentieth century, following a great surge of nationalism after Ireland gained its independence from Britain, there was a clamor to restore the teaching of Irish once again in schools of all levels. However, as native speakers age and die, there are linguists who predict that the "true Gaeltacht" dialect may disappear; others are dedicated to its preservation. With Catholicism further losing its influence in the twenty-first century, some nationalists feel it is important to preserve all forms of the Irish tongue as a way to unify the nation.
Literacy: The INTO teachers union in 1998 founded a committee for the study of literacy issues in Ireland. The union announced that it was looking into strategies for assisting children with literacy problems. The committee concluded that Irish children too often perform below the literacy levels of other European countries. They have performed in substandard fashion in reading levels. INTO concluded that teachers must be recruited who are particularly trained in developmental studies and remedial education. In addition, areas of particular concern to INTO are adult literacy problems and the literacy deficiency of people living in disadvantaged areas of the Irish Republic.
Special Needs Education: In 1998, Micheal Martin, Minister for Education and Science, announced that the government had made the needs of special education students a priority. In particular, the government has ensured that children with autism will have automatic access to special classes. There also will be trained teachers available and the support and infrastructure to serve their needs. The pupil-teacher ratio of special needs youngsters is 6:1. The cost of the reforms in 1999 was estimated at nearly 4 million pounds.
Compulsory Education: In Ireland, compulsory education is from the age of six, theoretically. However, given the increasing role women have played in the Irish labor force, the majority of children enroll by the age of four or five. In 2000, some government spokespersons advocated cutting off free primary education at 18-years-old, but the proposal has met with parent indignation and media expressions of outrage in favor of giving slow learners all the time they need to graduate.
Female Enrollment: As in other countries, the education of girls and women was slow to take hold as a concept in Ireland. During the Middle Ages, Ireland truly was a land living in the Dark Ages when it came to schooling females. There were some gains in the 1500s, but those were lost the following century.
Not until the 1700s did some women from wealthier backgrounds not only show their aptitude for serious study, but also a number of female poets, writers, and intellectuals contributed significantly to Irish letters.
That somewhat of a turnabout had been achieved by 1831 is seen in the creation of a national school system that provided the same curriculum for males and females, as well as access to scholarships to acquire training to serve as teachers. However, clear to the end of the 1870s, those schools that charged tuition put emphasis on graduating ladies able to take their place in society.
Finally, in the late 1870s and 1880s, attitudes changed dramatically in Ireland, and women earned the right to pursue rigorous studies at the university level, forcing schools at the lower level to upgrade curriculum choices for women. At individual universities, administrators showed varying degrees of acceptance for female equality in education. In Belfast, Cork, and Galway, women who could afford the tuition took classes alongside males in the 1890s, but Dublin schools of higher education resisted compliance until 1910.
With the worldwide spread of feminism in the last half of the twentieth century, many inequities in the education of all females came under criticism. Slowly, the country moved ahead to enable women from lower income families to gain an education with the aid of public funding targeted for that purpose.
Academic Year: Many Irish schools are in session far fewer days than schools in other industrialized nations. The exceptionally shortened school calendar has been linked to dismal scores of many Irish students in science and mathematics, according to educational experts inter-viewed by The Irish Times in 1995. Only 35 percent of Irish schools remain in session for more than 175 days (with a high of 200 days), while 90 percent of schools in Scotland and England do so.
While 65 percent of Irish students who are 13-years-old go to school only between 151 and 175 days, in England and Scotland, less than 3 percent of students are in school for fewer than 175 days. Irish 13-year-olds scored next to lowest in a ranking of competing countries in science and scored eighth out of 14 in mathematics.
In 2001, as secondary teachers were involved in a dispute over salary, commentators noted that if higher pay scales were granted, teachers might be asked to teach additional school days to equal the number of days scheduled by English and Scottish schools.
Preprimary & Primary Education
Irish children tend to start school at a younger age than do other world children. Both junior and senior infant classes are the equivalent of preschool classes in most other countries. Ninety-five percent of all five- to six-year-olds are in senior infant classes, and 59 percent of four- to five-year-olds are in junior infant classes. Provision in national schools for children aged four and five is an integral part of the regular school system.
Children in infants' classes follow a prescribed curriculum that was introduced in September of 1999. Teachers are trained national school teachers; however, parents and media critics are loud in their denunciation of the preprimary school program and what is perceived as less-than-strong interest on the part of the state in this area. Eleven major reports from 1980 to 2000 have criticized the preschool program. According to the latest figures (1998), slightly more than one percent of three-yearolds in Ireland were in school full-time.
The Department of Education, in addition to regular classes offered mainly at private preprimary schools, also sponsors an Early Start Preschool pilot program, a program for children with disabilities, and the Breaking the Cycle pilot project for at-risk children.
Children are not legally mandated to attend school until their sixth birthday. Nonetheless, nearly 100 percent of five-year-olds and 52 percent of four-year-olds attend primary schools. Four-year-old girls are four to five percentage points more likely to be in primary school than are boys. Primary schools have expenses for the site and 15 percent of the capital costs paid by local communities. The state pays 85 percent of capital costs, plus an additional 10 percent in areas designated to be disadvantaged.
The Department of Education pays the salary of teachers. Schools are given a grant for a portion of expenses such as lighting, heating, cleaning, maintenance, and teaching materials.
At this level, Ireland's educators have been asked to increased emphasis on active learning and problem solving in their classrooms. Parent satisfaction with primary schools has generally been high. However, the Irish National Teachers Organization in 1994 conducted a study of six comparable schools in Limerick and Derry, finding wide differences in school funding between the two jurisdictions. Primary schools in the Republic of Ireland were said to be "under-funded and under-resourced" compared to Northern Ireland schools. The Republic of Ireland also displayed higher pupil-teacher ratios than their counterparts in Northern Ireland. The findings created considerable concern in Ireland, and led to cries for curriculum reform and additional government funding.
Six years later, a curriculum reform committee and consultants had addressed most of the major weaknesses in the primary system. A new primary curriculum was approved by the Minister of Education and introduced by the Department of Education in 1999-2000 to 3,000 primary schools for the first time since 1971, but some of the courses such as a social, environmental, and science course were delayed until 2002. Initial reaction to the curriculum was positive from both an important teachers union and the National Parents Council, both of which were involved in curriculum discussion.
More than 10 years in the writing, the new curriculum attempted to address low rankings in science among Irish students who had earned schools the criticism of media writers and parents. The curriculum emphasizes child-centered learning with skills development. Math (with an emphasis on problem solving), history, and geography were also given emphasis, according to The Times Educational Supplement. Science; educational drama; and social, personal, and health education were added to the new curriculum.
The changes were implemented by 21,000 primary school teachers to their 460,000 pupils. The curriculum was broken into 6 main areas and then subdivided into 11 subjects. Other important aspects include a revised Irish curriculum "based on a communicative approach;" a new English syllabus; and updated educational methods in language learning, reading, and writing.
In the Republic of Ireland, the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA), although not a statutory body, takes an advisory role to assist with the formation of a new curriculum. The NCCA consulted with course committees for each subject before sending a recommended curriculum to the Department of Education.
Textbooks: With the adoption of the new curriculum, educators and administrators have also discussed what they perceive has been an over-dependence on textbooks in the primary school curriculum. Educators say that too many teachers allow textbooks to drive their classes rather than using them as a resource in moderation.
A national system of education was established in 1831 that was intended to be nondenominational, but struggles between the Catholics and Church of Ireland members made that a near impossible goal to accomplish. That principle was reaffirmed in 1878 when the government established the Intermediate Education Board.
In the first half of the twentieth century, Catholic parochial schools included both minor seminaries and elementary and secondary schools. Facilities were generally aged and decaying. More emphasis was put on religion and the preservation of morals than on academic preparation. Textbooks were outdated. In part, some of the blame goes to shortsighted religious leaders, but some also goes to the exclusion of Catholics from Irish schools for so many years.
One of the major reforms in Irish education occurred in 1947 when the Education Act provided free secondary education in national schools. Then, in 1963, the minister of education carefully restructured postprimary schools into secondary and vocational programs. This coincided with increased secondary attendance owing to an increase in the birthrate following World War II. The government announced its commitment to education as crucial to the growth of industry and professions, as well as the nation's economic health and stability.
Because the Leaving Certificate, administered in the thirteenth year, is the primary entrance requirement for higher education, secondary teachers put considerable emphasis into getting their classes fully prepared. With only so many students accepted, there is pressure since even students that graduate in Ireland do not automatically qualify to get in. Far more applicants send in their application papers than can be admitted. Acceptances are given based on merit and scores on the final secondary school-leaving examination. Places for medicine and veterinary studies are especially competitive.
Curriculum Requirements: Republic of Ireland schools have set Irish (Gaelic) as the primary language of instruction since 1922 (part of the mandatory curriculum in 1928), although English is so widely used that nearly all Republic of Ireland schools qualify as bilingual.
In the Republic of Ireland, the main academic subjects in the curriculum are mathematics, history, geography, and a choice of other recognized subjects, usually science. A revised curriculum in all of Ireland is being implemented, marked by increased science emphasis. Students are asked to observe, perform experiments, and develop reasoning and inductive skills.
Much of the push for increased science emphasis can be credited to an organization called Forfás, overseeing the National Policy and Advisory Board for Enterprise, Trade, Science, Technology, & Innovation. Forfás encourages and promotes the development of enterprise, science, and technology in Ireland, including support for education at all levels.
Educational System: Pupils that expect to apply to university take up to nine subjects and a minimum of six subjects. After three years of secondary education, students complete the junior cycle and the junior certificate is then taken. The certificate measures achievement, but it is not used by universities for admission purposes. At the end of the final year of secondary school, students take the leaving certificate. There are two levels of achievement: the ordinary level and the higher level. Although both cover the same school material, the higher level requires more sophisticated responses.
Expenditure: Secondary schools have 90 percent of total expenses for approved building and equipment costs paid by the government. Teacher salaries and allowances, with minor exceptions, are paid by the Department of Education. Schools are expected to operate within the limits of a budget provided to administrators at the start of the school year. A capitation grant pays for ordinary over-head, library books, and partial computer expenses.
Until late in the twentieth century, when educators placed increasing value on instructional technology, computers were considered a luxury. If additional funding is required for computers, schools must participate in fundraising activities to meet the costs. Musical instruments and school trips also are paid with money raised through volunteer efforts. In 1994, critics of fundraising for free schools argue that the practice likely hurts the parents of school children in disadvantaged areas. Parents who are poor may feel obligated to make contributions and may suffer financially for their payments. Other critics say such parents have enough trouble putting money aside to send their children off to college eventually, as the poor of Ireland have long been underrepresented at the higher-education level.
Then too, in 2000 and 2001, employers have claimed that a shortage exists in workers trained to use computers, which has resulted in recent governmental attention to the perceived oversight. A national project called Schools IT 2000 was set in place to correct the computer shortages in education. To administer the program, The National Center for Technology in Education (NCTE) was established and asked to coordinate the program. An administrator and four staff members were hired to see that the directive would be carried out. The program is both exciting and extensive. Telecom Eireann gave each school a multimedia computer with an Internet connection. Also provided was a telephone line, free rental of the line for two years, and five hours of free Internet access.
Previously, the NCTE, together with the Department of Education and Science, provided schools with 15 million pounds in funding to buy 15,000 new computers and equipment in 1998 under the Technology Integration Initiative scheme. All schools in the free education system at primary and postprimary levels were given generous per-pupil grants. Because the equipment without teacher training is not useful, another 1.4 million pounds were granted to buy hardware for Teacher Training Institutions, Education Centers, and the School Integration Project. There also were nationwide seminars for teachers, and the NCTE provided hardware specifications and discounts from suppliers to help schools make wise computer choices.
Because teachers are expected to require computer support, the Schools Support Initiative developed a support network called ScoilNet, to give advice and assistance. The Department of Education and other offices are forming partnerships with corporations such as IBM as well. In 2001, arrangements were set in place for a National Policy Advisory and Development Committee (NPADC) to act as a support group for the Minister and the Department of Education and Science on the future implementation of computers and technology in the schools.
Foreign Influences on Educational System: Ireland continues to be an attractive destination for students pursuing an undergraduate, postgraduate, and professional education. Medical students find Ireland's prestigious programs, up-to-date facilities, and attractive setting especially appealing. The National University of Ireland or NUI, which offers a full-time undergraduate degree in Medicine plus specialist training at postgraduate level, reports that two-thirds of its full-time student population is made up of international students. The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) attracts both undergraduate and postgraduate students from more than 40 different countries and from all five continents. More than 65 percent of places offered to undergraduates each year are allocated to students from outside Ireland.
Dropouts: Since 1988, an educational program for those leaving school early was operated with the cooperation of local education and labor training authorities. The Youthreach Program provides two years of education, training, and placement for those between 15 and 18 who fail to earn a formal diploma. In 1991, some 3,336 persons enrolled in Youthreach but, by 1995, that number had dropped to 1,630 boys and girls.
The first or "Foundation" year provides skills classes, on-site job training, general education, and counseling services. The second, or "Progression Year," provides similar training, plus options such as training in specific skills, temporary employment, or additional education. In addition to secondary school dropouts, vocational colleges in Ireland have also become concerned about dropout rates for students that many educators perceive are rising at a troubling rate. Several colleges formed committees to get a handle on the problem in 1998. Colleges were also asked to compile accurate records showing what percentage of the entering class leaves prior to the start of the second year.
University, non-university, and private colleges provide higher education in Ireland. The number of applicants for places in third-level colleges outnumbers openings for students, and the dropout rate of first-year students is a national concern, causing critics to question the quality of the nation's secondary schools. Perhaps the most important occurrence in the behind-the-scenes running of Ireland's colleges was the establishment of a Higher Education Authority. This advisory board was an important adjunct to the minister for education, making recommendations on fiscal matters and on ways to upgrade colleges and universities. The Higher Education Authority and the Department of Education work in cooperative fashion. Higher Education in Ireland takes the form of universities, technology institutes, and colleges for teacher education. Additional institutions provide specialized training in art, design, medicine, theology, music, and law.
Since the 1960s, industry in Ireland has reported a shortage in skilled workers, particularly, after 1995, those with sophisticated computer skills. Since universities were unable or unwilling to address these needs, the government of Ireland set up the National Institute for Higher Education (NIHE) to upgrade and start technical colleges graded as third-level educational institutions.
Higher education in Ireland has changed considerably throughout the past two decades. The number of students enrolled has increased markedly with the establishment of teaching institutions with a technology emphasis such as the Regional Technical Colleges (RTCs). Most institutions of higher education are state-supported, meaning they receive more than 90 percent of their income from the State. Since 1975, additional universities in Limerick and Dublin were opened, and the Institutes of Technology were expanded to take more enrollees. Disciplines gaining favor from students since 1965 are in the arts, social sciences, technology, and business. Also since 1965, Ireland's universities have experienced a significant jump in enrollment from 21,000 in 1965 to nearly 97,000 in 1997.
Since the passing of the Irish Universities Act in 1997, eight universities operate in Ireland. These are the University Colleges at Dublin, Cork, and Galway; the National University of Ireland (NUI); the University of Dublin (Trinity College); Dublin City University; University of Limerick; and Maynooth University. Each of these colleges offers courses as varied as social science, the arts, Celtic studies, law, medicine, dairy science, veterinary studies, architecture, and agriculture. In addition, there are a number of designated third-level institutions that interact with the Higher Education Authority. These are the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, The Royal Irish Academy, the National College of Art and Design, and The National Council for Educational Awards.
In Ireland there also is a higher education unit called non-universities, and in 2000 there were 14 of them located throughout the country, including Tallaght and R.T.C. Co. Dublin, which opened in September of 1992. They provide higher technical and technological education.
In 1995, the government published a document called "Charting our Education Future" that said the nation was striving "to ensure the highest standards of quality in all fields, in order to provide students with the best possible education." The government's "White Paper," as the report was called, said, "the restructured Higher Education Authority will be responsible for monitoring and evaluating the quality audit systems within individual institutions. The system will be based on cyclical evaluation of departments and faculties by national and international peers preceded by an internal evaluation; arrangements for the implementation and monitoring of evaluation findings; and the development of appropriate performance indicators."
The Department of Education, university presidents, and the Higher Education Authority developed performance indicators for higher education institutions and their faculties that assess all activities, particularly teaching and research.
Admission Procedures: Admission procedures for universities and colleges of higher education set their own minimum entrance requirements. The office that acts as a coordinator for applications is the Central Applications Office. Scores on the school leaving-certificate examination are used to reserve places for students on a point system.
Applicants may be admitted to an Irish university if they have earned a Leaving Certificate or diploma that signifies the successful completion of 13 years of schooling with a minimum overall average. (Prior to 1999, a student had to show evidence of passing the Matriculation Examination of the National University of Ireland; the exam was phased out in 1992). Most higher education institutions use the Central Applications Office in Galway to screen applications. The Central Applications Office was established in 1976.
Enrollment: According to the Central Statistics Office, in the decade between 1988 and 1998, the number of Republic of Ireland students enrolled in full-time or part-time undergraduate courses increased by 72 percent. Over the same period, postgraduate students more than doubled. Of the 89,500 students in higher education in 1994, approximately 52,000 attended at the university level.
Professional Education: An institute of higher education offering training in medicine began in Dublin during the seventeenth century, but it was run haphazardly until 1711 when a medical school opened at Trinity College, Dublin. Even then, very few doctors chose to earn their degrees here. Most preferred to study medicine at established, prestigious schools in Great Britain or other European countries. In the earliest days of medicine, surgeons were associates of barbers and belonged to the Barbers Surgeons Guild. In time, a Royal College of Physicians of Ireland (RCPI) was established in 1654. Next, Charles II chartered a Fraternity of Physicians in 1667.
In 1713, a Dublin physician named Sir Patrick Dunn died and bequeathed a chair of medicine to Trinity College. Even by 1747, the number grew only to two additional distinguished professor chairs. In 1785 the school began a College of Surgeons. In 1816, the school was connected with a hospital and offered clinical studies, ensuring its reputation. Cadavers, as was the custom of the day as recalled in literature by Charles Dickens and Ambrose Bierce, were stolen from cemeteries in the night by grave robbers.
The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) was established in 1784 and now is associated with NUI. Ireland's most prestigious medical school, it is housed in an early nineteenth century building on St. Stephen's Green in Dublin. The renovated building contains state-of-the-art computer laboratories; modern lecture, theatre, and seminar rooms; and laboratories.
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, other prominent physicians expanded their practices by opening medical schools. A number of physicians in other cities also began to run them, but these failed to out-live the men who started them. In 1855, Catholic University also operated a hospital that eventually was taken over by University College, Dublin.
Members of the legal profession practiced law well before the twelfth century in Ireland. Formal schooling was required of attorneys during the sixteenth century. Prospective attorneys by 1628 were required to study at the Inns of Court in London, a professional school that, at the time, had been in existence for two centuries, for the required five years.
Catholics were prevented from becoming attorneys by means of a loyalty oath to the Church of Ireland that they were unable to take, lest their own Church excommunicate them. Lawyers who successfully passed the London Inns of Court and took the oath were admitted to the professional company of judges and lawyers in a society named the King's Inn (after the building that for a long time housed the society). Today, tradition continues as the Honorable Society of King's Inns and the Incorporated Law Society provide academic preparation in law for prospective attorneys to qualify respectively for barrister-at-law and for solicitor.
Vocational Colleges: By way of example, students seeking a career in tourism find an internationally acclaimed institute in the Shannon College of Hotel Management. It was founded in 1951 by educator Brendan O'Regan, as a source of trained managers for the Irish hotel trade. Shannon College is a hands-on college that uses internships to enable students to acquire on-site hotel experience to complement management training. Those earning the diploma in International Hotel Management are expected to demonstrate business skills, managerial skills, and fluency in one or more foreign languages. The National Council recognizes the school's diploma for Educational Awards, the National University of Ireland, and several prestigious industry associations such as The International Hotel Association.
Religious Institutions: Chief among religious institutions is the National University of Ireland (NUI), established in 1908. NUI is actually made up of three colleges: University College, Galway; University College, Cork; and University College, Dublin. The Royal College of Surgeons and St. Patrick's College, a training school for future priests, also are associated with NUI.
Private Colleges: In Ireland there are a small number of private colleges providing third level and professional education. By way of example, four of the major institutions are:
- The National College of Ireland (NCI) located in Dublin is an independent institution specializing in industrial relations, management, and related areas; it offers a National Diploma in Personnel Management (4-year evening course) and a B.A. in Industrial Relations (5-year evening course) conferred by the NCEA.
- The Shannon International Hotel School offers a four-year Diploma in Hotel Management. The final year includes a management internship in the United Kingdom or United States.
- The National College of Art and Design (NCAD) offers sub-degree, primary degree, and graduate programs in its specialty areas.
- The American College offers degrees and diplomas in the humanities, business, international law, and psychology. Validation is from a university in the United States.
Degrees Offered: A bachelor degree is obtained after a three- or four-year full-time course or comparable period of part-time study. This degree is usually pursued in a particular subject or field of study. The Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) program requires three or four years' study, while Bachelor degrees in Medicine and Dentistry require six years of study.
Postgraduate Training: A Graduate Higher Diploma is generally obtained after one or two years of postgraduate study. A research thesis is generally required. A Master's degree requires course work, a research project, and examination in a specific field of study. The normal duration of study is from one to three years following the Bachelor degree.
The Doctorate is the highest academic qualification awarded in Ireland. The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.) Degree, Doctor in Letters (D.Litt.), Doctor in Science (D.Sc.), and some others may be obtained only by research and are, in general, completed in one to three years after the Master's Degree.
National & Government Educational Agencies: Higher education in Ireland is managed only at the national level and not administered by regional agencies in Ireland. The government has entrusted its Department of Education to oversee and administer the country's system of higher education—known as the third level. The vocational schools, also known as technical institutes, get operating funds from the Department of Education; however, the Universities and some colleges of education apply for funding from the Higher Education Authority (HEA). Other third level institutions provide specialist education in areas such as the arts or the professions and business, but these, too, get the bulk of budgetary funding through the state.
The state has reacted to strong criticisms of its higher education facilities by taking a far-reaching role in educational matters. Most conspicuously, it founded the HEA in 1969 to keep a master plan for such institutions, as well as to possess budgetary powers. In addition, an agency was formed to monitor standards and curriculum matters in 1972. The National Council for Educational Awards (NCEA) oversees both undergraduate and graduate school matters under its jurisdiction. Another bureaucratic addition came about in 1976 to take over certain administrative duties such as processing applications from persons applying for courses at the universities, some specialty colleges, and a number of private colleges as well. This agency is called the Central Applications Office (CAO).
Expenditures: Public moneys appropriated for pre-school, primary, and secondary schools fall short of those spent by many comparable European nations, but Ireland's spending on higher education compares favorably with rival countries, according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). In 1993, the Republic of Ireland spent 1.7 billion pounds (US$2.6 billion) on education. Areas where the Republic of Ireland falls relatively low in preschool, primary, and secondary education were pointed out by a study issued by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development in 1995 (though based on 1992 figures). The OECD finds Ireland deficient compared to other European countries in per-pupil expenditures at the preschool, primary, and secondary levels.
The Department of Education: The Department of Education administers public education, including primary, postprimary and special education. State subsidies for universities and third level colleges are given out through the Department. The three main levels of the education system are first, second, and third levels. The first and second level is referred to generally as primary and post-primary, respectively. The mission statement of the Department of Education says its purpose is "to ensure the provision of a comprehensive, cost-effective, and accessible education system of the highest quality, as measured by international standards, which will enable individuals to develop to their full potential as persons, and to participate fully as citizens in society, and contribute to social and economic development."
Nonformal Education: Teachers in Ireland frequently find teaching aids and sources from 1 of 30 part-time and full-time Education Centers in the country. These centers offer various support services and resources to teachers and to other partners in education. Two of the best known are the Blackrock Educational Center and Dublin West Education Center. These centers also keep an online presence with information on how to access contact persons and information.
In 2000 and 2001, many Irish children participated in a multi-center project called Write-a-Book. Meant to be a celebration of writing and artistic abilities by Ireland's children, not a contest, the student authors chronicle their lives, cultures, and homelands. Each participant receives a certificate. A few outstanding books are selected upon merit, and an Irish television star or media personality presents awards to the children.
Continuing Education: Students who do not enter a university or technical college but wish postsecondary school training frequently elect to take additional course-work in vocational schools. More than 30,000 part-time students were enrolled in vocational, community, and comprehensive schools in 1994-1995. More than 300 courses are open to such students.
Vocational schools, as have other Irish higher education institutions, improved much in the 1990s. With industry jobs going begging in the late 1990s, many additional students found new institutions such as the Regional Technical Colleges (RTCs) a good fit for their needs. In 1996 the Minister of Education unfolded plans to also allow the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) to offer degree-granting programs for professional and managerial students.
Distance Education: Taking courses via the Internet, television, video, and radio—distance education—can be taken in addition to regular university courses or in place of university courses. Distance learning is equal to the amount of work performed in a regular classroom, but it is done at a time and place chosen by the student. No formal entry requirements are required for applicants aged 23 and older, making distance learning particularly attractive to adults and students getting a second chance at a college degree after dropping out earlier in life. Students also have the option of taking courses through the established Open University and the developing Irish National Distance Education Center (NDEC) headquartered at Dublin City University.
For students willing to give up the benefits of classroom instruction and close face-to-face interaction with professors and their fellow students, distance education is an option worth taking to earn a B.S. or B.A. degree that could not be obtained by traditional means. Course offerings include selections from literature, philosophy, history, psychology, and sociology. Another option is a BSc degree in information technology. Students choose from a course menu including management science, computing, and communications technology.
In 1834 a systematic teacher-training program began in Dublin at certain model schools for male and female students. There were about 25 model schools there by 1850; the training period lasted six months. For a time, both Protestant and Catholic students attended these schools, but in the mid-1860s Catholic authorities forbade students from attending, not wanting the Protestant influence on the children. When teacher training became more formalized, the schools no longer were used to train teachers but, nonetheless, many of the schools continued to exist until the twentieth century.
Irish teacher training involves several differences between primary and second level schoolteachers. Second level teachers usually complete a primary degree at university and then follow up with a Higher Diploma in education at a university. Primary school teachers complete a three-year program, leading to a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, at a teacher training college. St. Patrick's College, Church of Ireland College, St. Mary Marino and Froebel College of Education are based in Dublin. Mary Immaculate College is based in Limerick. One criterion for primary school teacher training in Ireland is proficiency in Irish.
Student-Teacher Ratio: In 1997-1998 the teacher-student ratio was 19 pupils per teacher in the Republic of Ireland. This was two more pupils per teacher than in Northern Ireland.
The Training of Agriculture Instructors: The government involved itself in national agricultural operations, such as the training of teachers in agriculture-related subjects, in 1899. Ireland that year created the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction (DATI), hoping that education and scientific farming methods could prevent a recurrence of the Great Famine that ravaged Ireland from 1845-1849. Heavily dependent upon potatoes, a non-native crop brought to Europe from South America by the Spanish in the sixteenth century, Ireland's potato crop was ruined by blight caused by a fungus possibly introduced with imported fertilizer. Up to one million people died from starvation and disease, and many more Irish emigrated to the United States and other countries.
In addition to agriculture, the maintenance of fisheries, and the keeping of agricultural statistics, the Department of Agriculture involved itself in the training of teachers in such areas as health, science, plant breeding, and animal husbandry. Unfortunately, the department failed to establish a clear division of powers with the Congested Districts Board (CDB). The CDB, begun in 1891 as a board intending to improve agriculture in areas of extreme poverty, was given large amounts of money in its budget and the power to arrange training of agricultural instructors.
As is true of other areas of politics in Ireland, the DATI and CDB never could resolve differences. DATI ceased to exist in 1922 and a Department of Lands and Agriculture came into being. Although both groups were involved in strife, and the CDB was scored for chronic mismanagement of funds, a number of good instructors were trained, and Irish farmers and poor townspeople learned the dangers of relying upon a single crop for sustenance.
Students unwilling or unable to obtain a college degree may opt to attend classes and on-farm-site training to qualify for a Certificate in Farming. This three-year agricultural education and training program provides basic skills training in animal and crop husbandry, farm equipment and machinery, and environmental conservation.
The Farm Apprenticeship program is carried out by the Farm Apprenticeship Board. An apprentice begins the program with one year of courses at a recognized agricultural college and then begins an apprenticeship with a sponsoring farmer.
Unions & Associations: Three unions, the Association of Secondary Teachers, Ireland; the Irish National Teachers' Organization; and the Teachers' Union of Ireland represent Ireland's teachers. The Association of Secondary Teachers is the union representing secondary school teachers in Ireland. The Irish National Teachers' Organization was founded in 1868 and is the largest teachers' trade union in Ireland; it represents teachers at the primary level in the Republic of Ireland. The Teachers' Union of Ireland's teachers and lecturers work in vocational schools, community and comprehensive schools, Institutes of Technology, and colleges of education.
The reputation of the teachers' union was dealt a damaging blow in 2001, as media reporters, parents, and students condemned a pay dispute by secondary teachers who used their students as pawns in an effort to get the government to accede to their demands. The striking union, the Association of Secondary Teachers, Ireland, made an attempt to force the government's hand by claiming it might fail to process the Leaving Certificate examination needed by students for entry into Irish universities.
Just as upset as parents and students were teachers, among the lowest paid in Europe, and envious of Northern Ireland schools with better resources, who expressed anger and resentment over the nation's failure to reward their hard work as teachers with the competitive pay rate they felt they deserved. The government treated the teachers' demands as a bluff. By April 7, 2001, so many teachers had agreed to correct the Leaving Certificate out of concern for their students or fear for their jobs that the union clearly had been defeated.
The other unions also decried low wages but agreed to an arbitration process called benchmarking, which was intended to bring teacher salaries on a par with wages paid to other types of employee groups in Ireland.
Since the 1960s, the Irish have been aware of serious deficiencies in the educational system. Reforms, however, have been incomplete and less than satisfactory, as several studies and self-studies note.
In 1966, a research team headed by educator Patrick Lynch completed a thorough analysis of the primary and secondary systems and produced a scathing report called "Investment in Education." In 1967, a report completed by a special commission on higher education concluded that the third-level was no less problematic. Changes were implemented immediately, although these were less successful than ministers of education, parents, and politicians hoped they would be. The primary level revamped its curriculum. Smaller secondary schools with aging facilities and other deficiencies were consolidated with stronger schools into institutions with a modern look and characteristics. Of utmost importance, the government made it possible for many of Ireland's sons and daughters to receive an education at state expense.
The combination of free schools and better facilities pleased parents immensely. In 1965-1966, there were 143,000 students enrolled in postprimary schools. Fifteen years later, 301,000 students enrolled. For the immediate future, Ireland's educational prospects continue to look promising at the university level in particular. In 1995, the Steering Committee on the Future Development of Higher Education released projections of a total enrollment of 120,000 students in higher education by 2005. The predicted increase has been attributed at an economic boom, technological development, and greater opportunities for lower-income students.
According to a new report released in 2001 by census officials, more than 25 percent of all births in the Republic of Ireland now occur outside marriage. The information is contained in a new compendium publication Ireland, North and South —a statistical profile that has been jointly produced by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) and the Republic of Ireland's Central Statistics Office (CSO). The high number of children from one-parent homes is expected to have an effect on primary education in Ireland by 2005, and it eventually will affect secondary schools.
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Fitzgerald, Garret. "A Lesson to be Learned from the Teachers' Strike." The Irish Times, 7 April 2001.
Fry, Peter, and Fiona Somerset. A History of Ireland. London: Routledge, 1988.
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McMahon, Sean. A Short History of Ireland. Chester Springs, PA: 1996.
Moody, T.W., and F.X. Martin, eds. The Course of Irish History. Lanham, MD: Rinehart, 1995.
Moody, T.W., and W. E. Vaughn, eds. A New History of Ireland: Ireland Under the Union: 1801-1870. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
Scherman, Katharine. The Flowering of Ireland. Boston: Little, Brown, 1981.
Vaughn, W.E. A New History of Ireland: Eighteenth-Century Ireland. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
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Walshe, John. "Irish Unveil Curriculum." The Times Educational Supplement, 24 September 1999.
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"Ireland." World Education Encyclopedia. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
The Republic of Ireland
LOCATION AND SIZE.
The Republic of Ireland constitutes 26 out of the 32 counties that make up the island of Ireland, with 6 northern counties under the jurisdiction of the United Kingdom. Situated in Western Europe, it is bordered on the east by the Irish Sea from the United Kingdom and bordered on the west by the North Atlantic Ocean. With a total area of 70,280 square kilometers (27,135 square miles) and a coastline measuring 1,448 kilometers (900 miles), the Republic of Ireland is slightly larger than the state of West Virginia. The capital city, Dublin, is located on the east coast.
The population of Ireland was estimated to be 3,797,257 in 2000. There has been a steady increase in the population since 1994 (3,586,000), marking a historic turn-about in demographic trends. This is attributed to growth in the economy, a decline in previously high levels of emigration , the return of former emigrants, and an increase in immigration to the point where net migration is inward. Despite having one of the lowest population densities in Europe, Ireland's population density has reached the highest sustained level since the foundation of the Republic in 1922.
Emigration lowered population to under 3 million in the early 1980s. Birth rates declined from a high of 17.6 per 1,000 in 1985 to a low of 13.4 in 1994, but this trend has slowly been reversed, reaching 15 per 1,000 in late 1998. If the population is to meet the demands of the labor market, further increases will be necessary. Government efforts to attract further immigration and to increase the population are marred by housing shortages and service deficiencies.
At the 1996 census, 40 percent of Ireland's population was under 25, and the Irish population is still relatively young, with only 11.33 percent over the age of 65. The people are largely concentrated in urban centers, with almost one-third of the total population living in the city of Dublin and its surrounding county. Population in the other major cities and their surrounding areas is on the increase. In the sparsely populated midlands and in the western and border counties, though, population is either stagnant or declining.
OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY
An economic policy that emphasized self-sufficiency and was characterized by huge tariffs on imports to encourage indigenous growth dominated in Ireland until the late 1950s. This ideology was then abandoned in favor of a more open economic policy. Ireland's first economic boom followed this change. The failure of domestic over-spending to induce growth, along with negative global influences such as the oil crises of the 1970s, made this boom relatively short lived. The 1980s brought fast-rising inflation (up to 21 percent), unemployment close to 20 percent, emigration at unprecedented high levels (50,000 per year) and a soaring national debt .
Since the early 1990s, however, the Irish economy has produced high growth rates. It is integrated into the global trading system and, between 1994 and 1998, was the fastest growing economy in the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The economy was forecast to continue expanding well in excess of any of its European Union (EU) partners during 2001 and 2002. Robust growth rates averaged 9 percent from 1995 to 1999 and some analysts predicted growth at 11 percent in 2001. Unemployment, which climbed to record levels beginning in the mid-to late 1980s, reaching 14.8 percent, fell to just 3.8 percent in 2000. Unemployment was predicted to fall below 3 percent by 2002. Living standards, measured by gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, were estimated to have caught up with the European average by late 1998.
This transformation can be credited to many forces, both domestic and global. Recent government policies have emphasized tight fiscal control alongside the creation of an environment highly attractive to enterprise, particularly international business. Policies based on "social consensus" and wage agreements negotiated by the government with business, farmers, trade unions and other social partners, have kept wages at moderate, business-friendly levels. A corporation tax of 10 percent, alongside grants to attract foreign business, has further contributed to the pro-business environment, as has the existence of a highly educated workforce.
EU regional policy has emphasized cash transfers to economically weaker and poorer member states. This is done to prepare these states to manage in a single market and currency. These transfers developed the Irish economy to a point where it could sustain growth. As an English-speaking country with access to the European market, Ireland is proving attractive as a base for international companies, particularly from the United States.
The reason behind the current economic boom is the high-tech manufacturing industry sector; in particular the foreign-owned multinational companies in this sector. Agriculture, while still remaining an important indigenous activity, is in decline. The industrial sector has seen growth rates higher than most industrial economies and accounts for 39 percent of GDP and about 80 percent of exports. It employs approximately 28 percent of the labor force . This dominance can be seen in the gap between GDP and gross national product (GNP), which was 15 percent lower in 1998. Although the service sector is smaller than that of other industrialized countries, it is nonetheless dominant and growing, accounting for 54.1 percent of GDP in 1998. Government remains heavily involved in the provision of health and transport services and, together with the private service sector, employs 63 percent of the workforce.
Successive Irish governments have maintained responsible fiscal policies over the last decade that have led to the reduction of national debt from 94.5 percent of GDP in 1993 to 56 percent of GDP in 1998. There have been concerns about the effects of current fiscal policy, with its emphasis on reducing income tax , on the high levels of inflation in the economy since late 1998. The government has argued that inflation is primarily due to external pressures such as the weak euro and high oil prices, which have caused increased consumer prices. Nonetheless, consumer price inflation peaked at 6.8 percent in the 12 months running up to June 2000, considerably higher than any other EU country.
POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION
The Republic of Ireland is governed by a parliamentary democracy. Parliament consists of a Lower House, the Dáil (pronounced "doyl") and an upper house, the Seanad (pronounced "shinad"), or Senate. Together, the 2 houses and the president form the Oireachtas (pronounced "irrocktos"), or government. The Irish president, although directly elected, has relatively few formal powers and the government, elected by the Dáil from its membership, is led by the Taoiseach (pronounced "Teeshock"), or prime minister, who presides over a 15-member cabinet of ministers.
Fianna Fáil (pronounced "foil"), a highly organized, center-right party, dominates the party system, with popular support of between 35 and 45 percent in 2001. It leads a minority center-right coalition government (with the Progressive Democrats) that depends on the support of a number of independent TDs (member of parliament) in the Dáil for the 1997-2002 term. Fine Gael (pronounced "feena gale"), the second largest political party and commanding between 20 and 30 percent of the popular vote, also occupies the political center-right, though it has shifted more to the center and has developed a social-democratic and liberal agenda over the last 3 decades. Its support base is generally among the more affluent, but these class trends are not especially strong overall and many wealthy people, particularly from the business sector, support Fianna Fáil. Fine Gael led the 1995-97 "Rainbow" coalition government, thus referred to because of its inclusion of 3 parties and representation across the political spectrum. The Rainbow coalition included the Labor Party and the Democratic Left (a party further to the left), which has since merged with Labor.
Unlike practically all other European party systems, the Irish party system exhibits no strong left-right division. The 2 largest parties have not traditionally defined themselves in terms of ideology, but grew out of differences over the nationalist agenda at the time of independence. The Labor party, weak in comparison with its European counterparts, has consistently been the third largest party, commanding between 10 and 15 (some-times more) percent of support nationally, and has considerable power in a system dominated by coalitions.
A number of tribunals have been in operation since 1997-98, investigating allegations of political corruption. The allegations involve unacceptable links between politicians and big business, corrupt practices in the planning process, and inept and negligent public service on sensitive health issues from the 1970s to the 1990s. The ensuing revelations are assumed to have adversely affected Fianna Fáil's popularity, but opinion polls have proved inconclusive in measuring the amount of support the party might have lost.
A number of smaller political parties are also important in Ireland. Polls conducted in 2000-01 gave the Progressive Democrats 4 to 5 percent support, the Green Party 3 to 4 percent and Sinn Féin (pronounced "shin fane"), an all-Ireland Republican party with links to the Irish Republican Army (IRA), between 2 and 6 percent. Sinn Féin's association with the provisional IRA, which is responsible for punishment beatings in Northern Ireland and vigilante activity in the Republic, could, with its increase in popular support, present larger parties with controversial questions over coalition formation.
There is currently a broad consensus among the major political parties on how to run the economy. It is unlikely that a new government coalition would significantly alter the current pro-business economic policy.
The tax system incorporates standard elements of tax on income, goods and services, capital transfers, business profits, and property, and operates a system of social insurance contributions. Income tax has been reduced substantially, to 20 percent and 40 percent, with incomes over I£17,000 subject to the higher rate (2000 budget). A controversial individualization of income tax was introduced in the 2000 budget, with the object of encouraging more women to enter the labor force. Goods bought and sold are subject to value-added tax (VAT) at 20 percent, which is comparatively high, while luxury goods such as alcohol, tobacco, and petrol are subject to high government excise tax . Capital gains tax on profits has been reduced to 20 percent, and corporation tax, levied at between 10 percent and 28 percent, is to change to 12.5 percent across the board by 2003. Both employers and employees are subject to a social insurance tax, pay-related social insurance (PSRI), and an unusual business-unfriendly measure shifted the burden of the contributions to business in the 2001 budget. In terms of social spending, a means-tested (eligibility determined by financial status) system operates, resulting in about a third of the population receiving free medical and dental treatment. However, state medical-card holders suffer from long waiting lists for treatment, as opposed to the more than 50 percent or so of the population who have private medical insurance.
In line with EU policy, recent governments stress the importance of competition. A competition authority with enhanced powers is responsible for investigating alleged breaches of competition law in all sectors. This affects overly regulated private service providers such as taxicab companies, and it is anticipated that the restrictive pub licensing laws will be tackled next.
Government control over the economy is restricted by Ireland's membership in the EU and the euro zone, as well as by its own policy that has made Ireland one of the most open economies in the world. While the European Central Bank (ECB) controls monetary policy and largely controls interest rates, the government does retain control over fiscal policy.
INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS
Though vastly improved during the 1990s by grants of I£6 billion in European structural funds, the Republic of Ireland's infrastructure is still struggling to cope with the country's unprecedented economic growth. Long traffic delays and below average roads linking major business centers around the country are a potential threat to continued expansion. A late 1990s report commissioned by the Irish Business and Employers Association (IBEC) estimated that a further I£14 billion would have to be spent to raise the quality of the country's infrastructure to generally accepted European levels. Ireland's share of European structural funds for 2000 to 2006 has decreased to approximately I£3 billion, but increased government spending and planned joint public-private funding of projects should make up the shortfall.
Ireland has the most car-dependent transportation system in the EU, with roads carrying 86 percent of freight traffic and 97 percent of passenger traffic. Yet full inter-city motorways are not in place, making the links between Dublin and other major cities subject to heavy traffic and delays. Economic growth and increased consumer spending has pushed up car ownership levels dramatically, which, together with increased commercial traffic on the roads, has offset the considerable improvements of the 1990s. The road network is estimated to total 87,043 kilometers (54,089 miles) of paved roads and 5,457 kilometers (3,391 miles) of unpaved roads (1999).
Long rush hours and traffic gridlock occur in the major cities and gridlock in Dublin is estimated to cost the national economy around I£1.2 billion every year. Policies aiming to attract more daily users to the public transport system might take effect over the next decade. Following much debate and deliberation, the current government has commenced the implementation of a light rail system (3 lines) to cover some important routes into the capital, most importantly a link to the airport. This will add to the "Dart," Dublin's existing, relatively efficient suburban rail service, which consists of 5 lines covering 257 kilometers (160 miles) and 56 stations.
The railway linking Dublin to 2 major cities on the island, Belfast (Northern Ireland) and Cork, has been vastly improved over the last few years, but recent reports by external consultants have highlighted the poor, even dangerous, state of much of the rest of Ireland's 1,947-kilometer (1,210-mile) railway infrastructure.
Ireland has 3 international airports—at Dublin (east), Shannon (southwest), and Cork (south)—and 6 independent regional airports. Air traffic increased dramatically during the 1990s, with the number of passengers up from 6.8 million (1992) to 12.1 million (1997), while annual air freight traffic also doubled. Inevitably, these increases have led to congestion, especially at Dublin's airport, and a major capital investment program launched by the government is nearing completion, with similar projects to follow in Cork and Shannon. Cargo traffic is similar, with increases of up to 50 percent in cargo tonnage and passenger traffic passing through the main ports over the 1990s. The government recognizes that capacity must increase if major congestion is to be avoided.
Liberalization in the telecommunications sector, completed in 1998, increased the number of providers from just 1 state-owned company to 29 fully licensed telecommunications companies, operating in residential,
|Country||Newspapers||Radios||TV Sets a||Cable subscribers a||Mobile Phones a||Fax Machines a||Personal Computers a||Internet Hosts b||Internet Users b|
|aData are from International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication Development Report 1999 and are per 1,000 people.|
|bData are from the Internet Software Consortium (http://www.isc.org) and are per 10,000 people.|
|SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.|
corporate, and specialized data services sectors. The government hopes that liberalization and the resulting competition in the market will encourage private investment and improve the state's poorly developed telecommunications infrastructure. The mobile phone market has been dominated by competition between Eircell and Esat Digi-phone. Both have now been bought by the British giants, Vodaphone and British Telecom (BT), respectively, while a third mobile phone company, Meteor, has recently entered the market.
Energy consumption is, not surprisingly, on the increase. Total energy consumption rose from 8.5 million metric tons (9.35 million tons) in 1996 to 9.5 million metric tons (10.45 million tons) in 1997, with household use accounting for 3.6 million metric tons (3.6 million tons). Two-thirds of energy is supplied by imported coal and oil, with the remaining third supplied by indigenous peat (12 percent of the total) and natural gas. The distribution of gas, oil, peat, and electricity remains state dominated, though industrial users hope that recent liberalization of the gas and electricity markets will result in a lowering of prices.
Strong growth (55 percent growth from 1993 to 1999) has been the recent trend in the Irish economy, but it lacks consistency across all sectors. Agriculture (forestry and fishing), as a share of total GDP, has seen a steady decline, while the fastest growth has occurred in industry, particularly high-tech industry. The expanding service sector accounted for 56 percent of GDP in 1998. Ireland's economy has remained the fastest growing economy in the EU and compares favorably with developed economies worldwide in terms of growth, output, trade volume, and employment levels.
Ireland's mild temperature, high rainfall, and fertile land offer ideal conditions for agriculture and, despite a pattern of decline over the past 2 decades, agricultural activity remains an important employer in rural and remote regions of the country.
The drop in agricultural output from 16 percent of GDP in 1975 to just 5 percent in 1998 reflects only a relative decline when measured against the steady increase in GDP driven by other sectors. While the fall in prices of agricultural products has been sharp, the volume of output has seen only a small decrease. The industry suffers from over-capacity and falling incomes and is increasingly reliant on EU subsidies and fixed prices. The number of small farmers remains high for an industrialized country, and many small farmers take up other employment to subsidize their income. While average farm size (29.5 hectares or 73 acres) is slowly increasing, the Irish Farmer's Association asserts that farm size remains the single biggest obstacle to generating adequate income in the agricultural sector. Adjusting to EU measures to bring prices more in line with world agricultural prices seems unlikely to help the industry, while reducing high levels of pollution in the waterways to comply with EU regulations is also not expected to aid farming profitability.
Average farming incomes fell by 6.2 percent in 1997, even though productivity per individual farmer increased significantly over the last decade. On 40 percent of all farms, the annual income was only I£5,000. On a further 25 percent of farms, it rose to between I£5,000 and I£10,000. Combined employment in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries fell from 175,000 at the beginning of the 1990s to 142,000 at the end of the decade. Figures that include related food-processing industries put employment at 176,000 in 1999, representing 12 percent of all workers in employment. Some figures estimate that agriculture generates so many service sector jobs that it indirectly accounts for 350,000 jobs (23 percent of the labor force).
BEEF AND OTHER LIVESTOCK.
The most productive agricultural sector is the largely export-oriented beef and livestock industry, which accounted for 50 percent of output value in 1998. Cattle and sheep farming have, however, been hard hit by a number of crises. After EU agreements in 1999 to reduce beef prices, in February 2000, farmers were badly affected when BSE (Bovine Spongi-form Encephalopathy), or "Mad Cow" disease, resulted in a 27 percent drop in beef consumption in the key European market. In February-March 2001, the unprecedentedly severe outbreak of foot and mouth disease in herds in Britain, with pockets in Northern Ireland and France also affected, brought another enormous challenge to the industry, threatening the export markets of Ireland and all the EU countries.
Overall, output decreased during the 1990s, with the annual value of livestock falling from I£1,885 million in 1993 to I£1,761 million in 1997. This represents decreases in the overall value of cattle livestock from I£1,349 million to I£1,097 million (1993 to 1997), with the value from pigs, sheep, and lambs showing small net increases in output value.
Livestock products, the most prominent of which is milk, also suffered a general, if undramatic decline in output during the mid-1990s, from I£1,132 to I£1,113 million. Crops output, with cereals and root crops dominant, also decreased marginally—from I£3,431 to I£3,315 million—during this period. Sugar beet, wheat, and barley yielded the highest commercial value (1997), with milk, eggs, and fresh vegetables also important products.
FORESTRY AND FISHING.
Despite its reputation as a land of abundant greenery, Ireland has the lowest level of forest cover in Europe, with only 8 percent of the land under woodland, against a 25 percent average elsewhere. But this 8 percent is a considerable improvement from the 1 percent level of cover at the foundation of the state in 1922 and is the result of government reforestation programs. Current EU policy serves to encourage reforestation and the development of a timber-based agricultural sector. Reflecting this, timber output was expected (EIU estimate) to have reached 3 million square meters of timber by 2000. This would provide for an increase in the domestic market's share of local timber, as it previously imported 45 percent of its timber requirements.
Given Ireland's geographical position, fishing has been a naturally important economic activity, particularly in rural coastal areas where there are few other industries. The fishing industry has evolved to incorporate more diverse forms of activity such as fish farming, and employment rates have increased by 40 percent since 1980. Full and part-time workers together accounted for 16,000 jobs either directly or indirectly connected to the fishing industry in 1999. The value of exports increased from I£154 million in the early years of the 1990s to a peak of I£240 million in 1997. EU grants and government spending ensure that the industry will continue to expand.
The industrial sector has maintained its share in total economic activity at 39 percent of GDP throughout most of the 1980s and 1990s. This trend is unusual in developed countries and reflects strong growth. Although marking a slight slowdown from 1995 to 1998, growth in 1999 was high at 10.5 percent. Strong performance from both foreign-owned and indigenous Irish industry, primarily in the high-tech manufacturing sector, has driven the growth.
Significant reserves of zinc and lead ores, natural gas, and peat are to be found, and the latter 2 supply a third of domestic energy demand. Zinc and lead ores sustain one of the biggest zinc and lead mines in Europe and approximately 4,000 jobs. Ireland is a small country with limited natural resources, and a well-developed, open, and globally-integrated industrial economic policy is therefore essential to economic health.
There are more than 1,000 foreign-owned companies operating in Ireland, mostly, though not all, in the high-tech manufacturing sector. Foreign-owned manufacturing accounts for more than half of the country's total manufacturing output. In 1998, foreign companies produced more than two-thirds of export goods and employed around 45 percent of the manufacturing sector's workforce, or 28 percent (468,800) of the total workforce. Most foreign-owned manufacturing is concentrated in high-tech sectors such as chemical production, metals, electrical engineering, and computer hardware.
Between 1993 and 1997, output in metals and engineering increased by 96 percent and employment by 49 percent. Leading metal output is the manufacture of agricultural and transport machinery. In the chemicals sector, output increased by 116 percent and employment by 38 percent. Both sectors continue to enjoy high productivity.
Performance in the indigenous high-tech sector has also been impressive. The sector's growth in volume of output increased by 37 percent from 1987 to 1995, contributing to a 113 percent increase overall (including foreign-owned). World-class manufacturing and management standards have developed, partly encouraged by the productive foreign-owned companies and by growing links between foreign-owned and indigenous sectors. An increasing percentage of inputs purchased by foreign-owned industry for production are supplied by indigenous Irish industry. Total expenditure of foreign companies in the Irish economy has reached I£6.9 billion, up from I£2.9 billion in 1990. By 1999, this economically healthy situation had brought an unprecedented 30,000 worker increase in employment by Irish-owned manufacturing firms since 1992.
Also well represented in this high-tech sector are the Industrial Development Authority (IDA)-targeted sectors of the pharmaceutical and computer software industries. The IDA is a government body charged with the task of attracting foreign investment and is part of an umbrella organization called Enterprise Ireland. The concentration of high-tech industries they have encouraged has created a clustering effect that facilitates self-sustaining growth.
TEXTILES, CLOTHING, AND FOOTWEAR.
Dominated by indigenous industry, the labor-intensive textile, clothing, and footwear sectors registered no significant growth during the 1990s into the 2000s. They have suffered as a result of competition from cheaper foreign imports. Textile production in Ireland remained stagnant during the late 1990s, and employment in the sector fell by approximately 20 percent. Clothing and footwear output fell by almost 20 percent between 1993 and 1997 and has remained at that level.
FOOD, DRINK, AND TOBACCO.
Food, drink, and tobacco production recorded the strongest growth in the traditional indigenous manufacturing sector, with production output, which is aimed at both domestic and export markets, increasing by 6.1 percent in 1997. Providing the backbone for the food industry is the production of beef, milk, eggs, fresh vegetables, barley, sugar-beets, and wheat.
A combination of increased business investment, infrastructure development and an acute housing shortage resulted in an increase in the value of construction output from I£13.7 billion in 1993 to I£16.1 billion, or 14.2 percent of GDP in 1996. In 1998, the bulk of construction was directed at residential buildings. Quarried stone exists as an important indigenous supply for the construction industry. Conditions ensured that this boom continued into 2001, but it is threatened by a shortage of labor and the accompanying effect of increasing wage demands.
The open-market economic policies adopted by successive Irish governments since the late 1980s can, in large part, explain the rapid expansion of the industrial sector, particularly the high-tech industrial sector. Foreign direct investment has been attracted by a number of factors, including a carefully built, business-friendly environment, a relatively inexpensive but highly skilled labor force, access to the EU market, and a range of incentives offered by the Irish government. Economic policy is currently establishing new priorities aimed at attracting industry to the poorer regions of the country, strengthening the roots of foreign-owned industry, and encouraging research and development programs.
Services accounted for approximately 63 percent of employment and 54.1 percent of GDP in 1999. Banking and finance and retailing and tourism dominate the private services sector, with software engineering and business consulting services growing in importance. State-owned industries dominate the provision of education, health, distribution, transport, and communication services, accounting for 18 percent of GDP in 1997. Private service providers are slowly entering these markets.
Availability of branch banking is dominated by 4 main clearing banks—Bank of Ireland, Allied Irish Banks, Ulster Bank, and National Irish Bank. Since the early 1990s, banks and building societies have become increasingly involved in the providing of financial services, and total employment provided by these institutions increased from 25,200 in 1994 to just under 30,000 in 1998. A scheme introduced in 1987 created incentives to make Ireland an attractive base for foreign financial institutions. A particular incentive was the setting of corporation taxes at a low 10 percent. More than 300 banks, mostly North American and European, are established in the Irish Financial Services Center (IFSC) in Dublin, offering specialized services such as investment banking, fund management, capital markets, leasing, and re-insurance. The IFSC has created direct employment for between 5,000 and 7,000 people, as well as a considerable proportion of indirect employment connected with Dublin's concentration of banks.
The country's famously green and beautiful landscape, its fine beaches, a culture of small, atmospheric, and sociable pubs, and the friendliness of its people attract many tourists. Recent tourist expansion has largely resulted from Dublin's elevation to a very popular weekend-break destination, coupled with the government tourist board's overseas promotion programs, which highlight the country's attractions for fishing, walking, and golfing enthusiasts. Total revenue from tourism reached I£2.8 billion—more than 5.7 percent of GDP— in 1997. This dropped slightly in 1999 (I£2.5 billion), but two-thirds of that year's revenue was generated by the arrival of more than 6 million overseas visitors. At the end of the 1990s, at least 120,000 jobs were estimated to depend on tourism. The biggest threat to the tourist industry is the poor quality of services. These are the result of a shortage of skilled labor, as well as increasing industrial unrest that periodically causes transportation disruptions and brings traffic chaos. Workers in the tourist industry have tended to be worse off than those in other sectors, but the I£4.50 per hour minimum wage introduced in 2000 stood to eradicate the worst cases of under-payment.
Economic expansion has facilitated increased diversification in the indigenous retailing industry. With consumer spending high, retail sales expanded by 53 percent in real value terms in 1997 and by 32 percent in volume terms. The surge in the growth of the retailing sector has attracted a large number of groups from the United Kingdom (UK), which have brought competition that has helped to control consumer price inflation. The volume of retail sales increased by 14 percent in the first quarter of 2000, with the purchase of new cars in the first half of that year up 42.9 percent.
Ireland has achieved the highest trade surplus relative to GDP in the EU and is in the top 20 exporting countries in the world. In 1999, the total value of the country's exports recorded a huge surplus, reaching I£44.8 billion, against imports of I£20.63 billion. The balance of trade between exports and imports continued the strong upward trend from I£13.7 billion (25 percent of GDP) in 1998 to I£24.17 billion in 1999. Figures from the first half of 2000 indicated a further increase. However, despite a robust 24 percent growth in export rates in 2000, trends indicated that import growth rates in response to high consumer demand would exceed export growth rates in 2000-01, thus threatening the surplus in the long run. The EU (including the UK) remains Ireland's most important export market. In 1998, export revenues from the EU accounted for 67 percent (I£30.27 billion) of total exports, with the UK contributing almost I£10 billion, or 22 percent of the total. Germany (14.6 percent), France, Italy, and the Netherlands are the other key European destinations, while the United States accounted for I£6.14 billion (13.7 percent) in 1998. Given the weak euro and the presence of many U.S. multi-nationals in Ireland, there are indications that the United States is set to become Ireland's biggest export market. Exports to U.S. markets increased by 54 percent to I£6.8 billion in the first 6 months of 2000. Exports to the UK, a non-euro zone, also increased by 22 percent during this period to I£6.9 billion. Ireland is a major center of computer manufacture, with
|Trade (expressed in billions of US$): Ireland|
|SOURCE: International Monetary Fund. International Financial Statistics Yearbook 1999.|
U.S.-owned corporations such as Dell conducting operations there. The high-tech sectors recorded Ireland's largest export increases in 2000, with computer equipment leading the field at I£8.1 billion. The export of organic chemicals was valued at I£7.3 billion, and electronic machinery at I£2.9 billion. Chemicals, transport equipment, and machinery (including computers) accounted for 80 percent of the increase in exports between 1993 and 1997. While foreign multinationals dominate these sectors, there are positive signs of increasing domestic production in high tech manufacturing industries, such as the production of chemicals, software development, optical equipment, and electronic equipment. The production of electronic equipment and optical equipment supplied 9.2 percent of domestic exports in 1997. However, exports represented only 34 percent of domestic manufacture, while up to 90 percent of foreign-owned company output was exported. In 1997, food and livestock remained the fourth largest export commodities, with food, drink, and tobacco together accounting for an important, though declining, percentage of indigenous exports (53.9 percent, down from 61.9 percent in 1991). Fuel, lubricants, and crude materials also remain important.
The value of imports has increased rapidly, from I£13.1 billion in 1998 to I£34.66 billion in 1999. Their value for the first 6 months of 2000 was at I£20.7 billion, recording a 25 percent increase. Once again, the high-tech sector dominated, with imports of computer equipment increasing by 28 percent and manufacturing industry inputs by 26 percent. Imports of road vehicles also increased dramatically during this period. Despite the weak euro, the UK and the United States remain Ireland's largest sources of imports, both supplying goods in the first half of 2000, showing an increase in volume of 20 percent. Machinery and transport equipment dominated the volume of imports and accounted for I£15.7 billion in 1998, with chemicals and miscellaneous manufacturing goods accounting for I£3.4 billion each. Food and live animals accounted for the next largest share in total import value at I£1.8 billion in 1998. Live animals are both imported and exported. A factor distinguishing
|Exchange rates: Ireland|
|Irish pounds per US$1|
|SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE].|
Ireland from its 10 euro-zone partners is its relatively low volume of trade within the euro zone—20 percent of imports and 45 percent of exports in 1998. Current trends do not predict a rapid change in this pattern.
Ireland severed its links with the British pound sterling in 1979 and relinquished control over its monetary policy to the European Central Bank (ECB) in 1999. Consequently, the government is no longer free to use exchange rates as part of economic and trade policy. The relationship of the Irish pound to the sterling and the U.S. dollar is determined by their relationship to the euro, which itself has been consistently weak since its launch in January 1999. Higher interest rates have been introduced by the ECB to help the euro, but they would need to be considerably higher to curb Irish domestic spending and demand. A downturn in the U.S. economy could, perhaps, result in a strengthening of the euro. This would reduce the costs of imports and help curb inflation, but would at the same time decrease the value of exports. The Irish Stock Exchange (ISE) separated from the international stock exchange of the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland in 1995. Since then, in keeping with global trends, the ISE has grown rapidly, with market capitalization increasing from I£7.4 billion in 1992 to I£66.8 billion in 1998, and 81 companies listed in 2001. It appears, however, to be too small to attract significant levels of venture capital, and Irish technology companies tend to look to the NASDAQ or the EASDAQ (proposed Europe equivalent) for this reason. With this coordination of stock exchanges across Europe, investor participation in Irish stocks may increase.
POVERTY AND WEALTH
Unprecedented growth in the Irish economy during the late 1990s saw living standards in terms of per capita GDP reach the EU average for the first time in 1998. However, rapid growth does not automatically translate
|GDP per Capita (US$)|
|SOURCE: United Nations. Human Development Report 2000; Trends in human development and per capita income.|
into a better quality of life, and Ireland is by no means immune to the risk in all industrial societies: that of creating a society where the rich get richer and the poor stay poor.
Inequality in Ireland falls generally into 2 categories. The first is essentially that of poverty traditionally created by unemployment. Despite almost full employment , pockets of deprivation characterized by long-term unemployment, high dropout rates from education, and a dependency culture, prevail. These disadvantaged groups, frequently plagued by social ills such as the drug-culture, suffer markedly from the considerable increase in the cost of living. To relieve deprivation of this nature requires a sustained effort at introducing more comprehensive social policies. In 2000, the Irish government spent only 16 percent of GDP on social welfare compared to the EU average of 28 percent.
The second category of poverty, arising from the disparity of income among the employed, affects a larger number of households. Comparative studies published in Brian Nolan, Chris Whelan, and P.J. O'Connell's Bust to Boom, reveal Ireland, along with the UK and Portugal, to have a high rate of relative income poverty compared to other EU member states. While there were improvements in income earned by the unskilled, skilled, highly
|Distribution of Income or Consumption by Percentage Share: Ireland|
|Survey year: 1987|
|Note: This information refers to income shares by percentiles of the population and is ranked by per capita income.|
|SOURCE: 2000 World Development Indicators [CD-ROM].|
|Household Consumption in PPP Terms|
|Country||All Food||Clothing and footwear||Fuel and power a||Health care b||Education b||Transport & Communications||Other|
|Data represent percentage of consumption in PPP terms.|
|aExcludes energy used for transport.|
|bIncludes government and private expenditures.|
|SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.|
skilled, and educated employees alike, the overall trend from 1987 to 1997 brought more opportunities and higher wage increases for the latter 2 groups. This trend is more acute in Ireland than in other European states. The ESRI (Economic and Social Research Institute) points out that while the fortunes of wealthiest 10 percent of the employed population increased rapidly between 1987 and 1997, the top 5 percent rose even more rapidly. The only positive aspect of income distribution trends was that while the bottom, or poorest, 25 percent appeared to fall away from the average income, the bottom 10 percent did not, indicating that the very poor are not actually getting poorer. One further positive aspect is the increase in gender equality, with women moving to take advantage of increased employment opportunities. Women are establishing themselves as fundamental members of the labor force and improving their average take-home pay to 85 percent of that earned by their male counterparts.
However, trends in general income disparity are worsened by the crippling house prices. These either prevent many young people on average incomes from buying homes or leaves them with huge mortgage payments. Rents have spiraled due to shortages in the housing market. Exclusively located houses in Dublin have been sold for over I£6 million and, while this is not the norm, an adequate house with easy access to Dublin's city center costs between I£150,000 and I£500,000, having cost perhaps between I£30,000 and I£80,000 at the end of the 1980s.
The government does provide safety nets for those in need, granting free medical and dental care on the basis of means testing. Social welfare payments are available to the unemployed, but only to those who can provide an address, and there is some government-provided social, or corporation, housing. This scheme involves making low-rent housing available to the less well off, along with a tenant's long-term option of buying the government out. However, the service has suffered from the housing shortages, which show no signs of letting up (2001), and waiting lists are up to 18 months long.
The falling unemployment of the 1990s has accelerated to the extent that the key issue in 2001 is a shortage of skilled and unskilled labor. The labor force increased from 1,650,100 in early 1999 to 1,745,600 in mid-2000, with 1,670,700 in employment (mid-2000). In 1999 and 2000, surveys carried out by the Small Firms Association indicated that 91 percent of surveyed members were experiencing difficulties recruiting staff, particularly at the unskilled level. The labor market increased by 6.2 percent (96,000) in 1999, and the number of long-term unemployed decreased to just 1.7 percent of the workforce. There is a risk that this shrinkage in the volume of available labor will further fuel demands for wage increases.
Social partnership agreements over the last decade have kept wages moderate and generally lower than in other EU states. There is an increasingly widespread consensus on the part of workers, particularly in the public sector , that the fruits of economic growth have not been distributed, let alone distributed evenly. It is feared that demands for increased pay may undermine growth by fuelling inflation, thus pushing up the cost of living for individuals and of wages for business, both foreign and domestic owned.
The input of trade unions into economic policy-making was formalized with the introduction of national wage agreements in 1989. The umbrella body, the Irish Congress of Trade Unions, incorporates 46 unions, with a total membership of 523,700 (2000). According to the largest union, the Services, Industrial, Professional and Technical Union (SIPTU), membership increased by 60,000 to more than 200,000 in 2000. However, many multinationals do not permit union membership. Despite overall improvements in wage and employment levels, the current industrial climate is at its worst this decade. Strikes are a more regular feature across the public sector, with nurses, the Garda (police), and teachers demanding increases of up to 40 percent. The most recent wage agreement—the Programme for Prosperity and Fairness ness (PPF)—has proved almost impossible to implement, since the agreed annual 5 percent pay increases are no longer considered sufficient by unions; they argue that the cost of living has increased by more and, with inflation having peaked at almost 7 percent in November 2000, they appear to have a case.
Hourly rates of pay have increased significantly across all sectors. According to the government's Central Statistics Office, the average industrial wage of I£274.37 for a 40.5-hour week in 1996 rose to I£283.53 in 1997 and I£295.20 in 1998. In 1999, employees in private firms had higher average wage figures. Skilled workers earned I£461.86 for a 45.6-hour week and the unskilled and semi-skilled were paid I£346.55 for a 46.8-hour week. As indicated above, income differentials—the difference between income levels across all sectors from the highest to the lowest—are higher than in other EU countries.
COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
1800. British rule over Ireland, present since the 12th century, is extended to the entire country by the 17th and 18th centuries and further centralized with the Act of Union in 1800 (whereby no parliament sat in Dublin anymore).
1870s. Strong national movement emerges in Ireland. The national political movement in favor of "home rule" succeeds in incorporating both members of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy and peasant famers who seek land reform. But resistance on the part of conservative British governments and the strong will of the Protestant population of the northern province—Ulster—to remain in the union delays home rule.
1914-18. A more radical stream of nationalism begins.
1919-21. Guerrilla-style war for independence ensues. The Unionist population of Northern Ireland remains adamant that no granting of either home rule or independence to the island should include them.
1922. The Anglo-Irish treaty gives 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland independence from the United Kingdom with some symbolic restrictions, such as the retention of the crown as head of state. The remaining 6 counties in the north of the island remain part of the UK.
1923. Those for and against the treaty fight a civil war over the spoils of government and some over the retention of symbolic links with Britain, which ends in the capitulation of the anti-treaty forces, who then form the political party Fianna Fáil in 1926.
1925. Partition of the island into Eire and Northern Island is informally made permanent.
1938. More than a decade of politically provoked and disastrous "economic war" with Britain ends.
1940. Ireland declares itself neutral in World War II.
1949. Although informally a republic since 1937, Ireland is formally declared a republic.
1950s. Emigration increases rapidly, and rural poverty becomes widespread.
1960s. The inward looking, tariff-centered economic policies are rejected in favor of an open policy, but the state still plays a huge role in the economy.
1970s. High government spending increases the national debt to unsustainable levels and sparks off high inflation. The oil crisis of 1979 also hits the country hard.
1973. Ireland joins the European Economic Community, along with Britain and Denmark.
1980s. High inflation and unemployment levels alongside income tax that reach over 65 percent.
1987. Ireland endorses the Single European Act, which establishes the common European market. The first social partnership agreements of the 1980s negotiate a plan for national economic recovery.
1990s. Tighter fiscal policies, trade and enterprise-friendly economic policies, and social partnership agreements, alongside other factors such as the long-term benefits of EU transfers, facilitate a turnaround in the economic fortunes of the country.
1991. EU countries sign the Maastricht Treaty, which formalizes the plan for European Monetary Union and agrees on the ground rules for entry into EMU.
1994-98. Following the paramilitary cease-fire in Northern Ireland and long negotiations, a peace process results in political agreements between Britain, Ireland, and Northern Ireland.
1995-96. The economy shows strong growth and a significant increase in employment opportunities.
1998. Ireland endorses the Amsterdam Treaty, which extends EU co-ordination of social and security policy and enlargement.
1999. EMU is introduced and the European Central Bank takes over monetary powers in Ireland.
For most of the latter half of the 20th century, Irish policy makers focused on the challenge of how to instigate sustainable economic growth that would serve to reduce high unemployment and emigration levels and to increase standards of living to the European level. In the 21st century, the key challenge is to implement a policy mix that sustains the benefits of growth while dealing with the key interlinked threats posed by inflation and acute labor market shortages. In 2001, rising inflation has seen the cost of living increase considerably, and this, alongside more demand than supply in the labor market, puts strong upward pressure on wages.
Dealing with inflation and labor market shortages is complicated by the extent to which external forces affect Ireland's economy, which is a regional, export-oriented economy within a monetary union. For example, the health of the euro and trends in global oil prices will either help or hinder the curbing of inflation. Lower oil prices and a stronger euro would reduce the cost of imports and, thus, inflation. Another important external force is the slow-down in the U.S. economy (2001). This could decrease the United States' domestic demand for imports, at the same time decreasing multi-national companies' investment in the Irish market, thus putting trade volume, employment, and growth at risk. In turn, spiraling inflation could result as job losses cause people to struggle to pay mortgages and the high levels of credit that have been the trend throughout the 1990s and beyond.
While there are differing opinions as to which policies are most effective to curb inflation and thus reduce the upward pressure on wages, most commentators agree that a flexible fiscal policy, in particular flexible wages (using wage agreements), is vital if both are to be avoided. Flexibility is necessary because of the dual and uncertain nature of external challenges to economic success.
Different external factors call for different reactions. The immediate problem facing the government in 2001 is the threat to social partnership policy-making posed by the increasing demands of unions for higher wage agreements. Higher wages and a break in the partnership would threaten the competitiveness of the Irish labor market, which remains relatively cheap compared to the rest of Europe. But competitiveness is also at risk as a result of labor market shortages.
It is likely that moderate wage increases to maintain social consensus (partnership agreements) are required alongside policies to encourage immigration (to increase the labor market supply) and policies to encourage savings (to reduce the threat of inflation). However, different policy responses would be required should the U.S. slowdown reach the point where foreign companies pull out, thus reducing employment. Attempts have been made to prepare for this scenario; the IDA has put more emphasis on health care and e-commerce companies and on research and development functions to deepen the roots of foreign investment, thus lessening the risk of an exodus.
A healthy future economy largely depends on how government responds to uncertain threats, and it would appear that the adoption of a flexible approach is vital. This is in turn a prerequisite for improving the quality of life and diverting a percentage of expenditure to programs designed to narrow the disparities in individual prosperity.
Ireland has no territories or colonies.
Duffy, David, John Fitzgerald, Kieran Kennedy, and Diarmaid Smyth. ESRI Quarterly Economic Commentary. Dublin: Economic and Social Research Institute, December 1999.
Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Ireland. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2001.
Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Report: Ireland June 2000. London: EIU, 2000.
Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Report: Ireland November 2000. London: EIU, 2000.
Irish Business and Employers Association (IBEC). "Quarterly Economic Trends." Dublin: IBEC Statements, December 2000.
Irish Business and Employers Association (IBEC). "Economy Not All Boom." Dublin: IBEC Statements, January 2001.
Irish Farmer's Association. Structure and Competitiveness in Irish Agriculture. Dublin: IFA, July 1999.
Nolan, Brian, P.J. O'Connell, and C. Whelan. Bust to Boom: The Irish Experience of Growth and Inequality. Dublin: IPA and ERSI, 2000.
Nolan, Brian, and Bertrand Maitre. "Income Inequality." Bust to Boom: The Irish Experience of Growth and Inequality. Dublin: IPA and ERSI, 2000.
O'Hagan. The Economy of Ireland. 6th edition. Dublin: IPA, 2000.
Small Firms Association. End of Year Statement. Dublin: SFA, 2000.
Results of Pay Survey. Dublin: SFA, January 2001.
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World FactBook 2000. <http:www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed September 2001.
Irish Pound (I£). One Irish pound equals 100 pence (p). There are notes of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 pounds. There are 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 pence coins. Ireland is part of the European Monetary Union (EMU) implemented on paper in January 1999. From 1 January 2002, the pound will be phased out with the introduction of the euro. The euro has been set at 0.787564 Irish pence, with I£ equaling approximately 1.21 euros. There are 100 cents in the euro, which is denominated in notes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 euros, and coins of 1 and 2 euros and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents.
Machinery and equipment, computers (hardware and software), chemicals, pharmaceuticals, live animals, animal products.
Data processing equipment, other machinery and equipment, chemicals, petroleum and petroleum products, textiles, clothing.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:
US$83.6 billion (2000 est.).
BALANCE OF TRADE:
Exports: US$73.8 billion (2000 est.). Imports: US$46.1 billion (2000 est.). [CIA World Factbook indicates exports to be US$66 billion (1999 est.) and imports to be US$44 billion (1999 est.).]
"Ireland." Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/economics/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/economics/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
|Official Country Name:||Ireland|
|Region (Map name):||Europe|
|Language(s):||English, Irish (Gaelic)|
|Area:||70,280 sq km|
|GDP:||93,865 (US$ millions)|
|Number of Daily Newspapers:||6|
|Circulation per 1,000:||191|
|Number of Nondaily Newspapers:||61|
|Circulation per 1,000:||462|
|Newspaper Consumption (minutes per day):||40|
|Total Newspaper Ad Receipts:||307 (Euro millions)|
|As % of All Ad Expenditures:||46.80|
|Number of Television Stations:||4|
|Number of Television Sets:||1,820,000|
|Television Sets per 1,000:||473.9|
|Television Consumption (minutes per day):||199|
|Number of Cable Subscribers:||672,220|
|Cable Subscribers per 1,000:||176.9|
|Number of Satellite Subscribers:||130,000|
|Satellite Subscribers per 1,000:||33.8|
|Number of Radio Stations:||115|
|Number of Radio Receivers:||2,550,000|
|Radio Receivers per 1,000:||663.9|
|Radio Consumption (minutes per day):||305|
|Number of Individuals with Computers:||1,360,000|
|Computers per 1,000:||354.1|
|Number of Individuals with Internet Access:||784,000|
|Internet Access per 1,000:||204.1|
|Internet Consumption (minutes per day):||23|
Background & General Characteristics
The Republic of Ireland, which occupies 5/6 of the island of Ireland, is roughly equal to the state of South Caxsrolina in terms of size and population. Half the population is urban, with a third living in metropolitan Dublin. Ireland is 92 percent Roman Catholic and has a 98 percent literacy rate. Despite centuries of English rule that sought to obliterate Ireland's Celtic language, one-fifth of the population can speak Gaelic today. Full political independence from Great Britain came in 1948 when the Republic of Ireland was established, but the United Kingdom maintains a strong economic presence in Ireland.
The printing press came to Ireland in 1550. Early news sheets appeared a century later. The Irish Intelligencer began publication in 1662 as the first commercial newspaper, and the country's first penny newspaper, the Irish Times, began in 1859. The Limerick Chronicle, which was founded in 1766, is the second-oldest English-language newspaper still in existence (the oldest is the Belfast Newsletter ).
Irish newspapers are typically divided into two categories: the national press, most of which is based in Dublin, and the regional press, which is dispersed throughout the country. The national press consists of four dailies, two evening newspapers, and five Sunday newspapers. There are approximately 60 regional newspapers, most of which are published on a weekly basis. Competition among newspapers in Dublin is spirited, but few other cities in Ireland have competing local newspapers.
Roughly 460,000 national newspapers are sold in the Republic each day. The sales leader is the Irish Independent, a broadsheet especially popular among rural, conservative readers. The second best seller is the Irish Times, which is regularly read by highly educated urban professionals and managers. The Irish Times is probably Ireland's most influential paper. The third most popular national daily in Ireland is the tabloid The Star, an Irish edition of the British Daily Star. The Irish Examiner sells the least nationally, but it is the sales leader in Munster, Ireland's southwest quarter. Published in the city of Cork, the Irish Examiner is the only national daily issued outside of Dublin.
Some 130,000 evening newspapers are sold every day in Ireland. The leader is the Evening Herald, a tabloid popular in Dublin and along the east coast. The other evening paper is the Evening Echo, a tabloid published in Cork, and like its morning sister paper the Irish Examiner, popular in Munster.
Five Sunday newspapers are published in Ireland, with a total circulation of 800,000. The Sunday Independent, like the daily Irish Independent, has the largest circulation. Sunday World, a tabloid, comes in a close second. The other broadsheet, the Sunday Tribune, has a circulation of less than a third of Sunday Independent's. The fourth most popular Sunday paper is the Sunday Business Post, read by highly educated professionals and managers. The lowest circulating Sunday paper is the tabloid Ireland on Sunday, which is popular among young adult urban males. The other weekly national newspaper in Ireland is the tabloid Irish Farmer's Journal, which serves Ireland's agricultural sector.
Newspaper penetration in Ireland is about the same as that of the United States: 59 percent of adults read a daily paper. The newspapers that are most-often read are Irish. Of the 59 percent of adults who read daily newspapers, 50 percent read an Irish title only, 5 percent read both Irish and UK dailies, and 4 percent read UK titles only. Newspaper reading patterns change on Sunday, when 76 percent of adults read a paper. Of this 76 percent, 51 percent read an Irish title only, 16 percent read both Irish and UK Sundays, and 9 percent read UK titles only. The total readership of UK Sunday newspapers is 25 percent, compared with 9 percent who read UK daily papers.
Regional newspapers have a small readership, but one that is loyal, a fact that has turned regional papers into attractive properties for larger companies to buy. Examiner Publications, for example, has bought nine regional papers: Carlow Nationalist, Down Democrat, Kildare Nationalist, The Kingdom, Laois Nationalist, Newry Democrat, Sligo Weekender, Waterford News & Star, and Western People. Other major buyers of regional newspapers include Independent News & Media and Scottish Radio Holdings.
Unlike their national counterparts, regional newspapers carry little national news and have traditionally been reluctant to advocate political positions. This pattern did not hold during the 2002 abortion referendum, however. The Longford Leader was reserved, complaining that various organizations had pressured "people to vote, on what is essentially a moral issue, in accordance with what they tell us instead of in accordance with our own consciences." The Limerick Leader, by contrast, urged its readers to vote for the referendum: "Essentially the current proposal protects the baby and the mother. Defeat would open up the possibility of increased dangers to both."
There are 30 magazine publishers in Ireland publishing 156 consumer magazines and 7 trade magazines. Only five percent of magazines are sold through subscription in Ireland; most are sold at the retail counter. One-fourth of magazine revenues come from advertising; the remaining three-fourths comes from sales. By far the most popular magazine in Ireland is the weekly radio and television guide, RTÉ Guide, which far outsells the most popular titles for women (VIP and VIP Style ), general interest (Buy & Sell and Magill ), and sports (Breaking Ball and Gaelic Sport ).
Like Ireland's newspapers, Ireland's indigenous magazine publishers face strong competition from UK titles. According to the Periodical Publishers Association of Ireland, four out of every ten magazines bought in Ireland are imported. Magazines suffered a financial blow in 2000 when the government banned tobacco advertising, which had been the second-largest source of magazine advertising revenue. Magazines receive a very small share of Ireland's advertising expenditure: in 2000, magazines received only 2 percent; newspapers received 55 percent; and radio and television received 33 percent.
A recent survey of 46 Irish book publishers found a vital book publishing industry. Seventy percent of book publishing in Ireland is for primary, secondary, and post-secondary education. Most of the remaining 30 percent is non-fiction, but the market for Irish fiction and children's books is active. Irish book publishers sell most of their books domestically (89 percent), although export sales (11 percent) are notable. More than 800 new titles are published each year, and Irish publishers keep about 7,400 titles in print.
During the 1990s, Ireland earned the nickname "Celtic tiger" because of its robust economic growth. No longer an agricultural economy in the bottom quarter of the European Union, Ireland rose to the top quarter through industry, which accounts for 38 percent of its GDP, 80 percent of its exports, and 28 percent of its labor force. Ireland became a country with significant immigration. The economic boom, which included a 50 percent jump in disposable income, also led to increased spending in the media as well as increased numbers of media operators in Ireland. The underside of these achievements is child poverty, real estate inflation, and traffic congestion.
By far, the largest Irish media company is Independent News and Media PLC, which sells 80 percent of the Irish newspapers sold in Ireland. Independent News publishes the Irish Independent, the national daily with the highest circulation in Ireland, the two leading national Sunday newspapers, the national Evening Herald, 11 regional newspapers, and the Irish edition of the British Daily Star. Yet these properties, along with a yellow page directory, contribute only 28 percent of the revenues of Independent News; most of the rest comes from its international media properties. Despite the dominance of Independent News in Ireland, the Irish Competition Authority has concluded that the Irish newspaper industry remains editorially diverse.
The mind behind Independent News is Tony O'Reilly, whose 30 percent stake in the company is worth $430 million. O'Reilly founded Independent News in 1973 with a $2.4 million investment in the Irish Independent. Now the company includes the largest chains in South Africa and New Zealand, regional papers in Australia, and London's Independent. O'Reilly, who is the richest living Irishman with a personal fortune of $1.3 billion, has been a rugby star, CEO of the H. J. Heinz Company, and chairman of Waterford Wedgwood. He earned a Ph.D. in agricultural marketing from the University of Bradford, England, and was knighted in 2001. "I am a maximalist," O'Reilly says. "I want more of everything."
There is some media cross-ownership in Ireland. A few local newspapers own shares in local commercial radio stations. Independent News has a 50 percent financial interest in Chorus, the second largest cable operator in Ireland. Scottish Radio Holdings owns the national commercial radio service Today FM as well as six regional newspapers. O'Reilly is the Chairman not only of Independent News, but also of the Valentia consortium, which owns Eircom, operator of one of the largest online services in Ireland, eircom.net.
Most Irish journalists, both in print and in broadcast, belong to the National Union of Journalists, which serves as both a trade union and a professional organization. The NUJ is the world's largest union of journalists, with over 25,000 members in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Recently, the NUJ fought a newspaper publishers' proposal to give copyright of staff-generated material to media companies to stop them from being able to syndicate material without paying royalties to journalists.
Ireland's largest publishers are represented by National Newspapers of Ireland (NNI). Originally formed to promote newspaper advertising, it has expanded to lobby the government on major concerns of the newspaper industry.
Although the Irish Constitution does not mention privacy per se, the Supreme Court has said, "The right to privacy is one of the fundamental personal rights of the citizen which flow from the Christian and democratic nature of the State." Legislative measures to protect privacy include the Data Protection Act of 1988, which regulates the collection, use, storage, and disclosure of personal information that is processed electronically. Individuals have a right to read and correct information that is held about them. Wiretapping and electronic surveil-lance are regulated under the Interception of Postal Packets and Telecommunications Messages (Regulation) Act, which was passed after the Supreme Court ruled in 1987 that the unwarranted wiretaps of two reporters violated the constitution.
Because there is no press council or ombudsman for the press in Ireland, the main way to deal with complaints about the Irish media is to go to court. Irish libel laws leave the media vulnerable to defamation lawsuits, which are common. Libel suits are hard to defend against, so the press often settles out of court rather than go through the expense of a trial and then pay the increasingly large judgments that juries award to plaintiffs. Defamation suits cost Ireland's newspapers and broadcasters tens of millions of Euros every year. As a result, lawyers are kept on staff to advise on everything from story ideas to book manuscripts. "When in doubt, leave it out," has become editorial wisdom. The media keeps one eye on the courtroom and the other on distributors and stores, some of which have refused to carry publications for fear that they too could be sued for libel.
Defamation has not chilled the Irish press entirely, but it has made investigative journalism difficult. Veronica Guerin's exposés about the Irish drug underworld in The Sunday Independent are a case in point. Naming persons as drug dealers is a sure-fire way to elicit a libel suit in Ireland, unless, that is, the criminals explicitly comment on allegations made against them. So despite being threatened, beaten, and even shot, Guerin persisted in confronting drug dealers to get them to say something that she could report in the newspaper. Mostly Guerin used nicknames to identify the criminals, making sure not to use details that would make them readily identifiable. This strategy averred libel suits, because in order to sue, the criminals would have to prove that they were the persons who were nicknamed. In 1995, Guerin received the 1995 International Press Freedom Award from the Committee to Protect Journalists. The following year she was shot to death.
According to Irish law, defamation is the publication of a false statement about a person that lowers the individual in the estimation of right-thinking members of society. The Defamation Act of 1961 does not require the plaintiff to prove that the reporter was negligent or that the reporter failed to exercise reasonable care. The plaintiff does not even have to give evidence that he or she was harmed personally or professionally: the law assumes that false reports are harmful. The plaintiff merely has to show that the offensive words referred to him or her and were published by the defendant. It is up to the defendant to prove that the report is true.
The truth of media reports can be hard to prove. In 2002, John Waters, a columnist for the Irish Times, sued The Sunday Times of London for an article written by gossip columnist Terry Keane. The article was about a talk that Waters had given before a performance of the Greek tragedy Medea. Keane called Waters' talk "a gender-based assault," and added that she felt sorry for Waters' daughter: "When she becomes a teenager and, I hope, believes in love, should she suffer from mood swings or any affliction of womanhood, she will be truly goosed. And better not ask Dad for tea or sympathy… or help." Waters said that the article tarnished his reputation as a father, and the jury agreed, awarding him 84,000 euro in damages plus court costs.
As this case shows, even journalists are not reluctant to sue for libel in Ireland. But other groups sue more frequently. Business people and professionals, particularly lawyers, file libel suits most often; they are followed by politicians. Indeed, Irish libel laws favor public officials and civil servants, who can sue for defamation at government expense. If they lose, they owe the government nothing, but if they win, they get to keep the award.
Two strategies are under consideration to reform libel law in Ireland. The first is legislative. National Newspapers of Ireland (NNI) advocates changes in libel law in exchange for formal self-regulation. According to NNI, the Irish public would be better served by having the courts be the forum of last, rather than first, resort in defamation cases. NNI would like to see a strong code of ethics that would be enforced by the ombudsmen of individual media if possible and by a country-wide press council if necessary. But this system can be established only with libel reform, because as the law stands now, a newspaper that publishes an apology is in essence documenting evidence of its own legal liability.
The second strategy to reform libel law in Ireland is judicial. Civil libertarians want an Irish media organization to challenge a libel judgment all the way to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, a court to which Ireland owes allegiance by treaty. If the Irish government loses its case in the Strasbourg court, it is obliged to change its laws to conform to the ruling. Many civil libertarians pin their hope for significant libel reform upon the Strasbourg court because it has ruled that excessive levels of defamation awards impinge free expression.
Despite these strategies for libel reform, the Defamation Act of 1961 still stands because politicians tend to view the media with skepticism and have grave doubts about the sincerity and efficacy of media self-regulation. The Irish public, meanwhile, tends to believe that the media want libel reform more for reasons of self interest than for public service. Change, therefore, is slow. Political scientist Michael Foley fears that "the Irish media will remain a sort of lottery in which many of the players win. Freedom of the press will continue to be the big loser."
The Irish Constitution simultaneously advocates freedom of expression and, by forbidding expression that is socially undesirable, permits censorship: "The education of public opinion being, however, a matter of such grave import to the common good, the State shall endeavour to ensure that organs of public opinion, such as the radio, the press, the cinema, while preserving their rightful liberty of expression, including criticism of Government policy, shall not be used to undermine public order or morality or the authority of the State." The Constitution also says, "The publication or utterance of blasphemous, seditious, or indecent matter is an offence which shall be punishable in accordance with law." Accordingly, the government has enacted and rigorously enforced several censorship laws including Censorship of Film Acts, Censorship of Publications Acts, Offenses Against the State Acts, and the Official Secrets Act.
The history of censorship in Ireland is also a history of diminishing suppression. A case in point is the 1997 Freedom of Information Act, which changed the longstanding Official Secrets Act, under which all government documents were secret unless specified otherwise. Now most government documents, except for those pertaining to Irish law enforcement and other subjects of sensitive national interest, are made available upon request. The number of requests for information under the Freedom of Information Act has increased steadily since the law was passed.
The Censorship of Publications Acts of 1929, 1946, and 1967 have governed the censorship of publications. The Acts set up a Censorship and Publications Board, which replaced a group called the Committee of Enquiry on Evil Literature, to examine books and periodicals about which any person has filed a complaint. The Board may prohibit the sale and distribution in Ireland of any publications that it judges to be indecent, defined as "suggestive of, or inciting to sexual immorality or unnatural vice or likely in any other similar way to corrupt or deprave," or that advocate "the unnatural prevention of conception or the procurement of abortion," or that provide titillating details of judicial proceedings, especially divorce. A prohibition order lasts up to twelve years, but decisions made by the Board are subject to judicial review.
The first decades under censorship laws were a time of strong enforcement, thanks in large measure to the Catholic Truth Society, which was relentless in its petitions to the Censorship Board. Before the 1980s, hundreds of books and movies were banned every year in Ireland, titles including such notable works as Hemingway's A Farewell To Arms, Huxley's Brave New World, Mead's Coming Of Age In Samoa, and Steinbeck's The Grapes Of Wrath. Playboy magazine was not legally available in Ireland until 1995. The English writer Robert Graves described Ireland as having "the fiercest literary censorship this side of the Iron Curtain," and the Irish writer Frank O'Connor referred to the "great Gaelic heritage of intolerance."
Although the flood of censorship has slowed to a trickle, recent cases serve as a reminder that censorship efforts still exist in Ireland today. A Dublin Public Library patron complained to the Censorship Board that Every Woman's Life Guide and Our Bodies, Ourselves contained references to abortion. The library removed the books because, according to a Dublin Public Library spokesperson, "We're not employed to put ourselves at legal risk." In 1994, the Oliver Stone film Natural Born Killers was banned. In 1999, the Censorship Board banned for six months the publication of In Dublin, a twice-monthly events guide, because the magazine published advertisements for massage parlors. The High Court chastised the board for excessiveness and lifted the ban on condition that the offending advertisements would appear no longer.
The potential for censorship in Ireland is real, but circumscribed. Not only have recent government censors shown restraint in inverse proportion to the power they have on paper, but most of the censorship that they have exercised is over blatant pornography. Furthermore, Ireland is awash with foreign media, so parochial censorship is likely to be countered readily by information from the UK, Western Europe, and the United States.
Like other western European countries, Ireland has an established free press tradition. The Irish Constitution guarantees "liberty of expression, including criticism of Government policy" but makes it unlawful to undermine "the authority of the State." Although not absolute, press freedom is fundamental to Irish society.
The extent to which the Irish media exercise their right to criticize government policy is a matter of perspective. Many politicians and government officials believe that the press is critical to the point of being downright carnivorous. Garrett Fitzgerald, former prime minister of Ireland, agreed with Edward Pearce of New Statesman & Society who said that the media "devour our politicians, briefly exalting them before commencing a sort of car-crushing process." However, others disagree, complaining that the press acquiesces to the wishes of the government. "The relationship between the media, especially the broadcast media, and the political establishment is the aorta in the heart of any functioning democracy. Unfortunately, in Ireland this relationship has become so profoundly skewed that it threatens the health of the body politic," Liam Fay complained in the London Sunday Times. While RTÉ [Radio Telefís Éireann] will never become "the proverbial dog to the politicians' lamppost," said Fay, "the station has a responsibility to do more than simply provide a leafy green backdrop against which our leaders and would-be leaders can display their policies in full bloom. Yet this is precisely what much of RTÉ's political coverage now amounts to."
Revelations in the 1980s that the government had tapped the phones of three journalists for long periods of time helped to spur further adversity between news reporters and the government. Because the government had tapped the phones of Geraldine Kennedy of the Sunday Tribune and Bruce Arnold of the Irish Independent without proper authorization in an attempt to track down cabinet leaks, the High Court awarded£20,000 each to Kennedy and Arnold and an additional£10,000 to Arnold's wife. Vincent Brown of Magill magazine, whose phone was tapped when his research had put him in touch with members of the IRA, settled out of court in 1995 for £95,000.
The government office established to deal with the media is Government Information Services (GIS), made up of the Government Press Secretary, the Deputy Government Press Secretary, and four government press officers. Charged with providing "a free flow of government-related information," GIS issues press releases and statements, arranges access to officials, and coordinates public information campaigns.
Attitude toward Foreign Media
The government of Ireland has a cooperative relationship with foreign media. The Department of Foreign Affairs keeps domestic and international media up to date on developments in Irish foreign policy by publishing a range of information on paper and electronically, providing press briefings, and arranging meetings between foreign correspondents and the agencies about which they want to report.
Opposition to foreign media in Ireland thus comes not from the government but rather from Irish publishers, who complain of unfair competition from British media companies. One complaint involves below-cost selling. Irish publishers protest that their British competitors sell newspapers in Ireland at a cover price with which Irish newspaper companies cannot compete. Irish publishers also complain that the 12.5 percent valued added tax (VAT) on newspaper sales in Ireland causes an unfair burden. Huge British companies, which have no VAT tax at home, are able to absorb the Irish tax more easily than Irish publishers, who lack the cushion British publishers enjoy. Irish publishers claim that below-cost selling and the VAT tax have helped ensure that a significant portion of daily and Sunday newspapers sold in Ireland are British.
Besides competing with imported media, Irish companies are increasingly finding themselves competing with foreign-owned companies at home. Scottish Radio Holdings owns Today FM, the national newspaper Ireland on Sunday, and five regional papers. CanWest Global Communications has a 45 percent stake in TV3, as does Granada, the largest commercial television company in the UK. And Trinity Mirror, the biggest newspaper publisher in the UK and the second largest in Europe, owns Irish Daily Mirror, The Sunday Business Post,Donegal Democrat, and Donegal Peoples Press. Until recently, foreign ownership of Irish media has been limited. But the Irish media market is attractive and there is no legislation that prevents foreign ownership of Irish media, so the sale of Irish media properties to foreign (primarily British) companies is expected to continue.
Because Ireland is a small country, there are no domestic Irish news agencies. Irish media use international news agencies and their own reporters for news gathering. Although some of the major international agencies have a bureau in Dublin—representatives include Dow Jones Newswires, ITAR-TASS, Reuters, and BBC— many do not, choosing instead to rely upon their London correspondents to report on Ireland as stories arise.
Since the 1920s, broadcasting in Ireland has been dominated by RTÉ, a public service agency that is funded by license fees and the sale of advertising time. RTÉ runs four radio and three television channels. Radio 1 is RTÉ's flagship radio station. Begun in 1926, it broadcasts a mixture of news, information, music, and drama. RTÉ's popular music station 2 FM is known for its support of new and emerging Irish artists and musicians. Lyric FM is RTÉ's 24-hour classical music and arts station. The fourth RTÉ station is Radió na Gaeltachta, which was established in 1972 to provide full service broadcasting in Irish. RTÉ also operates RTÉ 1, a television station that emphasizes news and current affairs programming; Network 2, a sports and entertainment channel; and TG4, which televises Irish-language programs. RTÉ is currently in the process of launching four new digital television channels: a 24-hour news and sports channel, an education channel, a youth channel, and a legislative channel.
The funding for RTÉ has been a source of contention among Ireland's commercial broadcasters, who complain that license fees contribute to unfair competition. RTÉ receives license fees to support public service broadcasting even though RTÉ's schedule is by no means exclusively noncommercial. Commercial broadcasters, by contrast, are required to program news and current affairs, but without any support from license fees. Meanwhile, because the government is loath to increase license fees, RTÉ is finding it must rely more upon advertising even as increasing competition among broadcasters is making advertising revenue more difficult to obtain.
Besides RTÉ's public stations, there are many independent radio and television stations in Ireland. There are 43 licensed independent radio stations in Ireland. In addition to the independent national station, Today FM, there are 23 local commercial stations, 16 non-commercial community stations, and four hospital or college stations. Although many of the independent stations broadcast a rather stock set of music, advertising, disk jockey chatter, and current affairs programs, some serve their communities with unique discussion programs.
Pirate radio stations have existed in Ireland as long as Ireland has had radio. Today about 50 pirate stations operate throughout Ireland. The Irish government tolerates these stations as long as they do not interfere with the signals of licensed broadcasters.
The only independent indigenous television station in Ireland is TV3. Although licensed to broadcast in 1988, TV3 did not begin broadcasting until 1998. It took ten years to find financial backing, 90 percent of which finally came from the television giants Granada (UK) and CanWest Global Communications (Canada). TV3 produces few programs in house; most TV3 programs are sitcoms and soap operas imported from the United States, UK, and Australia.
More than half of Irish households subscribe to cable TV. (Cable penetration in Dublin is an astounding 83 percent.) Those who subscribe to cable receive the three Irish television channels, four UK channels, and a dozen satellite stations. Two companies, NTL and Chorus, control most cable TV in Ireland. The US-owned NTL is the largest. Chorus Communication is owned by a partnership of Independent News and Media, the Irish conglomerate, and Liberty Media International, which is owned by AT&T.
The only provider of digital satellite in Ireland is Sky Digital, operated by British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). Twenty percent of households in Ireland subscribe to Sky Digital. Sky offers more than 100 broadcast television channels plus audio music and pay-per-view channels. Beginning with two matches between middleweight boxers Steve Collins and Chris Eubank in 1995, and quickly followed by golf tournaments and even an Ireland-USA rugby game, Sky has bought exclusive rights to Irish sports events for broadcast on a pay-per-view basis. Sky's purchases have had the effect of making certain events exclusive that had customarily been broadcast freely. Irish viewers can no longer expect to see every domestic sports event without paying extra.
All information transmitted electronically, from broadcast to cable to satellite and Internet, is under the authority of the Broadcasting Commission of Ireland (BCI), as set forth in the Broadcasting Act of 2001. BCI is responsible for the licensing and oversight of broadcasting as well as for writing and enforcing a code of broadcasting standards.
Electronic News Media
Ireland today is a center for the production and use of computers in Europe. One-third of all PCs sold in Europe are made in Ireland, and many software companies have plants there. Indigenous companies include the Internet security firm Baltimore Technologies and the software integration company Iona Technologies.
The longest running Internet news service in the world is The Irish Emigrant, which Liam Ferrie began as an electronic newsletter in 1987 to keep his overseas colleagues at Digital Equipment Corporation informed of news from Ireland. Today, The Irish Emigrant reaches readers in over 130 countries. A hard copy version has appeared on green newsprint in Boston and New York since 1995. The Irish Internet Association gave Ferrie its first Net Visionary Award in 1999.
Virtually all broadcasters and newspapers in Ireland have a web page. The Irish Times launched its website in 1994 and transformed it into the portal site, Ireland.com, four years later. This website attracts 1.7 million visits from 630,000 unique users each month, a rate in Ireland second only to the site of the discount airline Ryanair. Following the trend among content-driven web sites throughout the world, Ireland.com began to charge for access to certain sections of the site in 2002. Ireland's Internet penetration rate was 33 percent in 2002; the penetration rate in Dublin was 53 percent.
Education & TRAINING
Journalism education is becoming increasingly common in Ireland. At least three institutions of higher education offer degrees in journalism. Dublin City University's School of Communications offers several undergraduate and graduate degrees including specialties in journalism, multimedia, and political communication. Dublin Institute of Technology offers a B.A. degree in Journalism Studies and a Language, designed to educate journalists for international assignments or for dual-language careers at home. Griffith College Dublin offers a B.A. degree in Journalism & Media Communications as well as a one-year program to prepare students for a career in radio broadcasting. Irish students who need financial assistance in order to study journalism can apply for the Tom McPhail Journalism Bursary, a scholarship administered by the National Union of Journalists in honor of the Irish Press and Granada Television news editor who co-founded the short-lived Ireland International News Agency.
Given its relatively small population of 3.8 million, the Republic of Ireland has a rich media environment. It is served by 12 national newspapers—four dailies, two evenings, five Sundays, and one weekly—and by more than 60 regional newspapers. There are more than 150 indigenous consumer magazines and nearly 50 indigenous book publishers. Ireland has four national television stations, five national radio stations, and dozens of regional radio stations. There is a growing Irish presence on the Internet as well as an increasing Internet penetration rate in Ireland. There are also a plethora of imported books, magazines, and newspapers, as well as radio and television channels available through cable and satellite. Ireland's media environment is both populous and diverse, essential qualities for any healthy democracy.
Politically, the media in Ireland is as free from government interference as it has ever been. Before the 1990s, the Censorship Board banned hundreds of books and movies every year, a pattern that inhibited creativity at home and attempts at importing from abroad. Today the Censorship Board screens for pornography, but little more. Literature and film are free to circulate.
The government has also granted the media far wider access to its records. Until recently government records in Ireland were presumed to be private and unavailable to the public. But with the Freedom of Information Act of 1997, the press—or any Irish citizen—can now make formal requests to see government records, and with very few exceptions, those requests will be granted. The Freedom of Information Act has had the effect of encouraging more investigative reporting.
Libel, however, continues to be a problem for the press in Ireland. Libel suits are relatively easy to win in Ireland because the plaintiff has only to prove publication of defamatory statements, not their falsity, which in Ireland is the defendant's task. Furthermore, the more public the figure in Ireland, the greater the award for defamation that juries are likely to give. Such conditions make investigative reporting risky and, with the cost for lawyers on retainer, expensive. Nevertheless, the national Irish media continue to criticize government officials and discuss important social, political, economic, and religious issues. The chilling effect seems more potential than real at this point.
The media in Ireland are also facing economic challenges. One is globalization. Irish media confront stiff competition from magazines, books, and newspapers, as well as radio and television programs, that pour into Ireland from transnational UK companies with such economies of scale that they can undersell indigenous Irish products. Increasingly, media companies from the UK are buying Irish media, and large Irish companies are doing the same, so that there are fewer and fewer owners of the media. This increasing concentration is likely to diminish diversity in media content.
The public service tradition in Irish broadcasting is experiencing similar difficulties. RTÉ relies upon license fees supplemented with advertising revenue to fund its programming, which ranges from news and current affairs to entertainment and cultural programming both in English and in Gaelic. At the same time, RTÉ is facing increasing competition from commercial broadcasters that offer popular, lighter fare. Under these circumstances, RTÉ audiences will decline, making it both more difficult to generate advertising revenue and to justify increased license fees. Although RTÉ operates under a mandate to offer programs that serve viewers rather than merely satisfy them, the pressure on RTÉ is to compete with its commercial counterparts by shifting from a model of public service to a marketplace model.
The trends toward concentration and commercialization of the media in Ireland are indeed powerful, but their effects are likely to be mitigated, at least in part, by other forces. One of these forces is technology. The Internet, with its small but growing presence in Ireland, offers the very real opportunity to contribute ideas to the public sphere that have little apparent commercial appeal. Businesses and established publishers and broadcasters dominate the Internet, but not exclusively, so the Internet will continue to be available as an avenue for dissent and other alternative expression. Furthermore, as long as the desire to preserve, promote, and explore Irish culture and language is strong, unique, and compelling, Irish communications will continue to circulate, sometimes commercially and sometimes as the result of government planning and investment.
- 1997: Freedom of Information Act passed.
- 1998: TV3, Ireland's first commercial television station, began broadcasting.
- 2001: Broadcasting Act passed.
Farrell, Brian. Communications and Community in Ireland. Dublin: Mercier, 1984.
Horgan, John. Irish Media: A Critical History Since 1922. London: Routledge, 2001.
Kelly, Mary J. and Barbara O'Connor, eds. Media Audiences in Ireland: Power and Cultural Identity. Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 1997.
Kiberd, Damien, ed. Media in Ireland: The Search for Ethical Journalism. Dublin: Four Courts, 1999.
——. Media in Ireland: The Search for Diversity. Dublin: Four Courts, 1997.
Oram, Hugh. The Newspaper Book: A History of Newspapers in Ireland, 1649-1983. Dublin: MO Books, 1983.
Woodman, Kieran. Media Control in Ireland, 1923-1983. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985.
John P. Ferré
"Ireland." World Press Encyclopedia. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." World Press Encyclopedia. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
RecipesTraditional Irish Stew................................................. 105
Soda Bread................................................................ 105
Corned Beef with Cabbage ....................................... 106
Colcannon ................................................................ 107
Barm Brack................................................................ 108
Irish Christmas Cake.................................................. 109
Dublin Coddle........................................................... 110
Scones ...................................................................... 110
Apple Cake................................................................ 111
1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT
Ireland, or officially the Republic of Ireland, is an island nation in the North Atlantic Ocean. (The northernmost part of the island is Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom.) Almost 20 percent of the land is devoted to farming. Less than 10 percent of farmland is used to grow crops and the majority is used as grazing land for livestock.
2 HISTORY AND FOOD
The arrival of the Anglo-Normans in Ireland in 1169 affected both farming and diet in Ireland. (Anglo-Normans are the Normans who remained in England after the Norman Conquest. Led by William the Conqueror, the Normans came from the Normandy region of France in 1066.) Wheat, peas, and beans became staple foods and people began preparing more elaborate dishes. Food customs were also changing, as French and Italian cooking customs influenced the upper-class cuisine.
The potato was introduced to Ireland by the late 1500s. Within 200 years it had replaced older staples, including oats and dairy products. The potato became the mainstay of the Irish diet. In the 1840s, the country's heavy reliance on potatoes led to the disaster known as the Irish Potato Famine. Most Irish farmers grew one particular variety of potato, which turned out to be highly sensitive to disease. A potato blight that had started in Belgium swept the country. It destroyed one-third of Ireland's potato crop in 1845 and triggered widespread famine. In the next two years, two-thirds of the crop was destroyed. More than one million people died as a result of the potato blight, and two million emigrated (moved away) to other countries. Even though they had suffered through the Irish Potato Famine (also called the Great Famine), Irish people continued to love potatoes. As soon as the spread of the disease stopped, the potato returned its place as the staple food in the Irish diet. Farmers began to spray their crops with chemicals to protect them from disease. As of 2001 the Irish were consuming more potatoes than most countries in the world.
3 FOODS OF THE IRISH
Irish food is known for the quality and freshness of its ingredients. Most cooking is done without herbs or spices, except for salt and pepper. Foods are usually served without sauce or gravy.
The staples of the Irish diet have traditionally been potatoes, grains (especially oats), and dairy products. Potatoes still appear at most Irish meals, with potato scones, similar to biscuits or muffins, a specialty in the north. The Irish have also been accomplished cheesemakers for centuries. Ireland makes about fifty types of homemade "farmhouse" cheeses, which are considered delicacies.
Soups of all types, seafood, and meats also play important roles in the Irish diet. Irish soups are thick, hearty, and filling, with potatoes, seafood, and various meats being common ingredients. Since their country is surrounded by water, the Irish enjoy many types of seafood, including salmon, scallops, lobster, mussels, and oysters. However, meat is eaten more frequently at Irish meals. The most common meats are beef, lamb, and pork. A typical Irish dinner consists of potatoes (cooked whole), cabbage, and meat.
Irish stew has been recognized as the national dish for at least two centuries. A poem from the early 1800s praised Irish stew for satisfying the hunger of anyone who ate it:
Then hurrah for an Irish Stew
That will stick to your belly like glue.
Bread is an important part of Irish culture. Fresh soda bread, a crusty brown bread made from whole-wheat flour and buttermilk, is a national dish of Ireland. Irish bakers don't stop with soda bread, however. They bake a wide variety of other hearty breads and cakes.
The most common everyday beverage in Ireland is tea. Popular alcoholic beverages include whiskey, beer, and ale. Coffee mixed with whiskey and whipped cream is known throughout the world as "Irish coffee."
Traditional Irish Stew
- 4 potatoes, thinly sliced
- 4 medium onions, thinly sliced
- 6 carrots, sliced
- 1 pound Canadian bacon, chopped
- 3 pounds lamb chops, 1-inch thick, trimmed, and cut into small pieces
- Salt and pepper to taste
- 2½ cups water
- 4 potatoes, halved
- Fresh parsley, finely chopped
- To make Irish stew, all the ingredients are assembled in layers in a large stew pot.
- Begin with layers of sliced potatoes, onions, and carrots.
- Top with a layer of Canadian bacon and lamb.
- Sprinkle liberally with salt and pepper.
- Repeat these steps until all the ingredients are used.
- Add enough water to just cover the ingredients.
- Arrange the halved potatoes on top of the stew, but not in contact with the water, so they can steam as the rest is cooking.
- Simmer over a very low heat for about 2 hours.
- Sprinkle liberally with the chopped parsley and serve in soup bowls.
Makes 4 to 6 servings.
Irish Soda Bread
- 4 cups flour
- 1 teaspoon baking soda
- 1 teaspoon salt
- ¾ cup raisins
- 2 Tablespoons caraway seeds
- 1 cup buttermilk
- Preheat oven to 425°F.
- Mix flour, baking soda, and salt in a bowl. Add raisins and caraway seeds.
- Add buttermilk all at once and mix.
- Knead the dough on a lightly floured board. (To knead, press the dough flat, fold it in half, turn the dough, and repeat.) Form into a round loaf on a well-greased baking sheet.
- With a knife, carefully mark an X across the top of the loaf. Lay a piece of foil over the loaf. Bake for 5 minutes.
- Lower heat to 250°F and bake 30 minutes more. Remove foil and bake another 10 minutes, until the loaf is slightly browned.
- Cut into wedges and serve with butter.
Serves 10 to 12.
Corned Beef with Cabbage
- 4 pounds corned brisket of beef
- 3 large carrots, cut into large chunks
- 6 to 8 small onions
- 1 teaspoon dry mustard
- ¼ teaspoon thyme
- ¼ teaspoon parsley
- 1 head of cabbage (remove two layers of outer leaves)
- Salt and pepper
- Boiled potatoes as accompaniment
- Place brisket in a large pot. Top with carrots, onions, mustard, thyme, and parsley.
- Cover with cold water, and heat until the water just begins to boil.
- Cover the pot with the lid, lower the heat, and simmer the mixture for 2 hours.
- Using a large knife, cut the cabbage into quarters, and add the cabbage wedges to the pot.
- Cook for another 1 to 2 hours or until the meat and vegetables are soft and tender.
- Remove the vegetables to a platter or bowl, cover with foil, and keep them warm.
- Remove the brisket, place it on a cutting board, and slice it.
- Serve the corned beef slices on a platter, surrounded by the vegetables.
- Ladle a little of the cooking liquid over the meat and vegetables.
Serves 12 to 16.
This is one of the most widely eaten potato dishes in Ireland.
- 6 to 8 baking potatoes, unpeeled
- 1 bunch scallions
- 1½ cups milk
- 4 to 8 Tablespoons butter (to taste)
- Salt and pepper
- Scrub potatoes (do not peel), place them in a pot, and cover them with water.
- Heat the water to boiling, and cook the potatoes until they can be pierced with a fork (about 25 minutes).
- Finely chop the scallions (use both the white bulbs and the green stems) and put them in a small saucepan.
- Cover the scallions with the milk and bring slowly just to a boil.
- Simmer for about 3 to 4 minutes, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon. Turn off the heat and let the mixture stand.
- Peel and mash the hot boiled potatoes in a saucepan. Add the milk and scallions mixture and beat well.
- Beat in the butter. Season to taste with salt and pepper.
- Serve in 1 large or 4 individual bowls with a pat of butter melting in the center of each serving. May be reheated.
Serves 4 to 6.
4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS
The most festive holiday meal of the year is Christmas dinner, followed by Easter Sunday dinner. During the 40 days of Lent, Irish Catholics choose certain foods they wish to not eat. At one time, all animal products, including milk, butter, and eggs, were not to be consumed during Lent. The poorer Catholics of Ireland were often left to eat only oatcakes for the 40-day period. On Good Friday, the Friday before Easter Sunday, the Irish eat hot cross buns, a light, bread-like pastry topped with a frosting cross that holds spiritual meaning.
Another day on the Catholic calendar that the Irish Catholics do not eat meat is All Saints' Day (November 1). Each county has its own special meatless dishes for this occasion. Popular dishes include oatcakes, pancakes, potato pudding, apple cake, and blackberry pies. For Christmas, people throughout Ireland eat spiced beef, and a fancy Christmas cake full of dried and candied fruits for dessert.
All Saints' Day Dinner
- Nettle soup
- Poached plaice fillets
- Soda bread
- Barm Brack
- Carrot pudding
- Kidney soup
- Christmas goose (roasted) with chestnut stuffing and port sauce
- Garden peas with fresh mint
- Potato oat cakes
- Christmas cake
- Mince pies
This potato and cabbage dish is traditionally served on Halloween with a ring or lucky charm hidden in the center.
- 1 pound kale (or green leafy cabbage)
- 1 pound potatoes
- 6 scallions (or small bunch of chives)
- ⅔ cup milk (or half-and-half)
- Salt and freshly ground black pepper
- 4 to 8 Tablespoons butter, melted
- Remove the tough stalk from the kale or cabbage and shred the leaves finely.
- Put about 1 inch of water in a saucepan large enough to hold the kale, and add a teaspoon of salt.
- Heat the salted water until it boils, and add the kale. Cook, covered for 10 to 20 minutes until the kale is very tender. Drain well.
- Scrub the potatoes and place them in a saucepan, unpeeled. Add water to cover.
- Heat the water to boiling, and cook the potatoes until tender (about 25 minutes).
- Drain, peel, and return to the pan over low heat to evaporate any moisture (This will take just a minute or so).
- Mash the potatoes while warm until they are smooth.
- Chop scallions and simmer in the milk or cream for about 5 minutes.
- Gradually add this liquid to the potatoes, beating well to give a soft, fluffy texture.
- Beat in the kale or cabbage along with the salt and pepper.
- Heat thoroughly over low heat and serve in bowls. Make an indentation in the center and pour in some melted butter.
Barm Brack is the traditional cake bread eaten at Halloween.
- 6 cups flour
- ½ teaspoon allspice
- 1 teaspoon salt
- 1 envelope active dry yeast
- 4 Tablespoons sugar
- 1¼ cups warm milk
- ⅔ cup warm water
- 4 Tablespoons butter, softened
- 4 Tablespoons currants
- 5 Tablespoons orange or lemon peel, chopped
- Milk or syrup, to glaze
- Powdered sugar, to decorate
- The night before baking, make a cup of tea, and put the currants and chopped peel into it to soak overnight.
- Mix the flour, allspice, and salt together. Stir in the yeast and sugar.
- Make a well in the center of the flour mixture, and pour in the milk and water, and mix into a dough.
- Move dough to a floured board and knead for 5 or 6 minutes, adding flour as necessary, until smooth and no longer sticky. (To knead, flatten the dough slightly, fold it over, flatten again, turn.)
- Place dough in a clean bowl, cover with plastic wrap, and leave in a warm place for 1 hour to rise (expand) to about double in size.
- Turn the dough back out onto the floured board, and add the butter, currants, and chopped peel and knead into the dough.
- Return the dough to the bowl and cover again with plastic wrap. Leave to rise for another 30 minutes.
- Grease a 9-inch round cake pan. Fit the dough into pan, cover with plastic wrap, and leave until the dough rises to the edge of the tin (about 30 minutes).
- Preheat oven to 400°F.
- Brush the surface of the dough with milk and bake for 15 minutes.
- Cover loosely with foil; reduce the heat to 350°F and bake for 45 minutes more.
- Sprinkle with powdered sugar.
Irish Christmas Cake
The cake tastes best when baked 1–3 weeks ahead of time. This traditional cake is served at holiday festivities throughout December. It is traditionally decorated with marzipan (almond paste), white icing, and holly sprigs.
- 2¼ cups dried currants
- 2 cups golden raisins
- 1 cup dark raisins
- ¼ cup candied cherries
- ¼ cup candied fruit peel
- ⅔ cup almonds, chopped
- 1 lemon (juice and grated rind of its peel)
- 1½ teaspoons allspice
- ½ teaspoon nutmeg, ground
- 1 cup Irish whiskey (used in ½-cup amounts; may substitute ½-cup strong tea)
- 2 sticks butter, room temperature
- 1 cup firmly-packed light brown sugar
- 5 eggs
- 2 cups flour
- Marzipan (almond paste)
- White icing (purchased)
- Holly sprigs (optional decoration)
- The day before baking: Combine all the fruit, peel, rind and juice, spices, and nuts in a large bowl with ½ cup of the whiskey (or tea) and let soak overnight.
- The day of baking: Preheat oven to 275°F and grease a 9-inch round cake pan, lining the bottom with cooking parchment paper.
- In a large bowl, cream the butter and sugar together until light and fluffy.
- Beat the eggs in one at a time, adding flour with each egg.
- Mix in the remaining flour and soaked fruit.
- Pour the mixture into the cake pan and bake until it is firm to the touch and a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean, about 2 hours.
- Let the cake cool in the pan for 30 minutes. If substituting tea for whiskey, skip this step: Prick the top in several places and pour the remaining ½ cup whiskey over the top.
- Wrap in plastic wrap, then foil, and store in a cool, dark place for several weeks to allow the cake to mature (fully absorb the flavors). The cake can be unwrapped occasionally and more whiskey added, if desired.
5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS
The Irish value hospitality, and generous portions of food are common at home and in restaurants.
A large breakfast was traditionally eaten in rural Ireland. Common breakfast foods included soda bread, pancakes, porridge, eggs, and various meat products. A full oldfashioned country breakfast might include fresh fruit juice, porridge, a "mixed grill" of breakfast meats and black pudding, scones, and soda bread with butter and preserves, tea, and coffee with hot milk.
Dinner, the main meal of the day, used to be eaten at lunchtime. A typical dish was "Dublin coddle," a bacon, sausage, potato, and onion soup. Today, however, many Irish people eat lighter meals in the morning and at midday. They have their main meal later in the day, when they come home from work or school. Lunch is often a bowl of hot soup that is served with freshly baked soda bread. However, many pubs (bars) still serve the traditional large midday dinner. "Supper" in Ireland means a late-night snack. A typical supper is a slice of bread with butter and a glass of milk.
- 1 pound bacon, sliced
- 2 pounds pork sausage links
- 2 onions, peeled and sliced
- 2 cloves garlic, whole
- 4 large potatoes, thickly sliced
- 2 carrots, thickly sliced
- 1 bouquet garni (bay leaf, tarragon, whole cloves, whole peppercorns; see Procedure step 8)
- Black pepper
- Apple cider (about 4 cups)
- Chopped parsley for garnish
- Separate bacon into slices and place them side by side in a large frying pan. (The bacon may be cooked in batches.) Fry over low heat, turning once, until crisp. Drain bacon grease from pan before cooking another batch.
- Drain the pan and wipe most of the bacon grease out with a paper towel.
- Place sausages in the pan to brown (again, the sausage may be browned in batches).
- Place bacon and sausages in a large pot.
- Drain frying pan again, wipe it with a paper towel, and add the sliced onions and garlic cloves, cooking them over low heat until the onions are softened.
- Add onions and garlic to the bacon and sausage in the pot.
- Add the thick slices of potato and carrot.
- Make a bouquet garni: In a 3-inch square of cheesecloth, place 1 bay leaf, ½ teaspoon tarragon, 2 whole cloves, and 2 whole peppercorns. Tie with twine, and place in pot.
- Cover everything with apple cider (or apple juice).
- Cover, and simmer 1½ hours over medium-low heat. The soup should not boil.
- Serve, garnished with a sprinkling of parsley and black pepper.
Serves 8 to 10.
The Irish are known for their rich, dark beer, called stout. The most famous and widely known brand is called Guinness. Tea is another popular beverage. It is served with scones, probably the most popular snack in Ireland. "Fish and chips," or battered and fried fish served with French fries, is also very popular.
- 8 cups flour
- Pinch of salt
- ⅓ cup sugar
- 4 teaspoons baking powder
- 1½ sticks butter (¾ cup)
- 3 eggs
- 1¾ cups milk
- Preheat oven to 475°F.
- Combine flour, salt, sugar, and baking powder in medium mixing bowl.
- Cut butter into small cubes and add it to the flour mixture. With clean fingertips, rub the butter into the flour.
- In a separate bowl, beat the eggs and milk together. Add to the flour-butter mixture to make a soft dough.
- Place mixture on a floured board. Knead lightly for 3 or 4 minutes.
- Roll out with a rolling pin to a thickness of about one inch.
- Cut dough into 3-inch circles, using a cookie or biscuit cutter.
- Place dough circles onto a lightly greased cookie sheet. Bake 10 to 12 minutes until golden brown.
- Cool on a wire rack.
- Serve, split in half, with berry jam.
Makes 18 to 20 scones.
- 1 pound of apples (about 3 or 4 medium)
- Juice and grated rind of 1 lemon
- ¾ cup butter (1½ sticks)
- 1 cup sugar
- 3 eggs, beaten
- 2 cups self-rising flour
- ½ teaspoon baking powder
- ½ teaspoon cinnamon, ground
- 5 Tablespoons raisins
- 2 Tablespoons hazelnuts, chopped
- 4 Tablespoons powdered sugar
- Preheat oven to 350°F and grease a 9-inch round cake pan.
- Peel, core, and slice the cooking apples and place them in a bowl.
- Sprinkle apples with the lemon juice and set aside.
- In another bowl, beat together the butter, lemon rind, and all but 1 Tablespoon of the sugar until light and fluffy.
- Gradually beat in the eggs.
- Add the flour and baking powder to the butter mixture and mix well.
- Spoon half of the mixture into the prepared cake tin. Arrange the apple slices on top.
- Mix the remaining Tablespoon of sugar and the cinnamon together in small bowl. Sprinkle evenly over the apples.
- Scatter the raisins and hazelnuts on top.
- Smooth the remaining cake mixture over the raisins and hazelnuts.
- Bake for 1 hour.
- Cool in the tin for 15 minutes. Remove, transfer to a serving platter, and sprinkle with powdered sugar.
6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION
Modern Ireland has few problems related to availability of food. In the early part of 2001, Irish cattle and sheep farmers, like other farmers in Europe, were fighting against an outbreak of hoof and mouth disease, a deadly viral disease that is fatal to hoofed animals. By summer, the outbreak had been brought under control.
Irish citizens generally receive adequate nutrition in their diets, and Irish children are considered healthy by international health care agencies.
7 FURTHER STUDY
Albyn, Carole Lisa, and Lois Webb. The Multicultural Cookbook for Students. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1993.
Allen, Darina. The Complete Book of Irish Country Cooking: Traditional and Wholesome Recipes from Ireland. New York: Penguin, 1995.
Connery, Clare.In An Irish Country Kitchen. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992.
Drennan, Matthew. Irish: The Taste of Ireland in Traditional Home Cooking. London: Lorenz Books, 1999.
Halvorsen, Francine. Eating Around the World in Your Neighborhood. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
Johnson, Margaret M. The Irish Heritage Cookbook. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999.
GoIreland.com. [Online] Available http://www.goireland.com/ireland/soda_bread.htm (accessed August 7, 2001).
Ireland, The Food Island. [Online] Available http://www.foodisland.com (accessed July 9, 2001).
"Ireland." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Foods and Recipes of the World. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/food/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
"Ireland." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Foods and Recipes of the World. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/food/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
IRELAND. Ireland's history has been shaped by the inescapable facts of geography. A small island at the western edge of Europe, barely within the mainstream of Continental experience, it lay beyond the reach of the Roman Empire (with all that that entailed for the development of law and modes of administration) yet would later become one of the great depositories of Christian art, spirituality, and learning. The European context is crucial to an understanding of Ireland's past, but the critical geographical fact is the island's proximity to Britain. On a clear day, the Mull of Kintyre in southwest Scotland is visible from the Antrim coast in northeast Ireland. Gaelic civilization, moreover, extended like an arc along the western and northern coasts of Ireland into the Scottish Highlands. Scottish Lowlanders and the English referred to Scots Gaelic as the "Irish language." From the importation by Gaelic lords of Highland mercenary soldiers—the gallowglass and the redshanks—to the role of Scots settlers in the Ulster plantation and the Scots army in the North in the 1640s, a strong Scottish dimension runs through early modern Irish history, though ultimately Ireland's troubled relationship with its larger neighbor, England, would have the greater impact.
THE FALL OF THE HOUSE OF KILDARE
In 1450 Ireland was a lordship, and the king of England its lord. The English crown's claim to sovereignty over the whole island had never been vindicated in practice, however, and during the later Middle Ages English power and jurisdiction were in retreat. Effectively, the king's writ and the common law were confined to the Pale, the area of English settlement around Dublin, capital city and seat of royal authority. Beyond the Pale and the towns, the great Anglo-Norman magnates negotiated the shifting frontiers of Gaeldom through "march law," a bastardized amalgam of common and Irish brehon (native) laws and customs. Even the levers of royal authority began to slip from the king's grasp. The crown in Ireland was represented either by a lord lieutenant, a lord deputy, or, in the absence of one or the other, by lords justices. Between 1447 and 1460, Richard of York's (1411–1460) political standing conferred stature upon the lord lieutenancy and, equally important, kept it within the orbit of the court. Then, between the 1470s and 1520, successive earls of Kildare virtually monopolized the office, using it as a source of patronage to extend their local power base and network of alliances.
The local autonomy enjoyed by the "Kildare ascendancy" has struck some historians of the old nationalist school as part of a wider pattern of incipient Anglo-Irish separatism. But it is surely anachronistic to attribute proto-nationalist ambitions to a political community, the descendants of the original Anglo-Norman settlers, that had no concept of an Irish "nation" in the modern sense. It did, however, have a strong sense of English identity, albeit "English by blood" rather than by birth. Nevertheless, from Parliament's declaration that Ireland was "corporate of itself" (1460) to its declaration of legislative independence in 1782, Anglo-Irish constitutional relations provides a major framework for Irish political history. Subordination of Ireland to England (and, after 1707, Great Britain) and Irish resistance to subordination, though rarely rising to outright separatist aspirations, runs like a leitmotiv through these centuries.
The ascendancy of the earls of Kildare entailed a sometimes spectacular loss of royal control over Irish affairs, most vividly in 1487 when the Yorkist eighth earl, Garrett Mor, crowned the pretender, Lambert Simnel (c. 1475–1535), king of England in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin. Kildare's survival in office, despite his treason, underlines the weakness of the English crown in the fifteenth century. From a position of greater strength and internal stability, however, Henry VIII would not countenance such overmighty subjects anywhere within his realm. Thus, when the ninth earl was summoned to London under the shadow of the executioner in 1534, his son, Lord Offaly, "Silken Thomas," led his followers in the Geraldine League into rebellion. The Geraldine revolt, which lasted until 1540, opened a new, blood-drenched chapter in Irish history. The advent of a new era was signaled by the first ever use of artillery—against the Kildare stronghold of Maynooth—by the ruthless suppression of the rebellion, and by the first stirrings of anti-Reformation Catholicism among the rebels.
The fall of the house of Kildare also inaugurated a prolonged phase of direct rule from London. That practice became the sine qua non of England's Irish policy, and several illustrious names among England's governing elite occupied Dublin Castle, namely the earls of Essex (1599), Strafford (1633–1640), and Chesterfield (1745–1747). There were notable exceptions to the rule: the Irish-born Protestant first duke of Ormond served as lord lieutenant under both Charles I and Charles II, while the Irish-born old English Catholic, the earl of Tyrconnell, held the office under James II in the 1680s. But after the first decade of the eighteenth century (when the second duke, Ormond's grandson, served) occupation of Dublin Castle was reserved for Englishmen. Until the very end of that century, and the appointments of John Fitzgibbon as lord chancellor and Viscount Castlereagh as chief secretary, Englishmen monopolized all senior executive posts, including the lord lieutenancy, chief secretaryship, lord chancellery, and the archbishopric of Armagh. On one level, official Ireland, especially its established church, functioned merely as a patronage outpost for a British political system oiled by the disbursement of places, preferments, pensions, promotions, titles, and favors. On another level, control of the executive rested on British security considerations.
ENGLAND'S DIFFICULTY, IRELAND'S OPPORTUNITY
Security underpinned England's Irish policy. In essence, the concern was strategic. As Thomas Waring put it in the wake of the Cromwellian reconquest of 1649–1650, "humane reason and policie dictate's that the hous cannot bee safe so long as the back door is open." Ireland served as England's "back door" as early as 1497, when another Yorkist pretender, Perkin Warbeck, landed at Cornwall with a retinue of Irish supporters. Then, as Reformation and Counter-Reformation Europe split into warring camps, the vulnerability of Protestant England's western seaboard (and the dangers of Spain's sponsorship of Irish Catholic rebels) concentrated the Tudor mind. Spain (and the papacy) twice intervened in Ireland, landing troops at Smerwick, County Kerry (1580), and, in greater force, at Kinsale, County Cork (1601). Strategic necessity lent urgency to the Tudor reconquest of the sixteenth century and galvanized English determination to hold onto Ireland thereafter. Enemies changed, geography did not: French soldiers fought in Ireland in 1690 and 1798.
England's dominance depended, at bottom, on coercive force. Beyond that, Whitehall and Westminster exercised an array of political, legislative, and administrative controls. These included the retention in English hands of key public offices and the imposition of restrictive laws limiting the autonomy of the Irish Parliament and regulating Irish trade. A few legislative landmarks plot the troubled course of Anglo-Irish relations. First, "Poynings's Law" (1494), aimed originally at too-powerful lord deputies of the Kildare type, evolved into a procedure whereby all Irish parliamentary bills were subject to amendment—amounting to a veto—by the English Privy Council. The repeal of Poynings's Law constitutes the so-called revolution of 1782. Second, the Irish Parliament's subordinate status, institutionalized under Poynings, received confirmation in the Declaratory Act of 1720, a forthright assertion of Westminster's supremacy in the Kingdom of Ireland. Finally, Westminster used its claim of jurisdiction to impose laws prohibiting the import of Irish cattle to England (1667) and the export of Irish wool (1699). Both laws long caused bitter resentment in Ireland, the preliminary controversy surrounding the latter provoking the classic defense of Ireland's historic right to legislative independence, William Molyneux's The Case of Ireland Being Bound by Acts of Parliament in England, Stated (London, 1698).
The roots of England's perennial "Irish problem" lay in the failures of England's Irish policies. By 1450, although the territory of the Pale had contracted, it still boasted the most densely populated, intensively cultivated, and economically diverse region of the country. Yet Gaeldom had also demonstrated its military and cultural vitality. And, as Sir John Davies recognized in his Discovery of the True Causes Why Ireland Was Never Entirely Subdued (1612), the Irish problem would remain intractable for so long as the Gael remained outside—and indeed resistant to—the boon of common law, civility, and, by Davies's time, Protestantism or "true religion." "All the world knows their barbarism," Cromwell remarked of his Irish enemies. Only the adoption of English customs, Reformed religion, language, and law—in a word, anglicization—could save them from their wretched condition.
The Gaelic Irish saw matters differently, and while the story of English-Irish conflict supplies the historian with a ready, dramatic, and compelling narrative structure, it is vital that historians not view the past solely in terms of that conflict. Early modern Ireland, viewed from the Atlantic shores of Donegal, looks rather different from the anglophone Ireland mapped and preserved in the Public Record Office. For the historian, the question of perspective is precisely about rescuing the Gaelic-speaking O'Donnell retainer and MacSweeny swordsman from the enormous condescension of the state papers. Gaelic politics, economy, and society are more difficult to reconstruct than Anglo-Ireland because they never generated the sorts of records—tax rolls, bureaucratic memoranda, even paintings—upon which historians usually rely. The Gaelic world has thus either remained hidden, or, as recently as 1988, been caricatured on the basis of the naive or hostile reportage of outsiders. Fortunately, the dearth of conventional sources has been circumvented somewhat by the mining of a rich, if tricky, lode of nontraditional evidence: Irish-language poetry. Excavations (and cataloguing) are still in the heroic phase, but already the findings of scholars working with these hitherto underused sources have altered and enhanced our understanding of, for example, the depth and range of Irish Jacobite sentiment in the eighteenth century.
English late medieval society, including the Irish Pale, was organized around legally binding principles of mutual obligation and services based on land tenures. In contrast, in Gaelic society land ownership and inheritance, obligation, and political succession were determined by kinship. A chief's power rested on his ability to enforce it, and under the system of "tanistry" his designated heir was as likely a brother or cousin as an eldest son. Kinship, alliances through marriage and fosterage and the receipt of tribute from lesser clans defined a great chief's status more than territory or even cattle—the staple of the Gaelic pastoral economy. Certain families, notably the O'Neills and O'Donnells in Ulster, the O'Connors in Connacht, and the MacCarthys and O'Briens in Munster, predominated. They inhabited a world of insistent, lowintensity warfare and comparative political instability. Exactions of tribute—in kind, or in military or labor services—lacked regulation, and by the early modern period were epitomized by the abuses of "coign and livery"—the billeting at free quarters by a chief of his dependants on his tenants.
The crown and the Dublin administration were not prepared to leave the natives to their own ways for three reasons. First, the inevitable processes of intermarriage, cultural interaction, and linguistic borrowings (in both directions) of the Gaedhil (or Irish) and the Gaill (or foreigners)—which historians call gaelicization but which the English called degeneracy—could not be permitted to continue. Second, the English "common law mind" embraced legal uniformity and abhorred local particularism. Ireland, reported an early-sixteenth-century English observer, comprised a patchwork of over sixty "countries" ruled by captains, each of whom "maketh war and peace for himself, and holdeth by the sword, and hath imperial jurisdiction within his room, and obeyeth to no other person." Worse still, degenerate "captains of English noble family . . . folloeth the same Irish order." The gaelicized Anglo-Norman House of Desmond cast its shadow across the common law mind. Finally, particularistic march law and Gaelic custom rooted in local power bases challenged royal sovereignty as well as legal uniformity.
CONQUEST AND "REFORM"
Whereas conventional nationalist histories of sixteenth-century Ireland focused on reconquest, revisionist historians have recovered the Tudor commitment to reform, although conquest and, in Brendan Bradshaw's terminology, "the catastrophic dimension of Irish history" are now being reintroduced to a more complicated picture. The set pieces of reform are the Act of Kingly Title (1541), which upgraded Ireland from a lordship to a kingdom, and "surrender and regrant," under which Gaelic chieftains surrendered their titles to the crown and were regranted them in English law. Several leading figures were ennobled, for example "the O'Neill" now became Earl of Tyrone, and succession and inheritance were at least theoretically stabilized by the extension of primogeniture. In the longer run, however, the prospects for reform were dashed by the rise of confessional conflict.
In Ireland, the Protestant Reformation assumed the character of an alien imposition. Decisively, the old English, as well as the native Irish, remained Catholic. Protestants were—and remained—a minority. When the Tudors completed the reconquest by the subjugation of Hugh O'Neill (1603), Gaelic Ireland had suffered military defeat but retained its cultural identity. Ethnic origin divided the Gael from his fellow Catholic old English almost as much as from the Protestant new English, yet shared adversity during the first decades of the seventeenth century conspired to forge a common Catholic identity. The defeat of O'Neill was followed by "the flight of the Earls" (1607) when O'Neill and others fled to Catholic Europe. Interpreted as an act of rebellion, the fugitives' lands escheated to the crown and were redistributed to English and Scottish settlers in the plantation of Ulster. The last bastion of Gaelic civilization thereby became the beachhead of British Protestantism in Ireland. The Scottish communities, moreover, laid the seedbed for Presbyterianism.
Stuart Ireland thus hosted four major ethno-religious groups: native Irish Catholics, old English Catholics, new English Protestants of the established church, and (before 1642, informally) Scots Presbyterians. Intra-denominational relations, already tense, strained to breaking point with the crisis of the Stuart monarchies in the late 1630s. Ireland, in fact, helped detonate the wars of the three kingdoms with the Ulster rebellion of 1641. Many Protestant planters were killed by insurgents, and lurid tales of massacre swept England, deepening the rage against popery and suspicion of the king, in whose defense the rebels claimed to act. Ireland, like England and Scotland, experienced the trauma of civil war in the 1640s. Alliances and allegiances shifted bewilderingly but, crucially, the old English were forced into military coalition with their Gaelic coreligionists. When Cromwell arrived in 1649 once more to subjugate the Irish and to revenge 1641, he made no ethnic distinctions among his papist enemies.
The land confiscations begun in the Tudor era and continued by the Ulster plantation reached unprecedented levels with the Cromwellian settlement. In 1603 Catholics owned more than 60 percent of the land; by 1659 that figure had been reduced to about 9 percent. During the reign of Charles II, Catholic ownership climbed back to around 25 percent, thanks to successful pleas in the court of claims, but fell again to 14 percent by the end of the century as a result of the forfeitures that followed the second defeat of Catholic Ireland in 1691. This time there would be no court of claims, but rather a relentless chipping away, by the implementation of penal laws, at the remaining Catholic-owned land. By 1775 it stood at 5 percent. The political nation, like the landowning elite, of eighteenth-century Ireland was Protestant. But the Protestants were a minority, and if anything is inevitable in history, the Catholics could not be excluded from public life and political power forever. A rising Catholic mercantile class had already begun to articulate its grievances by the 1780s, but once more it was events outside the island that catalyzed Irish politics, including the "Catholic question." With the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, a new epoch opened in European—and Irish—history.
See also Cromwell, Oliver ; Dublin ; England ; Landholding ; Law ; Nationalism ; Provincial Government ; Revolutions, Age of .
Brady, Ciaran, and Raymond Gillespie, eds. Natives and Newcomers: Essays on the Making of Irish Colonial Society, 1534–1641. Dublin, 1986.
Connolly, Sean J. Law, Religion and Power: The Making of Protestant Ireland, 1660–1760. Oxford, 1992.
Ellis, Steven G. Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, 1447–1603: English Expansion and the End of Gaelic Rule. London and New York, 1998.
Moody, T. W., F. X. Martin, and F. J. Byrne, eds. A New History of Ireland III: Early Modern Ireland, 1534–1691. Oxford, 1976.
"Ireland." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
"Ireland." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
Pagan and Christian Beliefs
[For information regarding ancient Ireland, see Celts. ]
Although nominally Christianized, there is little doubt that the early medieval Irish retained many remnants of their former paganism, especially those with elements of magic. The writings of the Welsh historian Giraldus Cambrensis (ca. 1147-1220) point to this. This is the first known account of Irish manners and customs after the invasion of the country by the Anglo-Normans. His description, for example, of the Purgatory of St. Patrick in Lough Derg, County Donegal, suggests that the demonology of the Catholic Church had already fused with the animism of earlier Irish tradition. He states:
There is a lake in Ulster containing an island divided into two parts. In one of these stands a church of especial sanctity, and it is most agreeable and delightful, as well as beyond measure glorious for the visitations of angels and the multitude of the saints who visibly frequent it. The other part, being covered with rugged crags, is reported to be the resort of devils only, and to be almost always the theatre on which crowds of evil spirits visibly perform their rites. This part of the island contains nine pits, and should any one perchance venture to spend the night in one of them (which has been done, we know, at times, by some rash men), he is immediately seized by the malignant spirits, who so severely torture him during the whole night, inflicting on him such unutterable sufferings by fire and water, and other torments of various kinds, that when morning comes scarcely any spark of life is found left in his wretched body. It is said that any one who has once submitted to these torments as a penance imposed upon him, will not afterwards undergo the pains of hell, unless he commit some sin of a deeper dye.
"This place is called by the natives the Purgatory of St. Patrick. For he, having to argue with a heathen race concerning the torments of hell, reserved for the reprobate, and the real nature and eternal duration of the future life, in order to impress on the rude minds of the unbelievers a mysterious faith in doctrines so new, so strange, so opposed to their prejudices, procured by the efficacy of his prayers an exemplification of both states even on earth, as a salutary lesson to the stubborn minds of the people.
The ancient Irish believed in the possibility of the transformation of human beings into animals. Giraldus, in another narrative of facts purporting to have come under his personal notice, shows that this belief had lost none of its significance with the Irish of the latter half of the twelfth century. The case is also interesting as being one of the first recorded examples of lycanthropy in the British Isles:
"About three years before the arrival of Earl John in Ireland, it chanced that a priest, who was journeying from Ulster towards Meath, was benighted in a certain wood on the borders of Meath. While, in company with only a young lad, he was watching by a fire which he had kindled under the branches of a spreading tree, lo! a wolf came up to them, and immediately addressed them to this effect: 'Rest secure, and be not afraid, for there is no reason you should fear, where no fear is!' The travellers being struck with astonishment and alarm, the wolf added some orthodox words referring to God. The priest then implored him, and adjured him by Almighty God and faith in the Trinity, not to hurt them, but to inform them what creature it was in the shape of a beast uttered human words. The wolf, after giving catholic replies to all questions, added at last: 'There are two of us, a man and a woman, natives of Ossory, who, through the curse of Natalis, saint and abbot, are compelled every seven years to put off the human form, and depart from the dwellings of men. Quitting entirely the human form, we assume that of wolves. At the end of the seven years, if they chance to survive, two others being substituted in their places, they return to their country and their former shape. And now, she who is my partner in this visitation lies dangerously sick not far from hence, and, as she is at the point of death, I beseech you, inspired by divine charity, to give her the consolations of your priestly office.'
"At this wood the priest followed the wolf trembling, as he led the way to a tree at no great distance, in the hollow of which he beheld a she-wolf, who under that shape was pouring forth human sighs and groans. On seeing the priest, having saluted him with human courtesy, she gave thanks to God, who in this extremity had vouchsafed to visit her with such consolation. She then received from the priest all the rites of the church duly performed, as far as the last communion. This also she importunately demanded, earnestly supplicating him to complete his good offices by giving her the viaticum. The priest stoutly asserting that he was not provided with it, the he-wolf, who had withdrawn to a short distance, came back and pointed out a small missal-book, containing some consecrated wafers, which the priest carried on his journey, suspended from his neck, under his garment, after the fashion of the country. He then intreated him not to deny them the gift of God, and the aid destined for them by Divine Providence; and, to remove all doubt, using his claw for a hand, he tore off the skin of the she-wolf, from the head down to the navel, folding it back. Thus she immediately presented the form of an old woman. The priest, seeing this, and compelled by his fear more than his reason, gave the communion; the recipient having earnestly implored it, and devoutly partaking of it. Immediately afterwards the he-wolf rolled back the skin and fitted it to its original form.
"These rites having been duly, rather than rightly performed, the he-wolf gave them his company during the whole night at their little fire, behaving more like a man than a beast. When morning came, he led them out of the wood, and, leaving the priest to pursue his journey pointed out to him the direct road for a long distance. At his departure, he also gave him many thanks for the benefit he had conferred, promising him still greater returns of gratitude, if the Lord should call him back from his present exile, two parts of which he had already completed.
"In our own time we have seen persons who, by magical arts, turned any substance about them into fat pigs, as they appeared (but they were always red), and sold them in the markets. However, they disappeared as soon as they crossed any water, returning to their real nature; and with whatever care they were kept, their assumed form did not last beyond three days. It was also a frequent complaint, from old times as well as in the present, that certain hags in Wales, as well as in Ireland and Scotland, changed themselves into the shape of hares, that, sucking teats under this counterfeit form, they might stealthily rob other people's milk."
Witchcraft in Ireland
In Anglo-Norman times, sorcery, malevolent magic, was apparently widelly practiced, but records are scarce. It is only by fugitive passages in the works of English writers who constantly comment on the superstitious nature and practices of the Irish that any information concerning the occult history of the country emerges. The great scandal of the accused witch Dame Alice Kyteler did shake the entire Anglo-Norman colony during several successive years in the first half of the fourteenth century. The party of the Bishop of Ossory, the relentless opponent of the Dame Alice, boasted that by her prosecution they had rid Ireland of a nest of sorcerers; and, yet, there is reason to believe that Ireland could have furnished other similar instances of black magic had the actors in them been of royal status—that is, of sufficient importance in the eyes of chroniclers.
In this connection St. John D. Seymour's Irish Witchcraft and Demonology (1913) is of striking interest. The author seems to take it for granted that witchcraft in Ireland is purely an alien system, imported into the island by the Anglo-Normans and Scottish immigrants to the north. This is a possibility because the districts of the Pale and of Ulster are concerned, even if it cannot be applied to the Celtic districts of Ireland.
Early Irish works contain numerous references to sorcery, and practices are chronicled in them that bear a close resemblance to those of the shamans and medicine men of tribes around the world. The ancient Irish cycles frequently allude to animal transformation, one of the most common feats of the witch, and in Hibernian legend most heroes have a considerable working magic available to them. Wonder-working druids also abound.
Seymour claimed that, "In Celtic Ireland dealings with the unseen were not regarded with such abhorrence, and indeed had the sanction of custom and antiquity." He added that "…the Celtic element had its own superstitious beliefs, but these never developed in this direction," by which he meant witchcraft. He lacked support for this observation. An absence of records of such a system is no proof that one never existed, and it is possible that a thorough examination of the subject would prove that a veritable system of witchcraft obtained in Celtic Ireland as elsewhere, although it may not have been of "Celtic" origin.
Seymour's book nonetheless is most informative on those Anglo-Norman and Scottish portions of Ireland where the belief in sorcery followed the lines of those in vogue in the mother-countries of the immigrant populations. He sketched the famous Kyteler case; touched on the circumstances connected with the Earl of Desmond; and, he noted the case of the Irish prophetess who insisted upon warning the ill-fated James I of Scotland on the night of his assassination at Perth. It is not stated by the ancient chronicler whom Seymour quotes where in Ireland the witch in question came from—and undoubtedly she was a witch because she possessed a familiar spirit, "Huthart," whom she alleged warned her of the coming catastrophe. This spirit is the Teutonic Hudekin or Hildekin, the wearer of the hood, sometimes also alluded to as Heckdekin, well known throughout Germany and Flanders as a species of house-spirit or brownie. Trithemius alludes to this spirit as a "spirit known to the Saxons who attached himself to the Bishop of Hildesheim" and it is cited here and there in occult history. From this circumstance it might be inferred that the witch in question came from some part of Ireland that had been settled by Teutonic immigrants, probably Ulster.
Seymour continued his survey with a review of the witchcraft trials of the sixteenth century; the burning of Adam Dubh; the Leinster trial of O'Toole and College Green in 1327 for heresy; and, the important passing of the statute against witchcraft in Ireland in 1586. He noted the enchantments of the Earl of Desmond, who demonstrated to his young and beautiful wife the possibilities of animal transformation by changing himself into a bird, a hag, a vulture, and a gigantic serpent. One full chapter was devoted to Florence Newton, the witch of Youghal, who was one of the most absorbing in the history of witchcraft.
Ghostly doings and apparitions, fairy possession, and dealings with fairies are also included in the volume, and Seymour did not confine himself to Ireland. He followed one of his countrywomen to the United States, where he demonstrated her influence on the "supernatural" speculations of Congregationalist minister Cotton Mather.
Seymour completed his survey with seventeenth-century witchcraft notices from Antrim and Island Magee and the affairs of sorcery in Ireland from the year 1807 to the early twentieth century. The last notice is that of a trial for murder in 1911, when a woman was tried for killing another (an old-age pensioner) in a fit of insanity. A witness deposed that he met the accused on the road on the morning of the crime holding a statue or figure in her hand and repeating three times, "I have the old witch killed. I got power from the Blessed Virgin to kill her." It appears that the witch in question had threatened to plague the woman with rats and mice. A single rodent had evidently entered her home and was followed by the bright vision of a lady who told the accused that she was in danger, and further informed her that if she received the senior citizen's pension book without taking off her clothes and cleaning them and putting out her bed and cleaning up the house, she would "receive dirt for ever and rats and mice."
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Celtic mysticism and legends of ghosts and fairies received a new infusion from Hindu mysticism through the Dublin lodge of the Theosophical Society and the writings of poets William Butler Yeats and "AE" (pseudonym of George W. Russell ). Through the society, Russell was profoundly influenced by Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad-Gita and came to understand that mysticism should be interfused with one's everyday social responsibilities. Russell wrote mystical poems and painted pictures of nature spirits.
Yeats became a noted member of the Hermetic order of the Golden Dawn, a ritual magic society. Its teachings had a primary influence on the symbolism of his poems and on his own mystical vision. He was also impressed by Hindu mystical teachings, and collaborated with Shri Purohit Swami in the translation of Hindu religious works.
After the death of Yeats and Russell, occultism did not make much headway in Irish life and literature. The occult and witchcraft boom of the 1950s and 1960s was largely ignored in Ireland. Janet and Stewart Farrar, both neo-pagan witches trained by Alexander Sanders, did take up residence in the Republic of Ireland. Stewart Farrar has written a number of books on witchcraft, including the early neo-pagan classic What Witches Do: The Modern Coven Revealed (1971).
The Fellowship of Isis, headquartered at Huntingdon Castle, Clonegal, Enniscorthy, has become an international association of neo-pagans and witches. It is devoted to the deity in the form of the goddess, and publishes material concerning matriarchal religion and mysticism.
Irish writer Desmond Leslie was coauthor with George Adamski of the influential book Flying Saucers Have Landed (1953) an important early book introducing the topic to the English-speaking public. The book was eventually translated into 16 languages.
Psychical Research & Parapsychology
Although Ireland is traditionally a land of ghosts, fairies, banshees, and haunted castles, there have been few systematic attempts to conduct psychical research there. The exceptions have been some interest in dowsing (water-divining), and the work of medium Kathleen Goligher. In 1914, then 16 year-old Goligher came into the world's attention by Dr. William Crawford, in Belfast. Goligher was from a family of physical mediums, but considered the best of them. The phenomena demonstrated consisted of raps that reportedly shook the room, and levitation of a ten and a half pound table, often for as long as five minutes. Crawford photographed the manifestations that supported the levitations-ectoplasmic structures that resembled rods. Harry Houdini saw the pictures that Crawford had intended to use in his book. He remained completely skeptical and decided that Crawford was insane. Following Crawford's suicide in 1920, another photograph of plasma coming out of Goligher's body was thought to be genuine. By 1922 Dr. E. E. Fournier d'Albe claimed she was a fraud after 20 sittings with her. Following a ten-year period of retirement, it was reported in 1933 that Goligher produced cloth-like ectoplasm. Researchers did not investigate that claim, so no verification could be made. That Crawford introduced technology to verify the investigation is what remained of prime interest historically.
Currently, the Belfast Spiritual Fellowship, a group ascribing to Spiritualist beliefs, can be contacted at 44 Barnsmore Drive, Belfast, Northern Ireland BT13 3FF.
AE [George W. Russell]. The Candle of Vision. London: Macmillan, 1918. Reprint, New Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1965.
Berger, Arthur S., and Joyce Berger. The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research. New York: Paragon House, 1991.
Curtin, Jeremiah. Tales of the Fairies and of the Ghost World, Collected from Oral Tradition in Southwest Munster. London: D. Nutt, 1895. Reprint, Dublin: Talbot Press, 1974.
Dunne, John J. Haunted Ireland: Her Romantic and Mysterious Ghosts. Belfast: Appletree Press, 1977.
Farrar, Stewart. What Witches Do: The Modern Coven Revealed. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan; London: Peter Davies, 1971.
Giraldus Cambrensis. The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis, Containing the Topography of Ireland, and The History of the Conquest of Ireland. Translated by R. C. Hoare. London: Bohn's Antiquarian Library, 1847.
Gregory, Lady. Visions and Beliefs in the West of Ireland. 2 vols. New York: George Putnam's Sons, 1920. Reprint, U.K.: Colin Smythe, 1970.
Harper, George Mills. Yeats's Golden Dawn. London: Macmillan, 1974.
McAnally, D. R., Jr. Irish Wonders: The Ghosts, Giants, Pookas, Demons, Leprechawns, Banshees, Fairies, Witches, Widows, Old Maids and Other Marvels of the Emerald Isle. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1888. Reprint, Detroit: Grand River Books, 1971.
O'Donnell, Elliot. The Banshee. London: Sands, 1920.
Seymour, St. John D. and Harry L. Neligan. True Irish Ghost Stories. London: Oxford University Press, 1915. Reprint, New York: Causeway Books, 1974.
Spiritualist Webring. Available at: http://home.vicnet.net.au/~johnf/welcome.htm.
Washington, Peter. Madame Blavatsky's Baboon, A History of the Mystics, Mediums, and Misfits Who Brought Spiritualism to America. New York: Schocken Books, 1993.
White, Carolyn. A History of Irish Fairies. Cork, Ireland: Mercier Press, 1976.
Yeats, W. B., ed. Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry. London: Walter Scott Publishing, 1888. Reprint, New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1957.
"Ireland." Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
The most striking feature of the family in Ireland during the last decades of the twentieth century is the rapid rate at which it has changed. From around the late 1960s the Irish family, in response to a national program of economic development, changed from a traditional rural form typical of economies based on agriculture to a postmodern form typical of postindustrial societies. Although the changes that occurred are common to most Western European societies, the rate of change in Ireland was exceptional. In less than one generation, the Irish family was transformed.
Since the time of the Great Famine in 1847, the population of Ireland steadily decreased until the time of economic expansion in the 1960s. The principal causes of this decline were high emigration and low marriage rates due to a stagnant economy and large-scale unemployment. Ireland did not experience the demographic transition typical of most Western European countries in the post-World War II period. It was not until much later that Ireland manifested the characteristics of this transition, giving rise in the 1970s to a baby boom. The effects of this baby boom have been a major influence on Irish families since then, with Ireland having the youngest population in the European Union.
With an upsurge in the economy in the 1960s, birth rates increased. By 1971 the birth rate had reached a high of 22.7 per 1000 of population, giving a total period fertility rate of four, which is almost twice the replacement level. Since then, birth rates have declined, and by the 1990s they were below replacement level. By 2000 the birth rate had fallen to 14.3 and the total period fertility rate to 1.89 (Vital Statistics 2001). However, due to an increase in net immigration, largely because of the return of Irish workers and their families to take up employment in Ireland's new booming economy of the 1990s, the population continued to increase.
These changes were also accompanied by changes in marriage rates, age at time of marriage, age at the time of first maternity, family size, the number of out-of-wedlock births, marital separation, and cohabitation. By the end of the twentieth century Ireland had caught up with the demographic trends in most Western European countries and, apart from some differences, the overall pattern is much the same. The biggest difference is that while most of Europe experienced these changes over a period of two generations, Ireland went through them in one.
Change over time is also evident in the internal structure and dynamics of the family. This is seen when comparing the findings of two classical anthropological studies of the rural Irish family. The first of these studies was carried out by Conrad Arensberg and Solon Kimball (1940) in the 1930s. This study showed that there was a single family type in rural Ireland that was characterized as having a dominant patriarchal authority system with a rigidly defined division of labor based on gender. In contrast, the second study carried out by Damian Hannan and Louise Katsiaouni (1977) in the 1970s, when the process of change had begun, found a wide variety among farm families, including the socialization experiences of spouses and family interaction patterns. They also found that families were more democratic in structure and that there was a move towards a division of labor based on competence rather than gender. The authors concluded that the family was going through a process of change from a traditional to a modern form, and they linked these changes to the changes taking place in the economic, social, and cultural environments in Ireland at the time.
Changes in the family are also associated with the decline in the influence of the Catholic Church on Irish family life, especially in the area of sexual morality. The traditional family in Ireland has long been characterized as highly conservative, reflecting the dominant value system of the Catholic Church. Although religious practice continues to be high, evidence shows that the influence of Catholic teaching on family life has greatly diminished. This is seen, for example, with the widespread use of contraception and the extent of sexual activity outside marriage. These behavioral changes were also accompanied by the introduction of extensive new legislation on family matters in the 1980s and 1990s, including the passage of a referendum on divorce that led to the introduction of no-fault divorce. Much of this legislation challenged the traditional ideology of the Catholic Church that promoted the privatization of the family and was strongly opposed to state "interference" in family matters.
Under Article 41 of the Irish Constitution, the state pledges to "guard with special care the institution of marriage, on which the family is founded." This position of marriage as the basis of the family was further reinforced in 1966 when the Supreme Court interpreted this Article to mean that the family as structurally defined is based on the institution of marriage. Although this Article in the Constitution reflects the ideology of Ireland in the 1930s and does not represent the reality of Irish family life today, marriage has remained relatively stable when compared to other European countries.
Although the marriage rate has decreased from a high of 7.4 per 1,000 of population in the early 1970s, to a low of 4.3 by 1997, marital break-up has remained relatively low. For example, the divorce rate in the European Union for the year 1998 was 1.8 per 1,000 of population, while in Ireland it was 0.6 (Census 1996). However, divorce rates alone are misleading in Ireland because most couples who break up tend to separate rather than divorce. Trends seem to indicate a pattern of people using separation as an exit from marriage and divorce as an entry to a new relationship. In addition, divorce has only been available in Ireland since 1996. In the 1996 census 78,005 people reported themselves as separated, compared to fewer than 10,000 divorced. Nonetheless, even taking account of the numbers reported, marital break-up is comparatively low, and there has been a slight upward turn in the marriage rate, which in 2000 was 5.1 per 1,000 of population (Vital Statistics 2001).
Attitude studies also show a strong commitment to marriage, with companionship more highly valued than personal freedom outside of marriage (MacGreil 1996). These attitudes are further reflected in a Eurobarometer study (1993) that showed that 97.1 percent of Irish respondents placed the family highest in a hierarchy of values. In addition, alternatives to marriage, such as cohabitation, are not a strong feature of Irish families, with only 2 percent of couples living in consensual unions.
The typical family type is that of two parents and their children, but there has been an increase in single-parent families. In the year 2000 nonmarital births accounted for 31.8 percent of all births (Vital Statistics 2000). These births were to women in their twenties and older, not to teenagers. (Teenage births are not a significant proportion of non-marital births in Ireland.) The average age of non-married mothers is twenty-five. Nonmarital births reflect a diversity of family forms that includes cohabiting couples, reconstituted families following marital separation that have not been legally regulated, and single-parent families.
It is not known to what extent these nonmarital births reflect a trend towards increased single-parent households or simply a prelude to marriage. In the year 2000 single-parent families represented 10 percent of all households, and the largest group of these consisted of widows and their children.
The presence of children still continues to be an important part of Irish families, even though the birth rate is below replacement level. The traditional large family consisting of four or more children has been replaced by smaller families. In 1968, for example, 37.4 percent of births were to mothers with three or more children. By 1998 this had fallen to 12.7 percent (Health Statistics 1999, p. 28). The trend is for more women to have children, but to have fewer of them. Only 15 percent of couples live in households where there are no dependent children (Social Situation in the EU 2000). This strong positive attitude towards having children is supported by attitude surveys, which show that the Irish adult population places great value on having children for their own sake (MacGrail 1996).
Although children are highly valued, they are still at risk of poverty; studies consistently show that single-parent families and families with three or more children are most at risk ( Johnson 1999). In an attempt to combat this, successive governments in the 1990s introduced a range of measures, including significant increases in child benefit and employment incentives for unemployed parents. In an effort to protect children from poverty and abuse, the government launched a National Children's Strategy in 2000 and established an Ombudsman for Children.
Mothers and Employment
A relatively new feature of family life in Ireland is the increased participation of mothers in the active labor force outside the home. In 1987 only 32.7 percent of mothers with children under the age of fifteen years and at least one child under five were active in the paid labor force (Labour Force Survey 1987). Ten years later in 1997, this had risen to 53.1 percent (Labor Force Survey 1997). Of particular significance is that the highest percentage of mothers in full-time employment are mothers of children under age two. In contrast, the highest percentage of mothers in part-time employment is of mothers with children over age ten.
This trend poses difficulties in balancing work and family responsibilities. For example, a 1998 study (National Childcare Strategy 1999) found that 22 percent of mothers of children from infants to four-year-olds, and 68 percent of mothers of children aged five to nine years who were in full-time employment, did not use any form of paid childcare. The study assumed that the younger age group of children were cared for by their fathers and other nonpaid relatives, such as grandparents, but made no comment on who cares for the much larger group of children aged five to nine. These findings seem to support other studies that suggest that the provision of affordable quality childcare, and not attitudes towards paid employment of mothers, is the crucial factor influencing mothers to take up paid employment.
The increased participation of mothers in the paid labor force is not, however, matched by any significant increase in the amount of work undertaken by fathers in the home. The only major study on the division of household tasks of urban Irish families (Kiely 1995) found that, while more than 80 percent of mothers in the study thought that husbands should share housework equally, the reality was that mothers not only did most of the housework but also provided most of the care for the children. Fathers were generally inclined to participate in the more pleasurable aspects of childcare such as playing with the children and going on outings with them, while the mothers did most of the less glamorous tasks like changing diapers and putting the children to bed. The study did, however, show that young, educated, middle-class fathers whose wives were also employed had higher rates of participation than other fathers, although this was still relatively low.
A reflection of the position of the family in Irish life can be seen by the composition of households. Although many factors influence household composition, the relatively low percentage of households consisting of one adult and no children (7% of all households), compared to households with children (66% of all households), shows the dominance of families composed of one or more adults with dependent children.
Only 15 percent of households are composed of two adults without children. The remainder of households are composed of three or more adults without dependent children. When the number of persons living in family households is calculated as a percentage of people living in all private households, the dominance of family households is all the more striking—with almost 88 percent of the population living in such households (Census 1996).
With rising house prices in the late 1990s, more young adults appear to remain in their parents' home for longer periods, including young mothers and their children. This probably accounts for the increase in households consisting of three or more generations. These households also include families where an adult child cares for a dependent parent. In both of these three or more generation family types, the key caretakers are women in their midlife, caring either for a parent or a grandchild. These are also the people who have the least attachment to the paid labor force.
Family diversity is found not only in family composition, but also in its structure and functions. Thus, while studies show a movement from a traditional to a modern form of the family, this movement is in no way uniform. Some families, for example, are democratic in structure, while others are hierarchical. Also, some continue to fulfill a variety of functions, while others are more specific. Again, some families place a higher value on relationships over the importance of the family as an institution. These variations are consistent with the patterns found in most countries that have gone through a modernizing process and reflect a blend of traditional and modern value positions. Diversity, not uniformity, is the hallmark of modernity, and this is now also the hallmark of Irish families.
See also:War/Political Violence
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"Ireland." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
The first settlers, the Mesolithic people, came to Ireland about 7000 b.c.e. and lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering. Neolithic colonists introduced domestic animals and crops about 4000 b.c.e. Cultivated cereals included emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum), bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), and barley. Wild foods, such as hazelnuts and dried crabapples, were stored. Farming, crops and livestock, continued during the Bronze Age (2000–700 b.c.e.) and the pre-Christian Iron Age (700 b.c.e.–500 c.e.), as is evident from faunal remains and from the range of quernstones for saddle, beehive, and disk querns used to process cereals for domestic use.
In the historical period literary data of various kinds supplement the archaeological record. Religious texts in Old Irish and Latin from the Early Christian period (500–1000 c.e.) describe monastic and penitential diets, and the Old Irish law tracts of the seventh and eighth centuries provide insight into food-production strategies, diets, and hospitality obligations. Prestige foods are correlated with social rank according to the general principle that everyone is to be fed according to his or her rank. Persons of higher social status enjoyed a greater variety and quality of food than those of lower rank. Milk and cereal products were the basis of the diet, and a distinction was sometimes made between winter and summer foods. The former apparently consisted of cereals and meat and the latter mainly of dairy produce.
Milk and Milk Products
Milk, "good when fresh, good when old, good when thick, good when thin," was considered the best food. Fresh milk was a high-status food of sufficient prestige to be served as a refreshment to guests in secular and monastic settings. Many milk products are mentioned in the early Irish legal tracts and in Aislinge Meic Con Glinne (Vision of Mac Con Glinne), an early medieval satirical text in the Irish language rich in food imagery and probably the most important source of information about food in medieval Ireland. Butter, curds, cheese, and whole-milk or skim-milk whey were common elements of the diet. Butter was often portrayed as a luxury food. It was part of the food rents a client was obliged to give to his or her lord and a festive food for monastic communities. Curds, formed naturally in milk or by using rennet, were a common summer food included in food rents and apparently a normal part of the monastic diet. Cheese, in soft and hard varieties, was of great importance in the early Irish and medieval diet. Whey, the liquid product of the preparation of curds and cheese, was rather sour, but diluted with water it was prominent in the stricter monastic diets of the early Irish Church. Goat's milk whey, considered to have medicinal properties, was still in regular use in parts of Ireland in the early nineteenth century.
These milk products held their ancient status in the diet to varying degrees until the threshold of the eighteenth century, when forces of commercialization and modernization during the modern period altered levels of consumption and ultimately the dietary status of some milk products. Milk and butter remained basic foodstuffs, and their dietary and economic significance is reflected in the richness of the repertoire of beliefs, customs, and legends concerned with the protection of cows at the boundary festival of May, traditionally regarded as the commencement of summer and the milking seasons in Ireland, when the milch cows were transferred to the lush green pastures. Cheese making, which essentially died out in the eighteenth century, probably due to the substantial international butter and provisions trade from Ireland, made a significant comeback in the late twentieth century.
Wheat products were consumed mainly as porridge and bread in early and medieval Ireland. Porridge was food for children especially, and a watery type figured prominently as penitential fare in monasteries. Wheaten bread was a high-status food. Climatic conditions favored barley and oat growing. Barley, used in ale production, was also a bread grain with monastic and penitential connotations. Oat, a low-status grain, was probably the chief cereal crop, most commonly used for oaten porridge and bread. Baking equipment mentioned in the early literature, iron griddles and bake stones, indicates flat bread production on an ovenless hearth. Thin, unleavened oaten bread, eaten mostly with butter, was universal in medieval Ireland and remained the everyday bread in parts of the north and west until the nineteenth century. Barley and rye breads or breads of mixed cereals were still eaten in parts of eastern Ireland in the early nineteenth century.
Leavened wheaten bread baked in built-up ovens also has been eaten since medieval times, especially in strong Anglo-Norman areas in East Ireland, where commercial bakeries were established. English-style breads were available in cities in the early seventeenth century, and public or common bake houses are attested from this period in some urban areas. Built-up ovens might be found in larger inns and prosperous households, but general home production of leavened bread, baked in a pot oven on the open hearth, dates from the nineteenth century, when bicarbonate of soda, combined with sour milk or buttermilk, was used as a leaven.
A refreshing drink called sowens was made from slightly fermented wheat husks. Used as a substitute for fresh milk in tea or for sour milk in bread making when milk was scarce, it replaced milk on Spy Wednesday (the Wednesday of Holy Week) and Good Friday as a form of penance. A jelly called flummery, procured from the liquid by boiling, was widely used.
Meat, Fowl, and Fish
Beef and mutton have been eaten in Ireland from prehistoric times, and meat was still considered a status food in the early twenty-first century. Pigs have been raised exclusively for their meat, and a variety of pork products have always been highly valued foodstuffs. Domestic fowl have been a significant part of the diet since early times, and eggs have also figured prominently. Wild fowl have been hunted, and seafowl provide seasonal, supplementary variations in diet in some seacoast areas.
Fish, including shellfish, have been a food of coastal communities since prehistoric times. Freshwater fish are mentioned prominently in early sources and in travelers' accounts throughout the medieval period. Fish were included in festive menus in the nineteenth century and were eaten fresh or cured in many ordinary households while the obligation of Friday abstinence from flesh meat remained in force.
Milk and whey were the most popular drinks in early and medieval Ireland, but ale was a drink of great social importance. It was also regarded as a nutritional drink suitable for invalids and was featured in monastic diets at the celebration of Easter. Mead made by fermenting honey with water apparently was more prestigious than beer. Wine, an expensive import, was a festive drink in secular and monastic contexts. Whiskey distillation was known from the thirteenth century. Domestic ale and cider brewing declined drastically after the eighteenth century in the face of commercial breweries and distilleries.
Nonalcoholic beverages, such as coffee, chocolate, and tea, were consumed initially by the upper sections of society, as the elegant silverware of the eighteenth and nineteenth century shows. But tea was consumed by all sections of society by the end of the nineteenth century.
Vegetables and Fruit
From early times the Irish cultivated a variety of plants for food. Garden peas and broad beans are mentioned in an eighth-century law text, and it appears that some member of the allium family (possibly onion), leeks, cabbages, chives, and some root vegetables were also grown. Pulses were significant in areas of strong Anglo-Norman settlement in medieval times but were disappearing as a field crop by 1800, when vegetable growing declined due to market forces. Cabbage remained the main vegetable of the poor. Apples and plums were cultivated in early Ireland, and orchards were especially prominent in English-settled areas. Exotic fruits were grown in the walled gardens of the gentry or were imported for the large urban markets. A range of wild vegetables and fruits, especially crabapples, bilberries, and blackberries, were exploited seasonally.
Edible algae have been traditionally used as supplementary food products along the coast of Ireland. Duileasc (Palmaria palmata), anglicized as "dulse" or "dilisk" and frequently mentioned in the early Irish law texts, is one of the most popularly consumed seaweeds in Ireland. Rich in potassium and magnesium, it is eaten raw on its own or in salads, or it is stewed and served as a relish or a condiment for potatoes or bread. Sleabhach (Porphyra), anglicized as "sloke," is boiled, dressed with butter, and seasoned and eaten as an independent dish or with potatoes. Carraigin (Chondrus crispus), or carrageen moss, has traditionally been valued for its medicinal and nutritional qualities. Used earlier as a milk thickener and boiled in milk to make a blancmange, it has come to be regarded as a health food.
Collecting shore foods, such as edible seaweeds and shellfish, was a common activity along the Atlantic Coast of Ireland on Good Friday, a day of strict abstinence. The foodstuffs collected were eaten as the main meal rather than as an accompaniment to potatoes.
Introduced in Ireland toward the end of the sixteenth century, the potato was widely consumed by all social classes, with varying degrees of emphasis, by the nineteenth century. Its widespread diffusion is evident in the broad context of the evolution in the Irish diet from the seventeenth century. In the wake of the English conquest of Ireland, the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were a time of sustained transition in Irish economic, demographic, and social life. Demographic expansion beginning in 1600 led to a population in excess of 8 million by 1800. The food supply altered strikingly during that period. The diet of the affluent remained rich and varied, while commercialization gradually removed milk and butter from the diet of the poor and resulted in an increased emphasis on grain products. The commercialization of grain and the difficulty in accessing land during the eighteenth century forced the poorer sections of society to depend on the potato, which was the dietary staple par excellence of about 3 million Irish people by the early nineteenth century. Fungus-induced potato crop failures from 1845 to 1848 caused the great Irish famine, a major human disaster.
Diets changed gradually in the postfamine years, and while the potato was but one of many staples by the end of the nineteenth century, it never lost its appeal. The ripening of the new potato crop in the autumn remained a matter for celebration. In many parts of the country the first meal of this crop consisted of mashed potatoes with scallions and seasoning. Colcannon, typically associated with Halloween, is made of mashed potatoes mixed with a little fresh milk, chopped kale or green cabbage, fresh onions, and seasoning with a large knob of butter placed on the top. In some parts people originally ate it from a communal dish.
Boiled potatoes are also the basic ingredient for potato cakes. The mashed potatoes are mixed with melted butter, seasoning, and sufficient flour to bind the dough. Cut into triangles, called farls, or individual small, round cakes, they are cooked on both sides on a hot, lightly floured griddle or in a hot pan with melted butter or bacon fat. Apple potato cake or "fadge" was popularly associated with Halloween in northeast Ireland. The potato cake mixture was divided in two, and layers of raw sliced apples were placed on the base, then the apples were covered with the remaining dough. The cake was baked in the pot oven until almost ready. At that point the upper crust was peeled back, and brown sugar was sprinkled on the apples. The cake was returned to the oven until the sugar melted. "Stampy" cakes or pancakes were raw grated potatoes sieved and mixed with flour, baking powder, seasoning, a beaten egg, and fresh milk and cooked on the griddle or pan.
The menus of restaurants that offer "traditional Irish cuisine" include such popular foods, which also were commercially produced by the late twentieth century. But as Irish society becomes increasingly pluralistic, the socalled "international cuisine" and a wide range of ethnic restaurants characterize the public provision of food in major urban areas. In the private sphere, however, relatively plain, freshly cooked food for each meal is the norm. Milk, bread, butter, meat, vegetables, and potatoes, though the last are of declining importance, remain the basic elements of the Irish diet.
See also Potato; Sea Birds and Their Eggs.
Cullen, L. M. The Emergence of Modern Ireland, 1600–1900. London: Batsford, 1981.
Danaher, Kevin. The Year in Ireland. Cork, Ireland: Mercier, 1972.
Flanagan, Laurence. Ancient Ireland: Life before the Celts. Dublin, Ireland: Gill and Macmillan, 1998.
Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone, ed. Aislinge Meic Con Glinne (Vision of Mac Con Glinne). Dublin: School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies, 1990.
Kelly, Fergus. Early Irish Farming: A Study Based Mainly on the Law-Texts of the 7th and 8th Centuries A . D . Dublin: School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies, 1997.
Lucas, A. T. "Irish Food before the Potato." Gwerin 3, no. 2 (1960): 8–40.
Lysaght, Patricia. "Bealtaine: Women, Milk, and Magic at the Boundary Festival of May." In Milk and Milk Products from Medieval to Modern Times, edited by Patricia Lysaght, pp. 208–229. Edinburgh: Canongate Academic, 1994.
Lysaght, Patricia. "Food-Provision Strategies on the Great Blasket Island: Sea-bird Fowling." In Food from Nature: Attitudes, Strategies, and Culinary Practices, edited by Patricia Lysaght, pp. 333–336. Uppsala: The Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy for Swedish Folk Culture, 2000.
Lysaght, Patricia. "Innovation in Food—The Case of Tea in Ireland." Ulster Folklife 33 (1987): 44–71.
Ó Danachair, Caoimhín. "Bread in Ireland." In Food in Perspective, edited by Trefor M. Owen and Alexander Fenton, pp. 57–67. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1981.
O'Neill, Timothy P. "Food." In Life and Tradition in Rural Ireland, edited by Timothy P. O'Neill, pp. 56–67. London: Dent, 1977.
Ó Sé, Michael. "Old Irish Cheeses and Other Milk Products." Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society 53 (1948): 82–87.
Sexton, Regina. A Little History of Irish Food. Dublin, Ireland: Gill and Macmillan, 1998.
"Ireland." Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/food/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/food/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
Ireland, Irish Eire (âr´ə) [to it are related the poetic Erin and perhaps the Latin Hibernia], island, 32,598 sq mi (84,429 sq km), second largest of the British Isles. The island is divided into two major political units—Northern Ireland (see Ireland, Northern), which is joined with Great Britain in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland (see Ireland, Republic of). Of the 32 counties of Ireland, 26 lie in the Republic, and of the four historic provinces, three and part of the fourth are in the Republic.
Geology and Geography
Ireland lies west of the island of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the narrow North Channel, the Irish Sea (which attains a width of 130 mi/209 km), and St. George's Channel. More than a third the size of Britain, the island averages 140 mi (225 km) in width and 225 mi (362 km) in length. A large central plain extending to the Irish Sea between the Mourne Mts. in the north and the mountains of Wicklow in the south is roughly enclosed by a highland rim. The highlands of the north, west, and south, which rise to more than 3,000 ft (914 m), are generally barren, but the central plain is extremely fertile and the climate is temperate and moist, warmed by southwesterly winds. The rains, which are heaviest in the west (some areas have more than 80 in./203 cm annually), are responsible for the brilliant green grass of the "emerald isle," and for the large stretches of peat bog, a source of valuable fuel. The coastline is irregular, affording many natural harbors. Off the west coast are numerous small islands, including the Aran Islands, the Blasket Islands, Achill, and Clare Island. The interior is dotted with lakes (the most celebrated are the Lakes of Killarney) and wide stretches of river called loughs. The Shannon, the longest of Irish rivers, drains the western plain and widens into the beautiful loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg. The River Liffey empties into Dublin Bay, the Lee into Cork Harbour at Cobh, the Foyle into Lough Royle near Derry, and the Lagan into Belfast Lough.
Ireland to the English Conquest
The earliest known people in Ireland belonged to the groups that inhabited all of the British Isles in prehistoric times. In the several centuries preceding the birth of Jesus a number of Celtic tribes invaded and conquered Ireland and established their distinctive culture (see Celt), although they do not seem to have come in great numbers. Ancient Irish legend tells of four successive peoples who invaded the country—the Firbolgs, the Fomors, the Tuatha De Danann, and the Milesians. Oddly enough, the Romans, who occupied Britain for 400 years, never came to Ireland, and the Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain, who largely replaced the Celtic population there, did not greatly affect Ireland.
Until the raids of the Norse in the late 8th cent., Ireland remained relatively untouched by foreign incursions and enjoyed the golden age of its culture. The people, Celtic and non-Celtic alike, were organized into clans, or tribes, which in the early period owed allegiance to one of five provincial kings—of Ulster, Munster, Connacht, Leinster, and Meath (now the northern part of Leinster). These kings nominally served the high king of all Ireland at Tara (in Meath). The clans fought constantly among themselves, but despite civil strife, literature and art were held in high respect. Each chief or king kept an official poet (Druid) who preserved the oral traditions of the people. The Gaelic language and culture were extended into Scotland by Irish emigrants in the 5th and 6th cent.
Parts of Ireland had already been Christianized before the arrival of St. Patrick in the 5th cent., but pagan tradition continued to appeal to the imagination of Irish poets even after the complete conversion of the country. The Celtic Christianity of Ireland produced many scholars and missionaries who traveled to England and the Continent, and it attracted students to Irish monasteries, until the 8th cent. perhaps the most brilliant of Europe. St. Columba and St. Columban were among the most famous of Ireland's missionaries. All the arts flourished; Irish illuminated manuscripts were particularly noteworthy. The Book of Kells (see Ceanannus Mór) is especially famous.
The country did not develop a strong central government, however, and it was not united to meet the invasions of the Norse, who settled on the shores of the island late in the 8th cent., establishing trading towns (including Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick) and creating new petty kingdoms. In 1014, at Clontarf, Brian Boru, who had become high king by conquest in 1002, broke the strength of the Norse invaders. There followed a period of 150 years during which Ireland was free from foreign interference but was torn by clan warfare.
Ireland and the English
In the 12th cent., Pope Adrian IV granted overlordship of Ireland to Henry II of England. The English conquest of Ireland was begun by Richard de Clare, 2d earl of Pembroke, known as Strongbow, who intervened in behalf of a claimant to the throne of Leinster; in 1171, Henry himself went to Ireland, temporarily establishing his overlordship there. With this invasion commenced an Anglo-Irish struggle that continued for nearly 800 years.
The English established themselves in Dublin. Roughly a century of warfare ensued as Ireland was divided into English shires ruled from Dublin, the domains of feudal magnates who acknowledged English sovereignty, and the independent Irish kingdoms. Many English intermarried with the Irish and were assimilated into Irish society. In the late 13th cent. the English introduced a parliament in Ireland. In 1315, Edward Bruce of Scotland invaded Ireland and was joined by many Irish kings. Although Bruce was killed in 1318, the English authority in Ireland was weakening, becoming limited to a small district around Dublin known as the Pale; the rest of the country fell into a struggle for power among the ruling Anglo-Irish families and Irish chieftains.
English attention was diverted by the Hundred Years War with France (1337–1453) and the Wars of the Roses (1455–85). However, under Henry VII new interest in the island was aroused by Irish support for Lambert Simnel, a Yorkist pretender to the English throne. To crush this support, Henry sent to Ireland Sir Edward Poynings, who summoned an Irish Parliament at Drogheda and forced it to pass the legislation known as Poynings' Law (1495). These acts provided that future Irish Parliaments and legislation receive prior approval from the English Privy Council. A free Irish Parliament was thus rendered impossible.
The English Reformation under Henry VIII gave rise in England to increased fears of foreign, Catholic invasion; control of Ireland thus became even more imperative. Henry VIII put down a rebellion (1534–37), abolished the monasteries, confiscated lands, and established a Protestant "Church of Ireland" (1537). But since the vast majority of Irish remained Roman Catholic, the seeds of bitter religious contention were added to the already rancorous Anglo-Irish relations. The Irish rebelled three times during the reign of Elizabeth I and were brutally suppressed. Under James I, Ulster was settled by Scottish and English Protestants, and many of the Catholic inhabitants were driven off their lands; thus two sharply antagonistic communities were established.
Another Irish rebellion, begun in 1641 in reaction to the hated rule of Charles I's deputy, Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, was crushed (1649–50) by Oliver Cromwell with the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives. More land was confiscated (and often given to absentee landlords), and more Protestants settled in Ireland. The intractable landlord-tenant problem that plagued Ireland in later centuries can be traced to the English confiscations of the 16th and 17th cent.
Irish Catholics rallied to the cause of James II after his overthrow (1688) in England (see the Glorious Revolution), while the Protestants in Ulster enthusiastically supported William III. At the battle of the Boyne (1690) near Dublin, James and his French allies were defeated by William. The English-controlled Irish Parliament passed harsh Penal Laws designed to keep the Catholic Irish powerless; political equality was also denied to Presbyterians. At the same time English trade policy depressed the economy of Protestant Ireland, causing many so-called Scotch-Irish to emigrate to America. A newly flourishing woolen industry was destroyed when export from Ireland was forbidden.
During the American Revolution, fear of a French invasion of Ireland led Irish Protestants to form (1778–82) the Protestant Volunteer Army. The Protestants, led by Henry Grattan, and even supported by some Catholics, used their military strength to extract concessions for Ireland from Britain. Trade concessions were granted in 1779, and, with the repeal of Poynings' Law (1782), the Irish Parliament had its independence restored. But the Parliament was still chosen undemocratically, and Catholics continued to be denied the right to hold political office.
Another unsuccessful rebellion was staged in 1798 by Wolfe Tone, a Protestant who had formed the Society of United Irishmen and who accepted French aid in the uprising. The reliance on French assistance revived anti-Catholic feeling among the Irish Protestants, who remembered French support of the Jacobite restoration. The rebellion convinced the British prime minister, William Pitt, that the Irish problem could be solved by the adoption of three policies: abolition of the Irish Parliament, legislative union with Britain in a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and Catholic Emancipation. The first two goals were achieved in 1800, but the opposition of George III and British Protestants prevented the enactment of the Catholic Emancipation Act until 1829, when it was accomplished largely through the efforts of the Irish leader Daniel O'Connell.
Ireland under the Union
After 1829 the Irish representatives in the British Parliament attempted to maintain the Irish question as a major issue in British politics. O'Connell worked to repeal the union with Britain, which was felt to operate to Ireland's disadvantage, and to reform the government in Ireland. Toward the middle of the century, the Irish Land Question grew increasingly urgent. But the Great Potato Famine (1845–49), one of the worst natural disasters in history, dwarfed political developments. During these years blight ruined the potato crop, destroying the staple food of the Irish population; hundreds of thousands perished from hunger and disease. Many thousands of others emigrated; between 1847 and 1854 about 1.6 million went to the United States. The population dropped from an estimated 8.5 million in 1845 to 6.55 million in 1851 (and continued to decline until the 1960s). Exascerbating the situation was the lack of attention given to it in England, whose press scarcely mentioned the famine and whose leaders did almost nothing to alleviate Ireland's suffering. Irish emigrants in America formed the secret Fenian movement, dedicated to Irish independence. In 1869 the British prime minister William Gladstone sponsored an act disestablishing the Protestant "Church of Ireland" and thereby removed one Irish grievance.
In the 1870s, Irish politicians renewed efforts to achieve Home Rule within the union, while in Britain Gladstone and others attempted to solve the Irish problem through land legislation and Home Rule. Gladstone twice submitted Home Rule bills (1886 and 1893) that failed. The proposals alarmed Protestant Ulster, which began to organize against Home Rule. In 1905, Arthur Griffith founded Sinn Féin among Irish Catholics, but for the time being the dominant Irish nationalist group was the Home Rule party of John Redmond.
Home Rule was finally enacted in 1914, with the provision that Ulster could remain in the union for six more years, but the act was suspended for the duration of World War I and never went into effect. In both Ulster and Catholic Ireland militias were formed. The Irish Republican Brotherhood, a descendent of the Fenians, organized a rebellion on Easter Sunday, 1916; although unsuccessful, the rising acquired great propaganda value when the British executed its leaders.
Sinn Fein, linked in the Irish public's mind with the rising and aided by Britain's attempt to apply conscription to Ireland, scored a tremendous victory in the parliamentary elections of 1918. Its members refused to take their seats in Westminster, declared themselves the Dáil Éireann (Irish Assembly), and proclaimed an Irish Republic. The British outlawed both Sinn Fein and the Dáil, which went underground and engaged in guerrilla warfare (1919–21) against local Irish authorities representing the union. The British sent troops, the Black and Tans, who inflamed the situation further.
A new Home Rule bill was enacted in 1920, establishing separate parliaments for Ulster and Catholic Ireland. This was accepted by Ulster, and Northern Ireland was created. The plan was rejected by the Dáil, but in autumn 1921, Prime Minister Lloyd George negotiated with Griffith and Michael Collins of the Dáil a treaty granting Dominion status within the British Empire to Catholic Ireland. The Irish Free State was established in Jan., 1922. A new constitution was ratified in 1937 that terminated Great Britain's sovereignty. In 1948, all semblance of Commonwealth membership ended with the Republic of Ireland Act.
See Ireland, Republic of and Ireland, Northern.
See N. Mansergh, The Irish Question, 1840–1921 (1965); J. C. Beckett, The Making of Modern Ireland, 1603–1921 (1966); K. S. Bottigheimer, Ireland and the Irish (1982); R. Munck, Ireland (1985); R. D. Crotty, Ireland in Crisis (1986); R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland, 1600–1972 (1989); J. Lee, Ireland, 1912–1985 (1989); T. Cahill, How the Irish Saved Civilization (1995); C. C. O'Brien, Religion and Nationalism in Ireland (1995); D. Kiberd, Inventing Ireland (1996); N. Davies, The Isles (2000); T. Bartlett, Ireland (2010); J. Crowley et al., Atlas of the Great Irish Famine (2012); J. Kelly, The Graves Are Walking: The Great Famine and the Saga of the Irish People (2012); R. F. Foster, Vivid Faces: The Revolutionary Generation in Ireland, 1890–1923 (2015).
"Ireland." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
"Ireland." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
Official name: Ireland
Area: 70,280 square kilometers (27,135 square miles)
Highest point on mainland: Mount Carrantuohil (1,041 meters/3,416 feet)
Lowest point on land: Sea level
Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern
Time zone: Noon = noon GMT
Longest distances: 275 kilometers (171 miles) from east to west; 486 kilometers (302 miles) from north to south
Coastline: 1,448 kilometers (900 miles)
Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles)
1 LOCATION AND SIZE
Ireland is located on an island in the eastern part of the North Atlantic Ocean. Situated on the European continental shelf, it lies at the westernmost edge of Europe, to the west of Great Britain. The northeastern corner of the island is occupied by Northern Ireland, which belongs to Britain and is separated from the independent republic to its south by a winding border. Covering an area of 70,280 square kilometers (27,135 square miles), Ireland is slightly larger than the state of West Virginia.
2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES
Ireland has no territories or dependencies.
Ireland's proximity to the Atlantic Ocean gives it a mild maritime climate. Average temperatures range from 4°C to 7°C (39°F to 45°F) in January, and from 14°C to 16°C (57°F to 61°F) in July. Ireland's weather is humid and highly changeable. A common saying about Irish weather is "If you don't like it, wait a couple of minutes!" Average annual rainfall ranges from roughly 76 centimeters (30 inches) in the eastern part of the country to over 250 centimeters (100 inches) in the western highlands.
4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS
Ireland's low, central limestone plateau rimmed by coastal highlands has been compared to a gigantic saucer. In spite of these coastal highlands, Ireland is generally a low country. Only about 20 percent of its terrain is higher than 150 meters (500 feet) above sea level, and even its mountains rarely exceed altitudes of 900 meters (3,000 feet).
5 OCEANS AND SEAS
Ireland is bounded on the east and southeast by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel, and on the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean. The North Channel separates Northern Ireland from Scotland.
Seacoast and Undersea Features
There are deepwater coral reefs off the western coast of Ireland. Their presence is considered a possible indicator of underwater oil and gas reserves.
Sea Inlets and Straits
The western and northwestern parts of the Irish coast have numerous bays and inlets, of which the largest are Donegal Bay and Galway Bay, where the Aran Islands are located. The deepest coastal indentation is at the mouth of the Shannon River in the southwest. The southwestern corner of Ireland has deep, fjord-like indentations between a series of capes, where the mountains of Kerry and Cork jut out into the sea.
Islands and Archipelagos
Of the several small islands off the western coast, the best-known are the three Aran Islands situated at the mouth of Galway Bay.
Ireland's eastern coast, which faces England and Wales, is smooth, while the coasts to the west and northwest are deeply indented. Much of the Irish coastline is rocky; however, there are also long stretches of sandy beach known as strands. Many are lined with dunes.
6 INLAND LAKES
Ireland's slow-moving rivers widen into loughs (lakes) at many points in the central lowlands before moving on to the sea. Among the largest loughs are Lough Corrib, Lough Mask, and Lough Conn, all in the western counties of Galway and Mayo.
7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS
The rivers of Ireland are among the most attractive features of the landscape. The Shannon, which is the longest river, rises near Sligo Bay. Altogether, it drains over 10,360 square kilometers (4,000 square miles) of the central lowlands. Other rivers of the lowlands include the Boyne and the Barrow. The Clare and Moy Rivers flow through the west, the Finn flows in the north, and the Barrow, Suir, and Blackwater are among the southern rivers.
There are no deserts in Ireland.
9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN
The average elevation of the central lowlands is about 60 meters (200 feet), although various hills, ridges, and loughs break up this terrain in many places. The Irish peat bogs, although rapidly diminishing in number, are still the country's most distinctive physical feature. Ireland also has both coastal and interior wetlands.
10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES
Ireland has a number of mountain systems. The highest rise to elevations of about 914 meters (3,000 feet), while the lower ranges have peak elevations between 610 and 914 meters (2,000 and 3,000 feet). Among the higher ranges are the Wicklow Mountains between Dublin and Wexford. The country's highest peak, Mount Carrantuohil (1,041 meters/3,416 feet), is found in Macgillycuddy's Reeks, in the southwest.
DID YOU KNOW?
Lough Hyne, which lies below sea level, is one of Europe's only saltwater lakes (or inland seas).
11 CANYONS AND CAVES
Areas of limestone karst are widespread in Ireland, resulting in a large number of caves throughout the country. Major cave sites are found in the counties of Cork and Tipperary in the south, Clare and Kerry in the west, and Sligo and Cavan in the north. The Poulnagollum/Poll Elva cave, the longest in Ireland, is found in the Burren, located in County Clare.
12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS
Distinctive areas of karst plateau are found in northwestern Ireland, in the counties of Leitrim, Cavan, Sligo, and Fermanagh. Among these areas is the plateau known as the Burren in County Clare.
13 MAN-MADE FEATURES
There are a number of bridges in the capital city of Dublin, which is divided into two parts by the River Liffey. Among these are the Grattan, O'Connell, Butt, Queen Maeve, Ha'Penny, and Heuston Bridges.
The Grand Canal connects Dublin with Ireland's longest river, the Shannon.
14 FURTHER READING
De Breffny, Brian. In the Steps of St. Patrick. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1982.
Hawks, Tony. Round Ireland with a Fridge. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2000.
Wilson, David A. Ireland a Bicycle and a Tin Whistle. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1995.
GoIreland.com. http://www.goireland.com/ (accessed April 24, 2003).
Heritage Ireland. http://www.heritageireland.ie/ (accessed April 24, 2003).
"Ireland." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
Land and climateThe central area of Ireland is a lowland with a mild, wet climate. This area is covered with peat bogs (an important source of fuel) and sections of fertile limestone (the location of dairy farming). Most coastal regions are barren highlands. The interior of Ireland has many lakes and wide rivers (loughs). It boasts the longest river in the British Isles, the Shannon.
HistoryFrom c.3rd century bc to the late 8th century, Ireland was divided into five kingdoms inhabited by Celtic and pre-Celtic tribes. In the 8th century ad, the Danes invaded, establishing trading towns, including Dublin, and creating new kingdoms. In 1014, Brian Boru defeated the Danes, and for the next 150 years Ireland was free from invasion but subject to clan warfare. In 1171, Henry II of England invaded Ireland and established English control. In the late 13th century, an Irish Parliament was formed. In 1315, English dominance was threatened by a Scottish invasion. In the late 15th century, Henry VII restored English hegemony and began the plantation of Ireland by English settlers. Edward Poynings forced the Irish Parliament to pass Poynings Law (1495), stating that future Irish legislation must be sanctioned by the English Privy Council. Under James I, the plantation of Ulster intensified. An Irish rebellion (1641–49) was eventually thwarted by Oliver Cromwell. During the Glorious Revolution, Irish Catholics supported James II, while Ulster Protestants backed William III. After James' defeat, the English-controlled Irish Parliament passed a series of punitive laws against Catholics. In 1782, Henry Grattan forced trade concessions and the repeal of Poynings Law. William Pitt's government passed the Act of Union (1801), which abolished the Irish Assembly and created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1829, largely due to the efforts of Daniel O'Connell, the Act of Catholic Emancipation was passed, which secured Irish representation in the British Parliament. A blight ruined the Irish potato crop and caused the Irish Famine (1845–49). Nationalist demands intensified. Gladstone failed to secure Irish Home Rule amid mounting pressure from fearful Ulster Protestants. In 1905 Arthur Griffith founded Sinn Féin. In 1914 Home Rule was agreed, but implementation was suspended during World War I. In the Easter Rising (April 1916), Irish nationalists announced the creation of the Republic of Ireland. The British Army's brutal crushing of the rebellion was a propaganda victory for Sinn Féin and led to a landslide victory in Irish elections (1918). Between 1918 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army (IRA), founded by Michael Collins, fought a guerrilla war against British forces. In 1920, a new Home Rule Bill established separate parliaments for Ulster and Catholic Ireland. The Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) led to the creation of an Irish Free State in January 1922 and de facto acceptance of partition. (For history post-1922, see Ireland; Ireland)
"Ireland." World Encyclopedia. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." World Encyclopedia. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
The people of Ireland are called Irish. Throughout history, Ireland has been inhabited by Celts, Norsemen, French Normans, and English, and these groups have been so intermingled that no purely ethnic divisions remain.
"Ireland." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
"Ireland." Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland
Na hÉireanneach; Na Gaeil
Identification. The Republic of Ireland (Poblacht na hÉireann in Irish, although commonly referred to as Éire, or Ireland) occupies five-sixths of the island of Ireland, the second largest island of the British Isles. Irish is the common term of reference for the country's citizens, its national culture, and its national language. While Irish national culture is relatively homogeneous when compared to multinational and multicultural states elsewhere, Irish people recognize both some minor and some significant cultural distinctions that are internal to the country and to the island. In 1922 Ireland, which until then had been part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was politically divided into the Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland) and Northern Ireland, which continued as part of the renamed United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland occupies the remaining sixth of the island. Almost eighty years of separation have resulted in diverging patterns of national cultural development between these two neighbors, as seen in language and dialect, religion, government and politics, sport, music, and business culture. Nevertheless, the largest minority population in Northern Ireland (approximately 42 percent of the total population of 1.66 million) consider themselves to be nationally and ethnically Irish, and they point to the similarities between their national culture and that of the Republic as one reason why they, and Northern Ireland, should be reunited with the Republic, in what would then constitute an all-island nation-state. The majority population in Northern Ireland, who consider themselves to be nationally British, and who identify with the political communities of Unionism and Loyalism, do not seek unification with Ireland, but rather wish to maintain their traditional ties to Britain.
Within the Republic, cultural distinctions are recognized between urban and rural areas (especially between the capital city Dublin and the rest of the country), and between regional cultures, which are most often discussed in terms of the West, the South, the Midlands, and the North, and which correspond roughly to the traditional Irish provinces of Connacht, Munster, Leinster, and Ulster, respectively. While the overwhelming majority of Irish people consider themselves to be ethnically Irish, some Irish nationals see themselves as Irish of British descent, a group sometimes referred to as the "Anglo-Irish" or "West Britons." Another important cultural minority are Irish "Travellers," who have historically been an itinerant ethnic group known for their roles in the informal economy as artisans, traders, and entertainers. There are also small religious minorities (such as Irish Jews), and ethnic minorities (such as Chinese, Indians, and Pakistanis), who have retained many aspects of cultural identification with their original national cultures.
Location and Geography. Ireland is in the far west of Europe, in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of the island of Great Britain. The island is 302 miles (486 kilometers) long, north to south, and 174 miles (280 kilometers) at its widest point. The area of the island is 32,599 square miles (84,431 square kilometers), of which the Republic covers 27, 136 square miles (70,280 square kilometers). The Republic has 223 miles (360 kilometers) of land border, all with the United Kingdom, and 898 miles (1,448 kilometers) of coastline. It is separated from its neighboring island of Great Britain to the east by the Irish Sea, the North Channel, and Saint George's Channel. The climate is temperate maritime, modified by the North Atlantic Current. Ireland has mild winters and cool summers. Because of the high precipitation, the climate is consistently humid. The Republic is marked by a low-lying fertile central plain surrounded by hills and uncultivated small mountains around the outer rim of the island. Its high point is 3,414 feet (1,041 meters). The largest river is the Shannon, which rises in the northern hills and flows south and west into the Atlantic. The capital city, Dublin (Baile Átha Cliath in Irish), at the mouth of the River Liffey in central eastern Ireland, on the original site of a Viking settlement, is currently home to almost 40 percent of the Irish population; it served as the capital of Ireland before and during Ireland's integration within the United Kingdom. As a result, Dublin has long been noted as the center of the oldest Anglophone and British-oriented area of Ireland; the region around the city has been known as the "English Pale" since medieval times.
Demography. The population of the Republic of Ireland was 3,626,087 in 1996, an increase of 100,368 since the 1991 census. The Irish population has increased slowly since the drop in population that occurred in the 1920s. This rise in population is expected to continue as the birthrate has steadily increased while the death rate has steadily decreased. Life expectancy for males and females born in 1991 was 72.3 and 77.9, respectively (these figures for 1926 were 57.4 and 57.9, respectively). The national population in 1996 was relatively young: 1,016,000 people were in the 25–44 age group, and 1,492,000 people were younger than 25. The greater Dublin area had 953,000 people in 1996, while Cork, the nation's second largest city, was home to 180,000. Although Ireland is known worldwide for its rural scenery and lifestyle, in 1996 1,611,000 of its people lived in its 21 most populated cities and towns, and 59 percent of the population lived in urban areas of one thousand people or more. The population density in 1996 was 135 per square mile (52 per square kilometer).
Linguistic Affiliation. Irish (Gaelic) and English are the two official languages of Ireland. Irish is a Celtic (Indo-European) language, part of the Goidelic branch of insular Celtic (as are Scottish Gaelic and Manx). Irish evolved from the language brought to the island in the Celtic migrations between the sixth and the second century b.c.e. Despite hundreds of years of Norse and Anglo-Norman migration, by the sixteenth century Irish was the vernacular for almost all of the population of Ireland. The subsequent Tudor and Stuart conquests and plantations (1534–1610), the Cromwellian settlement (1654), the Williamite war (1689–1691), and the enactment of the Penal Laws (1695) began the long process of the subversion of the language. Nevertheless, in 1835 there were four million Irish speakers in Ireland, a number that was severely reduced in the Great Famine of the late 1840s. By 1891 there were only 680,000 Irish speakers, but the key role that the Irish language played in the development of Irish nationalism in the nineteenth century, as well as its symbolic importance in the new Irish state of the twentieth century, have not been enough to reverse the process of vernacular language shift from Irish to English. In the 1991 census, in those few areas where Irish remains the vernacular, and which are officially defined as the Gaeltacht, there were only 56,469 Irish-speakers. Most primary and secondary school students in Ireland study Irish, however, and it remains an important means of communication in governmental, educational, literary, sports, and cultural circles beyond the Gaeltacht. (In the 1991 census, almost 1.1 million Irish people claimed to be Irish-speaking, but this number does not distinguish levels of fluency and usage.)
Irish is one of the preeminent symbols of the Irish state and nation, but by the start of the twentieth century English had supplanted Irish as the vernacular language, and all but a very few ethnic Irish are fluent in English. Hiberno-English (the English language spoken in Ireland) has been a strong influence in the evolution of British and Irish literature, poetry, theater, and education since the end of the nineteenth century. The language has also been an important symbol to the Irish national minority in Northern Ireland, where despite many social and political impediments its use has been slowly increasing since the return of armed conflict there in 1969.
Symbolism. The flag of Ireland has three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and orange. This tricolor is also the symbol of the Irish nation in other countries, most notably in Northern Ireland among the Irish national minority. Other flags that are meaningful to the Irish include the golden harp on a green background and the Dublin workers' flag of "The Plough and the Stars." The harp is the principal symbol on the national coat of arms, and the badge of the Irish state is the shamrock. Many symbols of Irish national identity derive in part from their association with religion and church. The shamrock clover is associated with Ireland's patron Saint Patrick, and with the Holy Trinity of Christian belief. A Saint Brigid's cross is often found over the entrance to homes, as are representations of saints and other holy people, as well as portraits of the greatly admired, such as Pope John XXIII and John F. Kennedy.
Green is the color associated worldwide with Irishness, but within Ireland, and especially in Northern Ireland, it is more closely associated with being both Irish and Roman Catholic, whereas orange is the color associated with Protestantism, and more especially with Northern Irish people who support Loyalism to the British crown and continued union with Great Britain. The colors of red, white, and blue, those of the British Union Jack, are often used to mark the territory of Loyalist communities in Northern Ireland, just as orange, white, and green mark Irish Nationalist territory there. Sports, especially the national ones organized by the Gaelic Athletic Association such as hurling, camogie, and Gaelic football, also serve as central symbols of the nation.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. The nation that evolved in Ireland was formed over two millennia, the result of diverse forces both internal and external to the island. While there were a number of groups of people living on the island in prehistory, the Celtic migrations of the first millennium b.c.e. brought the language and many aspects of Gaelic society that have figured so prominently in more recent nationalist revivals. Christianity was introduced in the fifth century c.e., and from its beginning Irish Christianity has been associated with monasticism. Irish monks did much to preserve European Christian heritage before and during the Middle Ages, and they ranged throughout the continent in their efforts to establish their holy orders and serve their God and church.
From the early ninth century Norsemen raided Ireland's monasteries and settlements, and by the next century they had established their own coastal communities and trading centers. The traditional Irish political system, based on five provinces (Meath, Connacht, Munster, Leinster, and Ulster), assimilated many Norse people, as well as many of the Norman invaders from England after 1169. Over the next four centuries, although the Anglo-Normans succeeded in controlling most of the island, thereby establishing feudalism and their structures of parliament, law, and administration, they also adopted the Irish language and customs, and intermarriage between Norman and Irish elites had become common. By the end of the fifteenth century, the Gaelicization of the Normans had resulted in only the Pale, around Dublin, being controlled by English lords.
In the sixteenth century, the Tudors sought to reestablish English control over much of the island. The efforts of Henry VIII to disestablish the Catholic Church in Ireland began the long association between Irish Catholicism and Irish nationalism. His daughter, Elizabeth I, accomplished the English conquest of the island. In the early seventeenth century the English government began a policy of colonization by importing English and Scottish immigrants, a policy that often necessitated the forcible removal of the native Irish. Today's nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland has its historical roots in this period, when New English Protestants and Scottish Presbyterians moved into Ulster. William of Orange's victory over the Stuarts at the end of the seventeenth century led to the period of the Protestant Ascendancy, in which the civil and human rights of the native Irish, the vast majority of whom were Catholics, were repressed. By the end of the eighteenth century the cultural roots of the nation were strong, having grown through a mixture of Irish, Norse, Norman, and English language and customs, and were a product of English conquest, the forced introduction of colonists with different national backgrounds and religions, and the development of an Irish identity that was all but inseparable from Catholicism.
National Identity. The long history of modern Irish revolutions began in 1798, when Catholic and Presbyterian leaders, influenced by the American and French Revolutions and desirous of the introduction of some measure of Irish national self-government, joined together to use force to attempt to break the link between Ireland and England. This, and subsequent rebellions in 1803, 1848, and 1867, failed. Ireland was made part of the United Kingdom in the Act of Union of 1801, which lasted until the end of World War I (1914–1918), when the Irish War of Independence led to a compromise agreement between the Irish belligerents, the British government, and Northern Irish Protestants who wanted Ulster to remain part of the United Kingdom. This compromise established the Irish Free State, which was composed of twenty-six of Ireland's thirty-two counties. The remainder became Northern Ireland, the only part of Ireland to stay in the United Kingdom, and wherein the majority population were Protestant and Unionist.
The cultural nationalism that succeeded in gaining Ireland's independence had its origin in the Catholic emancipation movement of the early nineteenth century, but it was galvanized by Anglo-Irish and other leaders who sought to use the revitalization of Irish language, sport, literature, drama, and poetry to demonstrate the cultural and historical bases of the Irish nation. This Gaelic Revival stimulated great popular support for both the idea of the Irish nation, and for diverse groups who sought various ways of expressing this modern nationalism. The intellectual life of Ireland began to have a great impact throughout the British Isles and beyond, most notably among the Irish Diaspora who had been forced to flee the disease, starvation, and death of the Great Famine of 1846–1849, when a blight destroyed the potato crop, upon which the Irish peasantry depended for food. Estimates vary, but this famine period resulted in approximately one million dead and two million emigrants.
By the end of the nineteenth century many Irish at home and abroad were committed to the peaceful attainment of "Home Rule" with a separate Irish parliament within the United Kingdom while many others were committed to the violent severing of Irish and British ties. Secret societies, forerunners of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), joined with public groups, such as trade union organizations, to plan another rebellion, which took place on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916. The ruthlessness that the British government displayed in putting down this insurrection led to the wide-scale disenchantment of the Irish people with Britain. The Irish War of Independence (1919–1921), followed by the Irish Civil War (1921–1923), ended with the creation of an independent state.
Ethnic Relations. Many countries in the world have sizable Irish ethnic minorities, including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Argentina. While many of these people descend from emigrants of the mid- to late nineteenth century, many others are descendants of more recent Irish emigrants, while still others were born in Ireland. These ethnic communities identify in varying degrees with Irish culture, and they are distinguished by their religion, dance, music, dress, food, and secular and religious celebrations (the most famous of which is the Saint Patrick Day's parades that are held in Irish communities around the world on 17 March).
While Irish immigrants often suffered from religious, ethnic, and racial bigotry in the nineteenth century, their communities today are characterized by both the resilience of their ethnic identities and the degree to which they have assimilated to host national cultures. Ties to the "old country" remain strong. Many people of Irish descent worldwide have been active in seeking a solution to the national conflict in Northern Ireland, known as the "Troubles."
Ethnic relations in the Republic of Ireland are relatively peaceful, given the homogeneity of national culture, but Irish Travellers have often been the victims of prejudice. In Northern Ireland the level of ethnic conflict, which is inextricably linked to the province's bifurcation of religion, nationalism, and ethnic identity, is high, and has been since the outbreak of political violence in 1969. Since 1994 there has been a shaky and intermittent cease-fire among the paramilitary groups in Northern Ireland. The 1998 Good Friday agreement is the most recent accord.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
The public architecture of Ireland reflects the country's past role in the British Empire, as most Irish cities and towns were either designed or remodeled as Ireland evolved with Britain. Since independence, much of the architectural iconography and symbolism, in terms of statues, monuments, museums, and landscaping, has reflected the sacrifices of those who fought for Irish freedom. Residential and business architecture is similar to that found elsewhere in the British Isles and Northern Europe.
The Irish put great emphasis on nuclear families establishing residences independent of the residences of the families from which the husband and wife hail, with the intention of owning these residences; Ireland has a very high percentage of owner-occupiers. As a result, the suburbanization of Dublin is resulting in a number of social, economic, transportation, architectural, and legal problems that Ireland must solve in the near future.
The informality of Irish culture, which is one thing that Irish people believe sets them apart from British people, facilitates an open and fluid approach between people in public and private spaces. Personal space is small and negotiable; while it is not common for Irish people to touch each other when walking or talking, there is no prohibition on public displays of emotion, affection, or attachment. Humor, literacy, and verbal acuity are valued; sarcasm and humor are the preferred sanctions if a person transgresses the few rules that govern public social interaction.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. The Irish diet is similar to that of other Northern European nations. There is an emphasis on the consumption of meat, cereals, bread, and potatoes at most meals. Vegetables such as cabbage, turnips, carrots, and broccoli are also popular as accompaniments to the meat and potatoes. Traditional Irish daily eating habits, influenced by a farming ethos, involved four meals: breakfast, dinner (the midday meal and the main one of the day), tea (in early evening, and distinct from "high tea" which is normally served at 4:00 p.m. and is associated with British customs), and supper (a light repast before retiring). Roasts and stews, of lamb, beef, chicken, ham, pork, and turkey, are the centerpieces of traditional meals. Fish, especially salmon, and seafood, especially prawns, are also popular meals. Until recently, most shops closed at the dinner hour (between 1:00 and 2:00 p.m.) to allow staff to return home for their meal. These patterns, however, are changing, because of the growing importance of new lifestyles, professions, and patterns of work, as well as the increased consumption of frozen, ethnic, take-out, and processed foods. Nevertheless, some foods (such as wheaten breads, sausages, and bacon rashers) and some drinks (such as the national beer, Guinness, and Irish whiskey) maintain their important gustatory and symbolic roles in Irish meals and socializing. Regional dishes, consisting of variants on stews, potato casseroles, and breads, also exist. The public house is an essential meeting place for all Irish communities, but these establishments traditionally seldom served dinner. In the past pubs had two separate sections, that of the bar, reserved for males, and the lounge, open to men and women. This distinction is eroding, as are expectations of gender preference in the consumption of alcohol.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. There are few ceremonial food customs. Large family gatherings often sit down to a main meal of roast chicken and ham, and turkey is becoming the preferred dish for Christmas (followed by Christmas cake or plum pudding). Drinking behavior in pubs is ordered informally, in what is perceived by some to be a ritualistic manner of buying drinks in rounds.
Basic Economy. Agriculture is no longer the principal economic activity. Industry accounts for 38 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and 80 percent of exports, and employs 27 percent of the workforce. During the 1990s Ireland enjoyed annual trade surpluses, falling inflation, and increases in construction, consumer spending, and business and consumer investment. Unemployment was down (from 12 percent in 1995 to around 7 percent in 1999) and emigration declined. As of 1998, the labor force consisted of 1.54 million people; as of 1996, 62 percent of the labor force was in services, 27 percent in manufacturing and construction, and 10 percent in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. In 1999 Ireland had the fastest growing economy in the European Union. In the five years to 1999 GDP per capita rose by 60 percent, to approximately $22,000 (U.S.).
Despite its industrialization, Ireland still is an agricultural country, which is important to its self-image and its image for tourists. As of 1993, only 13 percent of its land was arable, while 68 percent was devoted to permanent pastures. While all Irish food producers consume a modest amount of their product, agriculture and fishing are modern, mechanized, and commercial enterprises, with the vast bulk of production going to the national and international markets. Although the image of the small-holding subsistence farmer persists in art, literary, and academic circles, Irish farming and farmers are as advanced in technology and technique as most of their European neighbors. Poverty persists, however, among farmers with small holdings, on poor land, particularly in many parts of the west and south. These farmers, who to survive must rely more on subsistence crops and mixed farming than do their more commercial neighbors, involve all family members in a variety of economic strategies. These activities include off-farm wage labor and the acquisition of state pensions and unemployment benefits ("the dole").
Land Tenure and Property. Ireland was one of the first countries in Europe in which peasants could purchase their landholdings. Today all but a very few farms are family-owned, although some mountain pasture and bog lands are held in common. Cooperatives are principally production and marketing enterprises. An annually changing proportion of pasture and arable land is leased out each year, usually for an eleven-month period, in a traditional system known as conacre.
Major Industries. The main industries are food products, brewing, textiles, clothing, and pharmaceuticals, and Ireland is fast becoming known for its roles in the development and design of information technologies and financial support services. In agriculture the main products are meat and dairy, potatoes, sugar beets, barley, wheat, and turnips. The fishing industry concentrates on cod, haddock, herring, mackerel, and shellfish (crab and lobster). Tourism increases its share of the economy annually; in 1998 total tourism and travel earnings were $3.1 billion (U.S.).
Trade. Ireland had a consistent trade surplus at the end of the 1990s. In 1997 this surplus amounted to $13 billion (U.S). Ireland's main trading partners are the United Kingdom, the rest of the European Union, and the United States.
Division of Labor. In farming, daily and seasonal tasks are divided according to age and gender. Most public activities that deal with farm production are handled by adult males, although some agricultural production associated with the domestic household, such as eggs and honey, are marketed by adult females. Neighbors often help each other with their labor or equipment when seasonal production demands, and this network of local support is sustained through ties of marriage, religion and church, education, political party, and sports. While in the past most blue-collar and wage-labor jobs were held by males, women have increasingly entered the workforce over the last generation, especially in tourism, sales, and information and financial services. Wages and salaries are consistently lower for women, and employment in the tourism industry is often seasonal or temporary. There are very few legal age or gender restrictions to entering professions, but here too men dominate in numbers if not also in influence and control. Irish economic policy has encouraged foreign-owned businesses, as one way to inject capital into underdeveloped parts of the country. The United States and the United Kingdom top the list of foreign investors in Ireland.
Classes and Castes. The Irish often perceive that their culture is set off from their neighbors by its egalitarianism, reciprocity, and informality, wherein strangers do not wait for introductions to converse, the first name is quickly adopted in business and professional discourse, and the sharing of food, tools, and other valuables is commonplace. These leveling mechanisms alleviate many pressures engendered by class relations, and often belie rather strong divisions of status, prestige, class, and national identity. While the rigid class structure for which the English are renowned is largely absent, social and economic class distinctions exist, and are often reproduced through educational and religious institutions, and the professions. The old British and Anglo-Irish aristocracy are small in number and relatively powerless. They have been replaced at the apex of Irish society by the wealthy, many of whom have made their fortunes in business and professions, and by celebrities from the arts and sports worlds. Social classes are discussed in terms of working class, middle class, and gentry, with certain occupations, such as farmers, often categorized according to their wealth, such as large and small farmers, grouped according to the size of their landholding and capital. The social boundaries between these groups are often indistinct and permeable, but their basic dimensions are clearly discernible to locals through dress, language, conspicuous consumption, leisure activities, social networks, and occupation and profession. Relative wealth and social class also influence life choices, perhaps the most important being that of primary and secondary school, and university, which in turn affects one's class mobility. Some minority groups, such as Travellers, are often portrayed in popular culture as being outside or beneath the accepted social class system, making escape from the underclass as difficult for them as for the long-term unemployed of the inner cities.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Use of language, especially dialect, is a clear indicator of class and other social standing. Dress codes have relaxed over the last generation, but the conspicuous consumption of important symbols of wealth and success, such as designer clothing, good food, travel, and expensive cars and houses, provides important strategies for class mobility and social advancement.
Government. The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy. The National Parliament (Oireachtas ) consists of the president (directly elected by the people), and two houses: Dáil Éireann (House of Representatives) and Seanad Éireann (Senate). Their powers and functions derive from the constitution (enacted 1 July 1937). Representatives to Dáil Éireann, who are called Teachta Dála, or TDs, are elected through proportional representation with a single transferable vote. While legislative power is vested in the Oireachtas, all laws are subject to the obligations of European Community membership, which Ireland joined in 1973. The executive power of the state is vested in the government, composed of the Taoiseach (prime minister) and the cabinet. While a number of political parties are represented in the Oireachtas, governments since the 1930s have been led by either the Fianna Fáil or the Fine Gael party, both of which are center-right parties. County Councils are the principal form of local government, but they have few powers in what is one of the most centralized states in Europe.
Leadership and Political Officials. Irish political culture is marked by its postcolonialism, conservatism, localism, and familism, all of which were influenced by the Irish Catholic Church, British institutions and politics, and Gaelic culture. Irish political leaders must rely on their local political support—which depends more on their roles in local society, and their real or imagined roles in networks of patrons and clients—than it does on their roles as legislators or political administrators. As a result there is no set career path to political prominence, but over the years sports heroes, family members of past politicians, publicans, and military people have had great success in being elected to the Oireachtas. Pervasive in Irish politics is admiration and political support for politicians who can provide pork barrel government services and supplies to his constituents (very few Irish women reach the higher levels of politics, industry, and academia). While there has always been a vocal left in Irish politics, especially in the cities, since the 1920s these parties have seldom been strong, with the occasional success of the Labour Party being the most notable exception. Most Irish political parties do not provide clear and distinct policy differences, and few espouse the political ideologies that characterize other European nations. The major political division is that between Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, the two largest parties, whose support still derives from the descendants of the two opposing sides in the Civil War, which was fought over whether to accept the compromise treaty that divided the island into the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. As a result, the electorate does not vote for candidates because of their policy initiatives, but because of a candidate's personal skill in achieving material gain for constituents, and because the voter's family has traditionally supported the candidate's party. This voting pattern depends on local knowledge of the politician, and the informality of local culture, which encourages people to believe that they have direct access to their politicians. Most national and local politicians have regular open office hours where constituents can discuss their problems and concerns without having to make an appointment.
Social Problems and Control. The legal system is based on common law, modified by subsequent legislation and the constitution of 1937. Judicial review of legislation is made by the Supreme Court, which is appointed by the president of Ireland on the advice of the government. Ireland has a long history of political violence, which is still an important aspect of life in Northern Ireland, where paramilitary groups such as the IRA have enjoyed some support from people in the Republic. Under emergency powers acts, certain legal rights and protections can be suspended by the state in the pursuit of terrorists. Crimes of nonpolitical violence are rare, though some, such as spousal and child abuse, may go unreported. Most major crimes, and the crimes most important in popular culture, are those of burglary, theft, larceny, and corruption. Crime rates are higher in urban areas, which in some views results from the poverty endemic to some inner cities. There is a general respect for the law and its agents, but other social controls also exist to sustain moral order. Such institutions as the Catholic Church and the state education system are partly responsible for the overall adherence to rules and respect for authority, but there is an anarchic quality to Irish culture that sets it off from its neighboring British cultures. Interpersonal forms of informal social control include a heightened sense of humor and sarcasm, supported by the general Irish values of reciprocity, irony, and skepticism regarding social hierarchies.
Military Activity. The Irish Defence Forces have army, naval service and air corps branches. The total membership of the permanent forces is approximately 11,800, with 15,000 serving in the reserves. While the military is principally trained to defend Ireland, Irish soldiers have served in most United Nations peacekeeping missions, in part because of Ireland's policy of neutrality. The Defence Forces play an important security role on the border with Northern Ireland. The Irish National Police, An Garda Siochána, is an unarmed force of approximately 10,500 members.
Social Welfare and Change Programs
The national social welfare system mixes social insurance and social assistance programs to provide financial support to the ill, the aged, and the unemployed, benefitting roughly 1.3 million people. State spending on social welfare comprises 25 percent of government expenditures, and about 6 percent of GDP. Other relief agencies, many of which are connected to the churches, also provide valuable financial assistance and social relief programs for the amelioration of the conditions of poverty and inequity.
Nongvernmental Organizations and Other Associations
Civil society is well-developed, and nongovernmental organizations serve all classes, professions, regions, occupations, ethnic groups, and charitable causes. Some are very powerful, such as the Irish Farmers Association, while others, such as the international charitable support organization, Trócaire, a Catholic agency for world development, command widespread financial and moral support. Ireland is one of the highest per capita contributors to private international aid in the world. Since the creation of the Irish state a number of development agencies and utilities have been organized in partly state-owned bodies, such as the Industrial Development Agency, but these are slowly being privatized.
Gender Roles and Statuses
While gender equality in the workplace is guaranteed by law, remarkable inequities exist between the genders in such areas as pay, access to professional achievement, and parity of esteem in the workplace. Certain jobs and professions are still considered by large segments of the population to be gender linked. Some critics charge that gender biases continue to be established and reinforced in the nation's major institutions of government, education, and religion. Feminism is a growing movement in rural and urban areas, but it still faces many obstacles among traditionalists.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Marriages are seldom arranged in modern Ireland. Monogamous marriages are the norm, as supported and sanctioned by the state and the Christian churches. Divorce has been legal since 1995. Most spouses are selected through the expected means of individual trial and error that have become the norm in Western European society. The demands of farm society and economy still place great pressure on rural men and women to marry, especially in some relatively poor rural districts where there is a high migration rate among women, who go to the cities or emigrate in search of employment and social standing commensurate with their education and social expectations. Marriage festivals for farm men and women, the most famous of which takes place in the early autumn in Lisdoonvarna, has served as one way to bring people together for possible marriage matches, but the increased criticism of such practices in Irish society may endanger their future. The estimated marriage rate per thousand people in 1998 was 4.5. While the average ages of partners at marriage continues to be older than other Western societies, the ages have dropped over the last generation.
Domestic Unit. The nuclear family household is the principal domestic unit, as well as the basic unit of production, consumption, and inheritance in Irish society.
Inheritance. Past rural practices of leaving the patrimony to one son, thereby forcing his siblings into wage labor, the church, the army, or emigration, have been modified by changes in Irish law, gender roles, and the size and structure of families. All children have legal rights to inheritance, although a preference still lingers for farmers' sons to inherit the land, and for a farm to be passed on without division. Similar patterns exist in urban areas, where gender and class are important determinants of the inheritance of property and capital.
Kin Groups. The main kin group is the nuclear family, but extended families and kindreds continue to play important roles in Irish life. Descent is from both parents' families. Children in general adopt their father's surnames. Christian (first) names are often selected to honor an ancestor (most commonly, a grandparent), and in the Catholic tradition most first names are those of saints. Many families continue to use the Irish form of their names (some "Christian" names are in fact pre-Christian and untranslatable into English). Children in the national primary school system are taught to know and use the Irish language equivalent of their names, and it is legal to use your name in either of the two official languages.
Child Rearing and Education. Socialization takes place in the domestic unit, in schools, at church, through the electronic and print media, and in voluntary youth organizations. Particular emphasis is placed on education and literacy; 98 percent of the population aged fifteen and over can read and write. The majority of four-year-olds attend nursery school, and all five-year-olds are in primary school. More than three thousand primary schools serve 500,000 children. Most primary schools are linked to the Catholic Church, and receive capital funding from the state, which also pays most teachers' salaries. Post-primary education involves 370,000 students, in secondary, vocational, community, and comprehensive schools.
Higher Education. Third-level education includes universities, technological colleges, and education colleges. All are self-governing, but are principally funded by the state. About 50 percent of youth attend some form of third-level education, half of whom pursue degrees. Ireland is world famous for its universities, which are the University of Dublin (Trinity College), the National University of Ireland, the University of Limerick, and Dublin City University.
General rules of social etiquette apply across ethnic, class, and religious barriers. Loud, boisterous, and boastful behavior are discouraged. Unacquainted people look directly at each other in public spaces, and often say "hello" in greeting. Outside of formal introductions greetings are often vocal and are not accompanied by a handshake or kiss. Individuals maintain a public personal space around themselves; public touching is rare. Generosity and reciprocity are key values in social exchange, especially in the ritualized forms of group drinking in pubs.
Religious Beliefs. The Irish Constitution guarantees freedom of conscience and the free profession and practice of religion. There is no official state religion, but critics point to the special consideration given to the Catholic Church and its agents since the inception of the state. In the 1991 census 92 percent of the population were Roman Catholic, 2.4 percent belonged to the Church of Ireland (Anglican), 0.4 percent were Presbyterians, and 0.1 percent were Methodists. The Jewish community comprised .04 percent of the total, while approximately 3 percent belonged to other religious groups. No information on religion was returned for 2.4 percent of the population. Christian revivalism is changing many of the ways in which the people relate to each other and to their formal church institutions. Folk cultural beliefs also survive, as evidenced in the many holy and healing places, such as the holy wells that dot the landscape.
Religious Practitioners. The Catholic Church has four ecclesiastical provinces, which encompass the whole island, thus crossing the boundary with Northern Ireland. The Archbishop of Armagh in Northern Ireland is the Primate of All Ireland. The diocesan structure, in which thirteen hundred parishes are served by four thousand priests, dates to the twelfth century and does not coincide with political boundaries. There are approximately twenty thousand people serving in various Catholic religious orders, out of a combined Ireland and Northern Ireland Catholic population of 3.9 million. The Church of Ireland, which has twelve dioceses, is an autonomous church within the worldwide Anglican Communion. Its Primate of All Ireland is the Archbishop of Armagh, and its total membership is 380,000, 75 percent of whom are in Northern Ireland. There are 312,000 Presbyterians on the island (95 percent of whom are in Northern Ireland), grouped into 562 congregations and twenty-one presbyteries.
Rituals and Holy Places. In this predominantly Catholic country there are a number of Church-recognized shrines and holy places, most notably that of Knock, in County Mayo, the site of a reported apparition of the Blessed Mother. Traditional holy places, such as holy wells, attract local people at all times of the year, although many are associated with particular days, saints, rituals, and feasts. Internal pilgrimages to such places as Knock and Croagh Patrick (a mountain in County Mayo associated with Saint Patrick) are important aspects of Catholic belief, which often reflect the integration of formal and traditional religious practices. The holy days of the official Irish Catholic Church calendar are observed as national holidays.
Death and the Afterlife. Funerary customs are inextricably linked to various Catholic Church religious rituals. While wakes continue to be held in homes, the practice of utilizing funeral directors and parlors is gaining in popularity.
Medicine and Health Care
Medical services are provided free of charge by the state to approximately a third of the population. All others pay minimal charges at public health facilities. There are roughly 128 doctors for every 100,000 people. Various forms of folk and alternative medicines exist throughout the island; most rural communities have locally known healers or healing places. Religious sites, such as the pilgrimage destination of Knock, and rituals are also known for their healing powers.
The national holidays are linked to national and religious history, such as Saint Patrick's Day, Christmas, and Easter, or are seasonal bank and public holidays which occur on Mondays, allowing for long weekends.
The Arts and Humanities
Literature. The literary renaissance of the late nineteenth century integrated the hundreds-year-old traditions of writing in Irish with those of English, in what has come to be known as Anglo-Irish literature. Some of the greatest writers in English over the last century were Irish: W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, Frank O'Connor, Seán O'Faoláin, Seán O'Casey, Flann O'Brien, and Seamus Heaney. They and many others have constituted an unsurpassable record of a national experience that has universal appeal.
Graphic Arts. High, popular, and folk arts are highly valued aspects of local life throughout Ireland. Graphic and visual arts are strongly supported by the government through its Arts Council and the 1997-formed Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht, and the Islands. All major international art movements have their Irish representatives, who are often equally inspired by native or traditional motifs. Among the most important artists of the century are Jack B. Yeats and Paul Henry.
Performance Arts. Performers and artists are especially valued members of the Irish nation, which is renowned internationally for the quality of its music, acting, singing, dancing, composing, and writing. U2 and Van Morrison in rock, Daniel O'Donnell in country, James Galway in classical, and the Chieftains in Irish traditional music are but a sampling of the artists who have been important influences on the development of international music. Irish traditional music and dance have also spawned the global phenomenon of Riverdance. Irish cinema celebrated its centenary in 1996. Ireland has been the site and the inspiration for the production of feature films since 1910. Major directors (such as Neill Jordan and Jim Sheridan) and actors (such as Liam Neeson and Stephen Rhea) are part of a national interest in the representation of contemporary Ireland, as symbolized in the state-sponsored Film Institute of Ireland.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
The government is the principal source of financial support for academic research in the physical and social sciences, which are broadly and strongly represented in the nation's universities and in government-sponsored bodies, such as the Economic and Social Research Institute in Dublin. Institutions of higher learning draw relatively high numbers of international students at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and Irish researchers are to be found in all areas of academic and applied research throughout the world.
Clancy, Patrick, Sheelagh Drudy, Kathleen Lynch, and Liam O'Dowd, eds.Irish Society: Sociological Perspectives, 1995.
Curtin, Chris, Hastings Donnan, and Thomas M. Wilson, eds. Irish Urban Cultures, 1993.
Taylor, Lawrence J. Occasions of Faith: An Anthropology of Irish Catholics, 1995.
Wilson, Thomas M. "Themes in the Anthropology of Ireland." In Susan Parman, ed., Europe in the Anthropological Imagination, 1998.
CAIN Project. Background Information on Northern Ireland Society—Population and Vital Statistics. Electronic document. Available from: http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/popul.htm
Government of Ireland, Central Statistics Office, Principal Statistics. Electronic document. Available from http://www.cso.ie/principalstats
Government of Ireland, Department of Foreign Affairs. Facts about Ireland. Electronic document. Available from http://www.irlgov.ie/facts
—Thomas M. Wilson
"Ireland." Countries and Their Cultures. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
"Ireland." Countries and Their Cultures. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ireland-0
"Ireland." A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/ireland
"Ireland." A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/ireland
"Ireland." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/ireland
"Ireland." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Retrieved June 25, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/ireland
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The Science Life
To catch the faint signal of a spacecraft leaving the solar system, you have to listen very carefully. At NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., that’s Suzanne Dodd’s job.
Dodd (below) is project manager for NASA’s twin Voyager probes, launched in 1977 to explore Jupiter and Saturn. Voyager 2 did that and more, as the first probe to fly by Uranus, in 1986, and Neptune, in 1989. It’s now 15 billion kilometers from Earth and headed out of the solar system.
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On the way home from school the other day, my son asked me why they got Memorial Day off school. I realized that we had spent previous Memorial Day having cookouts and relaxing, but that I never explained the meaning of Memorial Day to my kids. I explained to them that the day was to honor veterans who have served our country, but realized that I wanted to help them to understand the meaning a bit more.
After looking online, I found this great article, “Teach Kids the Meaning of Memorial Day” that gives some very concrete ways to help your children understand the holiday. So this Memorial Day we are going to make a flag craft and write a letter to soldiers overseas.
How do you help you kids understand the meaning of Memorial Day?
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It is has been expressed that Africa, in effect, had “no history” prior to western colonialism. On the contrary, curiosity attracted me to continent, wherein I easily found much. I read books as a child which described the ‘mythical city’ of Timbuktu; I learned of the vast resources of the Congo, (as Zaire), merely by watching contemporary television coverage. Early on, I was led to a picture book of the Great Zimbabwe society, and fascinated by the stone structures that seemingly stretched across much of the southern third of the continent; as well as the ancient gold mines nearby.
When Oxford University History Professor Trevor Roper to claim in 1964 that “there is only the history of Europeans in Africa,” there could be no statement further from the truth. With that type of instruction, taught to a nation’s most brightest students, it is no wonder that recent statistics show students to disbelieve in Timbuktu, as pure myth, akin to an African ‘El Dorado’. It is known, though apparently not taught well enough, that the city actually exists, and was THE center of Islamic learning (and by extension, world learning) during from the middle ages until the rise of European powers. Roper would say I’m “seduced…by the changing breath of journalistic fashion,” in hoping that the ‘common knowledge’ become commonly known. Granted, modern technology has put libraries at my fingertips, where I can explore the continent, virtually, at whim. However, this history has always been there to find, and an Oxford Professor of 50 years past, had just as much resource, if not more in terms of primary sources and artifacts.
Africa is a story about the loss of human capital, extracted like a resource from their people of origin. Why is the memory short on Africa? Is it that “Darkness is not a subject for history,” as Oxford University Professor of History, Trevor Roper, expresses? He charges that students should be taught about black African history, that unless it is, history will only be known from the European perspective… and that perspective, much like the history of pre-European, pre-Columbian America, it “is largely darkness.”
In order to fully grasp the state of current affairs, one should look to the past to see how things were before they became the way they are. It puts into context and grounds one to the material, in that that the learner may realize the changes that have occurred between two times in history. In our schools we are taught about the “Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,” but what is taught is merely cursory, and oftentimes simplified to less than a page, to where all ‘history’ is merely the modern era, and everything before: ‘ancient’. One can only begin to make sense of the mad reality and come to terms towards a peace and reconciliation by a deeper, more historical understanding of the issue, and moving beyond the Euro-centric conception of the African continent. Well-travelled 14th century explorer Ibn Battuta described the African people he encountered in Mali as “seldom unjust, and have a greater abhorrence of injustice than any other people.” He described the peace and security maintained by the people and noted that “neither traveler nor inhabitant has anything to fear.”
This greatly contrasts the European vision presented hundreds of years later, in 1831 by German philosopher George Wilhelm Hegel, who declared the African “completely wild and untamed,” and “unhistorical.” Justifying his lack of wont to guess a timeline for African self-governance, Governor of Kenya Sir Philip E. Mitchell urged that “it is necessary to realize that history began for these African people about 1890.” Which the Governor said in 1947, making one wonder: when is the start year for African history? It’s obvious to many, including L.S.B. Leaky, that Africa, rather than being without history, “was the birthplace of man himself, and that for many hundreds of centuries thereafter, Africa was in the forefront of all world progress.” And that many people “should know better.”
Even still, history occurs in real time, and it is just as much a contemporary study, then as it is now. Did Roper not understand French (or implications) when it was uttered “Ou es Carlucci?” following the Western ‘intervention’ and deposing of Lumumba. Roper pines: “Undergraduates… demand that they should be taught the history of black Africa,” as if he didn’t want to teach it. Rather than curiosity, he clings to academic self-preservation, but not before using subtle innuendo to describe his vision of African history as “largely darkness” and that “darkness is not a subject for history.” Whether a product of his times, with racism still in the collective ethos, or an intellectual bully with his steadfast, biased vision of history, regardless of the evidence; there is something to explore.
Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325-1334
The Progress and Evolution of Man in Africa (OUP. 1961:1)
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When we first learned to ride bikes as children, the two most trying ideas were remaining upright and steering. Balance came quickly, and with it a gut instinct about how to steer. Once dad took the training wheels off and we were darting up to the neighbor’s house (without a helmet, gloves, or a clear sense of which side of the street was correct), who knew that any more needed to be learnt?
As adults taking up the sport, that question may return: I know how to ride a bike, why should I think about steering? The answer is that making a few conscious changes in the way you handle your bike will make your rides safer, faster, and more enjoyable.
I wrote an extensive piece on cornering; The steps are outlined in the post, but I repeat them in brief here for convenience:
Look into the turn. Choose a line for the widest-possible but safest turn. Gauge your speed and brake before entering the turn. Lower your outside foot and press down, driving your foot toward the ground. As needed, apply gentle pressure forward to the inside handlebar. If you’re riding too fast, lean into the turn to keep your line.
In this post, I want to emphasize: focus on controlling your bike with your foot by driving it down toward the ground.
|Figure 1: Eyes up and looking at the exit to the turn. Original Image Credit.|
Generally, counter-steering is accomplished by getting your bike to lean in the direction of travel. Motorcyclists accomplish this by gentle pressure on the inside handlebar and by actively leaning into the turn. While you can do the same thing on a bicycle, that technique can make cyclists feel wobbly and cause unnecessarily and too-early braking.
Instead, as I learned at the Savvy Bike 201 Clinic, focusing on driving your foot down rather than pressing on the handlebar keeps your center of gravity over the bike making you feel much more stable and in control of the turn.
This is not an easy technique to master, even once you’ve figured out how to accomplish it. That’s why its important to think about the steps and practice them consciously on each ride: train yourself out of habit, and into proper form. Here’s a nice video demonstration of the technique.
There’s so much more to discuss. How to choose your line? Why not brake in the turn? When to lean your body? I’ll address each of these in future posts.
As always, please leave your notes, corrections, or suggestions in the comments!
Over the next couple months, I’m going to write a few articles with the lead-in title “Absolute Beginners,” explaining some of the basic principles of cycling. Most of the information is stuff I’ve learned from other cyclists, bike shop mechanics, classes I’ve taken, and Google searches. Please help me out and comment with corrections, additions, or supplements which will help my readers learn about how to operate their bikes!
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In the Philippines, some 200 miles north of Manila, the ancestors of the Ifugao people created a complex system of rice terraces. It all started around 2,000 years ago and the terraces are still in use today. They cover an extensive area of the Cordilleras Mountains. What makes these terraces so unique and amazing is that they were built by hand at such a high altitude on mountains with such a steep grade. These terraces truly define the economic and social development of the Ifugao people.
Intricacies of the Design
The complexity and detail in the rice terraces is astounding. They were the only structure from the civilization at the time to include stone, as most everything else was made from wood. The stone and mud walls were used to support all the weight that came from the water needed to flood the terraces. Each terrace had to be level in order to make sure the rice was watered properly and evenly. There was an underground conduit designed for drainage, and it was just one of the many devices put into place to regulate the water flow. They gathered the water from the mountain rainforests and carefully guided it through the terraces. There are different dams, pipes, and channels to distribute the water equally.
Normally I believe the surrounding culture really influences the design of engineering feats, but in this case the terraces heavily affected the culture. With the rice and vegetables grown being their main source of food the society’s schedule revolved around what needed to be done for the terraces. The culture had a very cyclical nature to it and followed farming seasons. Religious rituals accompanied different events and the rice gods became increasingly more important to the people. While the design of these terraces is impressive it is also amazing how well the knowledge has been past down these last couple thousand years.
The terraces would not be around today if they were not continuously maintained, and there have been different threats over the years. Changes in climate have affected the way they have been able to use the water. Some terraces had to be abandoned due to drought. Another threat was the spread of Christianity during the 1950s. Since the maintenance relies on the religious rituals promoting the connection between man and nature, Christianity could’ve been a poison. Fortunately, the people were able to find a way to implement the tribal rituals with the new religion. Today the landscape is facing another challenge caused by modernization. Since a large portion of the younger population is making the decision to move into more urban areas, the terraces aren’t receiving the attention they need and erosion is beginning. The hope relies on the protection tourism can create.
Tourism has increased over the past few years and it is rather easy to visit. From Manila there are many buses that make the eight to nine hour drive daily. Once in Banaue, it is recommended to use a guide to prevent getting lost and to get the most out of the experience. There are different inns and places to stay in the villages at the base of the rice terraces. You can go purely to see the terraces from the viewpoint, but many go for the exquisite hiking the area offers. The views are impressive, but the hiking is rigorous due to the altitude and climb. Many recommend training before going to make sure you are in well enough shape to enjoy the trip. I know the Banaue rice terraces have made it onto my “must see” list.
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Prior research and the experience of residents have clearly revealed the negative impact that the cruise industry has had on the city of Charleston.
So detrimental has the damage been to Charleston that last year the National Trust for Historic Preservation put that city on its watch list due to the harm that the cruise ships have caused to the historic city.
Now a new study adds emphasis to this assessment. While the city confronts the trash and congestion of thousands of additional people and traffic in a confined area, it receives little financial benefit in return.
The report commissioned by the Historic Charleston Foundation states that “the city gets only a fraction of the surrounding region’s economic benefit from South Carolina’s year-round cruise industry.”
Further, damage done by the cruise ships has been such that the South Carolina Coastal Conservation League together with the Preservation Society of Charleston have brought suit before the South Carolina Supreme Court alleging that the ships are a public nuisance.
In essence, then, cruise ships destroy the very attraction that they tout to their passengers, while saddling the residents of the community with noise, congestion, traffic and other troubles that they will have to live with on a daily basis, while the cruise ship sails off and leaves those problems behind.
It is imperative that elected officials are fully aware of the damage that cruise ships will do to the unique and fragile heritage that is Savannah so that they are not seduced by the purported benefits touted by industry lobbyists.
EUGENE J. FRIEDMAN
Tall trees, dead animals
Regarding the March 3 commentary by Mike Matz, “Talking with trees without tongues,” while it sounds very sympathetic for the animals in the wild, it does more harm than good for reasons that are not obvious to many people.
The National Wilderness Preservation system is key to the total blocking of old growth forest cutting or thinning. This creates a thick “over story” that blocks out the sun, thereby denying the understory plants at ground level the needed sun to grow.
With no understory for the deer, rabbits and ground birds such as quail, partridge and pheasants, the food they need to survive in this environment will be gone and the animals no longer exist in numbers large enough for the person who wishes to observe this wildlife to enjoy.
This type of protection is very typical and means well, but in the end it destroys the populations of every animal in the forest.
As the kindhearted Lorax expounded in this article, the trees will be protected from the axes. But when the Lorax and his friends return, they had better be satisfied with looking at the tallest trees, because that is all that will be left to look at in the forest.
The animals will be dead from starvation.
Although the final Environmental Impact Statement for deepening the Savannah harbor isn’t even available yet, and there were plenty of justifiable challenges to the draft EIS issued in November 2010.
Sen. Johnny Isakson has introduced an official request for more than $375 million in federal funds toward this massive project. His action was part of a transportation bill recently introduced in the Senate.
We believe this request is both premature and fiscally irresponsible. Until more is known about the comparative merits of deepening other harbors, there is no assurance that deepening the Savannah channel and harbor will provide the maximum benefit for this large expenditure.
According to the latest estimate, the project will cost a minimum of $629 million, including more than $250 million in state funds to be added to the federal funds if they are awarded. Actual costs are likely to be higher.
To be most judicious in using contested federal funds, all such projects must be held to a high standard. At the very least, they shouldn’t be funded until the environmental analysis is completed and the public knows which projects will produce the maximum benefit.
Unless we demand more accountable methods for deciding how federal funds are spent, the U.S. cannot hope to be competitive in the global economy of the 21st century. Use of our tax dollars must no longer be dictated by states competing with one another in successive rounds of wasteful pork-barrel spending.
Center for a Sustainable Coast
St. Simons Island
S.C.’s loss. our gain
South Carolina Gov. Nikki Haley has possibly done Savannah a favor by vetoing the casino in Hardeeville, S.C.
There is plenty of land near I-95 and I-16 which would accommodate a casino and hotel close to the city and airport. It could increase the tourist business immeasurably. Chatham County could reap tax advantages without any investment.
Although my wife and I are not gamblers, we have visited numerous casinos while traveling. We each allocate $10 for the sport and quit when it is gone, whether it be an hour or a day. We have had good, reasonably priced meals and entertainment. We have never seen negative happenings.
Give us more hoops
With all the state high basketball playoffs going on Saturday, Mar. 3, especially at Savannah State University, there was no coverage in your paper except for the Savannah team that travelled all the way to Albany to play.
You want to sell your papers in our community, but you don’t want to give us any coverage.
Focus on the present
I write in response to Peter Ove’s March 6 letter, ”Creationists vote, and that’s frightening.”
To him and others who are frightened of those who do not share their every view, I would say this: We all agree that the world is here now, no matter how it was made or by whom. Let’s concentrate instead on electing a leader who can solve the problems of the present and future.
Whether the world was created in six days or 600 million years does nothing to address unemployment, poverty or high crime rates. Instead of worry over which neighbors should be eligible to vote, find areas of agreement so that we may all go forward together to sustain and improve the world in which we live.
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[Left: Medieval scholars learn how to use a cardboard astrolabe at the 2017 International Congress on Medieval Studies in Kalamazoo, MI; Right: CCSU Students in a Cultural Astronomy class learn how to use astrolabes]
Astronomy has rightly been called the oldest science. From using the phases of the moon to record the passage of time and make calendars to monitoring the position of the sun at sunrise to determine the summer solstice, humans have been studying the heavens throughout recorded history. Technology such as the telescope and sensitive cameras (not to mention space probes!) has greatly enhanced our ability to understand the universe around us. But one particular type of astronomical technology is decidedly old school – really old school! The origins of the astrolabe are lost to history, but probably date back to around the 6th century CE. Part calculator, part star map, part surveying and navigational tool, and part work of art, the astrolabe has been used for centuries to calculate the time from the position of the sun or stars, estimate one’s latitude, and measure the heights of buildings and trees, among other uses. Although they were largely replaced by more “modern” technologies by the 18th century, they are still an excellent tool that can be used to teach basic astronomical concepts, as well as demonstrate the close connections between astronomy, history, art, and religion (as they were used to calculate prayer times by both Christians and Muslims in medieval times).
[So-called Chaucer Astrolabe in the British Museum]
I have greatly enjoyed teaching students how to use simple cardboard astrolabes, both in a Cultural Astronomy course as well as as a guest lecturer in a Medieval History class, as well as giving lectures and workshops at other universities and numerous conferences. If you ever get the chance, peruse the astrolabe collections at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago and the Oxford University Museum of the History of Science. I have been fortunate to have seen both these collections in person and they are quite simply out of this world!
— Kris Larsen
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Mammals generally have evolved the same basic, boring way for males to fertilize an egg: just send a bunch of tiny individual sperm into the female reproductive organs. But in insects like the diving beetle, it gets way more insane.
The reproductive tracts of female diving beetles are like labyrinths, huge maze-like structures in which the male's sperm can easily get lost. That's why all the individual sperms come together as one giant conglomeration that can then navigate as a single entity, which increases the chances that they will navigate the reproductive organ successfully. Of course, in the case of diving beetles and other invertebrates, "success" doesn't mean fertilization of the egg — typically, the female will simply take on the sperm and store it, sometimes for years, until she is ready to reproduce.
A female will sometimes store an entire, enormous joined sperm entity for years in her spermatheca, something University of Arizona researcher Dawn Higginson found out firsthand when she squashed one of these structures on a microsope slide, and then "out came a single, enormous mass of sperm, all connected to each other and swirling and wiggling around." It's a charming image, and more importantly it was a completely unprecedented discovery, as Higginson explains:
"I could see the tails beating and moving the whole conjugate around. As far as sperm goes, this is clearly unlike anything we have ever seen before."
Higginson and her fellow researchers studied the sperm of 42 different species of diving beetle, a common insect found all over the world, in over 4,000 total species. They found all sorts of crazy forms of sperm, including what their statement describes as "thousands of sperm cells stacked up like badminton birdies, forming a long, fairly rigid rod of sperm resembling a fuzzy worm", as well as another example where sperm "are connected by their heads with some kind of glue."
So what's driving all this sperm diversity? Higginson says the most likely explanation is that female reproductive tracts have evolved to be fiendishly complicated, which is forcing the sperm to play evolutionary catch-up:
"We can reconstruct what the ancestors of these diving beetles looked like. We find they had conjugated sperm and rather compact female reproductive tracts. The female morphology undergoes evolutionary change, and then sperm compensates for that. We can't say from this study that the males are catching up but it's suggesting there could be an arms race.
In most cases of sexual selection, we expect co-evolution between a female preference for a male trait, like flashy tails in peacocks," Higginson said. "Females prefer males with flashy tails, and then females want bigger and flashier tails after that, setting up a co-evolutionary cycle. We are not positive that this is happening here, but is possible that all this diversity we see in the sperm is the equivalent of flashy peacock feathers, and females have evolved reproductive tracts that favor one kind of sperm over another."
"Perhaps there is something else that is influencing the evolution of the female reproductive tract. Perhaps it has to be big enough to handle an egg properly or something like that. The point is that the females are driving the sexual evolution. The sperm cells just have to keep up."
You can see a video above that shows a single conglomeration of sperm in the diving beetle species Hygrotus sayi... assuming that's the sort of thing you're into, of course. The researchers suggest the evolution of labyrinthine reproductive tracts in these beetles serves as a way for females to have more control over which male they reproduce with, and it also could be driving the faster emergence of new species — with such intense reproductive demands, it won't take long before some males' sperm becomes completely incompatable, and that means the dawn of two new species.
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literature3-七步诗（曹植）-The seven-step poem
Have you ever imaged that a poem can be composed while taking seven steps?
Seven Steps Poem or Qi Bu Shi,which is actually a hint that there is a fight or a disagreement going on between brothers and each is trying to exterminate or destroy each other. The idiom originated from the Three Kingdom Period of China when Cao Pi, The Emperor Wen of Wei was in power.
七步诗（qi1 bu4 shi1）暗含了兄弟间的相残，豆（dou4）与豆萁（dou4 qi2）本来是同一个根上长出来的，但是豆萁干了用来做柴，把它点燃，将豆煮成豆汁，这里曹植将豆汁比喻做豆子的眼泪，豆萁燃豆比喻兄弟间的手足相残。七步诗来源于中国三国时期曹丕当政之时。
（It's a clip from the TV series "洛神"（luo4 shen2），which means a godess of the ancient time and also an article written by Cao Zhi) ----------------曹植-《洛神赋》
Cao Pi was always jealous of his brother Cao Zhi. Their father Cao Cao had initially wanted Cao Zhi to take over his position and rule the state. But though cunning and treacherous methods, Cao Pi managed to make Cao Zhi lose favor with Cao Cao and hence he was the one anointed to be the next ruler of the State of Wei.
Despite being the Emperor, Cao Pi was extremely wary of his brother whom he worried will be up against him sooner or later. It was at this point when his spies told him that Cao Zhi was complaining about his treatment. Cao Pi decided to take this opportunity to get rid of his brother once and for all.
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- Author: Howard Phillips Lovecraft
- Copyright: Public domain
- Published in: 1920
- Word count: 1,343 words (≈ 5 minutes)
Note: "The Cats of Ulthar" is a short story written by American fantasy author H. P. Lovecraft in June 1920. In the tale, an unnamed narrator relates the story of how a law forbidding the killing of cats came to be in a town called Ulthar. As the narrative goes, the city is home to an old couple who enjoy capturing and killing the townspeople's cats. When a caravan of wanderers passes through the city, the kitten of an orphan (Menes) traveling with the band disappears.
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In 2013 the Washington Post reported the climate findings from the prestigious journal Nature producing this chart.
Singapore is one of the cities expected to experience climate departure early (i.e., when the coldest year is warmer than the warmest year on record). Many cities will be there on average about 20 years later. This is because the impact will be noticed first among cities in the equatorial belt.
We are already seeing our weather warming every year. The year 2028 is not a magical number. It is the result of sophisticated modeling calculations. That year of climate departure could be off by several years. Whatever, we know what to expect. It is not pretty. Besides the heat there will be more cases of Dengue, Zika and many unwelcome developments.
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Well known for his or her huge structure and wealthy visible tradition, the Moche inhabited the north coast of Peru throughout the Early Intermediate interval (AD 100-800). Archaeological discoveries over the last century and the dissemination of Moche artifacts to museums world wide have given upward push to a common and consistently expanding fascination with this complicated tradition, which expressed its ideals in regards to the human and supernatural worlds via finely crafted ceramic and steel items of remarkable realism and visible sophistication.In this standard-setting paintings, a world, multidisciplinary staff of students who're on the vanguard of Moche examine current a cutting-edge assessment of Moche tradition. The members handle quite a few problems with Moche society, faith, and fabric tradition in accordance with a number of strains of facts and methodologies, together with iconographic experiences, archaeological investigations, and forensic analyses. the various articles current the result of long term reports of significant matters in Moche iconography, whereas others specialize in extra particularly outlined themes equivalent to web site reviews, the effect of El Niño/Southern Oscillation on Moche society, the character of Moche conflict and sacrifice, and the function of Moche visible tradition in deciphering social and political frameworks.
Innovative in scope and layout, this is often the 1st learn to hire a managed, four-way, cross-cultural comparability of gender and subsistence. participants of a global group of anthropologists skilled in northern scholarship observe a similar task-differentiation technique in experiences of Chipewyan hunter-fishers of Canada, Khanty hunter-fisher-herders of Western Siberia, Sámi in depth reindeer herders of northwestern Finland, and Iñupiaq maritime hunters of the Bering Strait of Alaska. This database on gender and subsistence is used to re-examine one of many bedrock recommendations in anthropology and social technological know-how: the sexual department of labor.
In accordance with years of prestigious educational paintings, Professor Rosalie David cleverly offers each point of lifestyles in historical Egypt throughout the lives of assorted characters, all in keeping with mummies from the Manchester Museum whom Professor Rosalie David has led the research of. Characters hail from all walks of existence, together with royalty, nobles, officers, craftsmen and peasants, permitting us an perception into completely each element of daily, ritual and spiritual existence in historical Egypt.
The booklet offers an outline of the numerous dynasties and kingdoms of old Egypt earlier than starting to inform the tale of the lives of 1 relatives. All 3 seasons of inundation, planting and turning out to be, and harvesting are lined in addition to all ritual and non secular occasions, together with start and dying. The e-book is intensely effortless to learn and digest, even if, the eye to element and the vibrant photo of existence which we will construct makes it transparent that this booklet has been written by way of one of many best specialists in Egyptology and mummy research.
The mummies are at present on a journey of the U.S. titled ‘Mummies of the area 2’ and may go back to Manchester following this journey.
The Archaeology of ailment exhibits how the most recent medical and archaeological recommendations can be utilized to spot the typical health problems and accidents from which people suffered in antiquity. Charlotte Roberts and Keith Manchester supply a bright photograph of historical illness and trauma via combining the result of medical examine with info accrued from records, different components of archaeology, paintings, and ethnography. The booklet includes info on congenital, infectious, dental, joint, endocrine, and metabolic ailments. The authors offer a medical context for particular illnesses and injuries and view the relevance of historical demography, simple bone biology, funerary practices, and prehistoric medication. This absolutely revised 3rd version has been up-to-date to and encompasses swiftly constructing study tools of during this interesting box.
By Stephen Rippon
The numerous personality of Britain's nation-state presents groups with a robust feel of neighborhood identification. the most major gains of the panorama in Southern Britain is the way in which that its personality differs from zone to area, with compact villages within the Midlands contrasting with the sprawling hamlets of East Anglia and remoted farmsteads of Devon. much more notable is the very 'English' believe of the panorama in southern Pembrokeshire, within the a long way south west of Wales.
Hoskins defined the English panorama as 'the richest historic checklist we possess', and during this quantity Stephen Rippon explores the origins of neighborhood adaptations in panorama personality, arguing that whereas a few landscapes date again to the centuries each side of the Norman Conquest, different components throughout southern Britain underwent a profound switch round the eighth century AD.
By Andy McDermott
One other amazing Wilde/Chase mystery from the most effective within the enterprise - Andy McDermott. Archaeologist Nina Wilde's existence has fallen aside. Her husband, ex-SAS soldier Eddie Chase is at the run, falsely accused of homicide, and her simply distraction has been investigating the beginning of 3 unusual statues stolen from her in advance of Eddie's disappearance. while Nina discovers they're relics from the misplaced civilisation of Atlantis, it's transparent that she has to get her head again within the video game, and quickly. Eddie, in the meantime, attempts to stick sooner than the specialists as he hunts the fellow chargeable for his fugitive prestige around the globe. A mysterious benefactor deals the knowledge he wishes - however the fee will placed him in direct clash along with his spouse. whilst Nina learns eastern industrialist has got the statues at the black industry she instantly heads to Tokyo meet him, unaware that Eddie is already on his approach. Their arrival unleashes a sequence of occasions which could have devastating results for the area, surroundings Nina and Eddie on their most deadly quest ever - with the way forward for humanity itself at stake...
By Marina Belozerskaya
How Cyriacus of Ancona―merchant, secret agent, and novice classicist―traveled the area, combating to save lots of historic monuments for posterity.
first and foremost of the 15th century, a tender Italian bookkeeper fell below the spell of the classical earlier. regardless of his constrained schooling, the Greeks and Romans looked as if it would converse on to him―not from books yet from the actual ruins and inscriptions that lay missed round the seashores of the Mediterranean.As a world service provider, Cyriacus of Ancona was once familiar with the perils of shuttle in overseas lands―unlike his extra scholarly friends with their good-looking libraries and filthy rich buyers, who benefited drastically from the discoveries communicated in his broadly allotted letters and drawings. Having noticeable firsthand the destruction of the world’s cultural historical past, Cyriacus resolved to maintain it for destiny generations. to take action he might secret agent at the Ottomans, courtroom popes and emperors, or even manage a crusade.25 illustrations
By Michael J. O'Brien, R. Lee Lyman
Combining old study with a lucid explication of archaeological technique and reasoning, Measuring Time with Artifacts examines the origins and altering use of basic chronometric suggestions and techniques and analyzes the various methods American archaeologists have studied alterations in artifacts, websites, and peoples over time.
In highlighting the underpinning ontology and epistemology of artifact-based chronometers—cultural transmission and the way to degree it archaeologically—this quantity covers matters similar to why archaeologists used the cultural evolutionism of L. H. Morgan, E. B. Tylor, L. A. White, and others rather than organic evolutionism; why artifact category performed a serious function within the adoption of stratigraphic excavation; how the direct historic strategy entire 3 analytical projects instantly; why cultural characteristics have been vital analytical devices; why paleontological and archaeological equipment occasionally reflect each other; how artifact class impacts chronometric approach; and the way graphs illustrate switch in artifacts through the years.
By Rodney Castleden
Plato's legend of Atlantis has develop into infamous between students because the absurdest lie in literature. Atlantis Destroyed explores the chance that the account given by way of Plato is traditionally actual.
Rodney Castleden first considers the positioning of Atlantis re-examining feedback recommend within the early 20th century; Minoan Crete and Minoan Thera. He outlines the newest study findings on Knossos and Bronze Age Thera, discussing the fabric tradition, alternate empire and agricultural approach, writing and wall work, paintings, faith and society of the Minoan civilization. Castleden demonstrates the various parallels among Plato's narrative and the Minoan Civilization within the Aegean.
Fired via the mind's eye a brand new imaginative and prescient of Atlantis has arisen over the past 100 and fifty years as a misplaced utopia. Rodney Castleden discusses why this photo arose and xplains the way it has develop into stressed with Plato's actual account.
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Hair Loss is a common daily occurrence. We lose on the average 50 to 150 hairs per day from our activities like shampooing, blow drying, styling or brushing our hair. Everyone loses hair daily because hairs go through a cycle and there will be new ones to replace those that have completed their cycle of growth.
What are the other hair loss symptoms you need to take note of? Do you feel unduly stressed and unable to cope at work? Relationship breakups, separations, divorces, prolonged illness, all seem to take an emotional toll in one’s life and if you are in that situation, you may not notice your hairs falling out.
This happens slowly without you realizing your thinning crown. If your hair is shedding, clumps of hair fall out! If shedding is all over your scalp, this is known as general hair loss. The loss may be in one area only, which is called focal hair loss. When hair shedding occur in clumps, this could be an indication of a more serious medical condition and you have to seek professional advice.
An unhealthy scalp can cause inflammation that makes it difficult for hair to grow. Skin conditions that lead to hair loss include seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff), psoriasis, and fungal infections such as ringworm. Dandruff causes the scalp to shed its skin, so you will notice greasy, yellowish scales on your shoulders or in your hair. It seems that hormonal changes appear to be the common cause of dandruff in addition to excess oil in the skin or a yeast called Malassezia.
Psoriasis, on the other hand is an autoimmune condition that causes excessive skin cell turnover, resulting in a thick white scale on the scalp that tends to bleed if it is pulled off. Ringworm is a fungus you contract by touching an infected person or animal; you will see red patches on your scalp that are diffused.
Your hair is actually an extension of your skin, and like your skin, it is a direct reflection of your internal health. Iron deficiency not only result in anemia, fatigue, weakness, loss of concentration, cold hands and feet but also hair loss symptoms.
Excessive styling causes hair loss too. Women are more prone to having their tresses harmed. Over shampooing, blow-drying, and chemicals like hair dyes and lotions weaken hair structure causing hair to break and fall out.
Millions of people , mainly women age 50’s and above , suffer from a under active thyroid condition called Hypothyroidism (too little hormone). Apart from being the cause of a host of symptoms like fatigue, weight gain and depression, hypothyroidism tends to make nails and hair more brittle and prone to breakage.
Medications are designed to treat a variety of health conditions, but may also result in side effects. Certain drugs can contribute to excess hair growth on other parts of the body, changes in hair color or texture and even hair loss!
Drug-induced hair loss, like any other type of hair loss, can have a real effect on your self-esteem. This situation is easily reversible once you stop consuming the drug. The severity of drug-induced hair loss depends on the type of drug and dosage, as well as your sensitivity to that drug. When medicines, stress, or hair damage cause you to lose your hair, in most cases, it will grow back once you remove the cause. If this does not help, you may need other treatment.
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You may think you know the Rules of the Road, but who among us hasn't been yelled at by someone with a different understanding of these Rules?
Which is more common for bicyclists to hear, "Get off the road!" or "Get off the sidewalk!"? Both are probably wrong. That's why Washington Bike Law provides FREE Spoke Cards with the Key Rules of the Road for Bicycling. Just ask us for one.
Wouldn't you like to be right? Better still, wouldn't you want to feel safer on the road knowing that more people understood the Rules of the Road? Washington Bike Law wants to help.
Truth be told, people who yell at bicyclists for perceived legal violations are unlikely to be persuaded by a card stuck in your bike's spokes. But Washington Bike Law's Spoke Cards also have citations to the Seattle Municipal Code (SMC) and the Revised Code of Washington (RCW).
How can you convince a yeller that what you says is the law really is the law? Encourage them to Google it. How many yellers had their phones in their hands anyway?
The hard part is communicating with a guy in a hermetically sealed box who just lowered his electric window to yell at you. "Excuse me sir," you might begin, "I understand that you believe that I've done something illegal, but I..." Perhaps his window raises, or he just speeds off.
Occasionally, though, people in cars do talk to people on bikes after these run-ins, and it is possible for everyone to feel better afterwards.
One strategy is to not approach the yellers with your legal rights, but instead with your physical vulnerability. "Hey," you might say, "that was scary for me when you drove so close."
Educating people to be safe drivers around pedestrians and people on bikes begins with drivers understanding how bicyclists and people on foot are more vulnerable than people inside a car who are protected by bumpers, seatbelts and airbags.
Many drivers don't know what aggressive (or oblivious) driving feels like on a bike. Even a honk of the horn from friends driving by can be startling.
A point that's often missed by the Bike Skeptics is that bicycling is not only healthy, it's also very safe. It's the interaction with motor vehicles that results in most injuries and deaths. So the problem isn't bicycling, it's these interactions.
Many bicyclists are hyper-vigilant because of real safety concerns. Unfortunately, this hyper-vigilance often results in yelling or "finger gestures" by bicyclists who feel endangered by drivers.
Instead of yelling (or yelling back), try "turning the other cheek" and pulling out your Spoke Card. Take this break to calm down and then ride on. Perhaps you'll meet the dangerous driver at the next intersection, with the law in your hand.
Sometimes the safest strategy is to ignore volatile people armed with motor vehicles. But many dangerous drivers are simply oblivious- these drivers are your education target.
If they didn't know they almost caused a crash, they may genuinely feel bad when you just say how scared you were. From there you might even be able to explain the law (and provide legal citations). Be nice and you might even make someone a better driver.
Washington Bike Law's Spoke Cards are especially useful if you've been in a bicycle versus motor vehicle collision and a police officer incorrectly thinks the crash was your fault. Washington Bike Law is working to educate Police Officers on the Rules of the Road for Bicyclists. Too many people who are supposed to be enforcing our laws don't fully understand them.
Unfortunately, many injured bicyclists never get a chance to talk with police at the scene because they are taken away by ambulance and the driver is the only one who can say what happened. Drivers almost always say, "the bicyclist came out of nowhere." Some investigating officers write injured bicyclists tickets without ever even talking to them.
This following scenario is certainly a stretch, but it is not beyond the realm of possibilities: You could be in car crash and are taken away by ambulance. A cop examines your bike for impact damage and sees your Washington Bike Law Spoke Card. "Hey," thinks this cop, "maybe this crash wasn't caused by an inattentive bicyclist running into a car door", I seem to recall a law about not opening a door until it is safe..."
The back of the Spoke Card provides the following Summary of Key Bike Laws:
Do Not Door: Vehicle doors shall not be opened "unless and until it is reasonably safe to do so, and can be done without interfering with the movement of other traffic". SMC 11.58.050 and RCW 46.61.620
Bikes May Pass on the Right "under conditions permitting such movement in safety." SMC 11.44.080
Crosswalks (Marked or Not): Cars "shall stop and remain stopped to allow a pedestrian or bicycle to cross the roadway within an unmarked or marked crosswalk when the pedestrian or bicycle is upon or within one lane of the half of the roadway upon which the vehicle is traveling or onto which it is turning." RCW 46.61.235
Bike Lanes: "The operator of a motor vehicle shall not drive in a bicycle lane except to execute a turning maneuver, yielding to all persons riding bicycles thereon." SMC 11.53.190
Sidewalks: Bicyclists can ride on sidewalks but must yield to pedestrians and "give an audible signal before overtaking and passing". SMC 11.44.120
We hope that you are never doored... but if you are, there is a slight possibility that a Washington Bike Law Spoke Card could prevent a police officer from adding insult to injury. And, regardless of what you are told on the road, the law may very well be on your side.
Our Waterproof Spoke Cards are free for the asking.
by, Bob Anderton
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
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Professional Reference articles are written by UK doctors and are based on research evidence, UK and European Guidelines. They are designed for health professionals to use, so you may find the language more technical than the condition leaflets.
Synonym: detrusor instability
Overactive bladder (OAB) syndrome is characterised by urgency, often with frequency and nocturia and sometimes leakage (urge incontinence). It is often but not always associated with detrusor muscle overactivity. It can be idiopathic or neurogenic.Strictly speaking, the term overactive bladder should be confined to cases where the condition is secondary to a known cause, whilst overactive bladder syndrome should be used in cases which are idiopathic. In practice the term is often used interchangeably. OAB can have a significant impact on quality of life.
- OAB is the second most common cause of female urinary incontinence (stress incontinence is the most common).
- The prevalence of OAB increases with age.
- OAB may be associated with Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, diabetic neuropathy, multiple sclerosis, dementia or stroke; however, most cases have no specific cause.
- In men, urge incontinence may be due to neurological disease or an enlarged prostate (benign prostatic hypertrophy or prostate cancer).
It usually presents with a sudden urge to urinate that is very difficult to delay and may be associated with leakage. Other features include:
- Frequency of micturition.
- Abdominal discomfort.
- Urge incontinence (more common in women).
There are no specific physical signs and the diagnosis is usually made from the symptoms and confirmed with urodynamic studies.
- Stress incontinence
- Functional incontinence
- Overflow incontinence
- Urinary fistula
- Urinary tract infection
- Bladder cancer
- Bladder stones
- Urine dipstick analysis and midstream urine specimen should be sent to the laboratory in order to rule out urinary tract infection.
- Investigations to consider differential diagnosis - eg, blood tests for renal function, electrolytes, calcium, fasting glucose.
- Urodynamic studies show involuntary contraction of the bladder during filling.
- Depending on the presentation, ultrasound of the renal tract and cystoscopy may be required.
Initial management in primary care
The following may be helpful, both for men and for women:
- Lifestyle changes:
- Trial of reduction in caffeine intake.
- Modification of high or low fluid intake. Some patients may cut back on the amount that they drink so that the bladder does not fill so quickly.
- However, this can make symptoms worse, as the urine becomes more concentrated, which may irritate the bladder muscle. Patients should aim to drink normal quantities of fluid per day (about two litres.)
- If body mass index is over 30, advise the patient to lose weight.
- Bladder training:
- This is first-line treatment and should be for a minimum of six weeks.
- It typically involves pelvic muscle training, scheduled voiding intervals with stepped increases and suppression of urge with distraction or relaxation techniques.
- Drug treatment:
- Anticholinergic drugs: anticholinergics (antimuscarinic drugs) - eg, oxybutynin, propiverine, tolterodine, darifenacin, solifenacin, fesoterodine, trospium chloride - have a direct relaxant effect on urinary smooth muscle. They reduce involuntary detrusor contractions and increase bladder capacity. Anticholinergic drugs have been shown to improve symptoms in OAB syndrome and allow a modest improvement in quality of life. Depending on the severity of symptoms and the level of distress, anticholinergic drugs may be started immediately or added if the initial advice is not totally effective.It is not clear whether any benefits are sustained during long-term treatment or after treatment stops. There is no evidence of a clinically important difference in efficacy between antimuscarinic drugs. Immediate-release non-proprietary oxybutynin is the most cost-effective of the available options. Immediate-release oxybutynin may be started if bladder training is not effective. It may also be used in conjunction with bladder training. Do not use in frail elderly women.
- The efficacy and side-effects of tolterodine are comparable to those of modified-release oxybutynin. When choosing between oral immediate-release oxybutynin or tolterodine, tolterodine may be preferable because of the reduced risk of dry mouth. Extended-release preparations of oxybutynin or tolterodine might be preferred to immediate-release preparations because there is less risk of dry mouth.
- Tolterodine is as effective in reducing leakage and other symptoms of OAB in patients with mixed incontinence as it is in patients with urge incontinence alone.
- If immediate-release oxybutynin is not well tolerated, darifenacin, solifenacin, tolterodine, propiverine, trospium or an extended-release or transdermal formulation of oxybutynin should be considered as alternatives.
- Intravaginal oestrogens: these can be used to treat OAB syndrome in postmenopausal women who have vaginal atrophy.
- Mirabegron is an agonist of beta-3 receptors in detrusor smooth muscle, designed to promote detrusor relaxation. It is recommended for people in whom antimuscarinic drugs are contra-indicated or clinically ineffective, or who have unacceptable side-effects.
When to refer
- Patients on anticholinergic drugs should be reviewed four-weekly and the dosage altered or another drug in the group tried if their is no benefit from current treatment.
- A secondary care referral should be considered for patients who fail to respond to drug treatment after three months or who do not wish for drug treatment.
- Patients who are stable on drug treatment should be reviewed annually (or six-monthly if aged over 75).
Management options offered in secondary care
- Botulinum toxin A:
- Injection of the bladder wall with botulinum toxin A is the first-line invasive option. It may be used if there is idiopathic OAB that has not responded to conservative treatment. The patient must be prepared to perform intermittent catheterisation if the effects wear off between injections. Urinary tract infections are a recognised risk. The duration is variable. More research is required to determine the long-term risks and benefits.
- Nerve stimulation:
- Sacral nerve stimulation is effective in treating symptoms of OAB, including urinary urge incontinence, urgency and frequency in patients who do not respond to botulinum toxin A.
- Percutaneous posterior tibial nerve stimulation (PTNS) is also effective in reducing symptoms in the short term and medium term for patients with OAB syndrome and should be offered to patients who do not want the first- or second-line options.
- Surgical treatment:
- Surgery is only indicated for intractable and severe idiopathic OAB. Augmentation cystoplasty is the most frequently performed surgical procedure for severe urge incontinence.
- In patients whose condition is refractory to non-surgical treatment, open augmentation cystoplasty is an established procedure.
- Laparoscopic augmentation cystoplasty (including clam cystoplasty) is also indicated for OAB syndrome. Potential advantages of a laparoscopic approach are less intraoperative blood loss, quicker recovery, less pain, a shorter stay in hospital and smaller scars.
- Urinary diversion may be considered if augmentation cystoplasty is neither appropriate nor acceptable to the patient.
May cause severe social difficulties, including undertaking shopping and attending meetings and therefore may also lead to social isolation and psychological difficulties.
Behavioural therapy combined with drug treatment is often effective, with over 80% of cases improved and with excellent long-term results.
Did you find this information useful?
Further reading & references
- Tran K, Levin RM, Mousa SA; Behavioral intervention versus pharmacotherapy or their combinations in the management of overactive bladder dysfunction. Adv Urol. 2009:345324. doi: 10.1155/2009/345324. Epub 2009 Dec 15.
- Jayarajan J, Radomski SB; Pharmacotherapy of overactive bladder in adults: a review of efficacy, tolerability, and quality of life. Res Rep Urol. 2013 Dec 6 6:1-16. doi: 10.2147/RRU.S40034.
- Basra R, Kelleher C; Disease burden of overactive bladder: quality-of-life data assessed using ICI-recommended instruments. Pharmacoeconomics. 2007 25(2):129-42.
- Srikrishna S, Robinson D, Cardozo L, et al; Management of overactive bladder syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 2007 Jul 83(981):481-6.
- Guidelines on Urinary Incontinence; European Association of Urology (2015)
- Urinary incontinence in women: management; NICE Clinical Guideline (September 2013)
- Lee HE, Cho SY, Lee S, et al; Short-term Effects of a Systematized Bladder Training Program for Idiopathic Overactive Bladder: A Prospective Study. Int Neurourol J. 2013 Mar 17(1):11-7. doi: 10.5213/inj.2013.17.1.11. Epub 2013 Mar 31.
- Diokno AC, Burgio K, Fultz NH, et al; Medical and self-care practices reported by women with urinary incontinence. Am J Manag Care. 2004 Feb 10(2 Pt 1):69-78.
- Thuroff JW, Abrams P, Andersson KE, et al; EAU Guidelines on Urinary Incontinence. Eur Urol. 2010 Nov 24.
- Nabi G, Cody JD, Ellis G, et al; Anticholinergic drugs versus placebo for overactive bladder syndrome in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Oct 18 (4):CD003781.
- NICE Pathways; Overactive bladder drugs, 2015.
- British National Formulary; 69th Edition (Mar 2015) British Medical Association and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, London
- Kreder KJ Jr, Brubaker L, Mainprize T; Tolterodine is equally effective in patients with mixed incontinence and those with urge incontinence alone. BJU Int. 2003 Sep
- Laparoscopic augmentation cystoplasty (including clam cystoplasty); NICE Interventional Procedure Guidance, December 2009
- Dmochowski R; Interventions for detrusor overactivity: the case for multimodal therapy. Rev Urol. 2002 4 Suppl 4:S19-27.
Disclaimer: This article is for information only and should not be used for the diagnosis or treatment of medical conditions. Patient Platform Limited has used all reasonable care in compiling the information but make no warranty as to its accuracy. Consult a doctor or other health care professional for diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. For details see our conditions.
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By Francoise Leon, Child Advocate
It’s a pleasure to share with you my favorite Haitian Holiday, which takes place on January 1st: Independence Day. This is a day of celebration for all Haitians; it celebrates the history of our independence.
In Haiti we begin preparing for this day in the middle of December. Everyone cleans their house and buys something new to wear on Independence Day. We make sure everything is clean, such as our clothes, dishes etc. We always do our best to set this day apart because it’s incredibly meaningful. According to some Haitians, if this day is bad, the rest of the year will be bad as well. There’s no real explanation behind this idea; it’s simply part of our culture.
Christians start this day with a special prayer, thanking God for the past year and offering him the present one. Even though someone may not go to church on a regular basis, they won’t let this day pass them by without going to church. Catholic Christians attend a ceremony, and all members of the government are present at the church as well. After the religious ceremony, a speech is given about the history of Haitian independence, and everybody says best wishes to each other. It is a truly special moment.
Later on, families eat a traditional soup together with a lot of love and peace, and neighbors share food and gifts. Each family gives cakes, liquor, money, and many other gifts to their friends. Children even have permission to go out, visit friends, godmothers and godfathers, etc. This is an occasion for the Haitian people to show love for one another, as well as remind us of the opportunity we have to keep this unity alive.
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Now responsive web design is finally making its way into many websites, there is something new to look forward too. While Intelligent Web Design isn’t something new, it is often only seen at larger websites such as Google, Facebook and Amazon. But there are plenty of ways to power your website with intelligent features. By having basic knowledge about PHP and databases you’ll understand most of the concepts I’m going to explain. In this article I’ll introduce you to the basics of Intelligent Web Design.
Thinking one step ahead of the user
Take Google Search for example; when the user makes a mistake he doesn’t necessarily have to confirm the correct search term. The system is automatically showing the results for the mistyped search query while leaving options open to choose for the “incorrect” term.
An intelligent system learns from the mistakes of its users. In the above example the search algorithm learned that many users who typed something like “pncake” were actually visiting links referring to pancakes instead of pncake.
Artificial intelligence can be described as the study and design of intelligent agents where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success.
Taking that into notice, there are many ways to use Artificial Intelligence in web design. The website has to adapt itself to the user, not vice versa. A great example would be a website with NSFW (not safe for work) content that automatically knows if you’re at work by looking at the current geo-location if it differs from your home location. The user can choose to select different locations as unsafe and the website will keep this into account.
Intelligent Information Architecture
Another interesting concept would be the ability for websites to change their structure according to what the user is doing. Let’s say you have an online clothing store, and 64% of your potential customers are often looking at gray trousers. An intelligent system could bring all the gray trousers to a higher level in your page structure either by moving them up in the search results or re-arranging the page navigation.
People like personalized and relevant content similar to their interests. When you have a website with a lot of content / information it might be a hard job to show the information without overwhelming the user. A simple solution would be to look at the behavior of the user. If the user often visits links such as interior or real estate you might want to show these kind of posts some more automatically. Being adaptive means to truly look at what the user is doing, and optimize the content accordingly. Which might eventually lead to more visitors for your website, in combination with good SEO.
Unfortunately Intelligent Web Design is not much documented, as it’s quite new for the average web designer. I expect this to play a very important role in web design in the near future, and it sure is a very interesting topic to think about.
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There are currently hundreds of shipwrecks at the bottom of Lake Michigan that anyone is free to explore and possibly discover. Treasure hunters from around the world continue to scour the lake for the remains of the infamous Westmoreland Treasure Ship.
Unlike harsh salt water environments, Lake Michigan’s fresh water is perfect for preserving history. Spring’s cool water temperatures help keep visibility high, perfect for diver Rick Richter and his passion for nautical history.
One of the most interesting shipwrecks is the Appomattox. The ship went down during a fateful storm in 1905 and is still visible just below the waterline just off Atwater Beach, close to the town of Shorewood.
You can find out more about where all the shipwrecks of Lake Michigan are and which ones are still lost here.
[one_third] [/one_third] [one_third] [/one_third] [one_third_last] [/one_third_last]
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OverviewMount Fernow is one of the highest and most important peaks located within the Wild Sky Wilderness area of Washington. There are only six peaks over 6000' elevation located within the wilderness area, and Mount Fernow is the only one of those peaks that is not located in the central "Sky Peaks" region of the wilderness area. Despite a summit elevation of only 6190', Mount Fernow and its standard approach have the essence of sub-alpine and alpine areas found on much higher terrain elsewhere in the Cascade Mountains.
With no other peaks of similar or exceeding elevation nearby, great views can be had from the open rocky summit. In fact, Mount Fernow is isolated from higher peaks within at least a seven-mile radius, making the summit a potentially spectacular vantage point. Conversely, Mount Fernow can be seen from many peaks in northeastern King County and southeastern Snohomish County; the way it towers above the surrounding landscape helps make it very noticeable. Mount Fernow is truly one of the "crown jewels" of the Wild Sky Wilderness.
The normal summit approach for Mount Fernow is considered non-technical. Under regular conditions no special gear is required but this is not to suggest that the approach is not potentially difficult or strenuous. When looking at the approach terrain and actual mountain from a distance, the approach appears to be much easier to traverse than ascending the mountain. However, the opposite tends to be true, with the approach having several sections of difficult terrain and the mountain ascent being fairly straightforward.
In theory, the mountain can be climbed any time of the year. However, the extent of very steep slopes full of loose dirt and rocks makes ascents unsafe and/or not recommended during wet or snowy weather. In addition, the steep slopes of the mountain and approaches are very prone to avalanches. Snowpack ascents happen occasionally, but are not recommended until avalanche danger has passed (usually mid-June or later, most years). The optimum timeframe for Mount Fernow ascents tends to be mid-Summer through mid-Autumn (i.e. typically mid-July through mid-October), after avalanche danger (and perhaps snow on the approach) has passed but before the Autumn snowpack has started. Many Mount Fernow summiters like making ascents during the timeframe of late August through September, due to the amount of changing colors of flora and huckleberries along the route.
There are actually two peaks named Mount Fernow located in Washington. Both peaks were named by the United States Forest Service (USFS) in honor of the same person, Dr. Bernhard E. Fernow. Dr. Fernow was the chief of the U.S. Division of Forestry from 1886-1898, which was a pivotal exploration period for the central Cascade Mountains in Washington.
Mount Fernow is the centerpiece for several of important lakes within Wild Sky Wilderness. A seven-acre sub-alpine lake located on the south side of the mountain was originally named Mount Fernow Lake, but has since become known as Jakes Lake. At 5069' elevation, Jakes Lake is the highest-elevation lake within Wild Sky Wilderness. In addition to Jakes Lake, several small tarns located in a basin on north side of the mountain comprise an unusual alpine wetland. These tarns are known as the Mount Fernow Potholes, which are considered hidden treasures of Wild Sky Wilderness due to their alpine wetland terrain, remoteness, and lack of regular visits by humans.
FROM SKYKOMISH, WA:
1) Drive east along Highway 2.
2) After ~0.6 miles, turn left (north) onto Beckler Road (a.k.a. Forest Road 65).
3) After ~7.0 miles, make a hard-right turn (almost a u-turn) onto Forest Road 6520, which immediately heads uphill.
NOTE: There are two right-turn side roads at this intersection, Forest Road 6530 on the leftside that follows Rapid River, and Forest Road 6520 on the rightside that immediately heads uphill and leads towards Mount Johnson Ridge and Mount Fernow.
4) After 2.7 miles, veer right onto Forest Road 6524. Some maps and signs might show this road as Forest Road 6522.
5) After 1.3 miles, continue following the main road (Forest Road 6522) as it bends left and uphill. Most street-legal vehicles should be able to drive to this point, although high-clearance vehicles are definitely recommended.
NOTE: Forest Road 6524 is an old, single-lane, partially overgrown road that heads straight and southward. That road is not recommended.
6) Continue following Forest Road 6522 up to the ridgetop, until the road-end. This distance is approximately 2.5-3.0 miles, depending how far the road can be traveled.
Although most of the forest roads in these driving directions would be usable by most street-legal vehicles, the USFS has added speed bump mounds at various sections of the road systems for which high-clearance vehicles are definitely recommended if not required. With that said, a smaller vehicle such as a Suburu Outback has been known to drive the entire Forest Road 6522 to its ridgetop road-end (~4800' elevation).
IMPORTANT ROAD ACCESS NOTICE:
During 2012, the U.S. Forest Service implemented a gate (4560' elevation) along the Forest Road 6522, shortly after the road reaches the ridgetop and heads south. This gate is located at the following coordinates: 47.77171,-121.264751
This gate adds approximately one mile of road-walking each way, making the roundtrip hiking distance approximately 7-9 miles. The final 0.5 miles to the road-end of Forest Road 6522 have been heavily bermed and made impassable to vehicles.
Special thanks to SP members "bigjoesmith" and "rross" for providing the updated road/gate information.
The standard route for Mount Fernow begins west of the mountain. There are several other approaches and routes for Mount Fernow, all of which are more labor-intensive and/or have routefinding issues, including from the north (Johnson Ridge), south (Alpine Baldy), and east (Kelley Creek). These other route options are welcome to be submitted as "Route" pages in the future.
Hiking DirectionsThere is an old fisherman's path that leads from the road-end of Forest Road 6522 to Jakes Lake, at the southern base of Mount Fernow. However, much of the path has become overgrown through the years. It can be seen at various stages, and in such situations it is highly recommended to follow.
The route map below is a basic guideline. The general route (i.e. fisherman's path) between the road-end and Jakes Lake follows on or near ridgetops.
FROM THE ROAD-END OF FOREST ROAD 6522 (~4800' elevation):
1) Hike south up a narrow ridgeline until at the western base of Point 5320.
2) Either steeply ascend up and over Point 5320, or side-traverse around the hilltop (angling up towards the ridgetop).
3) From Point 5320, follow the ridgeline southeast towards Point 5403. There is an unnamed/unmarked hill in between Point 5320 and Point 5403, and the southeastern end of the unnamed hill is steep.
4) Once at the western base of Point 5403, follow a very steep path that leads to the top of the hill.
NOTE: Many people consider the traverse over Point 5403 to be the "crux" of the entire hike for Mount Fernow.
5) From the top of Point 5403, steeply descend its northeastern ridgeline and then continue heading northeast along/near the ridgetop. There is a lot of sidehilling between Point 5403 and Jakes Lake.
6) A steep rocky cliff ridgeline is encountered, approximately 0.25 miles west of Jakes Lake. The route follows near the rightside/southern base of this section. Climbing the leftside (or over) this rocky ridge is not recommended.
7) Once beyond the rocky end of the cliffy section, the route side-traverses along steep slopes before becoming more gentle-angled prior to Jakes Lake.
8) From Jakes Lake (5069' elevation), head around its left (west) side towards a boulder gully.
9) Steeply ascend the boulder gully, which appears to head straight uphill towards a gigantic rocky pinnacle looming above. This rocky pinnacle is not the summit; it is only a minor offshoot ridge-end.
10) Above the bouldery section, the gully veers around the rightside of the large rock cliff looming above, and the gully starts to become a steep ascent of heather and huckleberry shrubs at its upper end.
11) A large boulder is in the middle of the upper gully within 200' elevation of the summit. A short rocky scramble around either side of the large boulder, and then ascend to the summit ridge from there, is recommended. It is also possible to ascend on the rightside of the boulder and gully up a very steep and narrow gully, but that is considered unsafe and not recommended.
12) Once at the summit ridge, turn right (east) and side-traverse to the rocky summit.
ROUNDTRIP HIKING DISTANCE: Approximately 7-9 miles with 2500' elevation gain (if starting from ridgetop access gate). However, this is misleading because approximately half of the total roundtrip elevation gain is from Jakes Lake to the Mount Fernow summit during the ascent. In addition, that substantial elevation gain from the lake to the summit only takes approximately 1/3 of the total ascent time. This is because there are many ups and downs along the ridge approach that tend to slow down hiking time between the road-end and Jakes Lake, whereas the ascent from the lake to the summit is fairly consistent and straightforward.
AVERAGE ROUNDTRIP HIKING TIME: Approximately 7-9 hours, depending on fitness level and route conditions.
Red TapeAs no official trailhead is being used, no special permits or fees are required for the standard approach of Mount Fernow.
During periods of no snowpack, only hiking poles are required in addition to the "10 Essentials".
During periods of snowpack, other gear such as helmets, crampons (or microspikes), and possibly a rope.
CampingBackcountry camping is allowed within Wild Sky Wilderness using a "Leave No Trace" policy.
Due to a lot of steep, angled, brushy terrain along the approach, there are usually only two main locations where a tent could be setup. The ideal location for most people would be at the southern end of Jakes Lake (~5100' elevation), which is a seven-acre lake located at the southern base of Mount Fernow. However, there is a small flat heathery section of ridgetop between Point 5403 and Jakes Lake which might be another good location for an actual tent to be setup.
Please check with the Skykomish Ranger Station (which is the closest ranger station to Mount Fernow), to find out current campfire policies.
External LinksEric Noel made a trip report, from his (our) successful summit trip during late September 2011.
Eric Noel made a video from the summit of Mount Fernow, as well.
Bryan Kraai made a video from his snowy summit trip to Mount Fernow during mid-June 2011, which was following a Spring that had near-record snowpack... much of which was still on the route and mountain.
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The Small House Movement is a growing niche in the housing market. Some people are interested in Small Houses because they either can not afford a larger house, or choose not to put that amount of time and resources into a house, or prefer to build a house without borrowing any money. And others feel we have a strong moral obligation to dramatically reduce our environmental footprint and live more modestly and simply given global warming and climate change.
In 1950 the average home size in the United States was 983 square feet. By 2004 the average home size was 2,340 square feet (source: Heather Levin, “U.S. News and World Report”). Additionally, in the U.S. about 40% of our energy use is related to Buildings, and more than half of that amount is from residential buildings (Source: Department of Energy). Also between 30% and 50% of greenhouse gas emissions are a direct result of buildings, depending on which method of calculating greenhouse gases you use (Source: Department of Energy, and other sources).
One recent article summed up the interest in Small Houses this way:
In the wake of the housing crisis and Recession, the “American Dream” of a super-sized home in the suburbs has lost its appeal; today, it’s the “tiny house” that seems more aligned with America’s readjusted ideals. (Source: Baldwin, Eric. “Tiny Houses: Downsizing The American Dream” 30 Nov 2013. ArchDaily. )
For our purposes, we define Small House as any house less than 1,200 square feet in size. While the actual top size limit is somewhat arbitrary, arbitrary, the same principles can be applied to look at reducing the size of any residential building, whether it is under 1,200 square feet or not.
The interest in workshops, classes, designs, and building of Small Houses has exploded in recent years. See Appendix A for a sample of recent articles about Small Houses. Still, the efforts have been scattered and piecemeal. And hands-on practical workshops have been few and often expensive, limiting their reach and effectiveness.
With the Small House Institute we are organizing one central place to locate information about Small Houses, facilitate networking opportunities about Small Houses, offer affordable workshops and events to promote small houses, build and demonstrate Small Houses, provide plans and information on building small houses, and encourage creative design and research into Small Houses and neighborhoods of Small Houses.
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During our daily lives we pay a variety of taxes. There is income tax, property tax, sales tax, gas tax and the list goes on and on. The final insult is the estate tax, also known as the “death tax.” This tax has been phasing out since 2001, but the Obama administration reenacted this program as of January 2011. It is complicated, confusing and serves no purpose.
The “death tax” requires heirs to pay the federal government up to 40 percent of transferable assets. One should not have to visit the undertaker and the tax collector at the same time. Proponents argue that repealing the tax would increase the deficit. But a system where heirs pay capital gains on the assets they acquire from an estate is already in place: the inheritance tax. Why get taxed twice on the same assets? This makes no sense.
When Congress passed the “death tax” in 1916, it was originally intended to serve two purposes: raise revenue for the federal government and World War 1 and prevent the build-up of wealth in a concentrated number of families. The tax serves neither of these purposes today. Research has shown that it slows economic growth, stifles private investments and suppresses wages because it is a tax on capital and entrepreneurship.
It is time to kill this tax once and for all. We all get taxed while living. We should not get taxed when dying.
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Are you sure your liver is healthy? You should try detoxification to make sure of it.
One of the most important factors that contribute to the many health problems which we suffer from is toxicity. Our body produces its own toxins in the form of metabolic waste products. Our long term survival has required the evolution of psychological mechanisms that enable us to remove those waste products from our bodies before they build up to toxic levels. These same mechanisms are also responsible for removing any toxins that enter our bodies from the external environment.
In the past, except under unusual circumstances, our capacity to remove waste products and toxins from our body tissues was usually able to meet our needs. However, today we live in an increasingly toxic environment. As a result, the amount of toxicity that we absorb typically exceeds our capacity to eliminate it. This results in a more or less constant increase in the level of toxicity in our body tissues throughout our lives, as well as a cumulative increase in toxicity from generation to generation. The consequences of this are reduced or abnormal immune function and the full gamut of chronic conditions such as allergies, cardiovascular disease, chronic inflammatory conditions and cancer.
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Figging is the practice of inserting a piece of skinned ginger root into the anus or the vagina of a person.
This method of physical punishment was first invented for disciplinary use on female slaves in Ancient Greece, later the practice was taken up within the Roman Empire, and it was unofficially used as a means of disciplinary punishment and humiliation for female prisoners within the British Empire during the Victorian age. The person subjected to this indignity was usually restrained in an immobile position to prevent them taking out the root themselves, as the sensation became increasingly intolerable. Nowadays it commonly refers to a BDSM practice.
The ginger, skinned and often carved into the shape of a butt plug, causes an intense burning sensation in the anus or vagina. The effect builds up to the maximum within two to five minutes and lasts for about half an hour before gradually easing while the ginger’s essential oils are depleting. The used ginger can be skinned further or a new one can be used for continuation with an undiminished effect on the subject.
If the person being figged tightens the muscles of the anus, the sensation becomes more intense.
The Venus Butterfly is a term used for various sexual techniques. For example, a sex act of this name appears in The Sensuous Woman (1969), a sex manual by “J” (AKA Joan Theresa Garrity AKA Terry Garrity). A different sexual technique but with the same name is the subject of The One Hour Orgasm (1988) written by Leah and Bob Schwartz.
The One Hour Orgasm: How to Learn the Amazing “Venus Butterfly” Technique, aims to teach readers how to perform this sex act. In the Schwartz variation either the woman or man is lying down, while their partner sits facing them with their legs entwined and a minimal amount of pressure (the “touch” of a butterfly’s wing) stimulating the clitoris, with the penis at the two-o’clock or ten-o’clock position.
It is suggested the clitoral shaft is kept steady with one thumb laid gently along and beside it, with the other thumb lying lengthwise just within the vagina but not moving deep within it. All of this is done using a lubricant. The light pressure continues using the same speed throughout until a peak is reached close to orgasm but not quite (although it can be continued if multiple orgasms are the goal), then the speed is slowed down even further or stopped, but very soon continued again and the person is brought back near orgasm or given a second or third orgasm. This orgasm control can be learnt over time with a particular partner. The technique can be sustained, “surfing” near the orgasm but stopping occasionally, for a very long time, hence the term “One Hour Orgasm.”
As described by writer and sex educator Sue Johanson in 2005, the Venus Butterfly is a variant on cunnilingus. It involves using one’s tongue on a woman’s clitoris, using one’s fingers on her vagina and using the other hand in the perianal area, “even penetrating the rectum [i.e. anus] if that is pleasurable for her.” This technique is referred to in the novel The Illuminatus Trilogy, written by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson as “the One-Man Band” rather than the Venus Butterly.
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Carnegie Mellon scientists create unique DNA probe with great potential
Figure 1. Assembly of four guanine (G) nucleobases into a quadruplex. The potassium ion in the center stabilizes the structure by bonding to the oxygen atoms on each guanine.
Figure 2. Chemical structures of DNA, RNA and PNA.
A team of investigators at Carnegie Mellon University has formed the first hybrid quadruplex of peptide nucleic acids, or PNAs, with DNA, the genetic code. This result opens new opportunities to study the activity of genetic regions occupied by recently described quadruplex DNA structures, as well as providing a new compound that could be used as a biosensor or to block gene activity associated with diseases such as cancer. The research results, published online, will appear in a forthcoming issue of the Journal of the American Chemical Society.
"PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplexes are extremely stable, suggesting that if we use PNAs to bind with DNA quadruplexes that regulate gene expression, we could prevent disease processes in which these DNA quadruplexes appear to play a role," says Bruce Armitage, Ph.D., associate professor of chemistry at Carnegie Mellon. "PNAs also could be converted into biosensors by coupling them with fluorescent tags that would allow the PNA to report the presence of a successful hybridization to quadruplex-forming sequences either in the genome or in messenger RNA molecules."
"In addition to a new high-affinity DNA recognition mechanism and expanding the scope of molecular recognition by PNA, the PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplex is the first example of homologous hybridization," adds Armitage.
PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplexes, which assume a rod-like structure, could also prove important in nanotechnology applications, such as building a nanoscale bridge to conduct electrical charges or a precisely controlled structural component of a biosynthetic material.
Normally, DNA occurs as the well-known double helix first proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick 50 years ago. Each strand of the helix consists of a backbone of sugar-phosphate groups linked to nucleobases, which occupy the inside of the helix. Nucleobases of one strand bind to nucleobases of a complementary strand, and the two strands wind around one another like a twisted ladder. In recent years, scientists have found that DNA sometimes kinks or bends into unusual structures, such as hairpin turns, triplexes or quadruplexes. In the latter case, four DNA guanine (G) nucleobases align in a wheel-like structure (see Figure 1). DNA-quadruplexes recently have been found in complexes called telomeres, DNA sequences that cap and protect the ends of chromosomes. There, DNA quadruplexes appear to play a role in preventing chromosome ends from fraying when chromosomes duplicate during cell division. DNA quadruplexes also appear to play important roles in regulating the expression of genes that produce antibodies as well as c-MYC, a cancer-causing gene. A quadruplex structure has also been implicated in the messenger RNA derived from FMRP, a gene that has been implicated in fragile X syndrome, the most common form of mental retardation.
At the same time as these discoveries have been made, other research has explored the properties of artificially manufactured PNAs, in which nucleobases are bound to a backbone chain of amino acids, rather than sugar-phosphate groups (see Figure 2). PNAs can be made to target specific DNA sequences and have been shown to bind, or hybridize, with helical DNA according to the pairing rules first proposed by Watson and Crick, namely guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C), and adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T). The resulting PNA-DNA hybrid duplexes are actually more stable than a duplex consisting of two complementary DNA strands. In addition, PNAs also resist enzymatic breakdown. Given these properties, many investigators consider PNAs highly promising agents for molecular drug design because they have the potential to persist in a cell, target specific genes and regulate gene expression. What distinguishes the recent report from Armitage’s lab is that the PNA used to hybridize with a quadruplex-forming DNA sequence has the homologous (identical) sequence as the DNA, rather than the complementary sequence. DNA quadruplexes can form from four separate G-rich strands, two such strands that fold back on themselves to form hairpin structures, or from a single strand that folds back on itself three times (see Figure 3). In each case, four Gs are positioned properly to allow them to form the G-quartet that stabilizes a quadruplex.
"We reasoned that since DNA quadruplexes can form from multiple DNA strands, then it should be possible to have a PNA strand substitute for a DNA strand, potentially forming a more stable quadruplex. This turned out to be the case," explains Armitage. In the experiments carried out in Armitage’s lab by graduate student Bhaskar Datta and undergraduate student Christoph Schmitt, the "hybrid quadruplex" assembled from mixing together homologous PNA and DNA strands actually consists of two strands each of PNA and DNA. The strands do not fold back on themselves, leading to formation of an extended four-stranded structure (see Figure 4). Optical methods such as UV-visible, circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy were used to determine the number of strands in the hybrid and their relative orientations. Temperature-dependent experiments revealed that the PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplexes were extremely stable, meaning the strands did not readily separate from one another.
Watson-Crick hybridization between two complementary strands can be applied in principle to any sequence of DNA or RNA, and this forms the basis of numerous clinical diagnostic tests, so-called "gene chips," and the antisense approach to gene therapy. In contrast, homologous hybridization is restricted to a relatively small number of sequences. Nevertheless, the importance of G-rich sequences such as those successfully targeted by the Carnegie Mellon researchers continues to grow as more and more such sequences are discovered in key regulatory regions of DNA and RNA. In principle, any molecule that can bind to a quadruplex structure with high affinity has the potential for either repressing or stimulating the function of that quadruplex. Before PNAs can be used in these applications, according to Armitage, scientists need to learn more about the factors that control the number of DNA and PNA strands that are incorporated into hybrid quadruplexes. This is where the Armitage group’s current studies are directed.
While the PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplex establishes a new approach to targeting DNA sequence specifically, it is still several steps away from being useful in the clinic. The DNA sequence targeted by homologous PNA is not found in humans, but rather in the telomere of a well-studied model organism, the ciliated protozoan Oxytricha nova. In the laboratory, this sequence has the interesting property of being able to adapt its structure to the surrounding conditions, shifting between a four-stranded quadruplex with all strands extended, as in the PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplex, and a two stranded quadruplex in which the two strands are folded back on themselves to form hairpins. Human DNA has a different sequence, so different PNA strands will need to be synthesized before such experiments can begin. In addition, in vivo, only a single G-rich strand is present, meaning the DNA folds back on itself three times to form an "intramolecular" quadruplex.
"We need to understand the rules for designing a homologous PNA to target an intramolecular quadruplex before we can realistically target these structures inside of cells," explains Armitage, adding, "We hope that the experiments we are currently performing in the lab will bring us closer to the goal of targeting these fascinating structures in vivo."
The PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplex might have applications in nanotechnology, where the goal is to build functional assemblies of molecules having nanometer dimensions. The first step in many of the proposed applications of nanotechnology is simply the construction of the device, which will require the precise assembly of individual molecules in two or three dimensions. The well-defined and easily controlled dimensions of DNA, combined with the simple pairing rules for the nucleobases, already has led to the use of double-helical DNA as a construction element for nanostructures, according to Armitage. Any new recognition mode that adds to the structural diversity of DNA offers opportunities for novel nanostructures. In the case of the PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplex, four strands feed into the central quadruplex structure, which can be viewed as a junction element. This is distinct from a Watson-Crick duplex, where only two strands are connected.
"Michael Crichton might not use this in his next book, but the opportunities for building functional nanostructures based on the PNA2-DNA2 hybrid quadruplex are very interesting to us, and we hope to exploit this novel recognition mode," notes Armitage.
Lauren Ward | EurekAlert!
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The more crew members, the faster the boat
The Olympic regatta consists of 14 races over the course of nine days.
Those events are split eight and six in terms of both men and women and scull, where two oars are used, and sweep, where the oarsman uses only one.
The men's events are single scull, double scull, lightweight double scull, quadruple scull, coxless pair, coxless four, lightweight coxless four and eight.
The women race in the single scull, double scull, lightweight double scull, quadruple scull, coxless pair and eight.
Coxless refers to the fact that the crew row without a cox to guide them, but with the races contested in straight lanes over 2,000m, it is not difficult to stay on course.
In lightweight events the average weights must not exceed 70kg for a male crew and 57kg for a female crew.
The field for the finals in each event are determined by a series of heats and semi-finals and repechages, which gives losing boats a second chance to get to the semi-final.
The first three teams in each semi-final move through to the six-lane final, although this depends upon the number of boats entered into each event.
A stroke consists of four components that have to be completed perfectly to propel the boat forward as fast as possible.
Catch: The rower drops the oar into the water coiled forward with their arms at full stretch.
Drive: The legs power the seat back as the rower uncoils, drawing the oar against the water as the legs stretch fully out.
Finish: The rower lifts the oar out of the water and rolls it to a horizontal position so it slices through the air aerodynamically in the final component of the stroke.
Recovery: The rower slides forward back into the coiled position, arms outstretched, ready for the catch once more.
The ability to synchronise these strokes as perfectly as possible is the key in achieving maximum speed.
DID YOU KNOW?
Dieticians recommend that top rowers should consume around 6,000 calories a day to maintain their strength
If a crew member loses rhythm, even only slightly, it can spell curtains for the whole team and ruin the race. Rowers who are not rowing well will create a lot of splash around the area where the oar hits the water.
In sweep rowing events, the rower nearest the cox - the stroke - is vital as they set the rhythm of the boat.
But if the second rower does not match that pace, the whole of his side - the bow - will be out of sync with the stroke side, a disastrous circumstance for any crew.
The more crew members, the faster the boat. A crew of eight will average around 40 to 44 strokes per minute, while a single will manage 36 to 40 at the start of a race.
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Before the Reform Act of 1832 there was no uniformity in the distribution of English parliamentary constituencies. By the 1780s, in Cornwall and Devon, 1050 people voted for 53 MPs but growing northern industrial towns had no representation. For example, in 1831, Manchester had a population of a quarter of a million but no representation in parliament. Each county had two MPs, regardless of the size of the county.
There were two types of MP:
County MPs had to own land worth £600 p.a. and usually were from the great landed families of the country;
Borough MPs had to own land worth £300 p.a. Often they were local squires, landed gentry or the sons of the aristocracy.
For the County Franchise, each elector had to own land worth 40 shillings, freehold. This had been a national standard since 1429/30 but because of devaluation and increased wealth, the number of electors had increased. Also, if a man was a tenant of land worth 40 shillings freehold, he was allowed to vote. This meant that many tenant farmers had to vote the way the landowner told them.
The Borough Franchise had no uniformity whatsoever because the system had grown haphazardly. There were 203 boroughs with 402 MPs between them.
There were a number of different types of borough franchises. Old Sarum was a Burgage borough, of which many became known as 'Pocket Boroughs' because one person would buy the majority of the burgages in the locality. (Expression "He has it in his pocket" = has total control.)
In 1691 Thomas Pitt bought the Manor of Stratford and Old Sarum for £1,000 from the Trustees of James Cecil, 4th Earl of Salisbury, and thus obtained control of this nomination/burgage borough of Old Sarum. Other members of the Pitt family later held the seat, most notable William Pitt, (the Elder) Lord Chatham, who became Prime Minister of England in 1766.
Voting took place under an ancient tree (variously described as an oak or an elm) situated on the southern slopes of Old Sarum. The tree became known as The Parliament Tree and survived until 1902. A commemorative board mounted on a sarsen stone can be found adjacent to a footpath between The Portway and Castle Road and marks what is believed to have been the site of the tree.
The Parliamentary Reform Act of 1832 disenfranchised Old Sarum but its reputation lives on.
As recently as 2007, Old Sarum was mentioned in the House of Lords by Lord Avebury:
"Before 1832, there were the rotten boroughs, of which perhaps the most notorious was Old Sarum in Wiltshire "
www.historyhome.co.uk/c-eight/constitu/parlrep.htm accessed 5 April 2017
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_and_pocket_boroughs Accessed 5 April 2017
www.parliament.uk accessed 5 April 2017
www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200607/ldhansrd/text/70518-0003.htm Accessed 5 April 2017
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Розробка уроку англійської мови на тему “Відносини між людьми”
Автор: вчитель англійської мови Трофимчук Світлана Вікторівна
Target Age: 14-15 years
Focus: 1. Apply vocabulary and grammar knowledge.
- Develop skills and abilities in solving problems and finding the ways out
Learning Outcomes: By the end of the lesson the students
- will be able to use the vocabulary in their speech
- Will have further developed their speaking practice skills
- Will have further developed their knowledge on Civics
Time required: 45 minutes
Materials required: multi-media equipment
a) ( 2 pictures on the board: one with the description of nature; the other with a group of people doing ) The student’s task is to explain the differences between these pictures while describing them and to answer the question: What picture gives us more information and why? Supposed answer: the second picture gives us more information because we can speak about people relationships)
b) T: We have come to the theme of our lesson ”Relationships’’. What is your understanding of the word ‘’relationships’’. What are your associations? What situations can this word be used?
T: ( on the board the explanation appears) The dictionary defines the word ‘’relationships’’ as
a) T: There are a lot of adjectives to describe our relationships. Now, I would like you to write at least one adjective to each letter of the word ‘’relationships’’
e.g. r – romantic
The same task is with the verbs which go with the noun ‘’relationships’’
e.g. r – reveal
reveal/recognize – R – romantic
end – E – e-mail/exploring
long for/lengthen – L – long-distance
mire/avoid – A – active/awe-inspiring
test – T – tragic
influence – I – interpersonal/independent
overestimate – O – on-line
negotiate – N – natural/negative/nervous
support – S – serious
ideal/have – H – human/healthy/helpful
improve – I – ideal/intimate
provide – P – professional/positive/personal
search for – S – safe/sensible
b) T: At our today’s lesson we’ll speak about the relationships with different people I am sure you’ll agree with me that these relationships are the most difficult. Try to explain why?
c) T: The most important reason of our relationships with people is that all people are different. I have prepared the following activities for you. Your task is to match the idiom which describe different people with their explanation. Here are the idioms.
T: Well done. Now tell me whether you would like to have any relationships with these people and in what situations. You can describe both positive and negative sides of having relationships with such people.
d) T: At the risk of repeating myself, I would like to remind you of the fact that it is very difficult to have any relationships with people especially if you are a teenager. This is the period of life when you are not children but also not adults. The following activity will develop this idea. You are to put each of the following words in its place in the passage below, but at first give the explanation of these words:
Childhood and Adolescence
Children live in their own world, from which ______(1) are largely excluded. The ______(2) world is strange and exciting to them. They have _____(3) of success, adventure, romance and fame. They _____(4) their big brothers and sisters, pop-singers or film stars. _____(5) such as stamp-collecting, music or dancing are important to them. Children, especially when they are in their _____(6), go through a physical and emotional _____(7) which can be frightening. Their characters also begin to develop. Some adolescents are ____(8) and keep themselves to themselves, while others are _____(9) and like to share their thoughts and form _____(10) with other people. It is a wonderful, terrible time.
- Speaking Activity (Presentation of the dialogues)
T: As you are the students of the ninth form, you are not only to discuss but also to analise your relationships with different people. What relationships bring you both problems and pleasant moments.
Parents Teachers Friends
T: Your home assignment for today was to make up the dialogues to illustrate both positive and negative sides of your relationships with your parents, teachers and friends. ( One of the students is given the task to listen to these dialogues and to summarise everything positive, the other one – everything negative.)
- Team Work
All the students are divided into 3 groups. 3 pictures appear on the board: the first one shows the relationships between neighbours, the second one – the problem of bullying, the third one – the relationships between twins. The students are to work in groups in order to give the full information as to these problems, discuss everything positive and negative and ways out of the situations giving some pieces of advice. The students answer the following questions: What relationships do these pictures illustrate? Are there any problems in the relationships between these people? What is positive?
- Solving everyday problems and conflicts.
The students are given cards with tasks: to solve conflict situations which they may easily witness in everyday life and are given 2 minutes to solve them. The representatives of each group present the situations and best solutions.
Mother brings home one orange. She wants her son and daughter to share it. But both insisit on the whole orange. Both feel hurt. What should be done?
Ways to solve the conflict:
- To ignore the protests of the elder daughter and to give the orange to the son because he is younger.
- To give the orange to the daughter because she has had “flu” recently and lacks vitamins.
A student studies at day time and works in the evening. He comes home late and turns on very loud rock-music. He also arranges noisy parties. His neighbour is an elderly gentleman, suffering from insomnia. All that noise drives him mad. What should be done?
Ways to solve the conflict:
- The student can look for some flat exchange either for himself or his neighbours.
- The student may invite his neighbour to one of the parties. Maybe the gentleman will like it and they will become friends.
- Students’ survey
The students are to prepare the survey beforehand. They are divided into 3 groups. Each group has the same question to ask parents, teachers and their friends: Do ideal relationships exist? If yes, what are they based on? If not, what is it necessary to do to avoid conflicts? They present their results at the lesson and compare the answers.
- Making conclusions. Assessment. Setting homework.
Assessment is held with the help the so-called “ Tree of Knowledge”. A copy of this tree is given to each student at the end of the lesson and each student is asked to find himself/herself on that tree before studying the topic and at the end of the lesson. Volunteers are asked to explain their reasons, giving the numbers.
Home Assignment: To make up conflict situations for other students to solve.
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Lead is a white-bluish shiny element. This element is used in a variety of industrial and human products. Lead and its compounds are frequently discharged into the environment as a result of industrial development and the production of consumer products. Lead is very toxic when inhaled or eaten by humans and animals. Although it is absorbed slowly by the body, constant exposure will allow lead to slowly accumulate in your body. Only a tiny amount can poison and cause devastating effects to your liver, blood and nervous system. Many natural remedies are believed to safely and effectively cleanse the body of lead and its compounds.
Eat cilantro. This herb contains potent essential oils that help flush out lead from your body. It also aids in detoxification and restores normal cellular function. Add plenty of cilantro to your main dishes and consume daily.
Take ascorbic acid (vitamin C) tablets. This vitamin enhances your immune system and can speed up the elimination of lead from your body by mobilizing lead from your tissues. The recommended dosage is two 500-mg capsules once a day.
Eat foods rich in fiber. Fiber quickly binds to lead and helps draw lead out of your body. Foods rich in fiber include red beet roots, oat bran, prunes and figs. Consume these kinds of foods on a daily basis.
Consume milk thistle in capsule form. Your liver is your body's primary organ of detoxification. Milk thistle includes the phytochemical silymarin that supports your liver by flushing out lead and its compounds. Take one 380-mg capsule once daily, preferably with food.
Consume turmeric powder. This East Asian spice includes a powerful substance called curcumin which stimulates your liver cells to eliminate lead and other toxins. Add this potent spice to your main dishes and consume every day.
You can consume all the natural supplements mentioned above at the same time. If you are currently taking prescription medications, consult your physician first before taking herbal supplements.
Consult your physician before embarking on lead detoxification.
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The flick is an extremely fast
attack technique used in the sport of fencing
, most typically with the flexible foil
A little context: the most common attack made in fencing is called a thrust: a quick, forceful extension of the arm with the weapon held out straight and level at your opponent's target area, driving the point of the weapon onto your opponent's body and scoring a point. There are many, many variations on the basic thrust, but almost all attacks in foil and epee fencing rely on one form of arm extension or another.
The flick attack does not rely on arm extension, but rather is accomplished by applying a whipping action to the weapon so that the point of the blade is "thrown" towards your opponent's body:
Imagine that you take a half cooked noodle in your hand and hold it out straight. Now bend your arm at the elbow as far as it will go, so that your forearm and the noodle point straight up in the air; quickly extend your arm from the elbow and abruptly stop when your arm is at the 45 deg. postion: you'll notice that the noodle will whip forward and will actually bend quite a bit. This is how the fencer accomplishes a flick attack -- by whipping the blade, causing it to bend (up to 180 deg. of arc in some cases) very quickly.
When used properly, it is a very potent attack for two primary reasons. First, it is hard for your opponent to see where the blade is, how fast it is moving, and where it is headed (since you usually infer the position of the opponent's blade by watching the bell guard, a cue which becomes irrelevant when the blade is bent to such a high degree.) Second, the blade can be made to bend around parts of the opponent -- his blade, his arm, his shoulders, or even his whole head, in the case of the devastating back-flick.
It is not without its problems. First of all, fencers that know only how to flick (there are surprisingly many) will be successful against only novice opponents, since most intermediate and advanced fencers are able to avoid the flick if they can see it coming. Second, it can cause damage to the weapon if performed too many times.
Most importantly, there is quite a bit of controversy regarding how the flick fits into the rules of fencing.
WARNING: read Right of Way
before you read the next paragraph, really
. . .
In the official FIE rules
of fencing, a fencer claims right of way
by initiating forward motion
of the weapon tip in a way that threaten
s his opponent's target area
. A standard thrust attack has not problem satisfying this requirement, but a flick does: in order for a fencer to initiate a flick, he must first bring his arm and weapon back
(remember the noodle?) and then
fling it forward. In this way, the flick is initiated by a backward
not forward motion of the tip; according to a strict
interpretation of the rules, this initiation does NOT
establish right of way.
But some people disagree -- and this is not just an academic argument. In a fencing match, the final decision over who has right of way and who doesn't is made by a judge, a human. Thus, depending on the country, and even the region of the country you fence in, the judges you encounter at official tournaments may or may not consider a flick attack as taking right of way. This has been known to cause no small amount of friction in US national fencing circuits, particularly in the Northeast, where a 45 minute's drive can make the difference between what sort of judging can be found.
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Publius Cornelius Scipio, (died 211 bc, at the Baetis River [now Guadalquivir River, Spain]), Roman general, consul in 218 bc; from 217 to 211 bc he and his brother Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (consul in 222 bc) were proconsuls (provincial governors) and commanders of the Roman expeditionary force in Spain. Publius was the father of Scipio Africanus the Elder.
As consul in 218 bc, Publius was sent to Spain to stop the Carthaginian general Hannibal. Delayed by a Gallic revolt in Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy), Publius arrived at the Rhône River too late to prevent Hannibal’s crossing (September 218). He sent his brother on to Spain with the bulk of his forces to keep reinforcements from reaching Hannibal, and he returned to Italy. After losing a cavalry skirmish near the Ticinus (now Ticino) River, in which he was wounded, he retreated to Placentia (now Piacenza) to await his colleague Tiberius Sempronius Longus. Their combined forces fought Hannibal at the nearby Trebia River and were soundly defeated, losing half of their men.
In 217 Publius was sent as proconsul to join his brother in Spain. Gnaeus had secured Spain north of the Ebro River for Rome, had defeated the Carthaginian fleet at the mouth of the Ebro, and had attacked the Carthaginian forces as far south as Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) and Ebusus (now Ibiza); with Publius, he moved on Saguntum (now Sagunto). In 216 the Scipio brothers defeated Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal and succeeded in blocking Hannibal’s reinforcements, and in 202 they captured Saguntum and Castulo (now Cazlona).
In 211 Carthage sent three armies to Spain: two under Hannibal’s brothers Hasdrubal and Mago and a third under Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo. The Scipio brothers decided to split their forces to meet the three-pronged attack. Publius was caught and killed by Mago and Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, near the Baetis River, and his army was destroyed. Hasdrubal persuaded Gnaeus’s Spanish allies to desert at a crucial point and thus won at Ilourgeia (near present-day Cartagena) a decisive victory in which Gnaeus died.
Even though they eventually met defeat, the Scipio brothers kept Carthage from reinforcing Hannibal during the crucial early years of his invasion of Italy. They won important naval and land battles and inflicted severe losses on the enemy. It took three armies to defeat them, yet the three victorious Carthaginian generals could not agree on a plan to advance on Italy, so Hannibal remained without reinforcements for years.
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Friday is the big MOLE DAY presentation. We will go to the auditorium during 4th block and there will be an extravaganza of demonstrations featuring, super cold, liquid Nitrogen. Parents are invited.
Homework:Students need to complete one project each month. The current project is the first of two choices. If both are completed, it will count as extra credit. Click here to see the project.
- Continued notes on vapor pressure and Kinetic Molecular Theory.
- Redid a demo on how to change the boiling point of liquids.
- Took and reviewed a quiz, shown below: 1.When pressure decreases, what happens to the BP of water?
2.What is it called when a solid changes directly to a gas?
3.& 4 How much energy does it take to heat up 50 mL of water by 15°C?
5.& 6 How much energy does it take to melt up 80 mL of water?
Show all work for above problems
- Continue with the notes on Matter & Energy. The notes can be downloaded as: color with 2 slides per page, black & white with 6 slides per page or the full presentation with media included in zip format (179MB).
Complete lab report. This will be due on Wednesday, 10/21.
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Home Technology Computer Can a computer pass for a human? TechnologyComputerScience Can a computer pass for a human? Can a computer talk like a human? What is consciousness? Can an artificial machine really think? By Watch and Study - Jan 20, 2017 836 RELATED ARTICLESMORE FROM AUTHOR Computer Microsoft Surface Studio Computer How Network Address Translation Works Computer How the Internet Works in 5 Minutes Computer How Computer Networks Connect and Work Computer How Computers Add Numbers PLEASE DONATE: The website costs a lot for a person that only works on it, daily, without any volunteers there to help.. Please Donate $ Donation Amount: $2.00$5.00$10.00$20.00$50.00Custom amount Select Payment Method PayPal Personal Info First Name * Last Name Email Address * Donation Total: $2.00 Tell us what you think!
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Students who have had undergone other forms of scholarships in the past are probably familiar with the term FASFA and the risks and requirements attributed to it. FAFSA certificates and forms are usually requested whenever a student is interested to apply for a scholarship program or a grant. FAFSA itself also offers financial aid which students from the country can easily apply for. Just like other programs, FAFSA Financial Aid requests for certain documents from you in order to be considered for the program. FAFSA financial aid itself is also a requirement if you wish to apply for other forms of financial assistance. Getting into a college which provides students with quality education is difficult these days. Tuition fees have not only increased but school materials have become more expensive as well. Accordingly, it has become a goal for most students to attend college without having to pay at all. This is done by applying for a scholarship program or a grant.
All scholarship programs are interconnected by one institution: FAFSA. Those who want to qualify for a federal-government sponsored program should apply for a FAFSA federal application as well as other scholarships sponsored by the government or private institutions. In order to apply for FAFSA financial aid, you need to know the requirements and the deadlines intended for your state. All these details can be found on the FAFSA website. Qualifying for a Scholarship Other than submitting your application form to FAFSA, you also need to know your EFC or the Expected Family Contribution. This calculates your family’s income and in a way, affects the sponsor’s decision of awarding you with the program or not. Sponsors also decide on how much financial assistance you should be provided by referring to your EFC. FAFSA itself sends you this form to your email or to your postal address. Don’t delay – applying for FAFSA financial aid can truly help you further your studies. When applying for FAFSA Financial Aid, you will have to secure certain documents and follow certain deadlines. All this information is posted on the fafsa.ed.gov website. Getting money for college is actually easy! There are literally hundreds of amazing scholarship and grant programs available that are like getting Free Money! I’ve put together a nice list of these Scholarships and Grants for you. Save yourself the headache of trying to do it all yourself and let people who have been in your shoes already help you out! Click here to get all my Money For School resources and it will cost you absolutely Nothing!
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Is a Phobia Just Classic Conditioning?
This week the Guardian.com ask what is the rationale behind phobias?
Phobics are scared of spiders, open places, closed places, mirrors, staying alive and dying, to be honest everything can become a phobia to someone. These fears seem to the fearless irrational, but how do we even develop a fear that is by definition irrational? The guardian suggest that one explanation is classical conditioning; Conditioning works by, in the case of a phobic, associating a bad feeling (fear or anxiety) to a thing.
Your brain is very clever and learns through observation. If a child for example, sees the fear in their parents faces when they see a spider, the child will then learn to be a phobic of spiders too. You can even become anxious at a situation and every-time you remember this negative memory the fear/anxiety increases creating at some point a phobic reaction.
Horror films condition people to become phobics, every time someone goes into the woods the strange scary music sounds, the camera angles distort what you though you seen. Before long your heart is pumping, you leave the cinema never to enter the woods again. Scientist believe that phobias are inbuilt to keep us safe. When our ancestors were hunters and gatherers we need away to ourselves from poking around things that might kill us, by making you a spider phobic stopped you from approaching spiders which decreases the like-hood of you getting bitten by a poisonous spider.
Read the full story here: Phobias Irrational or rational fear?
Other People Who Read This Article Also Read:
Coach Yourself To Success; Reduce Low Self Esteem and Increase Confidence
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The distance you plant English laurel hedges (Prunus laurocerasus) depends on the desired effect you want in the landscape -- whether you want a living privacy fence or a windbreak, for example. These shrubs, which grow in U.S. Department of Agriculture hardiness zones 6 through 9, reach heights of 12 feet and can spread 8 feet wide when left unpruned. The shrub works well in the landscape to fill in large areas or pruned back to fit in smaller spaces.
Spacing for Privacy
The English laurel's fast growth rate -- up to 3 feet per year once established -- means that the shrubs create privacy for the landscape within a few seasons. The shrubs should be spaced 4 to 5 feet apart, measuring from center to center, so there is ample room for the growing plants. This spacing is for shrubs that grow freely, without pruning. You can plant the shrubs closer together if you prune them each year.
Creating a Windbreak
Left to grow freely, the English laurel hedge works well as a windbreak when you plant two rows of shrubs approximately 2 feet apart. The second row must be staggered behind the first row so the combined planting pattern of the two rows looks like a zigzag.
The windbreak spacing gives you about 16 feet of hedgerow thickness when you do not prune the shrubs. This means that the noise from neighbors or the road is reduced by approximately 32 decibels. The human voice ranges from 30 to 60 decibels. Vehicles on the road can range up to 80 decibels. If you live beside a busy highway, plant a third row of English laurel shrubs to decrease the sound level another 16 decibels. Plant the third row about 2 feet behind the second row of shrubs so it is in line with the first.
The height and width of the English laurel shrub makes it a good choice for hiding unsightly structures in the landscape, such as a utility meter or fuel tank. Two or three shrubs planted in front of the structure should be spaced 4 to 5 feet apart in a row to conceal about 24 feet of space. Keep the hedgerow at least 6 to 8 feet away from the structure so you can work around the shrubs and their growth does not interfere with the structure.
- Monrovia: English Laurel
- Landscape Architecture Blog: Plant of the Week: Prunus Laurocerasus
- University of California Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program: Laurel
- Clemson University Cooperative Extension: Laurel
- Nursery Trees.com: Laurel Hedges
- The University of Tennessee Cooperative Extension: Evergreen Trees for Screens and Hedges in the Landscape
- Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service: Hedges
- Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images
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Half a century ago Ralph Nader published “Unsafe at Any Speed,” which warned of the hazards built into the Chevrolet Corvair. Today, General Motors' safety record is still being justly vilified, most recently for an ignition defect blamed for at least 33 deaths. And a new report demonstrates the degree to which its vehicles are also unsafe for the climate.
GM's failure to substantially cut its vehicles' pollution threatens the success of the Obama administration's tough auto mileage and emissions rules, the biggest single step any nation has taken against global warming — and this after taxpayers bailed the company out of bankruptcy. The standards require the fleet of new cars and trucks sold in the United States in 2025 to average 54.5 mpg. Achieving this is auto mechanics, not rocket science. GM could start down the right path by using on-the-shelf technology.
For every gallon of gasoline consumed, whether in a mileage-leading Toyota Prius hybrid or a guzzling Chevy Suburban, about 20 pounds of carbon dioxide, the chief global warming pollutant, is pumped into the atmosphere. Extracting and refining the fuel bring the cost to 25 pounds. Cutting tailpipe emissions by improving mileage is a crucial step to limiting climate change.
How does GM stack up against its domestic and foreign competitors?
No automaker deserves a prize for environmental excellence. An Environmental Protection Agency report on auto mileage and emissions published last month makes that clear. But in four key areas, according to the document, “Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Fuel Economy Trends,” GM is at the back of the pack.
It has made the least fuel-efficiency improvements; it has trailed key competitors in adopting advanced gas-saving technology; and its trucks get the worst mileage, a projected 18.8 mpg in 2014 — a particularly significant number because the SUVs, vans and pickups make up nearly half its production. And, most important, GM's overall gas mileage fails to keep up with any automaker except the much smaller Chrysler-Fiat.
The EPA projects that Ford's 2014 vehicles will average 23.4 mpg, GM's 22.0 mpg, and Chrysler-Fiat's 21.1 mpg. But from 2012 to 2014, Chrysler's overall fuel efficiency will have improved 1.0 mpg and Ford's 0.6 mpg. GM? It is essentially flat-lining, improving its mileage by only 0.3 mpg over the three years.
By comparison, Nissan, which, like GM and the other U.S. manufacturers, produces a full line of cars and trucks, is expected to reach 26.8 mpg this year, a 0.6-mpg improvement, according to the federal agency, while Mazda's 2014 fleet mileage leads the industry at 28.8 mpg, 6.8 mpg ahead of GM.
GM can begin to catch up with other manufacturers by accelerating its use of such energy-saving technologies as efficient engines and transmissions and high-strength, lightweight materials that competitors are building into their vehicles.
Indeed, the EPA report highlights auto manufacturers that make the greatest use of eight key gas-saving technologies, among them turbocharging, gas-electric hybrid engines and efficient continuously variable transmissions. GM fails to reach the top three in seven categories and leads in only one: cylinder deactivation, a technology that shuts down cylinders when the engine does not need them.
To fulfill President Obama's promise to address global warming, the key federal agencies responsible for implementing his auto standards — the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration — must push GM to deliver an environmental performance within both the letter of the mileage and emissions program, which the company is, and its spirit, which GM is not.
General Motors has a responsibility to do more than the bare minimum the law requires. It is the largest car company in the United States; it plays a dominant role within the industry; it faces strong competition from greener foreign manufacturers; and for a strong future, it must attract a new generation of potential buyers, which studies show is more environmentally conscious than previous generations.
The auto industry's recent history tells us that building cleaner cars can protect the bottom line as well as the environment. But for more than two decades, GM has relied on SUVs and pickups to boost profits. When the economy went into steep recession, we saw where that business model left the automaker: Customers fled its showrooms in search of cars that cost less to run. With sales plummeting, the company declared bankruptcy.
The U.S. treasury saved GM with a $49.5-billion bailout. But we didn't rescue the company so it could continue to make unsafe gas guzzlers. It isn't sufficient for federal agencies to merely monitor the company's performance or for the salvaged GM to return to business as usual. The company must be a leader, not a laggard, and put its engineers to work creating the safest and cleanest vehicles on the road. The Obama administration must make sure they do. We deserve cars and trucks that harm neither their occupants nor the climate.
Daniel F. Becker directs the Safe Climate Campaign, a project of the Center for Auto Safety. James Gerstenzang is the campaign's editorial director.
Follow the Opinion section on Twitter @latimesopinion
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Circuit Development Path
Block Diagram The development of a new circuit begins with the drawing of a block diagram, often first on the marker board, and then with CAD tools. The block diagram provides an opportunity for everyone to assure the same understanding without needing to all understand the circuit to the component level.
Schematic Diagram Working from the block diagram, the schematic diagram of the actual circuit is designed and checked using CAD software.
PC Board Layout The CAD software also couples the printed circuit board layout to the CAD file, assuring that each part and each connection in the schematic diagram is found on the board. The components must be moved around to optimal positions and the conductors must be routed. Most IDL boards are hand routed to minimize noise, optimize construction, and maintain correct impedances. Checks of clearances and other design rules are made by the software, and the layout is visually inspected and reviewed by another staff member.
Board Manufacture The CAD software can generate "Gerber" files that describe the board completely, each of the layers of the board (typically 2-5), all dimensions, all drill sizes, and every routing coordinate. The Gerber files are emailed to one of several board manufacturers that specialize in prototypes. If we make sure that we conform to their automated production system, in 2-3 days, the boards are received.
Board Population The board is usually populated by hand at KU. A great deal of skill is required to solder some chips to the board. If there are multiple copies of the board, it maybe cost-effective to send them to a specialized board-assembly house. Certain components (e.g., ball-grid packages) must be sent out for soldering to the board; they are X-rayed for quality before being returned.
Firmware and software Firmware is frequently required for the microcontroller, graphical PC software for the user interface (the GUI).
An Integrated Development Environment (IDE) facilitates the firmware process. The code is usually written in C, loaded into the microcontroller, and tested from the same software. In this process, initial testing of the board occurs.
The GUI can be written in a variety of IDEs. Often someone in the partner lab will handle this, in partnership with the IDL.
Mounting the board After the board is completed and tested, it is mounted as necessary. A plastic box might be optimum; a metal box or an rf-shielded box are sometimes needed. Some boards become daughter boards on other boards. If a specialized box is needed, we will draw the box with CAD software and have it built in the machine shop. Mounts or openings for all connectors and switches are a part of this step. The labels are usually created one at a time, but in other case, a full-panel, durable label can be designed.
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William K. Hartmann has been named the 2010 winner of the Meteoritical Society's Barringer Medal and Award, which recognizes outstanding work in the field of impact cratering.
Hartmann, co-founder of the Tucson-based Planetary Science Institute, is an internationally recognized expert on impact cratering and the evolution of planetary surfaces. Among his many contributions to the field, the Meteoritical Society is honoring his discovery of the Moon's giant Orientale impact basin, a discovery he made as a graduate student in 1962 under the direction of space sciences pioneer Gerard Kuiper.
The society also is recognizing his development of a system of "isochrons," which uses the number of impact craters on various Martian geological formations to estimate their age. Hartmann has developed and refined the system during several decades of research at the Planetary Science Institute. As early as 1965, he used the method to correctly predict the age of lunar lava plains to be about 3.5 billion years old. This age was later confirmed by studies of lunar material returned to Earth by Apollo astronauts.
Although Hartmann has applied the isochron system mainly to the Moon and Mars, his long-term goal is to apply the concept to planets and satellites throughout the solar system.
Hartmann will officially receive the medal and award next summer at the society's annual meeting, which will be held in New York City in 2010.
In addition to his career as a planetary scientist, Hartmann also is internationally recognized as both a writer and artist. He has published several books in the area of popular science, as well as two novels. Many of his space-science-related paintings have been published in scientific and science-fiction books and magazines.
The Barringer Medal and Award, which is sponsored by the Barringer Crater Co., was established in 1982 to honor D. Moreau Barringer Sr. and his son D. Moreau Barringer Jr. Around 1906, the senior Barringer was the first to seriously propose an impact origin for the Arizona crater that now bears his name. It took several decades for him to convince geologists that this was correct, and asteroid impacts are now recognized as a key process in the Earth's geologic history and in the evolution of its plants and animals.
Read the Planetary Science Institute release HERE.
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People can associate uneventful outcomes to the lack of luck, karma, or plain stupidity, but Murphy’s Law says that it is inevitable.
Murphy’s Law is a law stating that if something bad is possible, then it will be actualized. All of us have experienced bad days when we can’t really figure out what’s wrong with ourselves. We tend to end up doing all the wrong things and giving the wrong decisions.
There are days, for example, that a person goes out of his home for a walk without taking an umbrella. After a few days of scorching heat, he wouldn’t mind bringing an umbrella because raining is uneventful. However, the moment he steps out of the house and gets too far to go back, the droplets pour in; slowly at first, then the speed increases as the drops become bigger. This is referred by many as bad luck, but it’s actually a common explanation of Murphy’s Law.
Creation of the Law
Murphy’s Law states that if there are several ways of doing a certain thing and one of these ways would lead to a catastrophe, then one will eventually do it. The said Law originated in 1949 and was quoted from Captain Edward Murphy, a military engineer who was working on a project that attempted to test the capacity of human life amidst the G forces. The team of Captain Murphy was working on a mechanism that would measure the level of stress that would have been experienced by humans as they let a sled down a certain height. As they tested the contraptions, they didn’t work because the wires weren’t properly connected. Murphy made a comment about the technician who was responsible and this became the origin of the Law.
There are different versions of the Murphy’s Law; however, these versions are the same because they all pertain to the possibility of things to go wrong. The law can be easily mistaken to be a quote that is treasured by pessimists. Yes, it may seem that way, but it really is a very important Law that is not supposed to be put in a box together with pessimism. It is a Law that has given birth to one important principle, the principle of defensive design.
The Good in Murphy’s Law
Murphy’s Law provides a basis for anticipating the worst things that can happen given a certain situation. It makes us aware that we must do things right to get the right results. This is not necessarily the motto of a pessimist or a paranoid person; it’s a principle that is taken into consideration by people who would want to get the right things done.
It is actually applied in the design of different things such as electrical appliances, automobiles, personal computers, and others. It is used in the design of all the things that are all around us. The principle of defensive design prevents worst-case scenarios from being actualized. As a result, the level of these worst-case scenarios goes a notch lower. It builds the foundation for continuous improvements in our world.
Murphy’s Law may be a very negative-sounding proposition; however, it is a very important law that should always be remembered when engaging in any task or activity.
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Increasing numbers of people are preserving food at home now rather than buying processed foods. Not only is preservation an important way to cut down on waste it is also a great way to stay healthy through the winter months. Making pickles is easy and if you buy prepared pickling spice it is even easier but less versatile. Making your own mix is the best way to please your taste buds.
Many people are coming to the conclusion that industrial foods are harmful when they make up the bulk of the diet. Five minutes online is long enough to see just how many people are looking to the past to regain lost skills in cooking and healthy living. This movement is taking traditional wisdom and updating it for the modern age.
The most popular pickles are usually vegetables but almost anything can be preserved in this way. Meat, fruits, fish, herbs, garlic, ginger and chili can all be turned into flavorful pickles. The basic technique is to create a brine of salt and or vinegar which kills the bacteria in the food. Once prepared some can last for years.
In Asian cooking the principle of balancing the main tastes, sweet, salty, bitter and sour guides all meal design. Sometimes those flavors are added to one dish but more often an assortment of dishes are served together to bring a harmony to the whole meal. In European cuisine pickles are most often served with creamy things such as cheese or smoked salmon.
Using salt causes fermentation which encourages the growth of good bacteria which basically pre-digest the food. Sauerkraut and kimchi are popular version of fermented pickles. They are thought to be excellent for general health as they help the stomach digest foods and protect the good bacteria in our gut. Vinegar pickles also have health benefits, especially when they contain raw vegetables. This is a great way to enjoy the nutrients of plants even when nothing is growing. Raw fruits and vegetables prepared this way retain their antioxidants, minerals and vitamins.
The process can take months or just a few minutes. Quick pickles can be made by heating the solution of vinegar, sugar and spices and then adding vegetables for a few minutes. They are not preserved in the same way and must be eaten straight away but are a lovely was to add acidity to a dish.
Adding aromatics in the form of spices takes pickles to another level. Usually they are used in their whole form. Many grocers & delicatessens sell prepared mixes. However, it is easy to make them and then the flavor can be adjusted to individual preferences.
Prepared mixes do not allow for experimentation or personal preference. If you have lots of spices at home anyway then why not just make your own? This allows you to play around with the flavors and make pickles in any style from around the world. The main thing to bear in mind is that whole spices work better than ground ones.
Choosing spices for a pickle depends on the main ingredient itself and the type of cuisine the pickle comes from. However, personal taste can also play a large role. There is no point making something that you and your family are not going to eat just because it is in a recipe. Pickles are a versatile ingredient so let your taste buds be your guide.
Read more about How To Choose The Best Pickling Spice Mixtures.
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The courtiers were huddled close together in anticipation of an audience with the king of Nepal. The body language collectively betrayed a sense of hopelessness, a state of paralysis. They knew that even the king would not be able to assuage their fear but at least they would try a trick or two to salvage the situation.
|Bal Narsingh Kunwar and Ganesh Kumari Devi, parents of|
Maharajah Jung Bahadur Rana
Suddenly all that had ended on that day of infamy - 30 September 1846 A.D. - better known in Nepali history as "Kot Parba" loosely translated into English as the Kot Massacre. The Nepali word carries a meaning beyond just a massacre, it was the defining moment that changed the trajectory of Nepali history and life as these courtiers knew it had come to an abrupt end. Things were going downhill ever since. The perpetrator had become prime minister and virtual dictator of Nepal. He had gone on an overseas trip to England and France that had boosted his cult of personality to the level of a demigod. He had helped the British suppress a revolt in India they the British called a mutiny and earned enormous goodwill of the Raj to ensure generations of his descendants in the seat of power in Nepal. The Lucknow loot had brought home enormous treasures that had enriched his family. And now suddenly 'this', the courtiers whispered to one another in fearful apprehension.
They were finally summoned by the king. King Surendra Bir Bikram Shah was the sixth king in the direct line of King Prithivi the founder of modern Nepal. Yes, there had been an anomaly in the line since King Surendra's own grandfather should never have been king but the powerful King Rana Bahadur, smitten by the beauty of a Tirhut Brahmin widow, had proclaimed their issue Girvana Yuddha king rather than crowning his own first born son Ranodyat from his junior queen Subarnaprabha. That was history already and lots of water had flown in the Bagmati since.
King Surendra stood in the center of the throne room tilting his head to the side, a trait of the Shah kings, and nodded to say I am ready, tell me. The courtiers broke the news to the king that in gratitude to Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana's contribution to defeating the Sepoy Mutiny the Raj had awarded vast tracks of land in the south of Nepal to Jung to do as he pleases with it. These lands had been lost earlier by Nepal during the Anglo-Nepal War of 1814-1816 A.D. The courtiers expressed their fear that having such large tracks of rich agricultural land interspersed with dense forests for lumber harvesting would make Jung Bahadur the richest and most powerful person in Nepal, even more so than his majesty himself. His ambition would be whetted by this rich dividend and who knew if he might not then covet all of Nepal?
King Surendra listened with growing interest. He never begrudged Jung Bahadur's lifestyle or ambition because without his loyal Jung, his stepmother Queen Rajya Luxmi Devi would have already ousted him and put his younger half-brother Prince Ranendra on the throne of Nepal. After the Kot Massacre Jung had firmly put an end to the junior queen's wayward ambition and remained loyal to Crown Price Surendra. The king recalled how Jung had performed acts of dare-devilry to suit his own spoilt whims and fancies and had never questioned or affronted him in earlier times. Ordinarily the king would have waived off such accusations as conspiracies of jealous little minds but the fact that Jung had been awarded huge swathes of territories comprising the districts of Banke, Bardia, Kailali and Kanchanpur, nearly one tenth the size of Nepal, was indeed sinister.
Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana came from a loyal chettry cast of the kunwars who had been in the employment of the Gorkha kings from time immemorial. Ram Krishna Kunwar entered the Gorkha army as a fourteen year old subaltern. As an adult he was entrusted by King Prithivi Narayan Shah to invade and capture the strategic fort of Nuwakot on the march into Kathmandu Valley. His son Ranjeet Singh Kunwar served in the Nepali army, fought various wars and finally succumbed to a fall from the fortress wall at the defense of Kot Kangra from the forces of Sansar Chand. Ranjeet's son Bal Narsingh Kunwar was the faithful soldier who struck dead Sher Bahadur Shah the half-brother and murderer of the former king Rana Bahadur Shah. He was promoted to the post of Kazi. Bal Narsingh was the father of prime minister Jung Bahadur Rana. After the Kot Massacre Jung had catapulted himself to the forefront of court hierarchy by receiving the title of 'Rana' denoting Rajput lineage from King Surendra and by marrying his sons to the princes of the royal house and taking royal princesses as bride for his sons and nephews.
|Jung Bahadur Rana, Maharajah of Kaski & Lamjung|
Could this be the story behind the making of the maharajah? There are a few history buffs who vouch for it!
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Landscape architecture was a form of architecture that focused on the art and science of developing land for recreational use and enjoyment through effective placement of architectural structures, pathways, and plant forms.
In 2373, Richard Bashir was involved in landscape architecture in the capacity of designing parks and public spaces. Bashir eloquently described to Jadzia Dax and Benjamin Sisko, his love for "working on projects that will be enjoyed by thousands of people long after I'm gone," which he described as "my legacy, my gift to succeeding generations."
Bashir, who always aimed higher that he could ever reach, in the eyes of his son, Julian, was later confronted about his "profession." Julian's mother defended her husband's work, describing to her son how "excited" he was about his work, going to lengths to describe "the stacks of drawings in our house" and how "it's like living in a drafting studio." Richard added that "some very important people have expressed interest in my park designs. I have several good prospects on the horizon." Julian, bitterly responded to his father that he had always had "'good prospects', but they always seem to stay just over that horizon."
Later, when it was about to be publicly revealed that Julian was genetically engineered, Julian chastised his parents for having his genes manipulated, or as he described, being made into Richard's "legacy, [his] proud gift to the world" who was "about to be revealed as a fraud, just like you," further analogizing that Richard used to be his father, but now he was Julian's "architect" – "the man who designed a better son to replace the defective one he was given.
After accepting a two-year prison sentence for illegal genetic engineering, Bashir pondered that he might "usher in a new renaissance in landscape architecture. I'll certainly have time to work on my designs." (DS9: "Doctor Bashir, I Presume")
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What is bail?
Bail is money. When a defendant is charged with a crime, he or she may
be asked to pay bail before they are released from custody.
Why do we have bail?
Bail exists to ensure that the defendant will come back to court and face
his or her charges. Bail forces a defendant to give up something of value
in order to get out of jail while their case is working its way through
If a defendant opts not to return to court, then the court will issue a
warrant directing police to find and detain the defendant. A defendant
who forces the court to issue a warrant by not appearing also risks losing
his or her bail money because the court could take the money to punish
If the defendant commits a new crime while released on bail, they could
also be detained for a period of time (to a maximum of 90 days) in addition
to possibly forfeiting, or giving up, the bail money to the court.
Does everyone have to pay bail?
No, in fact, most people do not have to pay (or “post”) bail
at all. When deciding whether or not to make a defendant pay bail, the
courts start with the idea that everyone has a right to get out of jail
by making a promise to come back to court. This is called “personal
recognizance” bail, or “P.R.” for short.
Will I get bail?
Yes, unless you are charged with a very serious crime (anything carrying
a life sentence if convicted and certain other violent offenses), you
will get bail.
How much bail to I have to post?
Most people only have to promise to come back. However, some people may
have to pay money to get out. If you have to pay money to get out, then
the amount of money is determined by the judge.
The judge just doesn’t “make it up”. Instead, the judge
starts with the charge. Certain charges have a certain amount of bail
money attached to them by a rule of court. Basically, if the charge carries
10 years to serve if convicted, then the bail is $10,000. If the charge
has 20 years attached, then the bail is $20,000, and so on up to $50,000.
The judge will make the bail “with surety”. That means that
the defendant only has to pay 10% of the bail (a $1000 for a $10,000 with
surety bail). The 10% is like a promise that the defendant is good for
the other 90%.
The judge can go higher or lower depending on certain factors like, the
defendant’s criminal record, his or her record of not showing up,
the facts surrounding the new crime, and just about anything else that
touches on the defendant’s risk to the community and the likelihood
that they will come back to court.
Where can I pay bail?
In court after the judge determines the bail or at the ACI (Adult Correctional
Institution i.e. prison) in Cranston if the defendant is sent back there
Can I use a bail bondsman?
Yes, RI allows defendant’s to use a bail bondsman. Bail bondsman
charge money to post the bail. But, after the case is concluded, the bail
bondsman keeps the fee. If the defendant posts the bail by himself, then
he gets the money back after the case in concluded.
What happens if I am held without bail?
In very serious cases like murder, rape, certain kinds of robbery, and
certain kinds of drug trafficking offenses, the defendant can be held
When this happens, the defendant has a right to a “bail hearing”
where the state has to prove the defendant is a danger to community and
should be held without bail for the duration of the case until it is over.
This is a very serious decision and the defendant should obtain a criminal
lawyer as soon as possible.
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Behind the demands of a baker for good bread and the brewer for good beer there are genetic variants that human beings have observed, preserved and developed. Through more than ten thousand years people around the globe have produced a vast biological diversity in our cultivated crop plants. Our Daily Bread tells this diverse history. Plant DNA reveals layers of history that supplement traditional archaeology. The world has three great grain cultures: the Asian based on rice, the American based on maize and the Eurasian based on wheat, rye, barley and oats. In Europe these have divided the continent into three bread zones: wheat in the West, rye in the East and barley or oats in the North. All originated in the Middle East. A few thousand years later they were grown to 70 degrees N in Norway and to 4000 meters in Ethiopia. Which mutations made this possible? What mutations enabled the phenomenal increases in grain production in the 20th century? Will this trend continue, so that the world can feed itself in 2050, when grains must not only feed us, but also supply raw materials and fuel to a bioeconomy?
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What Do Confidence Intervals Really Tell You?
P-values and Confidence Intervals
In a previous post, I talked about p-values – what they tell you and what they don’t tell you. Quick recap since talking about confidence intervals is related to p-values: p-values ONLY tell you whether a research result is statistically significant or not based on the a priori alpha level. P-values do NOT tell you how precise or reliable the finding is, how big the effect size is, or how practical or important the finding will be for changing nursing or medical practice.
Comprehension Check: P-values help the researcher decide whether the research result is statistically significant. P-values ONLY tell you Yes or No – is the p-value result, computed by the statistics software from the research data, less than or greater than the p-value set by the researcher (AKA the threshold level)? Do you reject the null hypothesis or not?
The p-value is only an estimate of the chances of the results being wrong.
And just because a p-value is greater than the threshold value (so not statistically significant), doesn’t mean there is no evidence for the experimental intervention – it just means that the sample size wasn’t large enough to find evidence of a difference, if one really exists!
For all the fuss that’s made about p-values, they don’t sound all that helpful in making decisions about clinical care, huh? Without more information, you don’t know whether the calculated result, called the point estimate, is close to the true population value. And if another study is conducted on the same research question, the p-value for that point estimate may be entirely different (Kryzwinski & Altman, 2013).
There is another statistical measure that can give you more information from which to make clinical decisions. It is possible to use the research sample to calculate a range within which the population value is likely to fall: this is called the confidence interval (CI).
The CI gets around the all-or-none principle behind p-values and can be calculated for almost any test. You probably have already started to see confidence intervals reported in the nursing literature.
What is a Confidence Interval?
Confidence intervals (CI) are calculated from the research data and define the range of scores around the point estimate within which the population value is likely to fall. The CI range is chosen a priori and can be 90%, 95%, 99% — whatever level of confidence the researcher wants – for the purpose of decreasing uncertainty of the research findings. We want to know how reliable a specific result is for the whole population of patients affected by the condition. The most common choice is the 95% CI.
The confidence interval is defined as the range of plausible numerical values in which we can be confident (to a computed probability, such as 90% [90% CI] or 95% [95% CI]) that the population value being estimated will be found.
Remember the normal curve? The normal curve, also called a bell-curve or probability curve, depicts the natural distribution of probabilities. The normal curve has certain characteristics, including the fact that the total area under the curve is 100%; the curve is symmetric so that the mean value lies directly in the middle of that curve. and that the mean, median, and mode are all equal. One standard deviation (SD) covers 34% on either side of the mean – so plus or minus 1 SD covers 68% of the curve. Plus or minus 2 SDs covers 95% of the curve and 99.7% of the data fall within 3 SDs of the mean.
Where to Find Confidence Intervals in a Research Report
After the researcher enters their study data they run their statistical tests and get the results. The observed result or point estimate is the quantitative “answer” to the researcher’s question. Let me explain with an example.
If the researcher was looking to see which wound dressing provides faster healing – they would likely be looking at how many days it took a wound to heal. The observed value would be the average number of days for the wound to heal using the experimental dressing and the standard of care (SOC) or control dressing. The statistical test chosen will provide the researcher with information about whether the observed difference, in this case between healing time of the experimental intervention and of the control group, was statistically significant or not.
The calculated point estimate is the size or magnitude of the result from the study sample and will be found in the Results section of a journal article . The research result may be reported as an effect size with a mean and standard deviation, a Chi-square statistic, or a ratio (odds ratio, mortality ratio, rate ratio, risk ratio).
The point estimate (X) will be listed first followed by the CI which will identify the confidence range chosen by the researcher (90%, 95%, 99%). The format is X (95% CI, Lower limit-Upper limit). The values at each end of the interval are called the confidence limits. All the values between the confidence limits make up the confidence interval.
You will also see confidence intervals visually depicted in Forest plots for a meta-analysis. The Forest plot offers a big picture view of the results of specific studies in a meta-analysis, as well as provide a summary statistic to help you get an “answer” to the question studied. More on meta-analyses and Forest plots in future posts.
The idea is that you read the research result and make a determination about how reliable that result is based on the CI. You want to know how likely the TRUE population value falls within the CI reported.
How to Interpret Confidence Intervals
How Precise is the Result?
To interpret how precise the data are, look at the width of the CI.
- Narrow CIs indicate that the results are very precise and more credible than wide CIs.
- Confidence intervals indicate the strength of evidence; the smaller the confidence interval the better.
A wide CI means that the results are not very reliable (i.e., they may be all over the board!). Wide confidence intervals indicate less precise estimates of effect and are usually the result of an underpowered study — that is, that the sample size was probably too small. The recommendation would be to repeat the study with a larger sample.
The larger the sample size, the closer you get to the population mean.
Deciding whether a CI is narrow or wide is a bit subjective, I admit, especially for nurses new to reading and interpreting research studies. For some results, a span of 5 may be considered wide and for others, a 5-point span may be considered narrow. All I can say is that your decision will be based on what is being studied: blood pressure or blood sugar? reading level or IQ? etc.
Is the Result Clinically Significant?
The lower and upper confidence limits need to be interpreted separately, also. The lower (or numerically smaller) limit shows how small the effect might be in the population; The upper limit shows how large the effect might be. I’ll show you how these are interpreted in the examples here and at the end of the post.
You can answer the question about clinical significance by evaluating the lower confidence limit. Ask yourself whether the lower limit is either partially or completely within the area of clinical indifference (Clarke, 2012). In other words, if the true population parameter is near or at the lower limit, will that make a difference in patient outcomes?
Example: Let’s say we are reading about a weight loss study. The average weight loss in the experimental group was 10 pounds in a month with a 95% CI of 2-18 pounds. You would interpret this finding as: the experimental treatment caused an average of 10 pounds of weight loss per month in the sample, but the true weight loss in the population could be as little as 2 pounds a month to as much as 18 pounds a month.
Now you ask yourself if a weight loss of 2 pounds a month (which may be the true effect in the population) is clinically significant? Is that enough to change a patient’s diet or to prescribe a diet pill for? No.
By the way, what do you think about the width of that CI? 10 (95% CI, 2-18). Is this narrow or wide? I’ll give you a minute. I’ll tell you what I think at the end of this post.
Is the Result Statistically Significant?
We figured out the clinical significance of the reported value, but wait! If there are no p-values, how do we know if the result is statistically significant? No worries! It turns out you can determine the statistical significance of the results by examining the reported CI — without needing a p-value statistic.
The key is to see if the CI contains a value that, if it was the true population parameter, would indicate no difference or no association between the groups tested. This decision point is called the line of no difference.
To make this determination, look at the span of the CI. Ask yourself: Does the CI contain the line of no difference?
For results reported as a MEAN DIFFERENCE, if the CI contains zero (0), the result is not significant. Why? Because the CI gives you a range of values that could be the population parameter. If 0 is within the interval, then it is possible that 0 difference could be the REAL population parameter. A mean difference of zero is no difference between the groups, right? If group A lost 10 pounds and group B lost 10 pounds, the difference is 0 – so the experimental intervention did not make a difference.
For results reported as an ASSOCIATION RATIO, if the CI contains 1, the result is not significant. Why? Because, again, the CI gives you a range of values that could be the population parameter. If 1 is within the interval, then it is possible that 1 could be the REAL population parameter. A ratio of one means there is no difference between the groups, right? If group A has a risk of heart failure of 25% and group B has a risk of heart failure of 25%, the ratio of 25:25 = 1 – so the experimental intervention did not make a difference.
For a 95% CI, when the confidence interval contains the line of no difference (LND) there is more than a 5% chance that there is no real change in the outcome variable due to the independent variable.
- A 90% CI that contains the LND = more than a 10% chance of no real change
- A 99% CI that contains the LND = more than a 1% chance of no real change
Nurses are Honest: Gallup Poll Example
Think of the results of a survey or a poll being reported. When the reporters state that the poll or survey has a margin of error of plus or minus 3, 4, or 5 percentage points – that’s a CI of the percentage of people who answered a certain way.
For example, let’s take the famous Gallup poll on how Americans view honesty and ethical standards of people from different professional fields.
Since professional nurses have to critique research for validity, I want to share what Gallup reports for their survey methodology and you can decide how strong you think the methods were. I’ve highlighted some key points about the methods – which look pretty good to me.
“Results for this Gallup poll are based on telephone interviews conducted Dec. 7-11, 2016, with a random sample of 1,028 adults, aged 18 and older, living in all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. For results based on the total sample of national adults, the margin of sampling error is ±4 percentage points at the 95% confidence level. All reported margins of sampling error include computed design effects for weighting.
Each sample of national adults includes a minimum quota of 60% cellphone respondents and 40% landline respondents, with additional minimum quotas by time zone within region. Landline and cellular telephone numbers are selected using random-digit-dial methods.” (Gallup, 2016, Survey Methods section).
At the time I’m writing this post, there are 326 million people in the US. Roughly 76% of that total are over the age of 18, about 248 million. Of course, the Gallup organization could not survey every adult in the US, so they used a representative random sample of adults in the US. The total sample was 1,028 adults from all 50 states and the District of Columbia. (We’ll talk about why this sample size is can represent the adult population of the US in a future post!)
Results of this Gallup Poll: Nurses ranked the highest among a list of 22 professions with 84% of those polled who said nurses had high to very high honesty and ethical standards. So how would you use the 95% CI to interpret the meaning of this result?
- If the percent of people who ranked nurses highest in this poll was 84%, that means 864 of the survey respondents rated nurses high or very high out of 1,028 surveyed.
- The margin of error was +-4% and reflects survey accuracy. “Survey accuracy numbers tell us how much we should believe the survey results as an indicator of how [the] group of interest feels” (Van Bennekom, n.d.). So the 95% CI around this result is 80-88%. We interpret this CI to mean that we can be 95% confident that, if the whole population of the US was surveyed, that as little as 80% of the American public would believe nurses are highly honest and ethical to as many as 88% of the American public. Even the lower confidence limit of 80% is the vast majority of Americans!
Clinical Research Example
From a study “to test models of risk factors for asthma prevalence and severity (frequency of attacks)” in South African children; 6,002 children were interviewed. Some of the results were as follows: child anxiety (odds ratio [OR] 1.08; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04 – 1.12) and community violence (OR 1.14; 95% CI 1.00 – 1.30) were associated with increased odds of having asthma” (Yakubovich, Cluver, & Gie, 2016, p. 404).
The researchers wanted to know which risk factors contributed to the prevalence of asthma and the severity of asthma in these children. A confidence interval is a spread around the point estimate (the best estimate of the data) within which the TRUE effect size or value for the population is likely to lie; they chose a 95% confidence level. (Note that I just gave you the results for asthma prevalence. You can read the article for more details.)
The first variable was child anxiety. The statistic was reported as an odds ratio [OR] 1.08, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04 – 1.12.
- The OR was 1.08 = In this study, the presence of anxiety increased the odds of the onset of asthma in South African children by 8%. Now let’s see if that increase is statistically and clinically significant.
- The CI of 1.04-1.12 is very narrow – so it is very precise. It indicates that the effect of anxiety was large enough that the sample size for this study was appropriate to find this difference.
- The confidence limits: The interval of 1.04-1.12 is interpreted as: child anxiety can increase the odds of asthma onset by as little as 4% to as much as 12%.
- Statistical significance: Because the point estimate is an odds ratio – the line of no difference would be 1. Examine the CI to determine whether it contains the number 1. Look at the figure above. The CI is 1.04-1.12. The interval does NOT contain 1, so this finding would be considered statistically significant.
- Clinical significance – look at the LL to make this determination. According to the research study, there are 50 million asthmatic children under 15 years old in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Africa has the fourth highest asthma mortality rate in the world. A rise in asthma onset because of child anxiety by 4% (an additional 2 million children) would be considered a clinically significant effect, don’t you agree?
Interpretation: Statistically Significant and Clinically Significant result
The second variable was community violence. The statistic was reported as an odds ratio [OR] of 1.14, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.00 – 1.30.
- The OR was 1.14 = The social risk factor of community violence increased the odds of the onset of asthma in South African children by 14% in this sample. Now let’s see if that increase is statistically and clinically significant.
- The CI of 1.00-1.30 is wide – so it is NOT precise. It indicates that the effect of community violence is either not a factor in asthma prevalence or too small to be detected by the sample size in this study. For this finding, the effect of community violence may be so small that the sample needed to be bigger to find that small effect if community violence really does impact the asthma rate.
- The confidence limits: The interval of 1.00-1.30 is interpreted as community violence can increase the odds of asthma onset in South African children by as little as 0% to as much as 30%. Because we are 95% confident that the true population value lies within the CI – it is possible that the true population parameter is 1, or that there is no difference in the prevalence of asthma due to community violence.
- Statistical significance: Because the point estimate is an odds ratio – the line of no difference would be 1. Examine the CI to determine whether it contains the number 1. Look at the figure above. The CI is 1.00-1.30. The interval DOES contain 1, so this result would NOT be considered statistically significant.
- Clinical significance: according to the research study, there are 50 million asthmatic children under 15 years old in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Africa has the fourth highest asthma mortality rate in the world. Additionally, South Africa has high rates of violence, poverty, and psychosocial problems. Social risk factors can increase life stress thereby increasing anxiety and childhood asthma rates. Because the CI contains 1, it is possible that the true population parameter is 1 and that there is no effect of community violence on asthma onset – so not a clinically significant finding. Because the CI contains 1, there is more than a 5% chance that there is no real change in asthma onset due to community violence. The researchers can only recommend that more research be conducted, including research on the impact of social factors on asthma prevention and treatment.
Interpretation: Not a statistically significant or clinically significant result.
P.S. Answer to CI question about weight loss: The CI of 2-18 for the weight loss example is a wide interval and the study should be repeated with a larger sample size to get the CI closer to the population mean.
What questions do you have about confidence intervals? Let me know in the comments or email me: email@example.com
Clarke, J. (2012). What is a CI? Evidence-Based Nursing, 15(3), 66. doi: 10.1136/ebnurs-2012-100802
Gallup. (2016, December 19). Americans rate healthcare providers high on honesty, ethics. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/200057/americans-rate-healthcare-providers-high-honesty-ethics.aspx?g_source=Social%20Issues&g_medium=lead&g_campaign=tiles
Kryzwinski, M., & Altman, N. (2013). Importance of being uncertain. Nature methods, 10(9), 809-810. doi:10.1038/nmeth.2613
Van Bennekom, F. C. (n.d.). Survey statistical accuracy defined. Retrieved from https://greatbrook.com/survey-statistical-accuracy/
Yakubovich, A. R., Cluver, L. D., & Gie, R. (2016). Socioeconomic factors associated with asthma prevalence and severity among children living in low-income South African communities [Abstract]. The South African Medical Journal, 106(4), 404-412. DOI:10.7196/SAMJ.2016.v106i4.10168 http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/10168
My Recommendations for Statistics Books for Nurses
Grove, S. K., & Cipher, D. J. (2017). Statistics for nursing research: A workbook for evidence-based practice (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Harris, M., & Taylor, G. (2014). Medical statistics made easy (3rd ed.). Banbury, Oxford, UK: Scion Publishing LTD.
Heavey, E. (2015). Statistics for nursing: A practical approach (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Katz, D. L., Elmore, J. G., Wild, D. M. G., & Lucan, S. C. (2014). Jekel’s epidemiology, biostatistics, preventive medicine, and public health (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders.
Kim, M., & Mallory, C. (2014). Statistics For evidence-based practice in nursing.Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
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LONG ISLAND CITY — The planned construction of a new Kosciuszko Bridge along the banks of Newtown Creek could stir up more than just pollutants in the waterway, a designated Superfund site that separates Queens from Greenpoint, Brooklyn.
Historians say the area around Newtown Creek was once home to a Native American tribe called the Mespeatches, where the neighborhood Maspeth got its name, before it was settled by Dutch and English colonists in the 1600s — making it ripe with the possibility of archeological findings.
"The area is very, very rich in potential archeological artifacts," said Bob Singleton, executive director of the Greater Astoria Historical Society. "There have been a number of archeological digs throughout the years along Newtown Creek."
Ralph Solecki, a former Columbia University faculty member and archeologist known for his excavations at the Shanidar Cave in Iraq, conducted digs along Newtown Creek when he was just in high school. During one excavation in 1935, he and others uncovered the hearth of a 17th century settler's home.
"We came up with the remains of a burned-out house in a sandy bank, and it was a fireplace in which we found a number of pipe stems identified 1640," Solecki recalled.
Starting in the 1800s, Newtown Creek became one of the most heavily used industrial waterways in the region, according to the state, and it has seen countless oil spills in the decades since. It was declared a national Superfund site in 2010.
The State Department of Transportation will begin work this fall on the construction of a new Kosciuszko Bridge, and will be excavating areas along the Queens side of the creek near the Long Island Rail Road tracks, south of Calvary Cemetery between Long Island City and Maspeth.
The $511 million project — the centerpiece of Gov. Andrew Cuomo's jobs program — has been pushed ahead 18 months.
Ground water uncovered during the excavation will be treated with an extensive filtering system to remove contaminants before being returned to the creek, according to the DOT.
At a public hearing last week to discuss the plans, a representative for Assemblywoman Cathy Nolan asked DOT officials if they had prepared for the possibility of uncovering artifacts during excavation.
"We're well aware of that issue," said project manager Robert Adams, adding that the DOT and the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) is working on refining an existing plan to identify and monitor the areas that have the most archeological potential.
According to a draft of the plan, SHPO considers area around the creek to be "archeologically sensitive" for prehistoric sites — defined as when the land was inhabited by Native Americans, prior to European contact — because of its "proximity to water, topography that features high ground overlooking wetlands, the presence of abundant food resources, and the area’s known use by Native Americans at contact."
But the plan states that the large amount of human activity along Newtown Creek over the years greatly lessens the chance of uncovering intact artifacts.
"This area has been degraded, filled, built upon, so it's unlikely that you're going to find a whole lot of original material," Adams said at the hearing.
Still, the possibility is there, said Christina Wilkinson, president of the Newtown Historical Society.
"I absolutely do think it's a possibility," she said. "Things are uncovered all the time in New York City, believe it or not."
Within and along the creek, she said, one possible discovery could be mounds of oyster shells that Native American tribes used for currency.
Singleton said items from other eras could be uncovered as well. Some of the earliest European settlements were based along Newtown Creek in the 1600s and 1700s. On the Brooklyn side, an area called "Pottery Beach" was known for its rich clay soil and is considered by some historians as the birthplace of American pottery.
"You can find all kinds of things like clay pipes, vessels, pottery that was made, stuff like that," Singleton said.
Folklore also held that William "Captain" Kidd, a Scottish sailor and notorious pirate in the 1600s, stashed his treasure somewhere near the creek — a story that sent generations of neighborhood children digging for the precious loot, Singleton said.
"The area is probably one of the richest archeological sites in New York City," he said. "I'm not saying that they will find anything, but there is a very strong possibility, and every effort should be made to ensure that if something is, the proper techniques are applied."
A draft of plans outlined on the state DOT's website states that archeologists will inspect the project areas prior to construction, and that archeological monitoring will be conducted in regions "designated as moderate to high sensitivity for intact archeological resources."
According to maps included in the draft, a large swath of the affected area is considered to have moderate archeological potential, while two Queens blocks are considered as having high potential for prehistoric findings: near 43rd Street between 55th Avenue and 54th Drive and between 54th Avenue and 54th Road.
The project's prospective construction contractor will be expected to plan for delays that could result from archeological monitoring, according to the DOT.
"The plan will then be included in the Request for Proposals so that prospective bidders will be aware of their responsibilities before they place their bids," DOT spokesman Adam Levine said in an e-mail.
Historic discoveries have been made at New York City construction sites before. In 2010, workers at the World Trade Center site uncovered part of an 18th-century ship that had been undisturbed for more than 200 years.
Wilkinson, of the Newtown Historical Society, said she and other historians would be excited if a similar discovery was made along Newtown Creek.
"My fingers are crossed," she said.
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Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical, Acronyms, Encyclopedia.
Related to amok: Run amok
1. To behave or run around in a wild, unruly, out-of-control manner; to be or become crazy or chaotic. We tried to have some organized games for the kids, but they all started going amok as soon as they got here. The villagers were cleaning up debris for days after the bulls went amok through the streets.
2. To become bad or go awry; to get out of control; to go haywire. This whole operation has gone amok. I don't know how we can be expected to finish by the deadline under these conditions.
3. dated To rush around in a violent, murderous frenzy. (Note: This is the phrase's original specific meaning, taken from Malay. "Amok" also has an older alternative spelling, "amuck.") Fueled by alcohol and cocaine, Dave went amok when his wife told him she'd been seeing someone else. Luckily, a neighbor called the police when they heard such a commotion.
See also: amok
run amokand run amuck
to go awry; to go bad; to turn bad; to go into a frenzy. (From a Malay word meaning to run wild in a violent frenzy.) Our plan ran amok. He ran amuck early in the school year and never quite got back on the track.
to act in a wild or dangerous manner There were 50 little kids running amok at the snack bar.
Also, run riot or wild . Behave in a frenzied, out-of-control, or unrestrained manner. For example, I was afraid that if I left the toddler alone she would run amok and have a hard time calming down , or The weeds are running riot in the lawn, or The children were running wild in the playground. Amok comes from a Malay word for "frenzied" and was adopted into English, and at first spelled amuck, in the second half of the 1600s. Run riot dates from the early 1500s and derives from an earlier sense, that is, a hound's following an animal scent. Run wild alludes to an animal reverting to its natural, uncultivated state; its figurative use dates from the late 1700s.
run amok(ˈrən əˈmək)
in. to go awry. (From a Malay word meaning to run wild in a violent frenzy.) Our plan ran amok.
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Cuix amo nican nica nimonantzin?
No estoy aqui, que soy tu Madre?
Am I not here, who am your Mother?
The Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe is approaching, when we celebrate the visit and apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary to St. Juan Diego in México.
Before the arrival of the True Faith in what is now México, the native people worshipped a multitude of gods. One could make the argument that Satanism is what was being practiced, what with gods who demanded blood sacrifice. Some people may lament that there were codices lost and burned by Franciscan missionaries. Insight into Aztec life might have been useful to historians. However, let us look at some of what has been preserved: bloody scenes of battle, and parents allowing Aztec priests to tears the hearts out of their children. When Hernán Cortés saw this, he was outraged, and saw it as his duty to smash the idols that he saw. Cortés helped to put an end to that, finally, in 1519.
For over a decade, the Franciscans tried their best to convert the Aztecs, but there were very few who came to the Catholic Faith. Paganism was deeply rooted in the Mexican people. One of the few was an Indian by the name of Cuahtlatoátzin (Singing Eagle), and his wife, María Lucía. His wife died in 1529.
Juan Diego would frequently walk from his house in the village of Tolpetlac, to the Franciscan Church at Tlaltelolco. On the Feast of the (Immaculate) Conception of Mary, December 9th (as it was kept in those days by the Franciscans in their calendar) St. Juan Diego was walking to hear Mass. Over the next four days, while walking to church, St. Juan Diego had visions of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In another post, the entire story, called the Nican Mopohua, will be posted.
Where the visions of the Blessed Virgin happened was on a hill called Tepeyac. This hill, before the arrival of the True Faith, was dedicated to a goddess called Tonantzín. If one looks at the image of Guadalupe, it conveys a great amount of information, almost like an eastern icon. One actually could start with the name. What does Guadalupe mean? Bishop Zumárraga, the Bishop of México, did not speak much Náhuatl, but did have an interpreter, Fr. Juan Gonzales. When Juan Diego and his uncle Bernardino (who also experienced a vision of the Virgin), were asked what the name of the Virgin was, they were astounded to hear the name of Guadalupe, the name of a shrine in the Bishop’s native land of Spain. It is not a name that has any connection with México or the Náhuatl language. Dr. Mariano Rojas of the National Museum of Anthropology of México in 1895 says that the name probably used was “Te Coatlaxopeuh.”
te = stone
coa = serpent
tla = the
xopeuh = crush, stamp out
Her name means that she is the one who will crush the Serpent. She in other words, was identifying herself with the Immaculate Conception, with her name and the date on which she first appeared. Bishop Zumárraga wrote to Cortés on December 24th, 1531, inviting him to the procession taking the image from Tepeyac to the Cathedral of México. In that letter, Bishop Zumárraga refers to the image of Guadalupe as the Immaculate Conception; so he saw that there was a link between the image, the Immaculate Conception, and Genesis 3:15. In her name, we can see that she says she will crush the serpent, and the cruelest serpent to the Aztecs was Quezacóatl, behind whom was Satan. 20.000 people annually were sacrificed to Quezacóatl. In Genesis 3:15, we see that God says that he will put indemnity between he and the woman, and that she will crush his head. In Apocalypse 20:2, the Serpent is specifically identified as Satan.
Our Lady of Guadalupe did have her victory over Satan, as after her visit to México, the greatest mass conversions in history took place, with over 7 million coming to the True Faith in a little over 10 years.
Apuleia Crysopolis - APVLEIA CRYSOPOLIS QUAEVIXITANNIS VII MES II PARENTESKARISSIME FILIAEFECENRUNT Apuleia Chrysopolis Quae vixit annis VII M[ens]es II Parentes c...
8 months ago
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Our other school system
As a teacher, one of my biggest passions is media literacy. We are bombarded with more media images than ever before, which has huge consequences for our personal and social lives. Our minds code mediated experiences (as in, the sights, sounds, and information we “experience” through TV, radio, the Internet, etc.) more or less the same way they code our actual lived experiences, putting us at risk of feeling as if we “know” things about ourselves, other people, and the world that we don’t actually know. Reality itself becomes distorted when we unconsciously and uncritically accept what we see as true; we act on perceptions that aren’t based in actual reality, but in manufactured reality.
Though far too few adults can be considered savvy media consumers, the current media landscape is even more problematic for kids who have only ever known a world of constant media saturation. The Kaiser Family Foundation finds that eight- to 18-year-olds log an average of seven hours and 38 minutes in front of screens of some kind. That figure jumps to 10 hours and 45 minutes of actual media content when screen multi-tasking– watching TV while surfing the Internet, for example– is factored in. I can’t help but compare that to the average school day, which is around six hours per day, and think about what children are learning during their “screen time”. (I also think about the impact of allowing certain kinds of content to directly intrude on the school day, which is increasingly common as schools partner with corporate sponsors and allow commercial programming to be shown in class.)
Watching TV this past weekend, some of the big lessons I could discern include that:
- who you are and what you can do matter less than how you look and how much stuff you have (think all commercials, “reality” TV like Keeping Up with the Kardashians, etc.)
- if you love someone, you’re supposed to spend lots of money on them (“Every kiss begins with Kay”? Really?!)
- certain types of people (people of color; poorer people) are more dangerous and less intelligent than others (Nightly news; Cops)
- the world is generally scary, and that you shouldn’t trust others (see above)
I also thought about the effects on kids’ academic and cognitive skills. For instance, when I taught literacy every day, I often dealt with kids who struggled to track from left to right while reading books. They were so used to video games and TV, where stimuli can come from any direction at any time, that they had to exert conscious effort to focus their attention in a systematic way. And of course, it’s hard for books to compete with TV and video games, which don’t require one’s mind to actively construct meaning.
Now, I’m not across-the-board anti-screen; media can be used in really positive ways, especially when learners are actively creating it instead of passively consuming it. But for all the talk of school “failure”, we tend to forget that kids are getting an education during all of their waking hours, and the one they’re getting on the sofa is often much more powerful than, and potentially threatening to, the one they get at school.
Something to keep in mind as kids–or all of us, really– have even more time to sack out in front of the screen over the holidays.
- The Center for Media Literacy – www.medialit.org
- The Campaign for a Commercial Free Childhood – www.commercialfreechildhood.org
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Those who use farm equipment may face regulations on their products, and a recent announcement noted a number have been added in the last year.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services announced that a group chaired by the heads of those two organizations made recommendations regarding food safety. The USDA noted that the group came up with three main principles for food safety, which include making prevention a priority, while improving inspection, enforcement and response.
U.S. Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack said he is proud of the job done by the group, which he led with HHS Secretary Kathleen Sebelius.
"There is no more basic role for government than ensuring safe food and completing the Food Safety Working Group's executive actions is an important step in strengthening the U.S. food safety system."
Among some of the changes that have occurred include a new testing program for beef that looks for E. coli. The departments are also examining ways to measure the progress of food safety measures.
The USDA is also working with the Justice Department in order to ensure competition is fair within agricultural markets.
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SELinux is set up to default-deny, which means that every single access for which it has a hook in the kernel must be explicitly allowed by policy. This means a policy file is comprised of a large amount of information regarding rules, types, classes, permissions, and more. A full consideration of SELinux is out of the scope of this document, but an understanding of how to write policy rules is now essential when bringing up new Android devices. There is a great deal of information available regarding SELinux already. See Supporting documentation for suggested resources.
Summary of steps
Here is a brief summary of the steps needed to implement SELinux on your Android device:
- Add SELinux support in the kernel and configuration.
- Grant each service (process or daemon) started from
initits own domain.
- Identify these services by:
- Reviewing the init.<device>.rc file and finding all services.
- Examining warnings of the form init: Warning! Service name needs a SELinux domain defined; please fix! in
ps -Z | grep initoutput to see which services are running in the init domain.
- Label all new processes, drivers, sockets, etc. All objects need to be labeled properly to ensure they interact properly with the policies you apply. See the labels used in AOSP for examples to follow in label name creation.
- Institute security policies that fully cover all labels and restrict permissions to their absolute minimum.
Ideally, OEMs start with the policies in the AOSP and then build upon them for their own customizations.
SELinux for Android is accompanied by everything you need to enable SELinux now. You merely need to integrate the latest Android kernel and then incorporate the files found in the system/sepolicy directory:
Those files when compiled comprise the SELinux kernel security policy and cover the upstream Android operating system. You should not need to modify the system/sepolicy files directly. Instead, add your own device-specific policy files within the /device/manufacturer/device-name/sepolicy directory.
Here are the files you must create or edit in order to implement SELinux:
- New SELinux policy source (*.te) files - Located in the
/device/manufacturer/device-name/sepolicy directory. These files define domains and their labels. The new policy files get concatenated with the existing policy files during compilation into a single SELinux kernel policy file.
Important: Do not alter the app.te file provided by the Android Open Source Project. Doing so risks breaking all third-party applications.
- Updated BoardConfig.mk makefile - Located in the
directory containing the sepolicy subdirectory. It must be updated to reference the sepolicy subdirectory once created if it wasn’t in initial implementation.
- file_contexts - Located in the sepolicy subdirectory. This file assigns labels to files and is used by various userspace components. As you create new policies, create or update this file to assign new labels to files. In order to apply new file_contexts, you must rebuild the filesystem image or run
restoreconon the file to be relabeled. On upgrades, changes to file_contexts are automatically applied to the system and userdata partitions as part of the upgrade. Changes can also be automatically applied on upgrade to other partitions by adding restorecon_recursive calls to your init.board.rc file after the partition has been mounted read-write.
- genfs_contexts - Located in the sepolicy subdirectory. This file assigns labels to filesystems such as proc or vfat that do not support extended attributes. This configuration is loaded as part of the kernel policy but changes may not take effect for in-core inodes, requiring a reboot or unmounting and re-mounting the filesystem to fully apply the change. Specific labels may also be assigned to specific mounts such as vfat using the context= mount option.
- property_contexts - Located in the sepolicy subdirectory. This file assigns labels to Android system properties to control what processes can set them. This configuration is read by the init process during startup and whenever the selinux.reload_policy property is set to 1.
- service_contexts - Located in the sepolicy subdirectory. This file assigns labels to Android binder services to control what processes can add (register) and find (lookup) a binder reference for the service. This configuration is read by the servicemanager process during startup and whenever the selinux.reload_policy property is set to 1.
- seapp_contexts - Located in the sepolicy subdirectory. This file assigns labels to app processes and /data/data directories. This configuration is read by the zygote process on each app launch and by installd during startup and whenever the selinux.reload_policy property is set to 1.
- mac_permissions.xml - Located in the sepolicy subdirectory. This file assigns a seinfo tag to apps based on their signature and optionally their package name. The seinfo tag can then be used as a key in the seapp_contexts file to assign a specific label to all apps with that seinfo tag. This configuration is read by system_server during startup.
- Updated BoardConfig.mk makefile - Located in the
Then just update your BoardConfig.mk makefile - located in the directory containing the sepolicy subdirectory - to reference the sepolicy subdirectory and each policy file once created, as shown below. The BOARD_SEPOLICY variables and their meaning is documented in the system/sepolicy/README file.
BOARD_SEPOLICY_DIRS += \ <root>/device/manufacturer/device-name/sepolicy BOARD_SEPOLICY_UNION += \ genfs_contexts \ file_contexts \ sepolicy.te
Note: As of the M release, BOARD_SEPOLICY_UNION is no longer required as all policy files found within any directory included in the BOARD_SEPOLICY_DIRS variable are joined with the base policy automatically.
After rebuilding your device, it is enabled with SELinux. You can now either customize your SELinux policies to accommodate your own additions to the Android operating system as described in Customization or verify your existing setup as covered in Validation.
Once the new policy files and BoardConfig.mk updates are in place, the new policy settings are automatically built into the final kernel policy file.
Here are specific examples of exploits to consider when crafting your own software and associated SELinux policies:
Symlinks - Because symlinks appear as files, they are often read just as that. This can lead to exploits. For instance, some privileged components such as init change the permissions of certain files, sometimes to be excessively open.
Attackers might then replace those files with symlinks to code they control, allowing the attacker to overwrite arbitrary files. But if you know your application will never traverse a symlink, you can prohibit it from doing so with SELinux.
System files - Consider the class of system files that should only be modified by the system server. Still, since netd, init, and vold run as root, they can access those system files. So if netd became compromised, it could compromise those files and potentially the system server itself.
With SELinux, you can identify those files as system server data files. Therefore, the only domain that has read/write access to them is system server. Even if netd became compromised, it could not switch domains to the system server domain and access those system files although it runs as root.
App data - Another example is the class of functions that must run as root but should not get to access app data. This is incredibly useful as wide-ranging assertions can be made, such as certain domains unrelated to application data being prohibited from accessing the internet.
setattr - For commands such as chmod and chown, you could identify the set of files where the associated domain can conduct setattr. Anything outside of that could be prohibited from these changes, even by root. So an application might run chmod and chown against those labeled app_data_files but not shell_data_files or system_data_files.
Steps in detail
Here is a detailed view of how Android recommends you employ and customize SELinux to protect your devices:
- Enable SELinux in the kernel:
- Change the kernel_cmdline parameter so that:
BOARD_KERNEL_CMDLINE := androidboot.selinux=permissive
This is only for initial development of policy for the device. Once you have an initial bootstrap policy, remove this parameter so that your device is enforcing or it will fail CTS.
- Boot up the system in permissive and see what denials are encountered on boot:
On Ubuntu 14.04 or newer:
adb shell su -c dmesg | grep denied | audit2allow -p out/target/product/BOARD/root/sepolicy
On Ubuntu 12.04:
adb shell su -c dmesg | grep denied | audit2allow
- Evaluate the output. See Validation for instructions and tools.
- Identify devices, and other new files that need labeling.
- Use existing or new labels for your objects. Look at the *_contexts files to see how things were previously labeled and use knowledge of the label meanings to assign a new one. Ideally, this will be an existing label which will fit into policy, but sometimes a new label will be needed, and rules for access to that label will be needed, as well.
- Identify domains/processes that should have their own security domains. A policy will likely need to be written for each of these from scratch. All services spawned from
init, for instance, should have their own. The following commands help reveal those that remain running (but ALL services need such a treatment):
adb shell su -c ps -Z | grep init
adb shell su -c dmesg | grep 'avc: '
- Review init.<device>.rc to identify any which are without a type.
be given domains EARLY in order to avoid adding rules to init or otherwise
initaccesses with ones that are in their own policy.
- Set up
BOARD_SEPOLICY_*variables. See the README in system/sepolicy for details on setting this up.
- Examine the init.<device>.rc and fstab.<device> file and make sure every use of “mount” corresponds to a properly labeled filesystem or that a context= mount option is specified.
- Go through each denial and create SELinux policy to properly handle each. See the examples within Customization.
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Words: Ana Luiza Muler
Prof. Hopper completed a university degree, specialising in botany and zoology. For the next 14 years, he was employed as Western Australia’s first Flora Conservation Officer. He then became the King’s Park and Botanic Garden Director, where he successfully increased the funding and was able to rebuild the park. Prof. Hopper worked in this position for nine years and managed to create the extraordinary park that locals experience today.
In 2001, he was invited to move to London to become the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew. He accepted the offer and worked for this prestigious park from 2006 to 2012. Once more, Prof. Hopper was able to greatly expand the park, which today has 800 staff, operates in 100 countries and collaborates with about 800 scientific institutions.
Prof. Hopper’s fascination with the amazing biodiversity in Western Australia is one of the things that drew him back to home in 2012, where he took up the position of Chair of Biodiversity at The University of Western Australia, based in Albany.
Today, Professor Hopper is an internationally renowned Plant Conservation Biologist. He has published more than 200 articles on plant biology and has written eight books. He was also awarded the Centenary Medal for his contributions to science and was an ARC Discovery Outstanding Researcher from 2014 to 2016—which he was awarded for a project on the exceptional attributes of bird and mammal pollination of South West Australian plants.
Mr Hopper has long recognised the global significance of the Great Western Woodlands. Nowadays, together with other scientists and The Wilderness Society, he is calling for urgent action to protect the area from uncontrolled wildfires, invasive weeds, feral animals and habitat fragmentation. Read on for a short interview with Professor Hopper about the Great Western Woodlands.
What is so remarkable about the Great Western Woodlands (GWW)?
Stephen Hopper: There are several remarkable aspects: the world’s largest remaining temperate to semi-arid woodlands; one of the three richest places for eucalypts in Australia (many of which attain impressive size for a desert region); exceptionally rich flora and fauna (especially reptiles and semi-arid invertebrates); granite outcrops like islands in the bush—replete with spirit and songlines; country with continuous Aboriginal occupation and cultural heritage; a brief but momentous European history; and an emerging collaboration in caring for country through transmission and acquisition of new knowledge, combined with practical management, repair and restoration.
How is it possible that a nutrient-poor and dry landscape, such as the GWW, holds such a high level of biodiversity?
SH: This is an ongoing research topic. Answers may lie embodied in what I developed and now focus on as Ocbil theory (for old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes). The idea is that evolution has been ongoing and extinction reduced for tens of millions of years through an incredibly persistent and ancient landscape, buffered by oceanic influence for more than 150 million years, and with soils that are weathered and nutrient-deficient, requiring unusual biological adaptation and collaboration for survival in a soil mosaic of small isolated pockets each differing from its neighbours. The GWW is not rich in all biodiversity, but is exceptionally rich in certain groups—such as woody shrubs and trees, lizards and snakes, and many invertebrate groups.
In your opinion, what is the best strategy to conserve this area?
SH: Having the humility to understand that the GWW is highly complex and poorly known scientifically; that Aboriginal people have developed ways of living that remain highly relevant to efforts at conservation; and that people from diverse walks of life can each make a contribution that, collectively, will care for this globally significant natural heritage.
In 2010, you spoke about the importance of the woodlands. What has changed in the last seven years? Do you think we are progressing in providing a better protection for the area?
SH: In 2008, I wrote a foreword to a book on The Extraordinary Nature of the GWW, by Watson et al. I concluded with a hope that the central message, calling for conserving a globally unique region, would be heard by many. This conference and the gathering of people attending are indicative that the clarion call has indeed been heard. There remains much to do, but I am inspired by what has been achieved over the past decade. We have a bright future, walking together cross-culturally with Aboriginal custodians—who are increasingly, once again, back in touch with the spirit of country without being culturally suppressed. I hope the momentum continues and strengthens.
What would be the next steps in achieving better recognition and conservation for the woodlands?
SH: Keeping up the good work already initiated. Promoting active Aboriginal involvement in caring for country. The ranger programs are especially exciting. These need to be embedded in continuous funding. Celebrating the globally significant aspects of the GWW and developing resources for increasing tourist and researcher activities. Ensuring that the bulldozing stops or is reduced to the barest minimum. Removing fencelines where possible. Repairing and restoring degraded native vegetation. Caring for threatened species. Applying fire in a sensitive and thoughtful way, at the right scale, locations, time and extent. Continuing to apply western science together with Aboriginal knowledge systems to care best for country.
Each of us—our businesses, schools, NGOs and others—adopting animal and plant totems like JungkaJungka, guided by and in partnership with Aboriginal elders, and making a lifelong commitment to learning about and caring for our totem brothers and sisters. Never stop learning. Listening to what the GWW is saying to us, at different places and times—feeling the spirit, singing the songs, dancing the dances, creating the artwork—so that the region becomes part of so many hearts that few would dare to treat the country disrespectfully or for naked greed alone.
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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https://www.wilderness.org.au/articles/professor-stephen-hopper-great-western-woodlands
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The Sites Teachers Choose: A Gauge of Classroom Web Use
The pervasive nature of the Internet, both in society and in America’s schools, leads teacher educators to wonder how this dynamic tool is being utilized in the classroom and, especially, if it is benefiting students’ understanding. This study analyzed 127 Web sites self-reported by in-service teachers as excellent for teaching. From these data, a majority of K-12 educators view the Web either as a lesson planning tool or as a place to turn for additional information to teach a particular lesson. The majority of sites designed for use with students were passive in nature. This paper offers a qualitative data analysis of the attributes of the sites, as well as implications of the selected sites on K-12 teacher beliefs regarding student learning.
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://distance-educator.com/the-sites-teachers-choose-a-gauge-of-classroom-web-use/
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Cost per share shows an investor how much money he paid on a per share basis for an investment. When purchasing stock in a secondary market, usually the price for a large amount of stock will vary for each stock as the investor will need to buy from various sources at different prices. Cost per share then acts as an average stock price for the investor.
Determine the amount of shares an investor bought. For example, an investor bought 500,000 shares of Company A.
Determine how much the investor paid for the shares. In our example, the investor paid $1,000,000 for all the shares.
Divide the cost of the shares by the total amount of shares bought to determine cost per share. In our example, $1,000,000 divided by 500,000 shares equals $2 per share.
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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https://www.sapling.com/6461320/calculate-cost-per-share
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By John Sawyer, Department of Agronomy
Interpretation of Test Results
You've gotten results from corn stalk nitrate samples collected this fall. (Corn stalk nitrate analysis form.) Now, what do the results mean? The stalk nitrate test is based on the concentration of nitrate-N in the lower corn stalk (8 inch segment from 6 to 14 inches above the ground) when the plant reaches maturity (See Cornstalk testing to evaluate nitrogen management, PM 1584). In general, a larger amount of plant-available N in the soil during the time period before plant maturity results in a greater concentration of nitrate in the lower stalk. However, the stalk nitrate-N concentration can be greatly influenced by other external and internal plant factors.
An example is precipitation/soil moisture. It has been known that drought conditions can result in elevated nitrate in the lower stalk. This can be due to nitrate uptake late in the season in combination with a much reduced grain fill or missing ears. For chopping grain silage, the long-standing suggestion is to raise the cutter bar and leave more of the stalk portion with high nitrate. While results of the stalk test are reasonable in this situation, that is high concentrations indicate more N than needed in a drought affected yield, the results should not be extrapolated for normal production years. Similar but opposite situation for extremely wet conditions (like many fields in 2010); where stalk nitrate concentrations would be quite low due to excess rainfall and N losses. Another example is high grain yield and/or combination with a long and slow grain fill. Nitrogen taken up by the plant is directed to developing grain, so nitrate does not accumulate. Of importance for test interpretation is to monitor fields for multiple years before making adjustments in N management.
These external and internal factors complicate interpretation of stalk nitrate test results, and make specific interpretation from low to optimal concentrations difficult (less than 2,000 ppm nitrate-N). The test also does not predict an amount of under- or over-N supply, that is, how much to change N application rate. Interpretation at high concentrations is more definitive, as concentrations greater than 2,000 ppm nitrate-N more consistently indicate excess N available to the plant. If high levels are found for several seasons, and with no drought reduced production, then the interpretation becomes clear that N inputs (fertilizer/manure) are too high and there should be adjustment to more moderate rates. Continued monitoring in future years can indicate if high stalk nitrate concentrations are no longer found after adjustment in rate.
The stalk nitrate test should help guide future N applications toward economic optimum rates. To evaluate the potential for this, and to examine complicating issues related to interpretation, a dataset from many sites and years of N rate trials (N applied at multiple rates from zero to 240 lb N/acre) was used to plot the difference in applied N fertilizer rate from the economic optimum N rate (EONR) versus stalk nitrate concentration. This N rate differential is how far a specific applied N rate in the trial was from the EONR. For example, if an applied N rate was 160 lb N/acre, and the EONR was 110 lb N/acre at a site, then the N rate differential was a positive 50 lb N/acre (an excess rate). If an applied N rate was 80 lb N/acre, and the EONR was at 125 lb N/acre, then the N rate differential was a negative 45 lb N/acre (a deficit rate). If an applied N rate was 120 lb N/acre, and the EONR was 120 lb N/acre, then the differential was zero (at the economic optimum rate).
Figure 1 shows that when stalk nitrate concentrations were above 2,000 ppm (especially well above 2,000 ppm), almost every time the N rate was greater than the EONR. However, when concentrations were less than 2,000 ppm, the N rate differential from EONR spanned a wide range from deficit to excess. This means interpretation and potential for future rate adjustment is not clear. Figure 2, which shows the stalk nitrate concentrations on a log scale (visually "expands" the low concentrations and "contracts" the high concentrations), highlights the large variation in stalk nitrate concentrations at near optimal to deficit N and the difficulty in trying to provide specific adjustments in N rate based on the stalk test when concentrations are less than 2,000 ppm. From this type of data analyses, it is clear that greatest confidence occurs in interpretation of high (excess) concentrations, and less confidence can be placed in low concentrations or in specific rate adjustments.
For any N test, perfection should not be assumed. Also, each test will have specific strengths and weaknesses. For the stalk nitrate test, the strength lies in interpretation of high concentrations. This means the test is best suited for understanding when N applications over time are greater than crop need, and an economic and environmental benefit can come from improved application rate.
Figure 1. Graph showing the relationship between corn stalk nitrate-N concentration and the difference in N rate from the economic optimum N rate (EONR). Positive N rate values indicate rates greater than the economic optimum, negative values indicate rates less than the economic optimum, and zero is at the economic optimum rate. Data from J. Sawyer with N rate response trials with continuous corn (CC) and corn following soybean (SC).
Figure 2. Graph showing the relationship between corn stalk nitrate-N concentration and the difference in N rate from the economic optimum N rate (EONR). Stalk nitrate concentrations were converted to a log scale. Data from J. Sawyer with N rate response trials with continuous corn (CC) and corn following soybean (SC).
John Sawyer is a professor with research and extension responsibilities in soil fertility and nutrient management.
Links to this article are strongly encouraged, and this article may be republished without further permission if published as written and if credit is given to the author, Integrated Crop Management News, and Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. If this article is to be used in any other manner, permission from the author is required. This article was originally published on September 14, 2010. The information contained within may not be the most current and accurate depending on when it is accessed.
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<urn:uuid:d844d894-d9cf-46df-b017-1df7f4a3c11b>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2010/09/corn-stalk-nitrate-interpretation
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| 0.942079
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INTRODUCTION TO TECHNOLOGY
MODULE: GETTING TO KNOW TECHNOLOGY
Goal: Examining the historical evolution of technological innovation as a means through which human needs and wants are satisfied.
1. Demonstrate how the evolution of physical, biologically related, and information/ communication aspects of technology led to the shift from an agriculturally-based...to an industrially-based...to an information-based society.
2. Give one example (from each of the three aspects of technology) of an application of a modern tool, device, or method which has evolved from simple beginnings and describe how it has changed daily routines and contributed to human progress.
3. Research examples of technological innovations from each of the three aspects of technology which satisfy needs and wants and model one of these innovations.
MODULE: LEARNING WHAT RESOURCES ARE NEEDED FOR TECHNOLOGY
Goal: Exploring and using the seven basic resources which are necessary for technology
4. Investigate the different forms of each resource category. Select one (or more) resource(s) and
demonstrate how it (they) can be used.
5. Utilize the seven resources to produce a product, transport an object, grow living material, communicate an idea, or utilize the seven resources to implement a process and describe how full access to resources would have led to improved results.
6. Identify technological alternatives which would be appropriate for two nations (with differing nonrenewable resources) to satisfy a given human need.
MODULE: LEARNING HOW PEOPLE USE TECHNOLOGY TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
Goal: Exploring and experiencing how people can solve technological problems by using a formalized problem solving “system.”
7. Design and implement the optimal solution to a given technological problem (which will involve biologically-related technology, information/communication technology and/or physical technology) and use a formalized problem solving method.
8. Identify constraints which prevent a technological problem from being solved. Classify the constraints as those imposed by resource limitations, values, and/or attitudes of people and scientific principles.
MODULE: LEARNING ABOUT SYSTEMS AND SUBSYSTEMS
Goal: Becoming familiar with the structure ,function, components and control of technological systems and gaining an understanding of the similarities that exist among physical, information/ communication and biologically related technological systems.
9. Model a system in biologically related, information/communication and physical technology using the basic systems block diagram.
10. Apply the technological systems model to the safe assembly or construction and operation of a system which encompasses biologically related, information/ communication, and/or physical technology.
11. Add feedback to close the loop in an operable open-looped system and then safely operate the system in order to bring actual results closer to desired results.
12. Identify the subsystems of a modern, complex technological system from each of the three aspects of technology and explain how they have been combined to generate the new system resulting in improved or additional human capabilities.
MODULE: LEARNING HOW TECHNOLOGY AFFECTS PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Goal: Understanding the positive and negative impacts of technology while instilling the perception that people must assume the responsibility for adapting technology to the environment and to the human user.
13. Demonstrate (in one or more of the three aspects of technology) outputs that are desired, undesired, expected, and unexpected.
14. Identify instances of the lack of fit between the technological system and the human user, identify techniques for improving the match between the technology, the human user, and the human-made environment, and demonstrate alternatives in order to improve the match in one or more of the given examples.
15. Identify instances of the lack of fit between the technological systems and the natural environment, identify techniques for improving the match between the technology and the natural environment, and model alternatives in order to improve the match.
MODULE: CHOOSING APPROPRIATE RESOURCES FOR TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Goal: Learning how to make informed choices in selecting the proper resources for technological systems and choosing resources from seven resource categories.
16. Identify needed resources and a range of possible alternative resources that can be used to solve a given problem situation in each of the three aspects of technology.
17. Investigate the properties of various synthetic, raw, and biological materials through testing and describe why materials are often chosen on the basis of their properties.
18. Substitute different resource inputs for those originally provided in a functioning technological system, in order to optimize system outputs within given constraints.
19. Use a computer and appropriate computer software to access data about the resources given in a situation relating to one or more of the performance objectives above.
MODULE: HOW RESOURCES ARE PROCESSED BY TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Goal: Learning how resources are processed by technological systems to meet human wants and needs and solving problems based on the conversion of energy, information, and materials from one form to another.
20. Perform a variety of traditional and modern material conversion processes within each of the three aspects of technology.
21. Process information and communicate a message using graphic, photographic, or electronic means.
22. Perform a variety of energy conversion processes within each of the three aspects of technology.
23. Process information using computer hardware and software to reach an informed decision on a problem with several variables.
MODULE: CONTROLLING TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Goal: Learning how technological systems are controlled in the three aspects of technology by feedback in closed-loop systems or by subsystems such as timers or computer programs in open-loop systems
24. Describe examples graphically of open-loop and closed-loop systems in the three aspects of technology.
25. Demonstrate the use of human and technological sensors to monitor the output of a process.
26. Assemble and operate a closed-loop technological system when given plans and access to necessary equipment.
27. Use a computer to control a technological system when given access to the necessary hardware and software.
MODULE: TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY: NOW AND IN THE FUTURE
Goal: Learning the social and environmental impacts of technology on society from a local, national, and global perspective by accessing current and future technological systems.
28. Anticipate the consequences of a new technology using futuring techniques when given an example of a technological system in each of the three aspects of technology.
29. Describe how emerging technologies have created new jobs and made others obsolete in each of the three aspects of technology.
30. Propose alternative technological solutions to a local, national, and global issue and model one of the alternatives.
MODULE: USING SYSTEMS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
Goal: Learning how to apply knowledge of systems to solve problems in biologically related, communications/ information, and physical technology and to combine various subsystems to provide integrated solutions to realistic problems or challenges.
31. Draw and label a systems diagram which depicts the systems approach solution to a problem in each of the three aspects of technology.
32. Use a systems approach to develop a technological solution to a technological problem.
33. Use the computer as a record keeping device to document progress while developing an optimal solution to the problem proposed in performance objective
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<urn:uuid:770901db-b731-4c17-83fd-338f16a092f4>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://aaktechclass.blogspot.com/p/tech-modules.html
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| 0.882062
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On the recent seventh Berlin excursion by the History Department, students visited the British Embassy for a talk and tour with the Deputy British Ambassador to Germany. In the foyer of the Embassy which was rebuilt following the Re-unification of Germany, is a memorial to Frank Foley.
Frank Foley was born in 1884, worked for the Foreign Office and became Head of the British Passport Control Office in Germany. He was, in fact, Britain’s most senior spy in Berlin. During his time in Berlin, Foley is known to have saved an estimated 10,000 German Jews. This remarkable man also visited internment camps to get Jewish people out, hide them in his home, and helped forge passports.
Frank Foley was born in Somerset, but moved to Stourbridge after the War. During his lifetime, Foley received no recognition for his actions in the UK. However, in 1999, Foley’s actions resulted in his being recognised as ‘Righteous Amongst the Nations’ at Yad Vashem in Israel. On 24 November 2004, the 120th anniversary of Foley’s birth, a plaque was unveiled in his honour at the British Embassy in Berlin.
Students laid a poppy wreath at Frank Foley’s memorial on behalf of Old Swinford Hospital.
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<urn:uuid:2b71f1b0-7993-4a40-a70a-e6b3281fc766>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://www.oshsch.com/2014/11/students-remember-unsung-hero/
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| 0.987046
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| 3.015625
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Tryst-2017 IIT Delhi
Do You Think That Your Facebook Password's Are Safe? How Do You Know If The Transactions That You Do Are Safe Or Not? What If Someone Is Monitoring Your Gmail Accounts? What Are You Going To Do Then? Have You Ever Thought About It? Well No Need To Worry!!!
Enter Into The World Of Hacking As Ethical Hackers.
Enter At Your Own Risk…
This workshop mainly focuses on the students eager to be a White Hat Hacker. It features a brief introduction to the world of hacking starting with the importance of ethical hackers and their need in today's world scenario, including to the basics of networking that will help you have a deep understanding of the working of internet.
Later, windows hacking using various methods will be introduced and in the module of steganography you will learn how to hide files in other files in order to protect sensitive data. After the end of the aforementioned module you will be learning phishing in which you will be taught How to hack Facebook Accounts and Gmail Accounts and thus how to avoid it.
In the end you will gain knowledge about the basics of Backtrack 5 and the concept of man in the middle attack (MITM ATTACK).
The duration of this workshop will be 1 day, with Ten hours session , properly divided into theory and hand on practical sessions.Certificate of participation will be provided by RoboTryst 2017 in association with Tryst IIT Delhi.
Best Suited For: All B.Tech/B.E./BCA/BSc Students
Ethics and Hacking
- Hacking History- How It All Began
- Need For Ethical Hacking
- Why We Require Ethical Hackers
- Types Of Hackers
- Steps In Ethical Hacking
- Scopes In Hacking
- To exploit the vulnerabilities of windows using live devices and Universal Serial Bus (USB).
- What is Steganography?
- Hiding data behind Images, PDFs, Audio and Videos files
Basics Of Internet, Networking And Hacking
- What is a Network?
- Types of network – LANs, WANs & WLANs
- What is Internet?
- Basic Structure
- What is a Server?
- What is an IP Address?
- What is a domain name?
- IP-Domain Relation
- Client-Server Relationship Model
- Internet networking
- Set up Ad-hoc networks
- Basic explanation of exploitation of loopholes
SQL Injection Using DVWA
- Introduction of SQL
- What are SQL INJECTION and DVWA?
- Checking SQL injection vulnerability (Demo)
- Live demonstration of the attack (Demo)
- How to protect your system from attacks
Day 1 (Session 3)
Man In The Middle Attack(MITM)
- What is Backtrack Linux?
- What is Kali Linux?
- What is Man-in-the-middle attack?
- Preparation for Man-in-the-middle attack (Demo)
- Setting Ettercap tool for the attack (Demo)
- What is phishing?
- Preparation for phishing
- Phishing using Local server
Trojan, Worms And Viruses
- Introduction to the concepts of Trojans, worms and viruses
How to use Virtual Machine (Live Demo)
How to use Backtrack (Live Demo)
Project to be Covered
- Phishing (Internet And Domain Required)
- MITM (Internet Required)
- SQL Injection Using Dvwa
- Windows Hacking
- Fake Email (Internet Required)
- Creation Of Trojans And Viruses
- Workshop Handout
- Workshop Timeline
- Useful Tools
- Video Lectures
- Linux based Penetration Testing OS (BACKTRACK5)
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<urn:uuid:b105d2e3-49a7-4638-aad7-b4077322247a>
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://www.robotryst.com/ethical_hacking.php
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| 0.770327
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